Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament • 2. Reihe B e g r ü n d e t v o n J o a c h i m Jeremias und O t t o M i c h e l Herausgegeben v o n Martin Hengel und Otfried Hofius
30
Hermeneutic and Composition in I Peter
von
William L. Schutter
CIP- Titelaufnahme der Deutschen
Bibliothek
Schutter, William L.: Hermeneutic and composition in I Peter / von William L. Schutter. - T ü b i n g e n : M o h r , 1989. (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament: Reihe 2; 30) Z u g l . : Cambridge (Mass.), U n i v . , Diss., 1985 ISBN 3-16-145118-X ISSN 0340-9570 N E : Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament / 02
©
1989 by J. C . B. M o h r (Paul Siebeck) P . O . B o x 2040, D - 7 4 0 0 Tübingen.
This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher's written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems. Typeset by Sam B o y d Enterprise in Singapore; printed by Gulde-Druck G m b H in T ü b i n gen; bound by Heinrich Koch K G in Tübingen. Printed in Germany.
Preface
T h i s s t u d y e x i s t e d o r i g i n a l l y as a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n a p p r o v e d b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a m b r i d g e in J u l y ,
1 9 8 5 . Because o f the confining w o r d -
l i m i t set b y T h e U n i v e r s i t y , m a n y i m p o r t a n t issues a n d q u e s t i o n s c o u l d b e g i v e n n o m o r e t h a n p a s s i n g m e n t i o n , a n d v e r y little in t h e w a y o f c o m parative
a n a l y s i s c o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d . T h e r e has b e e n o p p o r t u n i t y s i n c e
t h e n o n l y t o m a k e m o d e s t i m p r o v e m e n t s in it in this r e g a r d . H o p e f u l l y , there will b e o c c a s i o n later t o rectify such a regrettable Quotations
o f the
N e w Testament
(26th ed.). Those from
the
in G r e e k are
Old Testament
situation. from Nestle-Aland
in G r e e k are f r o m
Rahlfs'
e d i t i o n o f t h e S e p t u a g i n t , a n d t h o s e in H e b r e w are f r o m t h e B i b l i a H e b r a i c a S t u t t g a r t e n s i a ( 2 n d e d . ) . Q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h e B i b l e in E n g l i s h are from
the
R e v i s e d Standard V e r s i o n , unless i n d i c a t e d o t h e r w i s e . Q u o t a
tions f r o m Philo, J o s e p h u s , the A p o s t o l i c Fathers, and ancient G r e e k and Latin
authors
are
from
the
r e s p e c t i v e e d i t i o n s in T h e
Loeb
Classical
L i b r a r y , u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d . A l l c h a p t e r a n d verse r e f e r e n c e s the
to
B i b l e are a c c o r d i n g t o t h e R S V , u n l e s s i n d i c a t e d o t h e r w i s e . R e f e r
ences have b e e n abbreviated
as m u c h as p o s s i b l e , b e a r i n g t h e
author's
n a m e , a k e y - w o r d f r o m t h e title, a n d the p a g e . C o m m e n t a r i e s t o I P e t e r are c i t e d b y a u t h o r a n d p a g e o n l y , a n d , w h e n t h e c o n t e x t p e r m i t s , o t h e r works
may
b e c i t e d s i m i l a r l y . T h e b i b l i o g r a p h y has b e e n r e s t r i c t e d
to
w o r k s m e n t i o n e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n , a n d it d o e s n o t u s u a l l y contain reference works. It is q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e h e r e t o t h a n k a d e q u a t e l y t h o s e w h o h a v e h e l p e d in t h e c o u r s e o f this i n v e s t i g a t i o n . First o f all, it has b e n e f i t t e d f r o m t h e criticisms o f Profs. A . T . Hanson, E. Best, and O . Betz, and f r o m Drs. E. B a m m e l a n d W . H o r b u r y . T h e n t h e r e has b e e n t h e f u r t h e r s u p p o r t my
former
Presidents,
I.J.
Hesselink and
M.D. Hoff,
from m y
from
former
D e a n s , D r s . E.P. H e i d e m a n a n d R . A . C o u g h e n o u r , a n d f r o m m y f o r m e r colleagues, Drs. N.J. Kansfield and C.B. Kaiser, and Prof. E m . R . C . Oudersluys.
Many
Harriet
others
h a v e a l s o assisted
in v a r i o u s w a y s : R u t h
Hansen,
B o b e l d y k , Harlan V a n O o r t , J e f f T y l e r , J a n e Z w i e r s , and D a v e
S t o u t . A s p e c i a l w o r d o f t h a n k s is in o r d e r f o r D r . V . A . C r u z a n d
for
M a r g o t , his w i f e . Next world
I
may
thank
Prof.
o f N T scholarship and
E.
Earle Ellis, w h o i n t r o d u c e d m e t o
has b e e n s o t h o u g h t f u l
and
the
encouraging
o v e r the y e a r s . T o m y s u p e r v i s o r , P r o f . B a r n a b a s L i n d a r s , S S F , g o e s m y d e e p e s t t h a n k s f o r his a s s i s t a n c e in c o u n t l e s s w a y s , f o r his s o u n d c r i t i c i s m a n d a d v i c e , a n d f o r m a k i n g o u r t i m e at C a m b r i d g e s o v e r y p l e a s a n t . It gives m e g r e a t p l e a s u r e as w e l l t o t h a n k t h e e d i t o r s o f this series in
iv
Preface
Wissenschaftlich
Untersuchungen
zum
Neuen
Testament,
Profs.
Martin
H e n g e l a n d O t f r i e d H o f i u s , f o r t h e i r g r a c i o u s d e c i s i o n t o p u b l i s h it. N o n e o f t h o s e w h o h a v e assisted in t h e c o u r s e o f this i n v e s t i g a t i o n are t o b e h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a n y d e f e c t s w h i c h m a y r e m a i n in it. Lastly, I m a y take the o c c a s i o n t o thank the C o n s i s t o r y and C o n g r e g a tion o f the S e c o n d R e f o r m e d C h u r c h o f N e w B r u n s w i c k , N e w Jersey, for t h e i r c o n c e r n a n d g e n e r o u s s u p p o r t . T o m y f r i e n d in m y h o u r o f n e e d , t h e late D r . M i c h a e l B . P e t r o v i c h , g o e s m y e t e r n a l g r a t i t u d e . T o m y p a r e n t s g o e s s u c h t h a n k s as w o r d s c a n n o t e x p r e s s . T o m y little Y a n n I say t h a n k s for helping m e m o r e than he will ever k n o w . T o m y w i f e , Catherine, I d e d i c a t e this b o o k as a t r i b u t e t o h e r m a n y s a c r i f i c e s o n its b e h a l f . Noel, 1986
William L. Schutter Geneva, N e w Y o r k
Contents 1 1 1
Preface Abbreviations
vi
Chapter O n e : Introduction
.1
Chapter T w o : T h e Setting o f I Peter
4
Chapter T h r e e : A Literary Analysis
19
1. G e n e r i c a n d C o m p o s i t i o n a l E l e m e n t s
19
2. T h e N o n - B i b l i c a l F o r m a l S o u r c e s o f I Peter
32
3. T h e Biblical S o u r c e s o f I Peter
35
4. I Peter a n d Psalm 3 4
44
5 . S o u r c e - I n t e g r a t i o n in I P e t e r
49
6. C o n c l u d i n g R e m a r k s
81
Chapter Four:
T h e H e r m e n e u t i c o f I Peter
85
1. I P e t e r 1 . 1 3 - 2 . 1 0 a n d H o m i l e t i c M i d r a s h
85
2. I Peter 1 . 1 0 - 2 : a H e r m e n e u t i c a l K e y
100
3. T h e H i s t o r i c a l C o n t e x t o f I P e t e r 1 . 1 0 - 2
109
4 . T h e Case f o r I Peter 1 . 1 3 - 2 . 1 0
123
5. T h e C a s e f o r I P e t e r 2 . 1 1 - 4 . 1 1
138
6. T h e C a s e f o r I P e t e r 4 . 1 2 - 5 . 1 1
153
7. C o n c l u d i n g R e m a r k s
166
Chapter Five: C o n c l u s i o n
169
Appendix One
180
Appendix T w o
•
183
Bibliography
192
Index T o Biblical References
207
Abbreviations
ANRW
= Aufstieg
BAGD
=
und Niedergang
Walter
Frederick New BDF
=
der Romischen
Bauer, William
F. A r n d t ,
Danker, edd., A
Testament
Welt
F. W i l b u r G i n g r i c h ,
Greek-English
Lexicon
and Other Early Christian Literature
F r i e d r i c h Blass, e d d . , A Greek
Albert
Early Christian
of the New
Testament
W. Funk, and
CAH
=
= P . R . A c k r o y d a n d C . F . E v a n s , e d d . , The Cambridge
DSSE
Other
Literature
CHB
The Cambridge Of The Bible,
the
(1979)
Debrunner, and Robert
Grammar
and
of
Ancient
History History
vol. I
= G. Vermes, editor
a n d t r a n s l a t o r , The Dead
Sea Scrolls
in
English DSS H-R.
= G . V e r m e s , The Dead Sea Scrolls, Qumran in Perspective = E d w i n H a t c h a n d H e n r y A . R e d p a t h , A Concordance To The
IDBSupp
=
Septuagint The Interpre ter's Dictionary
=
The Jewish
=
L u d w i g K o e h l e r a n d W a l t e r B a u m g a r t n e r , e d d . , Lexikon
K.-B.
Veteris MM
Testamenti
Supplement
Libros
Of
Testament
= N . G . L . H a m m o n d a n d H . H . S c u l l a r d , e d d . , The Oxford sical
In
(1958)
= J a m e s H . M o u l t o n a n d G e o r g e M i l l i g a n , The Vocabulary The Greek
OCD
of the Bible,
Encyclopedia
Clas
Dictionary
PGL
=
RAC
= Reallexikon
RGG
= Die Religion
S.-B.
=
G . W . H . L a m p e , e d . , ^ 4 Patristic Greek fur Ant ike und in Geschichte
Lexicon
Christentum und Gegenwart
(3rd edition)
H e r m a n n L . S t r a c k a n d Paul B i l l e r b e c k , Kommentar
TDNT
Neuen Testament Aus Talmud Und = Theological Dictionary of the New
TDOT
=
TO TP
= James
Theological
Dictionary
of the Old
H . C h a r l e s w o r t h , e d . , The
pigrapha,
v o l s . I a n d II
Zum
Midrash Testament Testament Old
Testament
Pseude-
Chapter O n e
Introduction
T e n y e a r s h a v e p a s s e d s i n c e J . H . E l l i o t t l a m e n t e d t h e f a c t t h a t First 1
P e t e r has b e e n s o m e t h i n g o f an e x e g e t i c a l ' s t e p c h i l d ' . N o t s o m u c h t h a t it has s u f f e r e d a b u s e at t h e w i l f u l h a n d s o f a n y m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s , b u t neglect, s o m e t i m e s the greater v i o l e n c e . T o p r e s s his p o i n t h e a t t a c k e d t h e t h i r d , l a r g e l y u n a l t e r e d e d i t i o n o f F.W. Beare's c o m m e n t a r y . Elliott reviewed s o m e o f the literature
from
t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d t o s h o w t h a t B e a r e h a d n o t k e p t his c o m m e n t a r y u p t o d a t e . E l l i o t t a r g u e d t h a t I P e t e r d e s e r v e d b e t t e r , a n d t h a t s u c h treat m e n t was rather typical o f the lack o f sustained scholarly interest w h i c h 2
has c h a r a c t e r i z e d its m o d e r n e x e g e t i c a l h i s t o r y . E l l i o t t d i d n o t m i s s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o m a k e his d e s i d e r a t a k n o w n f o r t h e f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n o f Petrine research. J u d g i n g f r o m the small b u t steady stream o f w o r k s that began t o f l o w a b o u t t h a t t i m e , o t h e r s share his c o n c e r n . A v e r y v a r i e d a s s o r t m e n t o f a r t i c l e s , e s s a y s , s p e c i a l w o r k s , a n d several m a j o r n e w c o m m e n t a r i e s h a v e since b e e n
3
published . Though
such activity m a y n o t exactly herald a
1 See 'Step-Child', 2 4 3 - 5 4 . F o r surveys o f the letter's research see J . W . C . W a n d , ' L e s s o n s ' , 3 8 7 9 9 , R . P . M a r t i n , ' C o m p o s i t i o n ' , 2 9 - 4 2 , F J . Schierse, ' H i r t e n b r i e f , 8 6 - 8 , D . Sylva, 'Studies', 1 5 5 — 6 3 , a n d D . Senior, 'Peter', 5 — 1 2 . F o r a m a j o r recent b i b l i o g r a p h y see D . Sylva, 'Biblio graphy', 7 5 - 8 9 . 2 A n o t h e r illustration pertains t o the discussion o f I Peter's relationship with the 'Mysteries'. T h e c o n v e r s a t i o n , if that is w h a t it m a y b e t e r m e d , has b e e n c o n d u c t e d in such an i n t e r m i t t e n t w a y as t o r e m a i n in a n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y state t o this d a y . It t o o k t w e n t y years after Perdelwitz pro p o s e d that religionsgeschichtliche
c o n t e x t f o r the c o m m e n t a t o r s t o r e s p o n d
(Mysterienreligion,
1 9 1 1 ) . H . W i n d i s c h ( 1 9 3 0 ) w a s f a v o u r a b l y inclined, b u t engaged in little critical evaluation. Nearly
the s a m e length
of
t i m e has t o elapse again b e f o r e English-speaking c o m m e n t a t o r s
replied ( E . G . S e l w y n , 1 9 4 6 , a n d a f e w m o n t h s later in 1 9 4 7 , F . W . B e a r e ) . S e l w y n w a s un f a v o u r a b l e b y a n d large, a n d flatly rejected the n o t i o n o f a genetic relationship b e t w e e n the M y s t e r i e s a n d I Peter. Beare t o o k the o p p o s i t e v i e w , b u t neither h a d o p p o r t u n i t y t o a n s w e r the o t h e r , leaving the d e b a t e u n r e s o l v e d t o the present. V a r i o u s c o m m e n t a t o r s a s s u m e the relation ship at p o i n t s , like Best, K e l l y , a n d G o p p e l t , whereas B r o x ( 1 9 , n. 9 ) claims the t h e o r y has b e e n discredited! It w o u l d b e misleading t o give the i m p r e s s i o n that progress has n o t b e e n m a d e o n s o m e q u e s t i o n s , for e x a m p l e , there n o w seems t o b e a c o n s e n s u s that the letter is p s e u d o n y m o u s . H o w e v e r , Elliott's charges are in the m a i n w e l l - f o u n d e d . 3 O f m a j o r interest f r o m 1 9 7 6 o n w a r d s , F . M u s s n e r , Petrus, Etudes,
D . L . B a l c h , Wives, J . H . E l l i o t t , Home,
H . Millauer, Leiden,
a n d W . M u n r o , Authority.
C . Perrot, e d . ,
T w o full-length crit
ical c o m m e n t a r i e s have a p p e a r e d b y L . G o p p e l t a n d N . B r o x , in a d d i t i o n t o w h i c h are a n u m b e r o f shorter c o m m e n t a r i e s o f varying quality b y J . H . E l l i o t t , G . K r o d e l , U . H o l m e r , R . Pesch,
Introduction
2
r e n a i s s a n c e i n P e t r i n e s c h o l a r s h i p , it d o e s i n d i c a t e t h a t o n e o f t h e trea sures o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t has n o t b e e n e n t i r e l y f o r g o t t e n . T h e s e w o r k s h a v e o c c a s i o n e d t h e w e l c o m e r e n e w a l o f p e r e n i a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l issues. The
letter's
date,
ecclesiology, problems
provenance,
destination,
they were
authenticity,
intended
integrity, use o f sources,
recipients, and
the
nature
of
the
f a c i n g , are j u s t s o m e o f t h e q u e s t i o n s w h i c h h a v e
b e e n v i g o r o u s l y r e v i v e d . M o r e o v e r , at least o n e fresh i t e m h a s b e e n a d d e d , regarding the relationship b e t w e e n the ethic the a u t h o r e s p o u s e d and the 4
c o n t e x t t o w h i c h it w a s a d d r e s s e d . M a n y o f these s t u d i e s a n s w e r t o the n e e d s E l l i o t t i d e n t i f i e d i n his a r t i c l e , a n d it is a f a c t t h e y o f t e n m e n t i o n his p l e a . I n v i e w o f t h e r e s p o n s e it is t h e m o r e l a m e n t a b l e his a r t i c l e s c a r c e l y r e f e r r e d t o t h e u s e o f t h e O T in t h e l e t t e r . T h i s o v e r - s i g h t is t o b e e x p e c t e d least o f all f r o m E l l i o t t , s i n c e O T u s a g e w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e area o f his 5
earliest i n t e r e s t .
T h e s u b j e c t has h a r d l y b e e n t o u c h e d u p o n e x c e p t i n
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h issues n a r r o w l y r e s t r i c t e d t o a f e w p a s s a g e s , s u c h as t h e 6
n a t u r e o f t h e p r i e s t h o o d d e s c r i b e d in 2 . 4 f f . , o r t h e D e s c e n s u s in 3 . 1 8 f f .
D . Senior, a n d R . H . M o u n c e . A m o n g the articles t o have a p p e a r e d , these are the m o r e signific a n t : L . G o p p e l t , ' V e r a n t w o r t u n g ' ; 4 9 0 - 5 0 8 , D . Hill, 'Suffering', 1 8 1 - 9 ; F . Schroger, sung*,
2 3 9 - 5 2 ; J . B . Bauer, 'Verfolgung', 5 1 3 - 2 7 ; N .
B r o x , 'Situation',
'Verfas-
1 - 1 3 ; J . B . Bauer,
'Maleficus', 1 0 9 - 1 5 ; F. B o v o n , ' F o i \ 2 5 - 4 1 ; N . B r o x , ' T e n d e n z ' , 1 1 0 - 2 0 , i d e m , 'Tradition', 1 8 2 - 9 2 ; C J . H e m e r , ' A d d r e s s ' , 2 3 9 - 4 3 ; D . C o o k , 'Problem', 7 2 - 8 ; E . C o t h e n e t , 'Liturgie', 9 7 - 1 1 3 ; W . J . D a l t o n , 'Light*, 5 4 7 - 5 5 ; F . N e u g e b a u e r , ' D e u t u n g ' , 6 1 - 8 6 ; R . R e f o u l e , 'Pierre', 4 5 7 - 8 2 ; R . P i e t r a n t o n i o , ' S a c e r d o c i o ' , 1 9 5 - 2 0 8 ; A . P . T a r r e c h , 'Milieu', 9 5 - 1 2 9 ; E . C o t h e n e t , 'Realisme', 5 6 4 - 7 2 ; P.R. Rodgers, 'Reading', 9 3 - 5 ; K . Shimada, 'Note', 1 4 6 - 5 0 ; D . H . Tripp, ' N o t e ' , 2 6 7 - 7 0 ; J . L . Blevins, ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 4 0 1 - 1 3 ; J . H . E l l i o t t , 'Salutation', 4 1 5 - 2 5 ; A . T . H a n s o n , 'Salvation', 1 0 0 - 5 ; D . Hill, 'Spiritual', 4 5 - 6 3 ; J . Schlosser, 'Pierre', 4 0 9 - 1 0 . 4 See the review a n d c o m p a r i s o n of Elliott's Home
a n d Balch's Wives b y A . W i r e , 2 0 9 — 1 6 , with
special reference t o the significance o f sociological d y n a m i c s f o r N T interpretation. 5 See his Elect,
1966.
6 F i f t y years intervene b e t w e e n W . B o r n e m a n n ' s s t u d y o f Ps. 3 4 in I Peter, ' T a u f r e d e ' , 1 4 3 — 6 5 ( 1 9 1 9 ) , a n d E . Best's, ' R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n ' , 2 7 0 — 9 3 ( 1 9 6 9 ) . Best was c o n c e r n e d largely t o answer E l l i o t t , a n d gave s o m e preliminary o b s e r v a t i o n s o n the author's m e t h o d o f O T usage t o d o s o . Since t h e n several m o r e articles have a p p e a r e d , J . Barr, ' M O A I 2 ' ,
1 4 9 — 6 4 ; K . R . Snodgrass,
'Affinities', 9 7 - 1 0 6 ; J . Piper, ' H o p e ' , 2 1 2 - 3 1 ; T . P . O s b o r n e , 'Citations', 6 4 - 7 7 ; a n d , i d e m , ' G u i d e ' , 3 8 1 — 4 0 8 . Passing m e n t i o n o f I Peter's use o f Scripture has also b e e n m a d e , f o r e x a m p l e , in L . G o p p e l t , Typos, 2 8 f f . ; H . M . Shires, Finding, icant discussion
1 5 2 f f . ; J . D a n i e l o u , Sacramentum, 2 4 8 f . ; R . L o n g e n e c k e r , Exegesiss
esp. 1 4 0 f . ; S. A m s l e r ,
Testament,
esp. 2 0 0 f . ; a s well as m o r e signif
in J . Schlosser, 'Christologie', 6 5 — 9 6 ; a n d A . T . H a n s o n , Utterances,
140—6.
O t h e r w i s e , the s t u d y o f I Peter's use of the O T nearly a l w a y s has ulterior m o t i v e s , as in the ' t e s t i m o n y - b o o k ' h y p o t h e s i s , t h e presence o f E x o d u s t y p o l o g y in the N T , a n d the l i k e , a n d receives little m o r e a t t e n t i o n t h a n these issues require. R e f e r e n c e s in the present w o r k t o the ' O l d T e s t a m e n t ' o r the 'Scriptures' is w i t h o u t prejudice t o the historical q u e s t i o n regarding the C a n o n . T o be sure, the a u t h o r clearly h e l d the L a w , Prophets, and at least s o m e o f the Writings, t o be sacred, b u t there is n o internal e v i d e n c e t o suggest he m i g h t have d e n i e d that status t o o t h e r so-called a p o c r y p h a l a n d pseudepigraphical w o r k s . F o r a concise assessment of the evid e n c e a b o u t the f o r m a t i o n of the H e b r e w B i b l e , etc., see G . W . A n d e r s o n , 'Canonical', in 1, 1 1 3 - 5 9 .
CHB,
Introduction
3
T h u s it is fair t o say t h a t t h e p r e s e n t state o f affairs r e s p e c t i n g the q u e s t i o n o f I P e t e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e S c r i p t u r e s is far f r o m a d e s i r a b l e o n e . P e r h a p s this l a c k w o u l d b e felt less k e e n l y w e r e it n o t
for the letter's
e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e O T . F e w e a r l y C h r i s t i a n d o c u m e n t s in c o r p o r a t e as m u c h o f its m a t e r i a l
in p r o p o r t i o n w i t h t h e i r s i z e . R e v e l a
t i o n has m o r e b u t l a c k s a single e x p l i c i t q u o t a t i o n . H e b r e w s a n d I C l e m e n t c o m p a r e f a v o u r a b l y , a c c o r d i n g t o G o p p e l t ( 5 5 ) , b u t t h e list is p r o b a b l y e x h a u s t e d w i t h t h e m . H e n c e the significance o f the O T f o r the letter's interpretation
seems
guaranteed.
The
way
therefore
seems
open
for
e f f o r t s d e s i g n e d t o b r i n g P e t r i n e r e s e a r c h i n t o l i n e w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s in t h e s u b j e c t w h i c h has b e e n m a d e e l s e w h e r e i n N e w T e s t a m e n t s t u d i e s . The
present
However,
the
undertaking constraints
is i n t e n d e d
to make
such a
contribution.
o f an inflexible w o r d - l i m i t p r e c l u d e
anything
l i k e t h e k i n d o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y the t o p i c t r u l y w a r r a n t s . T h e f o l l o w i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n m u s t r e s t r i c t itself t o a c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , m e t h o d s , a n d t e c h n i q u e s r e f l e c t e d in t h e a u t h o r ' s u s e o f the
O T . T h e a p p r o a c h w h i c h has b e e n a d o p t e d is i n d u c t i v e in n a t u r e
b e c a u s e o f its d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e s . B y s u c h a m e t h o d it m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d circular reasoning o n the o n e h a n d , a n d t o respect the criterion o f f a l s i f i a b i l i t y essential t o s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e d u r e o n t h e o t h e r . Still t h e r e is a p r i c e t o b e paid f o r s u c h a r i g o r o u s m e t h o d o l o g y . A great q u a n t i t y
of
d e t a i l m u s t b e a c c u m u l a t e d b e f o r e it is p r o p e r t o f r a m e h y p o t h e s e s f o r testing.
H e n c e s o m e issues m a y n o t
r e c e i v e all t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n
they
m e r i t , i f s u f f i c i e n t r o o m is t o r e m a i n f o r t h e a n a l y s i s t o g o i n t o t h e r e q u i r e d depth. The
discussion has
t h r e e p h a s e s . T h e first
tackles certain
questions
n e c e s s i t a t e d e i t h e r b y a l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h o r n e w s c h o l a r l y initia tives. T h e s e c o n d i d e n t i f i e s t h e l e t t e r ' s g e n r e , d e s i g n , s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s , t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l m e t h o d used t o integrate t h e m , and the nature and e x t e n t o f d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e O T in c o m p a r i s o n . T h e t h i r d s t u d i e s t h o s e p l a c e s in
the
letter that
the
literary
analysis
showed were most
formatively
i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e u s e o f t h e O T , d r a w i n g o n several h e r m e n e u t i c a l tradi tions
f o r c o m p a r a t i v e materials
w h i c h illuminate the h e r m e n e u t i c evid
e n c e d t h e r e . T h u s t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n is c o n d u c t e d w i t h as little p r e j u d i c e t o t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l q u e s t i o n as is p r a c t i c a l l y f e a s i b l e , c o m i n g t o t h e t a s k o f comparison
o n l y after
accomplished.
a rather t h o r o u g h
literary
d e s c r i p t i o n has b e e n
Chapter T w o
T h e Setting o f I Peter
B e c a u s e t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c is i n s e r v i c e t o p a s t o r a l m o t i v e s , an effort must b e m a d e t o clarify the p r o b l e m s w h i c h i n d u c e d h i m t o write. T o d o so requires s o m e attention, h o w e v e r brief, t o matters o f authorship, provenance,
destination,
intended
recipients, envisaged situation,
and
d a t e . A n d t h e h a r d s h i p s f a c i n g his a d d r e s s e e s a s s u m e s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , a c c o r d i n g l y , as d o o t h e r q u e s t i o n s b e a r i n g o n their s o c i a l s t a t u s a n d c u l tural h e r i t a g e . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e s u r g e n t i n t e r e s t j u s t n o t e d in c e r t a i n o f t h e s e m e a n s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y c o u l d n o t b e s i t u a t e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f Petrine research apart f r o m such a sketch. W i t h e a c h d e c a d e the n u m b e r o f o b j e c t i o n s against the letter's authen 1
ticity g r o w s . 2
view .
External
t e s t i m o n y has a l w a y s s u p p o r t e d t h e
traditional
B u t this n o m o r e e s t a b l i s h e s t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f I P e t e r t h a n it
d o e s f o r a n y o t h e r d i s p u t e d N T d o c u m e n t s , s o t h a t i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e is 3
c r u c i a l . B o t h s i d e s a g r e e t h a t an earlier d a t e f a v o u r s g e n u i n e n e s s , o r v i c e v e r s a , a n d t h a t t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e is r o u g h l y A . D . 6 8 , s i n c e t h e r e is n o g o o d 4
r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e P e t e r o u t l i v e d N e r o . S p e a k i n g f o r a n e a r l y d a t e is t h e absence
o f the
developed
Christology
or church-order o f the deutero-
5
P a u l i n e s a n d P a s t o r a l s . Y e t this is h a r d l y d e c i s i v e w h e r e a s p o s s i b l e e v i d -
1 A representative
case o n behalf o f a u t h e n t i c i t y
7 7 3 — 9 0 , a n d against, W . G . K u m m e l , Introduction,
m a y be f o u n d in D . G u t h r i e , 4 2 1 — 4 , and nn.
Introduction,
3 4 a n d 3 8 f o r lists o f
scholars w h o s u p p o r t o r a t t a c k it, r e s p e c t i v e l y . M o r e recent defenses of a u t h e n t i c i t y m a y be f o u n d in J . A . T . R o b i n s o n , Redating, w h o register scepticism Introduction, Authority,
H.
e s p . , 1 5 0 — 6 9 , a n d , F. N e u g e b a u e r , ' D e u t u n g ' . B u t those
far o u t n u m b e r t h e m , f o r instance, P. V i e l h a u e r , Literatur,
Koester,
Introduction,
a n d R . E . B r o w n , Antioch.
D . Sylva, 'Studies', J . H . E l l i o t t , Home,
N . Perrin, W. Munro,
T h e fullest r e c e n t criticism o f a u t h e n t i c i t y is t o b e f o u n d
in the c o m m e n t a r y a n d articles b y B r o x . T h a t the tide has turned against a u t h e n t i c i t y is a p parent f r o m the m o s t recent c o m m e n t a t o r s w h o t e n d either t o b e n o n - c o m m i t a l , like G o p p e l t , o r s i m p l y a s s u m e p s e u d o n y m i t y w i t h little a r g u m e n t , like K r o d e l a n d Senior. 2 See esp. the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the external e v i d e n c e b y J . R o l o f f in G o p p e l t , 7 0 — 2 , a n d the defla t i o n o f its i m p o r t a n c e b y B e s t , 4 3 — 5 . A f t e r II Peter t h e n e x t m e n t i o n o f t h e A p o s t l e in associa t i o n w i t h I Peter is m a d e b y Irenaeus. 3 F o r e x a m p l e , J a m e s , Ephesians, a n d J u d e e n j o y c o m p a r a b l e external t e s t i m o n y , b u t the chal lenges
t o their a u t h e n t i c i t y
o n internal
g r o u n d s are legion. R e g a r d i n g the p h e n o m e n o n
of
p s e u d o n y m i t y , see the discussions b y K . A l a n d , 'Problem', D . G u t h r i e , 'Pseudepigrapha', M . R i s t , 'Pseudepigraphy', D . S . Russell, Method,
1 2 7 - 3 9 , a n d N . B r o x , Falsche,
passim.
4 A g a i n s t W . M . R a m s a y , w h o p r o p o s e d that Peter lived i n t o t h e reign o f V e s p a s i a n (see the dis cussion a n d lit. in W a l l s - S t i b b s , 1 9 f . ) . 5 See the useful c o l l e c t i o n o f these a n d o t h e r observations b y F . L . C r o s s , Peter,
a n d J. M o f f a t t ,
The Setting of I Peter
5
e n c e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a n e a r l y d a t e c a n b e a d d u c e d , s u c h as d e p e n d e n c e 6
o n R o m a n s , o r especially E p h e s i a n s . T h e n again the envisaged persecu tion seems t o o widespread to b e reconciled with what m a y be k n o w n from
7
o t h e r s o u r c e s a b o u t c h u r c h life b e f o r e A . D . 6 8 . A l s o , t h e u s e o f
' B a b y l o n ' as a c r y p t o g r a m
for R o m e seems n o t t o have entered a p o c 8
a l y p t i c d i s c o u r s e u n t i l a f t e r t h e s a c k o f J e r u s a l e m . B u t t h e r e is m o r e 9
evidence : 1 ) a G r e e k rivalling Paul's is u n e x p e c t e d in s o m e o n e w h o s e native t o n g u e w a s A r a m a i c 2)
skill in
t h e rhetoric o f the s c h o o l s is e q u a l l y i m p r o b a b l e in s o m e o n e w h o w a s p e r h a p s o n l y
marginally literate
Introduction,
in R o b i n s o n , Redating,
1 6 2 — 3 , w h i c h include the a b s e n c e o f p r o b l e m s involving
heresy, the e m p h a s i s o n charismatic gifts, a l a c k o f differentiation in eschatological e x p e c t a t i o n s a l o n g with the a n t i c i p a t i o n o f a n i m m i n e n t E n d , a n d a n ethics c o n s o n a n t with that e x p e c t a t i o n . K e l l y , 3 0 , a d d s the presence o f a Servant C h r i s t o l o g y , a n d t h e a b s e n c e o f signs o f a n y s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n Christians. Because o f t h e p l u r i f o r m nature o f early Christianity, it w o u l d b e pre carious t o d r a w a n y s w e e p i n g c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m such data, m u c h o f w h i c h is q u e s t i o n a b l e in its o w n right. It is arguable, f o r e x a m p l e , w h e t h e r any
reference o f a quasi-Trinitarian t y p e
( 1 . 2 ) , h o w e v e r primitive it m a y b e relatively speaking, d o e s n o t already p r e s u p p o s e consider able d e v e l o p m e n t , o r , w h e t h e r the early C h u r c h did n o t e x p e r i e n c e perennial o u t b r e a k s o f a p o c a l y p t i c e n t h u s i a s m w i t h a t t e n d a n t renewal o f ethical zeal a n d charismatic a c t i v i t y , etc. 6 Literary d e p e n d e n c e has b e e n a r g u e d strenuously b y Beare, 4 4 , a n d C . L . M i t t o n , ' R e l a t i o n s h i p ' , a p o s i t i o n restated r e c e n t l y in detail b y B e s t , 3 2 — 6 , distinguishing b e t w e e n literary
affinities
arising f r o m c o m m o n liturgical sources a n d various f o r m s o f literary influence a n d relationships. S o m e , like E l l i o t t t , 'Step-Child', 2 4 7 , c o n c e i v e o f that relationship in indirect t e r m s , s u p p o s i n g I Peter t o reflect the i m p a c t o f such letters u p o n its a u t h o r ' s c o m m u n i t y well in advance o f his writing. E i t h e r w a y , a sizable lapse o f t i m e is a prerequisite. 7 It w o u l d s e e m highly p r o b l e m a t i c t o s u p p o s e Christianity m i g h t have b e e n despised so w i d e l y o n the scale envisaged in I Pet. 5 . 9 b e f o r e Peter's d e a t h . T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m A c t s suggests other w i s e , t h o u g h the prevailing p e a c e it p o r t r a y s m a y b e t e n d e n t i o u s to s o m e e x t e n t ( c p . I T h e s s . 2 . 1 4 f . , II T h e s s . 1 . 4 , II C o r . 8 . 1 — 2 ) . A c t s 2 8 . 2 2 m e r e l y intimates a change w a s in the offing, b u t gives n o t the slightest hint it s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a gradual deterio r a t i o n in the relationship o f Christians w i t h s o c i e t y . O n c e again, the passing o f m o r e t h a n a f e w years is likely b e f o r e I Pet. 5 . 9 m i g h t p o s s i b l y have represented accurately the c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f the C h u r c h at large. 8
See C . - H . H u n z i g e r , ' D e c k n a m e ' for his discussion o f the evidence f r o m R e v . 1 4 . 8 , etc., I V Erza 3 . 1 , e t c . , II Bar. 1 1 . 1 , 6 7 . 7 , a n d S i b . O r . V , 1 4 3 a n d 1 5 9 . See also S.-B.,
I l l , 8 1 6 . G o p p e l t pre
fers an origin in Christianity i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m that in J u d a i s m ( 3 5 2 ) . H e claims t h a t N e r o ' s p e r s e c u t i o n precipitated the use o f B a b y l o n as a cipher for R o m e in Christian circles. T h e diffi c u l t y w i t h his view is that N e r o ' s act was t o o isolated, arbitrary, a n d idiosyncratic t o warrant an interpretation m o r e likely to have arisen in response t o an e m e r g i n g trend or p o l i c y . S u c h a trend did m a n i f e s t itself in R o m e ' s h a n d l i n g o f the First J e w i s h R e v o l t . O n c e thus established in J e w ish a p o c a l y p t i c
thinking
the c o n v e n t i o n a l designation w o u l d have b e e n available t o Jewish-
Christians t o a d o p t w h e n the E m p i r e began t o s h o w a l o n g a b r o a d f r o n t its true social a n d p o l itical c o l o u r s in respect t o Christianity as well. It is p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , that a p o c a l y p t i c thinking had already identified R o m e with the ' B a b y l o n ' o f the Scriptures, witness the e q u a t i o n o f the ' K i t t i m ' with the ' C h a l d e a n s ' at Q u m r a n , so that Christians m i g h t have b e e n thinking a l o n g similar lines b e f o r e the R e v o l t . 9 A r g u m e n t s that have b e e n m e t m o r e successfully than these have n o t b e e n c i t e d . T h o s e listed have b e e n culled f r o m n u m e r o u s sources. See e s p . Beare, 4 3 — 5 0 , Best, 4 9 — 6 3 , a n d B r o x , 4 3 — 7 . Attempts to
mitigate
G u t h r i e , Introduction,
m a n y of 773—90,
them
m a y b e f o u n d , f o r e x a m p l e , in W a l l s - S t i b b s , 1 8 — 4 8 ,
R o b i n s o n , Redating,
1 5 0 — 6 9 , and Neugebauer, 'Deutung',
6 6 f f . Since these nearly a l w a y s involve further c o n j e c t u r e , t h e y are n o t very persuasive.
The Setting of I Peter
6 3)
a m i n d p e r m e a t e d in the G r e e k B i b l e , a n d masterful in its u s e , is u n l i k e l y f o r s o m e o n e raised o n the H e b r e w a n d the t a r g u m i m
4)
t o use a n h o n o r i f i c s u r n a m e in self-reference is suspect
5)
the author's t e r m i n o l o g y is o f t e n r e m i n i s c e n t o f Paul's
6)
it w o u l d b e tactless t o write so m a n y c o m m u n i t i e s with Pauline c o n t a c t s w i t h o u t a w o r d a b o u t his c o - w o r k e r ( 5 . 1 2 )
7)
the letter possesses n o t a single certain a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l allusion ( 5 . 1 ? ) .
A
l a r g e r r o l e b y a n a m a n u e n s i s is o f t e n p o s t u l a t e d t o m e e t m o s t o f
these o b j e c t i o n s ,
o r at l e a s t a r e l i a n c e u p o n a s c r i b e w i t h w h o m
Peter
c o u l d h a v e w o r k e d c l o s e l y , e n a b l e d b y his b i l i n g u a l e x p e r i e n c e i n G a l i l e e 1 0
a n d his l a t e r m i n i s t r y . B u t s c e p t i c s are q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t t h a t a s e c r e t a r y h y p o t h e s i s still t e n d s t o c o m p l i c a t e t h e p r o b l e m , b e c a u s e o n e c a n n o l o n g e r 1 1
say w h a t is f r o m P e t e r . T h e c l a i m t h a t w h a t e v e r w a s w r i t t e n w o u l d t h u s h a v e b o r n e his i m p r i m a t u r o f f e r s n o m o r e t h a n a little h e l p h e r e
1 2
. The
s e v e r i t y o f s u c h c r i t i c i s m is m i t i g a t e d t o s o m e e x t e n t , h o w e v e r , b y t h e realization that a very great deal o f the c o n t e n t s o f the letter c o m e s f r o m the m a i n s t r e a m o f early Christian tradition a n y w a y (see the n e x t c h a p t e r ) , m a k i n g it h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c t o k n o w h o w t o u s e t h e m a t e r i a l t o e v a l u a t e the q u e s t i o n o f a u t h o r s h i p o n e w a y o r t h e o t h e r . B y w a y o f a c h a l l e n g e t o p s e u d o n y m i t y , it is o f t e n n o t e d t h a t I P e t e r lacks the k i n d o f p o l e m i c a l o r a p o l o g e t i c m o t i v e t y p i c a l l y f o u n d in pseud1 3
epigraphic l i t e r a t u r e . N o w f e w w o u l d q u e s t i o n that the p h e n o m e n o n o f early
C h r i s t i a n p s e u d e p i g r a p h y is c l o s e l y t i e d t o t h e n e e d
to
combat
h e r e s y i n t h e s u b - a p o s t o l i c p e r i o d , b u t t h a t is s c a r c e l y s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n t o rule o u t o t h e r possible m o t i v e s . T h e case o f I E n o c h m a y b e c i t e d . L i k e E n o c h , ' P e t e r ' m i g h t h a v e b e e n c h o s e n as a d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t t o e x p l o i t a v e n e r a b l e figure o f righteousness w h o w o u l d b e k n o w n w h e r e v e r
the
G o s p e l s t o r i e s w e r e t o l d . M o r e t o t h e p o i n t , as far as t h e a d d r e s s e e s w e r e c o n c e r n e d , Peter h a d s t u m b l e d o n c e , b u t in the e n d s t o o d firm (I C l e m .
1 0 S o , f o r e x a m p l e , K e l l y , 3 1 , w h o is nevertheless c o m p e l l e d t o c o n c e d e that the secretary w o u l d have h a d to have c o m p o s e d it, n o t m e r e l y h a d it d i c t a t e d t o h i m . See also G . H . Bahr, 'Paul', 465ff. 11 S o , e s p . , B e s t , 5 7 , w h o c o n c l u d e s that 'all the subtler nuances o f t h o u g h t b e l o n g t o h i m a n d n o t t o Peter'. T h e h y p o t h e s i s that S y l v a n u s w a s the secretary has p r o v e d t o b e m o r e o f a red herring than a n y t h i n g else in this regard. It w a s r o u n d l y rejected b y B e a r e , 2 1 2 — 6 , w h o o b s e r v e d 'there is n o t the slightest r e s e m b l a n c e in style b e t w e e n the T h e s s a l o n i a n epistles a n d I Peter' ( 2 1 3 ) . R o b i n s o n , Redating, eypa^a
1 6 8 f . , has m a d e a c o n v i n c i n g case that I Pet. 5 . 1 2 , 6 i a ?,CKovavov
. . . , can o n l y m e a n Silvanus was the letter's bearer, c o m p a r i n g A c t s 1 5 . 2 3 ,
. . .
ypdipavres
8td x e i p f o avTLJV. 1 2 A g a i n s t K e l l y , 3 2 , Peter w o u l d have h a d t o have b e e n very fluent in conversational G r e e k in d e e d t o have b e e n c o m p e t e n t t o pass j u d g m e n t o n his secretary's c o m p o s i t i o n , as Paul s e e m s to have d o n e o n o c c a s i o n . In fairness t o h i m , h o w e v e r , the role of the a m a n u e n s i s generally per sists as a p r o b l e m f o r N T interpretation. 1 3 H o w e v e r , as R . E . B r o w n n o t e s , Antioch,
1 8 9 , neither is a n y such m o t i v e a p p a r e n t in E p h e s i a n s .
Other internal evidence o f t e n a d d u c e d is 1 . 8 , with a possible i m p l i e d contrast b e t w e e n J e s u s as seen b y the a u t h o r a n d the J e s u s his addressees have n o t seen b u t still l o v e . A n o t h e r instance is 5 . 1 which clearly d o e s n o t have to b e taken as e y e w i t n e s s t e s t i m o n y o f the C r u c i f i x i o n a n d Transfiguration, b u t m a y (see R o b i n s o n , Redating,
1 6 5 ; otherwise, Best, 1 6 8 — 9 ) .
The Setting of I Peter
7
5 . 4 ) . O n e m i g h t s c a r c e l y f i n d a m o r e s u i t a b l e e x a m p l e f r o m e a r l y Chris tian h i s t o r y t o h o l d u p t o t h e e m b a t t l e d r e c i p i e n t s o f this l e t t e r . T h e o u t c o m e s e e m s t o b e a p p r o a c h i n g t h a t o f a s t a l e m a t e , f o r t h e argu m e n t s against a u t h e n t i c i t y m a y b e s e e n t o b e s o m e w h a t less c o m m a n d i n g than t h e y are regularly h e l d t o b e b y s o m e , w h e r e a s the a r g u m e n t s o n b e h a l f o f a u t h e n t i c i t y are p e r h a p s less d e s p e r a t e t h a n t h e y h a v e s e e m e d i n t h e p a s t . T h e w o r k i n g - h y p o t h e s i s a d o p t e d h e r e w i l l b e t h a t I P e t e r is a pseudepigraph, because that remains the d o m i n a n t scholarly o p i n i o n , b u t it m u s t b e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e m a t t e r is far f r o m r e s o l u t i o n . R e g a r d i n g the letter's p r o v e n a n c e , there are n o g o o d g r o u n d s t o sup p o s e ' B a b y l o n ' ( 5 . 1 4 ) refers t o the c i t y o n the Euphrates o r the garrison t o w n in E g y p t ( G o p p e l t , 3 5 1 , n . 2 9 ) . T h e c r y p t o g r a m p o i n t s t o R o m e instead, w h e r e Peter was martyred and w h e r e Mark ( 5 . 1 3 ) m a y have c o n t i n u e d his m i n i s t r y . Affinities w i t h R o m a n s , M a r k , I C l e m e n t , a n d R o m a n baptismal liturgy m a y suggest a Petrine circle t h e r e
1 5
. The Muratorian
f r a g m e n t m a y o m i t I P e t e r p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e its t r u e a u t h o r w a s k n o w n there
1 6
. I n d e e d , r a t h e r t h a n t o e n t e r t a i n a n y o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , it m a y b e
b e t t e r w i t h Beare ( 5 0 ) a n d B r o x ( 4 2 — 3 ) t o s u p p o s e that ' B a b y l o n ' b e l o n g s t o the p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c device, and t o h o l d that I Peter was actually writ ten c l o s e t o the events themselves ( S m y r n a ? )
1 7
.
Regarding destination, 'Pontus, Galatia, C a p p a d o c i a , Asia, and Bithynia' were held formerly 'Pontus' from
1 8
t o designate ethnic r e g i o n s . T h e splitting o f
' B i t h y n i a ' w a s felt t o tell against a d e s i g n a t i o n o f R o m a n 1 9
p r o v i n c e s , b e c a u s e their t e c h n i c a l n a m e w a s B i t h y n i a - P o n t u s . A l s o , a restriction t o e t h n i c regions avoids overlap w i t h Pauline missions, a c c o u n t ing f o r their
omission
from
1.1 Of. ( c p . A c t s
16.6f.)
2 0
.
B u t an e t h n i c
designation excludes three-fourths o f Asia (Best, 1 5 , Kelly, 3 ) , and con t e m p o r a r y e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e has b e e n f o u n d n a m i n g P o n t u s a n d B i t h y -
1 4 This h y p o t h e s i s is a r e f i n e m e n t o f Beare's p o s i t i o n , 4 9 , a n d a d e q u a t e l y m e e t s t h e o b j e c t i o n b y R o b i n s o n , Redating,
1 6 4 , n. 1 1 9 , a n d o t h e r s , that n o c o n v i n c i n g m o t i v e h a d , as y e t b e e n estab
lished w h i c h w o u l d render p s e u d o n y m i t y plausible. 1 5 F o r the p r e c e d i n g a r g u m e n t s in s u p p o r t o f R o m e see esp. the discussion b y B e s t , 6 4 — 5 . See m o s t r e c e n t l y the detailed case f o r R o m a n p r o v e n a n c e , b y R . E . B r o w n , Antioch,
128—39.
1 6 O t h e r w i s e , o n e m i g h t b e inclined t o agree w i t h K e l l y , 3 3 , that its o m i s s i o n is a n e m b a r r a s s m e n t t o the h y p o t h e s i s of R o m a n origin. 1 7 M . - E . B o i s m a r d , 'Liturgie', 1 8 1 n. 2 , suggests A n t i o c h o n the strength o f the letter's use b y Papias a n d P o l y c a r p , a n d the use o f 'Christian' attested elsewhere in the early C h u r c h o n l y for Syria. B . H . Streeter's preference f o r S m y r n a is m o r e i m p r o b a b l e still {Church, 1 8 S o m e still a d v a n c e it s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y , f o r e x a m p l e , G u t h r i e , Introduction, 1 9 A c c o r d i n g t o E l l i o t t , Home,
115f.).
792f.
6 0 , B i t h y n i a a n d P o n t u s w e r e u n i t e d c. 6 3 B . C . , a n d see his u s e f u l
n. 8 , 9 1 , f o r a review o f t h e various reorganizations u n d e r R o m e o f p o r t i o n s o f the k i n g d o m o f Pontus. 2 0 F o r b o t h a r g u m e n t s see B e s t , 1 5 . T h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t rests o n m o r e t h a n o n e
questionable
a s s u m p t i o n . It p r e s u p p o s e s the t i d y division o f early Christian missions i n t o Pauline a n d Petrine regions ( c p . I C o r . 1 . 1 2 ) . C a n G a l . 2 . 7 f . b e a r such w e i g h t ? It also t e n d s t o b e c h a m p i o n e d b y s u p p o r t e r s o f the letter's
authenticity.
8
The Setting of I Peter 2 1
n i a s e p a r a t e l y o n a list o f p r o v i n c e s . T h u s s p e c i f i c R o m a n p r o v i n c e s are p r o b a b l y m e a n t forming a c o n t i g u o u s w h o l e b o u n d e d b y the Taurus Mts., w h i c h is a m o r e n a t u r a l
idea, and o n e that c o n f o r m s
w i t h prevailing
2 2
u s a g e . A n y w a y , C J . H e m e r s h o w s that the possible routes taken b y the letter's bearer virtually necessitated a j o u r n e y t h r o u g h s o u t h e r n Galatia falling b e l o w t h e e t h n i c r e g i o n ( I c o n i u m a n d P i s i d i a n A n t i o c h )
2 3
. H e fol 2 4
l o w s E w a l d a n d H o r t i n v i e w i n g t h e s e q u e n c e o f t h e list as a n i t i n e r a r y . He
finds
that it m a k e s g o o d sense in terms o f c o m m e r c i a l practicalities 2 5
and geographical c o n s t r a i n t s . M o v i n g eastward b y ship along the coast o f P o n t u s , t h e c a r r i e r m a y h a v e c a l l e d at a n y p o r t d e s i r e d , a n d d i s e m b a r k i n g at A m i s u s t o t h e e a s t , h e c o u l d p e n e t r a t e t h e i n t e r i o r o n t h e s o l e feasi b l e r o a d t o C a p p a d o c i a , s t o p p i n g at its c a p i t a l , C a e s a r e a . T u r n i n g w e s t h e could
move
directly
across Galatia and into Asia, eventually heading
n o r t h w a r d s i n t o B i t h y n i a . T o start w i t h P o n t u s m i g h t h a v e m a d e s e n s e i n l i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m P l i n y a b o u t a n u n u s u a l l y large C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a tion t h e r e
2 6
.
R e g a r d i n g the i n t e n d e d r e c i p i e n t s , their e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n w a s likely t o b e as d i v e r s e as t h a t o f t h e p r o v i n c e s in v i e w , a v e r i t a b l e ' m e l t i n g pot'
2 7
. T h e effective force b e h i n d the blending o f ethnic differences was
21 See the citation o f the e v i d e n c e b y E l l i o t t , Home,
9 0 , n. 5 . T h e r e is also a n inscription n a m i n g
Pontus independently. 2 2 See H o r t ' s still valuable n o t e , e s p . 1 5 7 — 6 7 , c o n c e r n i n g the t e s t i m o n y f r o m , a m o n g others, S t r a b o , w h o shared the r e s p e c t e d v i e w that t h e T a u r u s divided the inhabited w o r l d . T h e p o r t i o n o f A n a t o l i a w e s t o f the range was clearly regarded as a u n i t y . See a l s o , B e s t , 1 5 , K e l l y , 3 , a n d Goppelt, 2 7 - 8 . 2 3 See his ' A d d r e s s ' , e s p . 2 4 0 f . , f o r a c o n v i n c i n g r e f u t a t i o n o f S i n o p e , H o r t ' s p r e f e r e n c e , as the p o i n t o f d i s e m b a r k a t i o n in f a v o u r o f A m i s u s . 2 4 B u t see the sceptical r e s p o n s e o f B e a r e , 4 1 — 3 , w h o claims that P o n t u s a n d B i t h y n i a begin a n d e n d the list m e r e l y 'to give t h e m p r o m i n e n c e ' ( 4 2 ) . Streeter dismissed the list as an interpola t i o n (Church,
1 2 6 ) . W . L . K n o x , ' R e v i e w ' , 3 4 2 f . , ascribed its c r e a t i o n t o n o t h i n g m o r e than
p o e t i c a l - r h y t h m i c factors. S u c h n o t i o n s strain at credibility. 2 5 A n d c o m p a r e G o p p e l t ' s version, 2 8 f . 2 6 See Ep.
x . 9 6 . Pliny finds t h a t s o m e o f the a c c u s e d claim t o have r e p u d i a t e d Christianity as
m u c h as t w e n t y years earlier. H e also says 'Visa est enim propter etiam
periclitanitum vocantur
in periculum
superstitionis encountered
numerum.
istius the
W h i t e , Letters,
contagio
Multi
enim
et vocabuntur. pervagata
est'
omnis
Neque
mihiresdigna
aetatis,
civitates
omnis
tantum,
consultatione, ordinis,
maxime
utriusque
sed vicos etiam
sexus
atque
( x . 9 6 . 9 ) . It is n o w generally a c c e p t e d
agros
that Pliny
Christian p r o b l e m s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n A m a s t r i s a n d A m i s u s ( s o , Sherwin-
6 9 I f f . ) , a l l o w i n g for the possibility t o b e entertained that a relatively large m a s s
o f Christians m a y have e x i s t e d in P o n t u s for quite s o m e t i m e prior t o Pliny's tenure ( A . D . 1 1 2 ) . See A p p e n d i x O n e f o r the t e x t o f t h e letter. 2 7 F o r general t r e a t m e n t s o f A s i a M i n o r in the R o m a n p e r i o d see e s p . M . I . R o s t o v t z e f f , Empire, 930ff.,
I, 2 5 5 - 7 3 , T.R.S.
i d e m . Hellenistic
World,
I, 5 5 1 - 6 0 2 ,
II, 6 3 4 - 9 5 ,
767-71,
B r o u g h t o n , ' R o m a n A s i a Minor*, I V , 4 9 9 f f . , a n d D . M a g i e , Roman
3 — 6 1 0 . A s applicable t o I Peter, see t o o the recent discussion b y E l l i o t t , Home, the Jewish D i a s p o r a see E . M . S m a l l w o o d , Jews,
Roman
799-840, Rule,
I,
5 9 — 6 7 . For
1 2 0 — 4 3 a n d 3 5 6 — 8 8 . F o r J u d a i s m in R o m a n
A s i a M i n o r see the discussion a n d literature in E l l i o t t , Home,
6 6 a n d n n . 1 9 — 2 1 , a n d n. 2 3 .
Galatia's e t h n i c diversity w a s particularly great. A c c o r d i n g t o M a g i e , 4 5 8 , ' T h e inhabitants o f the p r o v i n c e were as varied as the districts o f w h i c h the p r o v i n c e was c o m p o s e d . '
The Setting of I Peter the
Hellenistic c i t y
efficiently
2 8
9
. Its g e n i u s l a y i n a t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y
c e n t r a l i z e d t h e p r o c e s s e s vital t o l i f e
nia-Pontus was heavily u r b a n i z e d
3 0
2 9
that
. T h e littoral o f Bithy-
. S o was m o s t o f A s i a
3 1
. Where Hellen
i s m h a d m e t its m a t c h w a s i n t h e i s o l a t e d i n t e r i o r s , m a i n l y o f G a l a t i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a (esp. Paphlagonia, Phrygia, L y c a o n i a , and the
concentrations
3 2
o f C e l t s ) . S o m e areas o f C a p p a d o c i a n e v e r c a m e u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f a 3 3
c i t y , s o that barbarism p r e v a i l e d . B u t f o r the cities o n the letter's r o u t e it w a s a n o t h e r
story, like A m a s e i a under imperial patronage and
3 4
its z e n i t h . C a e s a r e a w a s s i m i l a r l y p r o m i n e n t
3 5
nearing
. S o , the letter's r o u t e was
f r o m o n e city to the n e x t , strung like stones o n a n e c k l a c e . T h e religious diversity o f these cities was i m m e n s e , i n c l u d i n g the m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l d i v i n i t i e s o f t h e h e a r t h a n d c l a s s i c a l t y p e s , as w e l l as i n d i g e n o u s t y p e s , syncretistic f o r m u l a t i o n s , s o m e Mysteries, the E m p e r o r cult, and Judaism
3 6
.
proselytes 3 8
teries .
H o w e v e r , m o s t addressees d o n o t seem t o have b e e n J e w s or 3 7
It
. O n the o t h e r h a n d , I Peter m a y refer t o s o m e o f these M y s does reflect
a broader
religious e x p e r i e n c e , a n y w a y
3 9
.
2 8 F o r a discussion o f the i m p a c t o f H e l l e n i s m generally, see M . I . R o s t o v t z e f f , Hellenistic
The
World,
I I , 1 0 2 6 f f . , a n d esp. the c o n c l u s i o n , 1 3 0 1 - 1 2 . 2 9 F o r the place o f cities in the eastern R o m a n p r o v i n c e s see A . H . M . J o n e s , Cities, the d i f f u s i o n o f this m o s t p r o d u c t i v e f o r m o f social o r g a n i z a t i o n see i d e m . , City,
passim, a n d for 1—84.
3 0 P o m p e y ' s c r e a t i o n o f the p r o v i n c e in 6 3 B . C . h a d the e f f e c t o f detaching the Hellenistic cities all a l o n g the c o a s t f r o m t h e geographically isolated a n d b a r b a r o u s regions b e y o n d the m o u n tains, resulting in a u n i f o r m l y u r b a n i z e d strip (see M a g i e , I, 1 8 2 ) . 3 1 See esp. J o n e s , City,
6 9 f . , a n d regarding the H e l l e n i z a t i o n o f A s i a he says, 'In A s i a the d e v e l o p
m e n t o f c i t y life was b y the b e g i n n i n g o f the principate c o m p l e t e in m o s t areas . . . ' ( 6 6 ) . 3 2 B u t consider the e x t e n t t o w h i c h H e l l e n i z a t i o n h a d m a n a g e d to attract m a n y a d h e r e n t s e v e n in these regions, a c c o r d i n g t o the discussion o f J o n e s , Cities,
4 5 f f . , as is evident f r o m the e f f o r t s
o f n u m e r o u s originally barbarian cities t o attribute their c r e a t i o n t o early G r e e k s . 3 3 S o , B r o u g h t o n , ' R o m a n A s i a M i n o r ' , 7 3 8 , a n d J o n e s , Cities,
8 2 , states that the total n u m b e r o f
cities r e m a i n e d u n d e r ten. 3 4 See the OCD,
49.
3 5 See the OCD,
1 9 1 , and C J . H e m e r , 'Address', 2 4 0 - 1 .
3 6 F o r a useful i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the religions o f the G r e c o - R o m a n p e r i o d see H . K o e s t e r , duction,
I, 1 4 1 - 2 0 4 and 3 5 5 - 8 9 .
C o n s i d e r also the
Intro
See the brief survey b y D . W i n s l o w , 'Religion', 2 3 7 - 5 4 .
classic w o r k b y A . D . N o c k , Conversion.
S o m e o f the b e t t e r - k n o w n cults
were original t o the p r o v i n c e s in q u e s t i o n , for e x a m p l e , C y b e l e ( G a l a t i a ) , Sabazius ( A s i a M i n o r ) , a n d M e n ( G a l a t i a ) , a n d w e r e w i d e l y w o r s h i p p e d in A n a t o l i a b y the early Christian era. See also F . B o v o n , ' F o i \ 2 5 — 4 1 , a n d R . M a c M u l l e n , Paganism,
passim.
3 7 S o S e l w y n , 4 2 f . , m a i n t a i n s , citing O r i g e n , E u s e b i u s , m o s t o f the G r e e k Fathers, E r a s m u s , Calvin, B e n g e l , a n d W e i s s , as c h a m p i o n s o f this v i e w , versus J e r o m e , A u g u s t i n e , a n d the Latin Fathers w h o preferred a G e n t i l e b a c k g r o u n d . 3 8 See n. 2 in the I n t r o d u c t i o n a b o v e f o r the literature. A m o n g those passages especially deserv ing o f a t t e n t i o n are 1 . 2 — 3 , 1 . 1 9 , 1 . 2 3 , a n d 2 . 2 , w h e r e rebirth e f f e c t e d t h r o u g h a cleansing b y b l o o d a n d initiation associated w i t h a m i l k - m e t a p h o r constitute a conjunction
o f ideas m o r e
strongly reminiscent o f pagan cults t h a n o f Jewish w o r s h i p , that is, Isis, Mithras, a n d C y b e l e in particular. This is n o t t o d e n y the i n f l u e n c e o f J u d a i s m o n the a u t h o r , b u t , rather, t o attribute his c h o i c e o f e x p r e s s i o n s t o his awareness o f their suitability for his audience's religious experi e n c e as well. C o u l d his- reference to the declaration o f G o d ' s m i g h t y acts in 2 . 9 (rd
similarly allude t o their e x p e r i e n c e o f p a g a n aretalogies?
3 9 See W . C . van U n n i k , 'Critique', 1 2 9 — 4 2 , w h o d o c u m e n t s the significance o f irarporta padorov in
10
The Setting of I Peter
author
d e n o u n c e s t h i s as 'futile* ( / i a r a t ' a c ,
1 . 1 8 ) , saying Christ's
death
b r o u g h t t h e m t o their n e w state d i r e c t l y w i t h o u t the i n t e r p o s i t i o n o f a n y other
4 0
. S u c h a c a t e g o r i c a l d e c l a r a t i o n is easier t o r e c o n c i l e w i t h a m a j o r 4 1
ity w h i c h had b e e n Gentile f r o m the s t a r t . R e g a r d i n g social status, interpreters w e r e c o n t e n t t o n o t e until r e c e n t l y 4 2
that the m a j o r i t y o f recipients w e r e f r o m the l o w e r c l a s s e s . E l l i o t t has recently gone that
f u r t h e r t o a r g u e t h a t t h e i r legal a n d e c o n o m i c status w a s
o f 'outsiders'
(trapen
1 . 1 ; napotKovq,
18THIOLS,
2 . 1 1 ) , and that
the
' h o u s e h o l d ' t e r m s are m e a n t t o c o n v e y a n i d e n t i t y t h e a d d r e s s e e s l a c k e d in
the w o r l d
4 3
. H e criticizes the prevailing t e n d e n c y t o spiritualize
sojourning v o c a b u l a r y under the influence o f Philo and H e b r e w s e v e r , h e has o v e r l o o k e d i m p o r t a n t
4 4
the
. How
uses i n t h e p r e s c r i p t s o f I C l e m , a n d
P o l y c a r p (II Phil.), a n d e v i d e n c e in E p . D i o g . , n o r d i d h e fully e x p l a i n h o w t h e literal a n d
figurative ranges m a y o v e r l a p
relation t o avaoTpo<pr\s
4 5
. But in I Peter t h e y m a y
as a positive o n e , d e n o t i n g venerable ancestral religious c u s t o m . O n l y
at the h a n d s o f Christian a p o l o g i s t s d i d the adjective c o m e t o have a pejorative m e a n i n g . O n the strength o f the c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e n 1 . 1 8 f . a n d 4 . 2 f . it w o u l d s e e m that s o m e o f these practices w e r e orgiastic in n a t u r e , n o t surprising f o r p o p u l a t i o n s familiar w i t h the rites o f t h e Mater,
Magna
S a b a z i u s , A r t e m i s , a n d a b o v e all, D i o n y s u s . Y e t 4 . 3 m a y also b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the
celebrat i ons t y p i c a l t o the guilds, o r collegia,
a c c o r d i n g to E l l i o t t , Home,
7 0 , n. 4 0 .
4 0 F o r evidence o f the practice o f sacral m a n u m i s s i o n see C . K . Barrett, Background,
52f. Such an
interpretation m i g h t be preferable t o the m a n u m i s s i o n of captives, w h i c h is t h e m e a n i n g o f the Isaiah t e x t p o s s i b l y in v i e w ( 5 2 . 3 ) , b e c a u s e o f the explicit cultic t e r m i n o l o g y o f 1 . 1 9 . S o m e see a reference t o proselyte-sacrifice instead. 4 1 T h e use
o f the adjective in c o n n e x i o n w i t h the i d o l a t r o u s practices o f the n a t i o n s w a s already
a c o m m o n p l a c e in the L X X . In this respect its use in A c t s 1 4 . 1 5 c o u l d scarcely b e m o r e a p p o site. Paul a n d Barnabas are said t o have characterized the a t t e m p t b y s o m e o f t h e inhabitants of L y s t r a ( G a l a t i a ) t o w o r s h i p t h e m as an e x a m p l e o f the kind o f futile activity e n d e m i c t o pagan p i e t y . A n u n q u e s t i o n a b l e l o y a l t y t o such ancestral practice m a y thus b e t e r m e d 'ignor a n c e ' , rather a p p r o p r i a t e l y , as
happens
in I Pet. 1 . 1 4 ( c o m p a r e the t h e m e o f ignorance in the
Areopagus Speech). 4 2 S o , f o r e x a m p l e , Best, 1 7 , a n d K e l l y , 5 . H o w e v e r , E . A . J u d g e has w a r n e d against o v e r - s t a t e m e n t of this p o i n t 4 3 See Home,
(SocialPattern).
2 1 - 1 0 0 , esp. 4 2 - 9 and 6 7 - 7 3 .
4 4 S e e , for e x a m p l e , Cher. TDNT, tion
1 2 0 - 1 a n d Conf.
Ling.
7 7 - 8 , a n d , H e b . 1 1 . 1 3 , 1 6 , a n d 1 3 . 1 4 . See
V , 8 4 8 f . , for a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the e v i d e n c e f r o m Philo. See as well Elliott's presenta
o f a variety of interpretations a n d translations o f the material in I Peter ( 3 9 — 4 1 ) . H e
stresses h o w such slender e v i d e n c e has b e c o m e t h e Procrustean b e d i n t o w h i c h I Peter's termi nology
has b e e n f o r c e d . F o r a recent r e s t a t e m e n t o f the traditional v i e w see V . P . Furnish,
'Elect', 1 — 1 1 . F o r m o r e discriminating t r e a t m e n t s see M . A . Chevallier, ' C o n d i t i o n ' , 3 8 7 — 4 0 0 , C. Wolff,
'Christ', 3 3 3 - 4 2 , a n d D . Hill, 'Suffering', 1 8 1 - 9 . E l l i o t t o b j e c t s against Chevallier
a n d W o l f f that t h e y o v e r l o o k t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h the addressees w o u l d have started o u t f r o m a position
o f alienation.
H e goes t o the o t h e r e x t r e m e , h o w e v e r , b y m i n i m i z i n g the effects
of
c o n v e r s i o n o n alienation. F r o m I Pet. 4 . 2 - 4 it is reasonable t o infer that t h o s e w i t h w h o m the addressees w e r e a c c u s t o m e d t o fraternize, that is, their social equals, have n o w j o i n e d the o p p o s i t i o n . See the m o r e b a l a n c e d a s s e s s m e n t b y A . Puig T a r r e c h , 'Milieu', 9 5 — 1 2 9 , w h i c h anticipates Elliott's thesis, b u t d o e s n o t g o t o that e x t r e m e . F o r o t h e r criticism o f Elliott's m e t h o d o l o g y see e s p . A . W i r e , ' R e v i e w ' , 2 0 9 — 1 6 . 4 5 D i o g n e t u s ' t e s t i m o n y a b o u t the status o f Christians in the e y e s of their n e i g h b o u r s is especially valuable:
narpidaq
OLKOVOW
t6iac, d \ \ '
CJ?
ndpoiKOu
nerexovoi
HOVTUJV
CJS
iroXirai,
KCLI
ndvd'
The Setting of I Peter
11
still i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f t h e r e c i p i e n t s w e r e V i s i t i n g strang ers'
or
denied
'resident upward
aliens',
had
mobility, and
severely restricted in
the
slaves t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e w o r k f o r c e and husbands
(3.1—7) mean 4 7
for
slaves w e r e n o t m a r r i e d .
civil r i g h t s ,
cities c o n s t i t u t e d 4 6
and
were
along with
the
. R e f e r e n c e s in I P e t e r t o w i v e s
s o m e o f t h e m were free-born or
freedmen,
A b s e n c e a m o n g t h e Haustafeln
o f a direc 4 8
tive t o m a s t e r s m i g h t s u g g e s t f e w w e r e w e a l t h y e n o u g h t o o w n s l a v e s . The
identification
o f t h e slaves as d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s ( o t K e r e n , 2 . 1 8 ) as
o p p o s e d t o t h e m o r e g e n e r a l dovXot c o n f i r m s t h e l a r g e l y u r b a n s e t t i n g o f the
recipients,
Thus
further
belonged
since these research
solidly
diverse pagan
to
were
concentrated
o n l y substantiates
the
under-classes
the
and
primarily view
that
represented
in the the
cities
4 9
.
addressees
an e x c e e d i n g l y
culture.
R e g a r d i n g the envisaged situation, a l l o w a n c e m u s t b e m a d e in principle for
the widest imaginable kinds o f hardship. Verbal abuse a m o u n t i n g
to
p s y c h o l o g i c a l harassment a n d social ostracism seems t o b e an
important
ingredient,
there
but
slaves m i g h t w e l l e x p e c t p h y s i c a l a b u s e , a n d
grounds to suspect others flict
t o o w e r e at p h y s i c a l r i s k
is c l e a r e n o u g h f r o m t h e s i l e n c e a b o u t
J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n s in these c i t i e s explicit. The main
5 1
5 0
any tension with the
c a u s e o f h a r d s h i p is c o n s p i c u o u s n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n
g r e w , this c o u l d o n l y b e i n t e r p r e t e d as d e l i b e r a t e
Cjq
large
. T h e e v i d e n c e i n 1.14—8 a n d 4 . 2 — 5 is
w h a t w e r e o f t e n i d o l a t r o u s activities. A s the n u m b e r s o f
vnoiievovoLV
are
. The source o f con
£evoi. naoa
£evr)
irdTplq earip
CLVTLOV,
KCLI
in
non-participants
anti-social
behaviour,
irdoa iraTpis %ivr\ ( 5 . 5 ) . D a t i n g its
chaps. 1 — 1 0 a g o o d c e n t u r y later than I Peter d o e s n o t diminish its relevance m u c h , b e c a u s e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s Christians d i d n o t change greatly during this p e r i o d , a n d Christianity still t e n d e d to b e a religion o f the under-classes (see e s p . S. B e n k o , Pagan, 46
See the OCD,
c u s s i o n , 3 6 a n d 6 7 f . , a n d also R o s t o v t z e f f , Roman 47
passim).
7 9 9 , for the definitions including s o m e m i n o r e x c e p t i o n s . See esp. Elliott's dis Empire,
I, 3 4 4 f .
F o r the barrier t o marriage p o s e d b y slavery see, f o r instance, J J . O ' R o u r k e , ' L a w ' , 1 7 7 .
4 8 A c c o r d i n g t o E l l i o t t , 7 0 , b u t it m i g h t just as well b e a t t r i b u t e d t o the superior p o s i t i o n in w h i c h Christian masters w e r e n o t as likely t o b e e x p o s e d t o abuse f o r the faith as were slaves. 4 9 A s c o n c e d e d b y E l l i o t t , 6 9 . See B r o u g h t o n , ' R o m a n A s i a M i n o r ' , 8 3 9 — 4 1 , f o r the e v i d e n c e . C o n s i d e r the q u o t a t i o n in n. 2 7 a b o v e w h e r e Pliny stresses that the religion is n o t l i m i t e d t o the cities, w h e r e it m i g h t be e x p e c t e d , b u t has even spread t o the c o u n t r y s i d e . P r e s u m a b l y , Chris tianity h a d t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f b e i n g a largely u r b a n p h e n o m e n o n . See W . M e e k s , Urban,
passim,
for the cities w h i c h saw Paul's ministry (esp. 9 — 7 3 ) . 5 0 S o m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s . F o r 'fear' see 3 . 6 , 1 4 , 4 . 1 2 ; f o r 'slander', 2 . 1 2 , 3 . 1 6 ; for 'revilement', 2.23, any
3 . 9 ; for 'vilification',
3 . 1 6 ; for 'reproach', 4 . 1 4 , e t c . E l l i o t t ( 8 0 ) g o e s so far as t o d e n y
evidence of physical a b u s e in the letter, n o t n o t i c i n g the ironic reference t o JUGJXCJTTI ( 2 . 2 4 )
a p p o s i t e t o the beatings slaves m i g h t e x p e c t . T h e m e r e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f references t o suffering in the letter suggests s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n the usual. A c c o r d i n g t o R . M o r g e n t h a l e r , 127
Statistik,
a n d 1 3 0 , the entire Pauline c o r p u s has sixteen references to the w o r d - g r o u p (-ndoxoj,
etc.),
I Peter fifteen, L u k e - A c t s eleven, a n d H e b r e w s seven. T a k i n g all the c o g n a t e s i n t o a c c o u n t d o e s n o t alter this picture m u c h ( X . J a c q u e s , List,
8 6 ) . T h e c o m p a r a t i v e brevity o f I Peter m a k e s
the figures especially impressive. 5 1 T h e d i f f e r e n c e , say, f r o m A c t s o r M a t t h e w is e n o r m o u s (see G o p p e l t , 3 0 ) . F o r the size o f the Jewish D i a s p o r a in A s i a M i n o r see E l l i o t t , 5 6 , n. 8 0 , a n d 6 6 w i t h n n . 1 9 — 2 0 . E s t i m a t e s range f r o m one-quarter o f a m i l l i o n t o over a m i l l i o n .
12
The Setting of I Peter 5 2
a n d their n e i g h b o u r s r e t a l i a t e d . T h u s an already d e g r a d e d a n d e x p o s e d social
situation was threatened
w i t h t o t a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , a n d it is n o
w o n d e r that p a n i c h a d b e g u n t o grip s o m e o f t h e m ( 4 . 1 2 f . ) . O n e is e a s i l y m o v e d b y t h e p i t i a b l e s p e c t a c l e o f t h e d i s p o s s e s s e d t o r n b e t w e e n l o y a l t y t o the c o m m u n i t y that h a d given t h e m d i g n i t y and h o p e , and
a c q u i e s c e n c e t o the o n e that h a d given t h e m n e i t h e r , b u t was pres
e n t l y s e e k i n g t o d e n y t h e m t h e little t h e y h a d . T h e s c e n e s o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n w e r e t h o s e o f e v e r y d a y life a n d i n v o l v e d b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , e x p l a i n i n g w h y the a u t h o r d e v o t e s s o m u c h o f the letter's b o d y t o t h e m ( 2 . 1 1 — 4 . 6 ) . O n c e i n f e c t e d b y mistrust o r d i n a r y relationships c o u l d d e v e l o p explosive p o t e n t i a l . T o c o p e the a u t h o r advised that t h e y m a k e a c o n c e r t e d to e m b o d y
positive c o n d u c t
through which
effort
their intentions w o u l d b e
m a d e u n m i s t a k a b l y c l e a r , a n d i f t h e y s u f f e r e d a n y h o w , t h e n at least t h e y could count on God's support
5 3
.
B u t i f t h e p a s t o r a l t h r u s t o f t h e l e t t e r h e r e is f a i r l y e v i d e n t , t h e r e is o n e p a r t i c u l a r issue a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it w h i c h has b e e n a s t o r m - c e n t r e , n a m e l y t h e r o l e o f t h e S t a t e . U n t i l r e c e n t l y this w a s t y p i c a l l y c o n c e i v e d o f in t e r m s o f a n I m p e r i a l p e r s e c u t i o n , w h e t h e r d i r e c t l y , as i n t h e c a s e o f N e r o a n d D o m i t i a n , o r i n d i r e c t l y , as in t h e c a s e o f P l i n y w h o m i g h t b e representative o f the w a y governors a c t e d
5 4
. T h e alarm rapidly sweeping
Christian c o m m u n i t i e s was s u p p o s e d t o b e better e x p l a i n e d t h r o u g h s o m e s o r t o f c e n t r a l i z e d i n i t i a t i v e , a n d B e a r e a n d K n o x r e f i n e d this v i e w b y o b s e r v i n g t h a t P l i n y ' s i n t e r r o g a t i o n d i s c o v e r e d an e t h i c a l c o d e s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f I Peter ( e s p . 4 . 1 5 ) , suggesting the letter h a d b e e n sent in 5 5
response t o that specific c r i s i s .
5 2 W h a t Christians were d o i n g was c o n t r a r y t o the Hellenistic spirit (see G o p p e l t , 5 8 — 6 0 ) . A s a precursor t o the Christian e x p e r i e n c e see E . M . Small w o o d , Jews, 427
for J u d a i s m ' s conflict
M u l l e n , Christianizing, 5 3 It is w o r t h w h i l e
1 3 9 — 4 3 , 2 2 0 — 5 5 , and 356—
w i t h H e l l e n i s m . See also the i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s b y R . M a c -
p a s s i m , S. B e n k o , Pagan,
passim, a n d R . W i l k e n , Christians,
passim.
t o n o t e t h a t the author's 'survival' ethic springs f r o m the t i m e - h o n o u r e d in
struction in the 'virtues a n d vices' o f c o m m o n life. S o , the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e m e r g e n c y ( 4 . 7 ) has in n o w a y c o m p r o m i s e d the practicality o f this ethic, instead, the e x a m p l e o f Christ has radical ized
it.
See, for e x a m p l e , E . G . Selwyn, 'Eschatology', 3 9 4 — 4 0 1 , L. G o p p e l t ,
'Sozialethik',
2 8 5 - 9 6 , D . Hill, 'Suffering', 1 8 1 - 9 , a n d R . Russell, ' E s c h a t o l o g y ' , 7 8 - 8 4 . T h e p o i n t has n o w b e e n m a d e f o r c e f u l l y b y D . B a l c h , Wives, e s p . his c o n c l u s i o n , 1 0 8 f . 5 4 S o , f o r e x a m p l e , E . T . M a y e r h o f f , R . K n o p f , W . M . R a m s a y , T . S c h o t t , A . Julicher,
F . W . Beare,
J . K n o x , J . D . M c C a u g h e y , K . S c h e l k l e , a n d W . G . K u m m e l . F o r a n e x c e l l e n t r e s u m e of d e b a t e o n the issue o f imperial p e r s e c u t i o n see e s p . A . N . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , 'Persecutions', 7 7 2 — 8 7 , and T . D . Barnes, 'Legislation', 3 2 — 5 0 . T a c i t u s ' a c c o u n t o f N e r o ' s p e r s e c u t i o n leaves little r o o m t o w o n d e r w h a t his a p p r o a c h t o Christians w o u l d have b e e n w h e n he w a s g o v e r n o r o f A s i a in A . D . 1 1 2 (Ann.
xv. 4 4 ) .
5 5 Beare, 3 3 , e x p a n d e d u p o n refined
it further.
Pliny says Adfirmabant soliti
stato
die ante
the
observation b y J . W . C . W a n d , 1 5 , and K n o x , 'Note',
See also A . R . C . autem
lucem
hanc
convenire,
27ff.
fuisse
essent
summam
carmenque
Christo
culpae
suae
vel
quasi deo dicere ne latrociania
secum
quod invicem
ne adulteria
seque
in scelus
terent,
(Ep.
9 6 . 7 ) . T h e series o f crimes is e s p . a p p o s i t e t o I Pet. 4 . 1 5 f . , a n d so m a y b e the
to 3 . 2 1 .
sed ne furta
erroris,
non
etc.
obstringere,
vel
sacramento
sacrementum
aliquod
187—9
Leaney, 8—10, and J . D . McCaughey, 'Documents,
commit-
The Setting of I Peter Nevertheless,
difficulties
13
f o r the h y p o t h e s i s o f 'official' p e r s e c u t i o n
have steadily m o u n t e d over the years and n o w seem t o b e carrying the day
5 6
. F o r e x a m p l e , n o f i r m e v i d e n c e e x i s t s f o r a n y b r o a d i m p e r i a l initia
t i v e b e f o r e t h e D e c i a n p e r s e c u t i o n ( A . D . 2 5 0 ) . T h e r e is n o t a n g i b l e e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o s e N e r o ' s a c t i o n e x t e n d e d b e y o n d t h e g a t e s o f R o m e , n o r is it j u s t i f i a b l e t o m a g n i f y t h e m i n u t e e v i d e n c e f o r D o m i t i a n i c a c t i o n s t o t h e r e q u i r e d s i z e . P l i n y ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a c t u a l l y tells a g a i n s t a n y w i d e l y v a l i d l a w , b e c a u s e it w o u l d h a v e b e l o n g e d t o his m a n d a t e , o r w o u l d h a v e b e e n i s s u e d a f t e r w a r d s b y T r a j a n , s u c h as t o r e n d e r t h e i r failure t o m e n t i o n it a serious breach o f c o n v e n t i o n
5 7
. N e i t h e r is t h e a u t h o r ' s a d v i c e c o m p a t i b l e
w i t h P l i n y ' s a c t i o n , w h a t e v e r its f o u n d a t i o n , s i n c e c o n f e s s i o n o f t h e n a m e sufficed f o r sentencing, whereas the author holds o u t for the possibility o f 5 8
exoneration .
C l e a r l y , t h e exempla
proconsulum
Pliny was obliged
f o l l o w w e r e i n f l e x i b l e o n this p o i n t , a n d T r a j a n a p p r o v e d his a c t i o n Additional objections may be listed 1) legislation
at
hinterlands 2)
Ulpian's
to
.
:
R o m e against undesirable religions
w a s ordinarily l i m i t e d t o the c i t y a n d
6 1
collection
of
imperial measures against
d e s c r i b e d b y L a c t a n t i u s as rescripta, early
6 0
5 9
Principate
Christianity, p r o b a b l y e x h a u s t i v e ,
was
a n d c o u l d n o t have t h e f o r c e of universal l a w in the
6 2
5 6 S o , for e x a m p l e , J . E . H u t h e r , F . J . A . H o r t , C . Bigg, E . G . S e l w y n , C . F . D . M o u l e , C . E . B . Cranfield, W . C . van U n n i k , E . B e s t , J . N . D . K e l l y , J . A . T . R o b i n s o n , J . H . E l l i o t t , a n d N . B r o x , a n d m a n y o t h e r s . It is t o b e a c k n o w l e d g e d that s o m e earlier p r o p o n e n t s o f this p o s i t i o n d i d n o t a l w a y s distinguish clearly a m o n g a c t i o n s giving e x p r e s s i o n t o imperial p o l i c y a n d a c t i o n s o f a w h o l l y i n d e p e n d e n t nature b y local o r regional officials. 5 7 A m o n g the vast n u m b e r s o f earlier a n d later studies o f the persecutions that b y W . H . C . F r e n d , Martyrdom, Barnard,
is o u t s t a n d i n g . H e argues this p o s i t i o n a t length a n d in detail. A c c o r d i n g t o L . W . 'Domitian', 2 5 1 — 6 0 ,
there
m a y b e s o m e reliable e v i d e n c e f o r D o m i t i a n i c
actions
against Christians, whereas a c c o r d i n g t o P. Prigent, ' L ' A p o c a l y p s e I', 4 5 5 — 8 3 , these were m o r e likely t o have b e e n sporadic a n d short-lived, perhaps l i m i t e d t o individuals. N o t e v e n this m u c h reliable Redating,
evidence
is available f o r a N e r o n i c p e r s e c u t i o n in the provinces. B u t c p . R o b i n s o n ,
1 5 6 f . F o r the standard practice o f referral t o m a n d a t e s , e t c . see e s p . G . E . M . de Ste
C r o i x , 'Persecuted', 2 2 2 . 5 8 See J . A . T . R o b i n s o n , ' R e d a t i n g ' , 1 5 3 - 4 . 5 9 See A . N . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Law,
1 5 a n d 1 9 , a n d de Ste C r o i x , 'Persecuted*, 2 2 2 , f o r Pliny's obli
g a t i o n t o f o l l o w p r e c e d e n t . See also R . Freudenberger, Verhalten, 6 0 T h e first a r g u m e n t is Frend's Martyrdom,
ad l o c .
7 7 — 9 3 , r e m a r k i n g that outside o f R o m e great tolera
t i o n w a s s h o w n foreign cults w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f the D u i d s ( 8 0 , n. 3 0 ) . T h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t is de Ste C r o i x ' s , 2 2 3 . T h e rest are S h e r w i n - W h i t e ' s , 'Persecutions', 7 7 4 . 6 1 'Police a c t i o n s ' w e r e first p r o p o s e d b y T . M o m m s e n , b y m a n y , for e x a m p l e E . G . H a r d y , Christianity,
'Religonsfrevel',
c o l s . 1 2 2 1 — 4 . B u t as S h e r w i n - W h i t e says, ' T h e sphere o f animadversio de piano,
was
390—429,
and adopted
5 4 f f . See the r e f i n e m e n t s b y H . L a s t , RAC,
m u c h m o r e limited t h a n the older e x p o s i t i o n s o f coercitio
II,
w i t h o u t f o r m a l trial, or a l l o w ' ('Persecutions',
7 7 7 a n d n. 6 ) . O n l y m i n o r infractions c o u l d be dealt w i t h s u m m a r i l y , as is clear f r o m Ulpian's s t a t e m e n t in the Digest, oportet
et vel liverare
X L V I I I . 2 . 6 , Levia
eos,
quibus
( t e x t in T . M o m m s e n , Corpus).
obiciuntur,
crimina
audire
vel fustibus
et discutere castigare
de piano
vel flagellis
servos
proconsulem verberare
F o r others see de Ste C r o i x , 'Persecuted', 2 1 9 , n. 4 8 . W h a t is
in v i e w is the practice in the provinces, w h i c h differed in w a y s f r o m that o f the city o f R o m e itself. 6 2 See his 'Persecuted', 2 2 0 .
The Setting of I Peter
14 3)
the persecutions o f the first t w o centuries are t o o sporadic t o s u p p o s e a w i d e l y e n f o r c e a b l e l a w w a s o n the b o o k s
4) 5)
the A p o l o g i s t s m a k e m u c h o f the fact that s o m e e m p e r o r s did n o t s u p p o r t p e r s e c u t i o n n o t the slightest hint can b e f o u n d in T a c i t u s or S u e t o n i u s o f such a l a w or o f a general persecution.
Y e t this a r g u m e n t is a l s o v a l i d against t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f ' u n o f f i c i a l ' , o r p u r e l y private p e r s e c u t i o n , t o the e x t e n t that references in I Peter easily c o n s t r u e d in t e r m s o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e t y p i c a l l y b e e n dis counted
6 3
. F e w N T interpreters have considered the possibility o f routine 6 4
c r i m i n a l p r o s e c u t i o n . Y e t this w o u l d h a v e b e e n p r e f e r a b l e f o r e n e m i e s o f Christians t o taking the l a w i n t o their o w n hands (see A c t s P r o c e d u r e cognito
extra
ordinem
19.38f.).
w a s i d e a l l y s u i t e d f o r s u c h a c t i o n , re
quiring n o formal statutory regulation, a c c o m m o d a t i n g freely f o r m u l a t e d charges, and leaving t o the g o v e r n o r the discretion t o entertain t h e m , h o w to proceed, whether to sentence, and h o w
6 5
. M o s t significantly, the State 6 6
c o u l d n o t initiate the p r o c e e d i n g s , o n l y private i n d i v i d u a l s . Christians, l i k e a n y o n e e l s e , t h e r e f o r e , a l w a y s r a n t h e risk o f b e i n g a c c u s e d , a n d w h a t m a t t e r e d w a s w h e t h e r t h e g o v e r n o r s t o o k n o t i c e , e t c . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n to
suppose
they
would
not
whenever
a n t a g o n i s m against
Christians
6 7
endangered the peace and order o f the p r o v i n c e .
6 3 T h e p o s i t i o n that prevails a m o n g the c o m m e n t a t o r s . T y p i c a l is the r e m a r k b y S p i c q , 'II n'est p o i n t b e s o i n d'un decret imperial p o u r bannir u n h o m m e , aneantir u n e famille o u u n g r o u p e , une simple m e s u r e de p o l i c e suffit'.
In f a c t , m a j o r repressions h a d t o b e c o n d u c t e d b y d u e
process t o be a c c e p t a b l e . 6 4 A m o n g r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s K e l l y , 2 8 — 9 , evidences the surest grasp o f the p r o b l e m , observ ing that the p r o c e d u r e 'was n o t inquisitorial b u t accusatorial* a n d t h a t t h r o u g h it 'provincial governors w e r e exercising coercitio,
i.e. their ordinary responsibility for e n f o r c i n g p u b l i c order
at their o w n discretion, w i t h o u t reliance o n specific legislation'. B u t he uses the i n f o r m a t i o n in his r e m a r k s o n the nature o f the early p e r s e c u t i o n s , a n d n o t in his c o m m e n t a r y o n I Pet. 2 . 1 4 a n d the role o f the provincial g o v e r n o r it describes! E . L o h s e , Formation, I Peter reflects p r o c e d u r e cognitio,
2 1 1 , simply assumes
b u t w i t h o u t a r g u m e n t . M o r e precise t r e a t m e n t s than these
d o n o t a p p e a r to have b e e n f o r t h c o m i n g . 6 5 See esp. t h e discussion b y S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Law,
1 - 2 3 , a b o v e all the c o n c l u s i o n , 2 2 f . F o r p r o
vincial criminal a d m i n i s t r a t i o n see also A . H . M . J o n e s , Courts,
98—118.
6 6 T h i s is the sense in w h i c h in K e l l y ' s w o r d s ( n . 6 3 a b o v e ) cognitio accusatorial'. Textbook,
F o r a detailed
description
of
the
'was n o t inquisitorial b u t
A u g u s t i n i a n i n n o v a t i o n see J . A . C . T h o m a s ,
119.
6 7 T h e 'unofficial' p e r s e c u t i o n h y p o t h e s i s has t e n d e d to p l a c e a rather one-sided e m p h a s i s o n the many
private acts
o f aggression r e c o r d e d in A c t s , b u t Paul's e n c o u n t e r w i t h A n n i u s Gallio
( 1 8 . 1 2 — 7 ) w a s in a c c o r d a n c e
with
p r o c e d u r e cognitio
( s o , S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Law,
9 9 f . ) , and
Paul's m i s h a p s at Philippi h a d set h i m o n the w a y to trial b e f o r e the p r o c o n s u l ( s o , SherwinW h i t e , Law,
8 2 f . ) . O f c o u r s e , Paul's e n c o u n t e r s with Felix a n d Festus ( A c t s 2 4 . 2 f f . ) were also
trials in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h cognitio
extra
ordinem.
T h e n , it w o u l d a p p e a r that the S y n o p t i c m a t
erials, M k . 1 3 . 9 — 1 3 a n d pars, indicate that during the Flavian p e r i o d significant n u m b e r s o f Christians were being tried b e f o r e provincial g o v e r n o r s at different t i m e s a n d places (. . . nai erri fiyenovLjv
/cat /faatAe'uw OTadrioeode
tary o n this bit o f tradition
eveKev
ejuou K T \ . ) . A c t s o f t e n reads like a c o m m e n
( s o , 9 . 1 5 — 6 , a deliberate r e m i n i s c e n c e o f this tradition, is then
d e p i c t e d as fulfilled in the vicissitudes o f St. Paul's m i n i s t r y ) . In H e b r e w s , aside f r o m s o m e o b s c u r e references
to confiscation
( f o r a m a j o r o f f e n c e , see O . M i c h e l ,
Hebrder,
256—60,
The Setting of I Peter
15
F r o m t h e h e i g h t e n e d s o c i a l c o n f l i c t p e r m e a t i n g I P e t e r it m i g h t g i v e cause f o r surprise h a d h e failed t o p r o v i d e f o r s u c h an e v e n t u a l i t y . I n d e e d , s u p p o s i n g h e n e v e r h a d w r i t t e n 2 . 1 3 — 7 o r 4 . 1 5 , 3 . 1 3 — 7 is f o r m u l a t e d in s o g e n e r a l a w a y as t o b e v i r t u a l l y i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t it m i g h t n o t a p p l y t o r o u t i n e j u d i c i a l p r o d e c u r e j u s t as it d o e s s i t u a t i o n s . H e n c e , aei,
and
TTCLVTL
TGJ
to countless other everyday (3.15) may be construed to
OLITOVVTL
m e a n w h a t t h e y seem t o m e a n , 'always . . . t o e v e r y o n e w h o asks', and n o e x c e p t i o n s ( s o , K e l l y , 1 4 3 , a n d B r o x , 1 5 9 ) . T h i s is n o t t o say t h e p e r i c o p e c o n t a i n s details w h i c h refer exclusively t o j u d i c i a l p r o c e s s , o r t o d e n y that a n e a r t e c h n i c a l t e r m l i k e anoXojLav
( 3 . 1 5 ) has less f o r m a l u s e s
6 8
. But
t h e r e are d e t a i l s i n 3 . 1 3 — 7 t h a t r e n d e r a n a p p l i c a t i o n t o a f o r e n s i c s e t t i n g especially c o g e n t . G o v e r n o r s w e r e t o attach significance t o the c o n d u c t o f the
accused
(eTOLjiOL aei
under
trial, a n d i n d i c a t i o n s o f fear ( 3 . 1 4 b )
npoq anoXoyiav,
or hesitancy
3 . 1 5 ) m i g h t b e t a k e n as e v i d e n c e o f g u i l t
6 9
.
A n d j u d g i n g f r o m the history o f m a r t y r d o m there was a p r e m i u m o n the s h o w o f 'gentleness and respect' ( 3 . 1 6 ) . T h e calumniators might indeed b e 'shamed'
(3.16)
when
their baseless a c c u s a t i o n s w e r e e x p o s e d , 10
t h e m l i a b l e i n t u r n t o t h e c a p i t a l c h a r g e o f calumnia . 3 . 1 3 — 7 r e a d e f f o r t l e s s l y in t e r m s o f cognitio
leaving
So not only does
extra ordinem,
d o e s it c o n t a i n a n y t h i n g i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h s u c h a p r o c e d u r e
but neither 7 1
.
against M o u l e , 'Purpose', 8 a n d n. 2 ) in 1 0 . 3 2 — 4 , there is a p r o s p e c t o f m a r t y r d o m in 1 2 . 4 , a n d the m e n t i o n o f t h o s e i m p r i s o n e d 1 3 . 3 . Since prison w a s strictly reserved f o r those awaiting a trial ( s o , the OCD, where
certain
sentence. Hevcjv),
5 8 9 a n d 8 7 9 ) , p r o c e d u r e cognitio
imprisoned
is envisaged. It is also in v i e w in R e v . 2 . 1 0
S m y r n e a n Christians m a y e x p e c t their trial t o e n d in the death-
A n d in R e v . 2 0 . 4 the c o m p a n y o f m a r t y r s is said t o have b e e n ' a x e d ' (7re7re\e/aaa peculiarly R e p u b l i c a n institution
in w h i c h a t w i n - h e a d e d a x e w a s u s e d f o r r o u t i n e
e x e c u t i o n s , later superseded in t h e E m p i r e b y a s w o r d , b u t the verb's association w i t h a legal e n f o r c e m e n t persisted. W h a t e v e r private hostilities Christians m a y have suffered, as far as the Seer w a s c o n c e r n e d , n o m o r e v i o l e n t act s e e m s t o have b e e n w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g . O t h e r possi bilities include the 'courts' (npiT-qpia) their will
on
w h e r e , a c c o r d i n g to J a m e s 2 . 6 — 7 , the rich can i m p o s e
Christians, a n d , Paul's c o m p a r i s o n o f the sufferings o f M a c e d o n i a n Christians
(I T h e s s . 2 . 1 4 f . , 4 . 1 3 f . , H T h e s s . 1 . 4 , II C o r . 8 . 1 - 2 , Phil. 1 . 2 8 - 9 ) w i t h the a u t h o r i z e d persecu tions he h i m s e l f h e l p e d carry o u t in Syro-Palestine. F o r t h e extra-canonical e v i d e n c e in a d d i t i o n t o Pliny's letter a n d Trajan's rescript, see F r e n d , Martyrdom,
1 3 8 f . , citing the trials o f Ignatius
(c. A . D . 1 0 7 ) , S y m e o n b e n C l o p a s (c. A . D . 1 0 7 ) , a n d R a b b i Eliezer o f L y d d a ( c . A . D . 1 0 0 - 1 0 ) . A n d f o r Z o s i m u s a n d R u f u s w h o are in chains f o r their Christianity o n their w a y t o R o m e w i t h Ignatius, see W . R . S c h o e d e l , Fathers,
V , 2 8 f . See also Frend's discussion o f the s o m e w h a t gar
b l e d rescript o f Hadrian (c. A . D . 1 2 4 ) , 1 6 8 — 9 a n d n o t e s . 6 8 S o , K e l l y , 1 4 3 , a n d B e s t , 1 3 4 , w h i l e I C o r . 9 . 3 a n d II C o r . 7 . 1 1 are o f t e n cited. 6 9 S o , J o n e s , Courts,
1 1 4 , a n d f o r the i m p o r t a n c e o f p r o j e c t i n g a n i n n o c e n t attitude w h i c h cor
r e s p o n d s t o genuine blamelessness see C . A . Pierce, Conscience, 7 0 F o r the risks see F r e n d , Martyrdom, Similarly, S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Law,
9 7 . Similarly, B e a r e , 1 6 5 .
1 6 9 a n d n n . 5 4 a n d 5 6 . See J o n e s , Courts,
1 1 8 a n d n. 2 1 3 .
1 1 3 f . , w h o explains the practice as a deterrent against v e x a t i o u s
p r o s e c u t i o n , a tactic resorted t o o f t e n e n o u g h , it seems, a n d m a y b e reflected b y I Peter. 7 1 K e l l y , 1 4 3 , claims t o see a p r o b l e m in the e x p r e s s i o n \6yov
nepl
rrj? ev buiv e\irl6o<;,
finding
it difficult t o imagine it m i g h t relate t o 'a magistrate's interest a n d p r o c e d u r e ' . H o w e v e r , p r o vincial governors in A c t s clearly d e m o n s t r a t e such an interest, a n d so did Pliny, it being per f e c t l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e in t e r m s o f p r o c e d u r e cognitio
that t h e y w o u l d find such i n f o r m a t i o n
valuable f o r their a p p r o a c h t o a c c u s a t i o n s b e f o r e t h e m . A n y w a y , in I Peter ' h o p e ' is virtually a s y n o n y m f o r w h a t it m e a n s t o b e a Christian ( s o G o p p e l t , 2 3 7 ) .
The Setting of I Peter
16
H o w e v e r , the
author
d i d i n c l u d e 2 . 1 3 — 7 a n d 4 . 1 5 as w e l l , t h e
first
p r o m i n e n t l y at t h e h e a d o f his h o u s e h o l d c o d e , a n d t h e s e c o n d at heart
o f his s u m m a t i o n . T h e first s p e c i f i c a l l y
refers t o the
the
imperium
vested in g o v e r n o r s that qualified t h e m a l o n e t o try cases o f a p o t e n t i a l l y 7 2
c a p i t a l n a t u r e , t h o u g h it h a s b e e n f o r m u l a t e d in a s t e r o t y p e d w a y
. The
i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t s h o w s t h e a u t h o r ' s m a i n c o n c e r n is t o e n c o u r a g e w e l l doing combined
w i t h a v o i d a n c e o f t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s (rtfc. Kaulas,
2.16)
g o v e r n o r s w e r e s e n t s p e c i f i c a l l y t o p u n i s h . A n d , o n c e a g a i n , t h o s e w h o fail t o m a k e t h e i r c h a r g e s s t a n d u p in c o u r t are c e r t a i n l y ' f o o l i s h '
(aypovcop,
7 3
2 . 1 5 ) , as j u s t o b s e r v e d . O n this v i e w 4 . 1 4 — 6 is m e r e l y a m p l i f y i n g f o r t h e s a k e o f c o m p l e t e c l a r i t y o n e o f t h e a u t h o r ' s h i g h e s t p r i o r i t i e s , a n d it s e e m s h i g h l y u n l i k e l y h e s h o u l d h a v e felt c o n s t r a i n e d t o d o s o u n l e s s s o m e C h r i s t i a n s h a d b e e n t r i e d a n d s e n t e n c e d f o r ' m u r d e r , t h e f t , ' a n d var 7 4
i o u s transgressions against the p u b l i c w e l f a r e . A s m a n y o f t h e m already
7 2 B u t Schneider ( 6 4 ) n o t e s that the reference is ' k o n k r e t e r u n d praziser als Paulus in R o m . 1 3 . ' All
provincial governors are i n t e n d e d , including p r o c o n s u l s w h o w e r e technically
b y the Senate (see Beare, S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Law, stereotype
appointed
1 4 2 , B e s t , 1 1 4 , a n d G o p p e l t , 1 8 5 , n. 3 1 ) . F o r the imperium
4 , the OCD,
see
s.v., a n d , 5 8 9 , ' L a w a n d P r o c e d u r e , R o m a n * , I I I . 8 . F o r the
see esp. W . C . van U n n i k , 'Parallel', 1 9 8 - 2 0 2 , a n d i d e m , ' L o b ' , 3 3 4 - 4 3 . T h e m o s t
c o n c r e t e referent o f the f o r m u l a is nevertheless that o f criminal p r o c e d u r e w h e r e the g o v e r n o r either passed s e n t e n c e o n the a c c u s e d , or 'praised' h i m (ettaivov)
in the sense o f the laudatio
p r o n o u n c e d t o clear the n a m e o f the a c c u s e d (see M o m m s e n , Strafrecht,
he
e s p . 4 4 0 f f . ) . This is
the w a y K n o p f ( 1 0 7 ) a n d Schelkle ( 7 4 ) c o n s t r u e 2 . 1 4 , a n d Best ( 1 1 4 ) a c c e p t s it as a p o s s i b i l i t y . O t h e r c o n c r e t e referents w o u l d include the h o n o u r s governors b e s t o w e d o n p h i l a n t h r o p i c ges tures, a practice especially w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d f o r A s i a M i n o r ( S p i c q , 1 0 3 , a n d G o p p e l t , 1 8 5 ) . Y e t K e l l y ( 1 0 9 ) realizes that the e c o n o m i c status o f m o s t o f the addressees c o u l d n o t s u p p o r t such a c t i o n . F o r the relationship w i t h R o m . 1 3 . I f f . see A . S t r o b e l , ' V e r s t a n d n i s ' , 8 1 f.,
G . Del-
ling, ' R o m e r , e s p . 4 9 — 5 6 , a n d H . G o l d s t e i n , 'Paranesen', 8 8 f f . 7 3 C p . the V u l g a t e to Prv. 2 6 . 1 0 iudicium
determinat
causas
et qui imponit
stulto
silentium
iras
mitigat. 7 4 T h e r e has b e e n m u c h dispute as t o t h e n a t u r e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f the list o f o f f e n c e s in 4 . 1 5 f . N o o n e c o n t e s t s that the first t w o d e n o t e criminals. T h e third, KaKonouo^, m a y d e n o t e 'sorcerer' (see MM,
3 1 7 , a n d G o p p e l t ' s discussion o f a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e o n p . 3 0 8 , n. 3 6 ) , or as in 2 . 1 2 ,
the p e r f o r m e r o f socially u n a c c e p t a b l e c o n d u c t generally, including specific criminal acts ( s o , B e s t , 1 6 4 ) . B u t if
the a u t h o r ' s usage
of this rare t e r m is t o b e given p r i o r i t y , then w h e n it
occurs in a forensic c o n t e x t as it d o e s in 2 . 1 4 , d e n o t i n g the kind o f m a j o r crime for w h i c h provincial g o v e r n o r s h a d t h e imperium
t o p u n i s h , it p r o b a b l y d e n o t e s a perpetrator o f crimi
nal a c t s , a n d n o t s i m p l y a sorcerer ( b u t see J . B . Bauer, 'Maleficus', 1 0 9 f f . ) . Since KCLKonotoq ( 4 . 1 5 ) is third in a succession o f criminally culpable o f f e n d e r s , it is m o r e likely t o bear a similar d e n o t a t i o n , t h a n a l i m i t e d o n e . F o u r t h o n the list is aWorp
tenia KOITOS, the o c c a s i o n o f m u c h
c o n j e c t u r e . T h e m e a n i n g derived e t y m o l o g i c a l l y m a y b e preferred, 'one w h o m e d d l e s in a n o t h er's affairs' ( s o K e l l y , 1 8 9 ; f o r a c o n s p e c t u s o f o t h e r possibilities see H . W . B e y e r , TDNT, 6 2 0 — 2 , a n d , PGL,
II,
7 7 ) . W h e r e a s B e s t , 1 6 4 f . , finds it difficult t o a c c e p t a criminal d e n o t a t i o n
for a t e r m a p t l y descriptive o f t h e e f f e c t s o f missionary zeal 'in the splitting o f families', f o r e x a m p l e , that is e x a c t l y w h a t a n y challenge t o & paterfamilias citation f r o m the Digest,
w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e (see the l e n g t h y
i. 1 6 . 9 b y Bigg, 1 4 0 - 1 , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h p r o c o n s u l s are charged
w i t h e n f o r c i n g the o b e d i e n c e o f children t o parents a n d f r e e d m e n t o p a t r o n s ) . L i k e w i s e , B a l c h , 8 2 . O n e m i g h t h a r d l y h o p e t o find a m o r e illuminating t e x t f o r I Peter, a l t h o u g h Bigg d o e s n o t m e n t i o n it in reference t o 4 . 1 5 w i t h i n w h a t is otherwise a h e l p f u l discussion o f the w i d e range of equally serious transgressions associated w i t h d W o r p c o c ( 1 7 7 — 9 ) . O n his v i e w the list m o v e s
The Setting of I Peter suffered
the disadvantages
c o m m o n t o ndpoiKoi,
17 this is n o t i m p l a u s i b l e .
S o m e m a y have b e e n i n c i t e d t o retaliate, a n d the t e m p t a t i o n might
have
been
o v e r p o w e r i n g , s i n c e t h e i r p o s i t i o n in t h e
f o r slaves household
offered them innumerable opportunities (hence 2.22f. and 3.8f.). W h a t has n o t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y n o t i c e d a b o u t t h e e n v i s a g e d s i t u a t i o n o f I P e t e r is t h a t t h e c o n v i c t i o n o f a m e r e h a n d f u l o f Christians f o r t a n g i b l e offences
might
have had
u n t o l d ramifications f o r the rest. A g o v e r n o r
m i g h t naturally suspect the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y o f a t e n d e n c y t o
flagitia,
b e c a u s e R o m a n legal h i s t o r y w a s e l o q u e n t o n t h e s u b j e c t o f d a n g e r o u s 7 5
cults .
O n c e suspect, t o b e a c c u s e d o f Christianity
along with
other
c h a r g e s in c o u r t c o u l d translate i n t o s e r i o u s l e g a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , s u c h t h a t a d e v e l o p m e n t o n this o r d e r m i g h t w e l l h a v e s w e p t C h r i s t i a n s
in
these
n e i g h b o u r i n g p r o v i n c e s w i t h d r e a d . T h e r e is n o n e e d t o p o s t u l a t e a c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e nomen f r o m flagitia
ipsum m u s t a l r e a d y s u f f i c e f o r p u n i s h m e n t a p a r t
cohaerentia
nomini.
It
w o u l d have been e n o u g h for any
governor simply to believe a correlation might exist. I n b r i e f , it s e e m s t h a t i n n o c e n t Christians w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o p a y f o r t h e sins o f a f e w , w h e t h e r in o r o u t o f c o u r t , a n d , t h a t s u c h a v i e w d o e s n o t c o m p r o m i s e for a m o m e n t the t h e o r y o f 'unofficial' p e r s e c u t i o n . Regarding the letter's date, to a c c e p t the p s e u d o n y m means a l o w e r l i m i t c a n b e set ca. A . D . 7 0 . B u t b e c a u s e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f C h r i s t i a n s t o s o c i e t y has d e t e r i o r a t e d t o t h e d e g r e e it h a s ( 5 . 9 ) , at least a d e c a d e m a y b e r e a s o n a b l y a s s u m e d t o h a v e e l a p s e d . T h e u p w a r d l i m i t is f i x e d b y 1 ) t h e r e f e r e n c e in II P e t . 3.1 t o I P e t e r , p r e s u m a b l y , 2 ) a l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e o n P o l y c a r p ' s l e t t e r ( c p . 1.3 a n d 1 0 . 2 w i t h I P e t . 1.8 a n d 2 . 1 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d , 3 ) E u s e b i u s ' s t a t e m e n t t h a t Papias u s e d it (Hist. III. 3 9 . 1 7 ) , s o t h a t m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s c o n f i d e n t l y d a t e it s o m e t w o d e c a d e s earlier, o r A . D . 1 1 0 ( s e e B e a r e , B e s t , a n d K u m m e l , Introduction,
a d l o c ) . H o w e v e r , as
t h e l e g a l p r e c e d e n t s P l i n y f o l l o w e d w e r e a l r e a d y in p l a c e b y t h e n , a n d in l i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m R e v e l a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y , it m a y b e s a f e l y l o w e r e d at least t o A . D . 1 0 0
7 6
. Thus a D o m i t i a n i c dating m a y have m o r e to c o m
m e n d itself than a n y o t h e r . T h e p r e c e d i n g discussion m a y b e b r o u g h t to a close. I Peter seems t o b e a p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c e n c y c l i c a l w r i t t e n at R o m e at t h e t i m e o f D o m i t i a n intended
for a m o s t l y Gentile lower-class m e m b e r s h i p scattered
among
f r o m the specific t o the general. T h e third and fourth items c o u l d e v e n represent the a u t h o r ' s a t t e m p t t o e p i t o m i z e the sorts o f freely f o r m u l a t e d charges w i t h w h i c h p r o c e d u r e cognitio initiated. T h e r e f o r e ,
so c o u l d the fifth i t e m , XptoTuivoq,
was
w h i c h w o u l d n o t have n e e d e d a n y
specific f o u n d a t i o n in l a w , a f a c t o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d b y supporters o f the 'unofficial' p e r s e c u t i o n h y p o t h e s i s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , as M o u l e argues, Birth,
1 6 3 , it is q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r the parallel
w i t h the f o u r preceding i t e m s m a y be pressed that far. 7 5 F o r the original s t a t e m e n t of this thesis see H . Last, 'Persecutions', 8 0 — 9 2 , a n d its magisterial development by
F r e n d , Martyrdom,
7 7 — 9 3 . R o m e a c t e d against the Bacchanals,
Isis-worship-
pers, Chaldean astrologers, a n d J e w s . See esp. the discussion b y R . M a c M u l l e n , Enemies, N e r o ' s initiative against the Christians is t o b e interpreted w i t h i n this b o d y of p r e c e d e n t s . 7 6 S e e , for e x a m p l e , the a r g u m e n t s b y M o u l e , Birth,
1 6 2 f . , a n d R o b i n s o n , Redating,
153f.
128ff.
The Setting of I Peter
18
t h e A n a t o l i a n c i t i e s w e s t o f t h e T a u r u s . In c o n t e n t it is a p a s t o r a l ad dressed t o a c o n c r e t e e m e r g e n c y .
Some
o f the hardships b e i n g visited
u p o n C h r i s t i a n s are o f their o w n m a k i n g , a n d in o r d e r t o t u r n t h e situa tion a r o u n d a higher m o r a l standard a m o n g t h e m must b e e n f o r c e d . It s o h a p p e n s t h e s e
c o n c l u s i o n s raise f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s in t h e l i g h t o f
w h a t has a l r e a d y b e e n said a b o u t t h e u s e o f t h e O T in t h e l e t t e r , f o r i n s t a n c e . It is n o t c l e a r w h y S c r i p t u r e s h o u l d p l a y
such an i m p o r t a n t
part in a message t o n o n - J e w s , m a n y o f w h o m m a y have b e e n recent c o n v e r t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , this is a q u e s t i o n o f f u n d a m e n t a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c . It m e a n s t h e a c t u a l e x t e n t o f O T u s a g e m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d , a task t a k e n u p in t h e c h a p t e r that f o l l o w s . A n o t h e r q u e s t i o n raised c o n c e r n s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d o c u m e n t itself, b e c a u s e t o i d e n t i f y it as an e n c y c l i c a l is o n l y t h e first s t e p in t h e p r o c e s s o f l o c a t i n g First P e t e r w i t h i n t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . S i n c e t h e q u e s t i o n is p a r t i c u larly urgent
f o r a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h o w t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c has
c o m e t o e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e l e t t e r t h e w a y it h a s , this p r o b l e m t o o m u s t b e taken u p i m m e d i a t e l y . T h e n again, the device o f a p s e u d o n y m m a y i n d e e d c o n c e a l a d i f f i c u l t y , n a m e l y , t h e a u t h o r ' s t r u e i d e n t i t y , his c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d a n d e d u c a t i o n . W h e t h e r h e c a n b e c o n f i d e n t l y a s s i g n e d a p l a c e in a P a u l i n e o r P e t r i n e c i r c l e , is p e r h a p s s o p r o b l e m a t i c t h a t o t h e r c o n s i d e r a 7 7
t i o n s m u s t b e g i v e n p r e c e d e n c e in an e f f o r t t o c l a r i f y his h e r m e n e u t i c . T h e c h a p t e r f o l l o w i n g s p e a k s t o this p r o b l e m as w e l l .
7 7 Still h o l d i n g o u t for a Pauline and H . K o s t e r , Introduction, B r o w n , Antioch,
s c h o o l , for e x a m p l e , are H . G o l d s t e i n , Gemeinde,
II, 2 9 2 . F o r a Petrine s c h o o l see E l l i o t t , Home,
1 2 8 — 3 0 , a n d i d e m , Churches,
esp.
104f.,
2 7 0 f f . , and R . E .
7 5 f f . T h e evidence is such as t o scarcely c o m p e l
o n e to c h o o s e b e t w e e n t h e m . It is safer to s u p p o s e that I Peter was either f u n d e d b y the s a m e early Christian s o u r c e as these 'schools', or b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e m b o t h in s o m e sense.
Chapter Three
A Literary Analysis T h e d i s c u s s i o n b e l o w a d d r e s s e s several o f t h e q u e s t i o n s raised in t h e previous inform author's
c h a p t e r , especially the generic and c o m p o s i t i o n a l elements that
t h e l e t t e r ' s d e s i g n , the d e g r e e o f d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e O T , a n d t h e identity.
Whereas the
s o r t o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n n e e d e d is l a r g e l y a
d e s c r i p t i v e o n e , t h e r e are d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h c o m p l i c a t e t h e e x e c u t i o n o f this t a s k . B e c a u s e t h e S c r i p t u r e s r e p r e s e n t
but a p o r t i o n o f the letter's
f o r m a l s o u r c e s , oral a n d w r i t t e n , t o a p p r o a c h t h e m in i s o l a t i o n f r o m
the
rest w o u l d b e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y u n s o u n d . N o t o n l y w o u l d it b e a r b i t r a r y , b u t in t h a t c a s e it w o u l d a l s o b e i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y f o r c e r t a i n w h e t h e r a n y distinctive relationship exists w i t h the Scriptures that d o e s n o t exist w i t h a n y o t h e r s o u r c e s . T h u s the literary-critical analysis that f o l l o w s seeks t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t , as far as s p a c e p e r m i t s , t h e e n t i r e c o m p l e x o f l i t e r a r y f a c t o r s b e a r i n g o n t h e a u t h o r ' s u s e o f f o r m a l s o u r c e s s o as t o o f f e r a f i r m foundation
f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f his h e r m e n e u t i c in t h e last p a r t o f
the investigation. F o r t h e s a k e o f c o n v e n i e n c e the d i s c u s s i o n has b e e n d i v i d e d i n t o s i x phases:
1) genre and c o m p o s i t i o n a l m e t h o d , 2 ) non-biblical s o u r c e s , 3)
b i b l i c a l s o u r c e s , 4 ) t h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 in p a r t i c u l a r , 5 ) a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e letter's integrated
source-materials, and, 6 ) a s u m m a r y w i t h further o b
servations.
1. G e n e r i c a n d C o m p o s i t i o n a l E l e m e n t s B e c a u s e I P e t e r i t s e l f is l a d e n t h r o u g h o u t w i t h s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s , e v e n the
literary
f a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r its o r g a n i z a t i o n b e c o m e r e l e v a n t
to
t h e task o f c l a r i f y i n g its d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e m . T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t h a r d l y any
attention
has b e e n p a i d t o its g e n e r i c f e a t u r e s , a n d n o m o r e t h a n
s p o t t y a t t e n t i o n has b e e n p a i d t o the r e m a i n i n g c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s 1
its a u t h o r u s e d . S u c h n e g l e c t is p e r h a p s n o t r e a l l y surprising, f o r t h e e a r l y
1 W . G . D o t y all b u t ignored duction
I Peter in w h a t was until very recently
to the early Christian letter [Letters,
t i o n t o I Peter see n o w K . Berger, ' G a t t u n g e n ' , 'Tradition',
182-82.
For c o m p o s i t i o n a l
the m o s t extensive intro
7 0 ) . For a fuller discussion with m i n o r atten 1 0 3 1 - 8 5 , esp.
1326-78.
See also N . B r o x ,
t e c h n i q u e s in I Peter see W . J . D a l t o n , Spirits,
8 3 , M . - A . Chevallier, 'Structure', 1 2 9 - 4 2 , a n d D . L . B a l c h , Wives,
74—
1 2 3 f f . T h e studies b y D a l t o n
A Literary Analysis
20
C h r i s t i a n l e t t e r t r a d i t i o n as a w h o l e h a s b e e n s u b j e c t e d t o r a t h e r s p o r a d i c t r e a t m e n t , a n d o n l y in r e c e n t d e c a d e s h a s it b e e n r e c e i v i n g t h e m o r e sus 2
t a i n e d s t u d y it m e r i t s . M o r e o v e r , w h a t d i s c u s s i o n has t r a n s p i r e d has b e e n l i m i t e d l a r g e l y t o t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r , w h i c h is n o t t o o great a h a n d i c a p , s i n c e Paul i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l e t t e r m o r e t h a n a n y o n e e l s e , b u t it d o e s m e a n t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r m u s t serve in t h e 3
p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e as t h e b a s i s f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h I P e t e r . D e i s s m a n n e s t a b l i s h e d l o n g a g o t h a t t h e ( a u t h e n t i c ) P a u l i n e l e t t e r is not
a treatise
d i s g u i s e d as p e r s o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , a n epistula
in t h e
strict s e n s e , d e s p i t e its a p p r o x i m a t i o n in p l a c e s t o t h e e s s a y - f o r m , b e c a u s e 4
it w a s a l w a y s a d d r e s s e d t o s p e c i f i c p e r s o n s , l o c a t i o n s , a n d
conditions .
B u t s u b s e q u e n t r e s e a r c h has s h o w n t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r is n o t , as D e i s s m a n n s u p p o s e d , a m e r e m u t a t i o n o f the private letter typically used t o c o n d u c t b u s i n e s s , f a c i l i t a t e travel, o b t a i n p e r s o n a l a d v a n t a g e , c u l t i v a t e f r i e n d s h i p , 5
a n d t h e l i k e , a l t h o u g h Paul p u t it t o all t h e s e u s e s a n d m o r e . A t t h e v e r y least J e w i s h e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e h a s t o b e a l l o w e d s o m e r o l e w i t h i n t h e s t o r y , in as m u c h as t h e r e is e v i d e n c e h e w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h s u c h activity a n d n o o t h e r c l o s e r a n t e c e d e n t has b e e n a d d u c e d f o r the k i n d o f official,
and
ministerial c o m m u n i c a t i o n
Chevallier are seriously
his l e t t e r s
6
convey .
It is t h e r e f o r e
i n c o m p l e t e , d e v o t i n g m o s t o f their a t t e n t i o n t o 1 . 1 — 2 . 1 0 , less
t o 4 . 1 2 — 5 . 1 1 , and h a r d l y a n y t o 2 . 1 1 — 4 . 1 1 . T h e r e is a t e n d e n c y at t i m e s t o f o r c e the material t o o b t a i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s w h i c h are q u e s t i o n a b l e . B e t t e r is the w o r k b y Balch w h o
follows
their lead, b u t is m o r e t h o r o u g h a n d detailed in his a p p r o a c h . H o w e v e r , even h e leaves m u c h o f the data u n e x a m i n e d , n o r d o e s he a t t e m p t t o assess the t e c h n i q u e s for m o r e than w h a t t h e y m i g h t have t o tell relative t o the letter's overall design. It h a p p e n s r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s have b y a n d large o v e r l o o k e d these literary critical analyses. K e l l y is a n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n . 2 A m o n g earlier studies
A . D e i s s m a n n , Studies,
F. Z i e m a n n , Epistolarum, M o r e recently
see
3 — 5 9 , P. W e n d l a n d , Literaturformen,
p a s s i m , F . X . J . E x l e r , Form,
studies
by
339ff.,
p a s s i m , a n d O . R o l l e r , Formular,
H . K o s k e n n i e m i , Studien,
p a s s i m , J . T . Sanders,
passim.
'Transition',
3 4 8 - 6 2 , T . Y . M u l l i n s , 'Disclosure', 4 4 - 5 0 , i d e m , 'Petition', 4 6 - 5 4 , i d e m , 'Greeting', 4 1 8 - 2 6 , C . A n d r e s e n , ' F o r m u l a r ' , 2 3 3 - 5 9 , e s p . 2 4 3 , G . H . Bahr, 'Paul', 4 6 5 - 7 7 , i d e m , 'Subscriptions', 2 7 - 4 1 , R . W . F u n k , Language,
2 5 0 - 7 4 , i d e m , 'Parousia', 2 4 9 - 6 8 , B . R i g a u x , Letters,
F . O . Francis, ' F o r m ' , 1 1 0 — 2 6 , K . T h r a e d e , Brieftopik, 1 7 9 — 9 6 , J . L . W h i t e , Body, 'Apostelbrief,
190-231,
R o e t z e l , Letters,
p a s s i m , M . R . Stirewalt,
passim, i d e m , Petit ion, p a s s i m , C . H . Kim, Familiar, N . A . D a h l , 'Letter',
538-41,
passim,
'Evaluation',
p a s s i m , K . Berger,
D . Pardee, Handbook,
passim, C.J.
p a s s i m , a n d , P.S. A l e x a n d e r , 'Epistolary', 5 7 9 — 9 6 . In a d d i t i o n t o the e n c y
c l o p e d i c s t u d y b y K . Berger cited a b o v e , see also n o w J . L . W h i t e , ' E p i s t o l a r y ' , 1 7 5 3 — 5 , f o r the influence o f t h e Pauline letter o n the o p e n i n g a n d closing o f I Peter. 3 F o r Paul's legacy
see
esp. J . M . U s t e r i , Petrusbrief,
a n d A . E . B a r n e t t , Influence, 4 Studies,
3ff.
His distinction
V i e l h a u e r , Literatur, 57ff.
ad l o c , O . D . Foster, Relations,
is still
accepted
with
slight
5 9 , and E . L o h s e , Formation,
H e b r e w s is m o s t
passim,
passim.
often
cited as a N T epistula,
qualifications
b y , f o r e x a m p l e , P.
4 6 . B u t see e s p . A . J . M a l h e r b e , whereas W . G . K i i m m e l ,
Social,
Introduction,
2 4 9 , warns against pressing the distinction t o o far. 5 S o , f o r e x a m p l e , F u n k , Language,
2 5 2 f f . , a n d W h i t e , Body,
68ff. T h e abundant evidence f r o m
the p a p y r i in W h i t e d r a m a t i z e s the e x t e n t t o w h i c h m o s t o f Paul's letters deviate. 6 A c t s 9 . 2 , 2 2 . 5 , and c p . A c t s 1 5 . 2 3 - 9 . F o r further discussion see D o t y , Letters,
2 2 - 3 a n d n. 3 .
C p . Jer. 2 9 . 1 f f . , II M a c e . 1 . 1 — 9 a n d 1 . 1 0 — 2 . 1 8 . F o r J e w i s h precursors see e s p . P.S. A l e x a n d e r , 'Epistolary', 5 7 9 f f .
Generic and Compositional Elements
21
p r e f e r a b l e t o r e g a r d t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r as a c r e a t i v e f u s i o n o f at least sev eral e p i s t o l a r y p r o t o t y p e s , a n a c h i e v e m e n t n o t i m p r o b a b l y t o b e a t t r i b u ted t o Paul h i m s e l f in light o f t h o s e constraints o f the m i s s i o n field w h i c h i n d u c e d h i m t o i n n o v a t e p r a g m a t i c a l l y in m u c h e l s e b e s i d e s . However,
his f r e e d o m
in c o m p o s i t i o n
did n o t make for
haphazard
7
results. H e p r e t t y w e l l s t u c k t o t h e s a m e b a s i c p a t t e r n . O p e n i n g (sender, addressee, greetings) Thanksgiving or Blessing ( o f t e n w i t h intercession a n d / o r eschatological c l i m a x ) B o d y ( i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a e , o f t e n having an eschatological c o n c l u s i o n a n d / o r an indication of future plans) Paraenesis Closing ( f o r m u l a i c b e n e d i c t i o n s and greetings, s o m e t i m e s m e n t i o n o f the writing p r o c e s s ) .
H e n c e it is l e g i t i m a t e t o s p e a k o f t h e g e n r e o f t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r o n t h e strength
o f s o m a n y r e c u r r i n g f e a t u r e s in an a p p a r e n t l y u n p r e c e d e n t e d
c o n f i g u r a t i o n , regardless o f the fact that m o s t o f these w e r e n o t original t o Paul. F o r e x a m p l e , as p e r t a i n s t o t h e o p e n i n g , t h e l e g a c y o f G r e e k a n d O r i e n tal p r e c u r s o r s m a y b e s e e n r i g h t at t h e o u t s e t in t h e b i p a r t i t e f o r m u l a 8
itself t h a t i d e n t i f i e s s e n d e r a n d a d d r e s s e e . S o m e h a v e d e t e c t e d as w e l l t h e H e l l e n i s t i c g r e e t i n g , \aipeiv, On
the
tion
1 0
b e h i n d the prescript's salutation,
9
\apis .
o t h e r h a n d , its p e a c e - s a l u t a t i o n is p r o b a b l y o f O r i e n t a l d e r i v a
. W h e t h e r Paul w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o m b i n i n g t h e m is u n c e r t a i n , b u t
h e a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r e s u m p t i o n w i t h w h i c h h e f o r t h r i g h t l y e x t e n d s a b l e s s i n g f r o m G o d a n d t h e L o r d J e s u s t o his a d d r e s sees
1
1
.
Paul is a l s o i n d e b t e d t o G r e e k a n d J e w i s h p r o t o t y p e s f o r t h e f a c t that t h a n k s g i v i n g a n d b l e s s i n g p e r i o d s m a k e a n y a p p e a r a n c e w h a t e v e r i n his 1 2
l e t t e r s . T h e s e i n c l u d e wishes for g o o d health, entreaties t o the g o d s o n behalf
o n the addressee, a n d references t o acts o f r e m e m b r a n c e , w h i l e
t h e s p e c i f i c f o r m u l a e h e uses t o b e g i n t h e s e p e r i o d s c o m e f r o m J e w i s h l i t u r g y : ebxapiorti
rco #e<£ OTL
K T X . ( e . g . , R o m . 1 . 8 , 1 C o r . 1.4, P h i l , 1 . 3 ) ,
7 A s r e p r o d u c e d f r o m D o t y , 2 7 . F o r similar outlines see P. W e n d l a n d , Literaturformen, F u n k , Language,
2 6 3 f f . , R i g a u x , Letters,
8 S o , for e x a m p l e , K i i m m e l , Introduction, Formation,
ad l o c , a n d R o e t z e l , Letters,
399ff.,
40.
2 4 8 , V i e l h a u e r , Literaturformen,
6 4 — 5 , and Lohse,
47.
9 O p i n i o n is divided, a c c o r d i n g t o D o t y , 2 9 . Berger, ' A p o s t e l b r i e f , 2 0 1 , attributes the preference for x o p i ? solely t o prior liturgical use in b e n e d i c t i o n . B u t these views can be r e c o n c i l e d , since the average recipient c o u l d hardly have failed t o appreciate the deviation f r o m the c o n v e n t i o n a l xalpeiv as a n y t h i n g o t h e r than a play of w o r d s . 1 0 S o , W . Foerster, Handbook,
TDNT,
II, 4 0 8 f f .
F o r the evidence f r o m ancient H e b r e w letters see Pardee,
passim, and see further Berger, ' A p o s t e l b r i e f , 1 9 1 ff., esp. 1 9 2 , n. 1 0 . C p . E z r a 4 . 1 7
and D n . 4 . 1 . 11 A s e m p h a s i z e d b y Berger, 2 0 2 f . 1 2 See already E . L o h m e y e r , 'Grussuberschriften', l o c , D o t y , 3 1 - 3 , G . P . Wiles, Prayers, givings,
1 5 8 — 7 3 , a n d P. S c h u b e r t , Thanksgivings,
2 2 - 4 4 , Roetzel, 3 3 - 4 , and n o w P.T. O'Brien,
passim. E v e n Berger begrudgingly a d m i t s the weight o f t h e evidence ( 2 0 4 ) .
ad
Thanks
22
A Literary Analysis
a n d evXoyrjTds
6 #ed? K T X .
(II C o r . 1 . 3 )
1 3
. After the manner o f Jewish
p s a l m o d y these p e r i o d s also c o n t a i n d o x o l o g i c a l e l e m e n t s , o r e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t s as s u r r o g a t e s
1 4
. O r i g i n a l t o Paul m a y b e a c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c stress o n t h e G o s p e l ' s p r o g r e s s a m o n g h i s a d d r e s s e e s as h i s m a i n m o t i v e f o r thanksgiving rather than o n t h e s t o c k t h e m e o f preservation f r o m h a r m ( W . G . D o t y , Letters,
31).
P a u l ' s h a n d is m o s t c l e a r l y e v i d e n t , h o w e v e r , i n t h e w a y t h e b o d i e s o f his l e t t e r s are c o m p o s e d . L i k e t h e n o n - l i t e r a r y p a p y r i , t h e y a r e t r i p a r t i t e , with a b o d y - o p e n i n g , -middle, a n d -closing, each variety
o f standard
1 5
formulae .
o f which
employs a
W h e r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e a p p e a r s is in t h e
greater c o m p l e x i t y a n d length o f t h e b o d y , necessitating greater care in its o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h u s t h e b o d y - m i d d l e u s u a l l y h a s t w o - p a r t s , t h e first w e l l - e x e c u t e d a n d m o r e t h e o r e t i c a l , t h e s e c o n d less s o a n d m o r e p r a c t i cal
1 6
.
A n o t h e r l i k e l y i n n o v a t i o n o n h i s p a r t is t h e f r e q u e n t u s e o f a n
eschatological p e r i o d t o terminate a p o r t i o n o f a letter's b o d y
1 3 F o r G r e e k f o r m u l a e see e s p . W h i t e , Body,
1 7
. It m a y
8 — 9 , a n d n. 4 . F o r a J e w i s h a d a p t i o n see II M a c e .
1 . 1 1 . F o r the literary f u n c t i o n o f these p e r i o d s in t h e early Christian letter see F . O . Francis, ' F o r m ' , 1 1 Off. F o r t h e H e b r e w f o r m u l a e , . . . H 3 7 I K 1WR
, respectively,
*> 21 7 K
*» D , a n d , . . . m m
| "H 3
in J e w i s h liturgy see J . M . R o b i n s o n , ' H o d a j o t - F o r m e l ' , 1 9 4 f f . F o r the
B e r a c h a - f o r m u l a in II C o r . 1 . 3 , E p h . 1 . 3 , a n d I Pet. 1 . 3 see J . C o u t t s , 'Ephesians', 1 1 5 — 2 7 , esp. 118ff. 1 4 S o , f o r e x a m p l e , R i g a u x , Letters,
1 2 0 f . , a n d Francis, ' F o r m ' , 1 1 Of. D e s p i t e their d e c e p t i v e l y
simple design, these periods also p e r f o r m m a n y tasks. S c h u b e r t , 8 9 , f o u n d that t h e y a l w a y s have a h o r t a t o r y thrust in a d d i t o n t o a genuine thank-offering, a n d that t h e y m a y a n n o u n c e the m a i n p u r p o s e a n d leading ideas o f their respective letters, 2 4 . T h e studies b y F u n k , Lan guage,
2 5 7 , a n d R . J e w e t t , 'Thanksgiving', 4 0 — 5 3 , have c o r r o b o r a t e d his w o r k , a n d a c c o r d i n g
t o R o e t z e l , 3 3 , it is n o w w i d e l y a c c e p t e d . Berger w o u l d include a further f u n c t i o n , the creation of r a p p o r t b e t w e e n a u t h o r a n d recipients after t h e m a n n e r o f a captatio 1 5 See a b o v e all the detailed analysis b y W h i t e , Body,
benevolentiae,
219ff.
1 — 6 6 , a n d his c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e Pauline
letter b o d y , 1 5 3 — 6 3 . F o r t h e six f o r m u l a e pertinent t o b o d y - o p e n i n g s f o u n d in the p a p y r i a n d Paul, 1 5 6 , n. 1 , a n d f o r the f o u r in b o d y - c l o s i n g s similarly, 1 6 0 , n. 5 . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , W h i t e found
n o a n t e c e d e n t s f o r the f o r m u l a e appearing in the b o d y - m i d d l e o f t h e Pauline
letter,
n o r a n y c o n s i s t e n c y in those that d o , 1 5 9 f . H e seems t o have o v e r l o o k e d t h e investigation b y J . T . Sanders, 'Transiton', 3 4 8 — 6 2 , w h i c h identified o n e u s e d w i t h great f r e q u e n c y a n d consis t e n c y . (His oversight w a s rectified in 'Epistolary', 1 7 3 0 f f . ) . It has seven parts: 1 ) a irapaKakCjs t a t e m e n t , o r equivalent, 2 ) 6 e , 3 ) t h e recipients in t h e a c e , o f t e n b/ud
abeXyoi,
5 ) appeal t o the L o r d ' s a u t h o r i t y w i t h 6 i d , 6 ) s o m e t i m e s , the t o p i c o f i n j u n c t i o n is i n t r o d u c e d with virep, a n d , 7 ) the i n j u n c t i o n itself i n t r o d u c e d b y art, Xva, o r a n infinitive, 3 4 9 . W h i t e ' s c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e tripartite b o d y o f t h e Pauline letter are w o r t h q u o t i n g n o n e t h e l e s s . H e says 'Whereas the general f u n c t i o n o f t h e b o d y is t o impart i n f o r m a t i o n t o s o m e o n e at a dis t a n c e , t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g p e r f o r m s the specific role o f i n t r o d u c i n g this i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e b o d y opening introduces
the i n f o r m a t i o n in such a w a y , either b y disclosing n e w i n f o r m a t i o n o r b y
recalling previous c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f w h i c h b o t h parties are c o g n i z a n t , that a basis o f m u t u a l i t y is f o u n d e d . O n c e this m a t t e r o f m u t u a l c o n c e r n has b e e n i n t r o d u c e d , t h e b o d y - m i d d l e m a y carry t h e relevant details f o r w a r d . . . either b y the d e v e l o p m e n t o r its relevant details o r b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n e w i n f o r m a t i o n ' , leaving t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e b o d y - c l o s i n g ' t o repeat t h e o c casion for writing a n d t o lay the basis f o r future c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ' ( 1 5 6 . . . 1 6 0 ) . 1 6 A c c o r d i n g t o W h i t e , Body,
1 1 2 f . Y e t , it is q u e s t i o n a b l e if the distinction can a l w a y s bear such
weight. 1 7 S o F u n k , Language,
2 6 4 f f . , a n d D o t y , 3 6 , cites R o m . 8 . 3 1 - 9 , 1 1 . 2 5 - 3 6 , 1 C o r . 4 . 6 - 1 3 , II C o r .
6 . 1 f f . , G a l . 6 . 7 - 1 0 , Phil. 2 . 1 4 - 8 , a n d I T h e s s . 2 . 1 3 - 6 .
Generic and Compositional Elements
23
b e a s s u m e d w i t h s o m e c o n f i d e n c e Paul is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s u c h d e v e l o p ments
b e c a u s e o f his characteristic
flexibility in a d a p t i n g
to changing
needs and circumstances. T h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t h e is t o b e c r e d i t e d w i t h t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e p a r a e nesis s e c t i o n as a Gattung
is far less l i k e l y , t h o u g h h e m a y b e t h e o n e w h o
i n t r o d u c e d it f o r t h e first t i m e i n t o t h e g e n r e o f t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n let 1 8
ter
. W i t h the p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n s o f I C o r i n t h i a n s a n d P h i l i p p i a n s t h e r e
is a m a r k e d t e n d e n c y f o r a d h o c c o l l e c t i o n s o f paranesis t o a p p e a r s o m e w h e r e t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f his l e t t e r s . Y e t , a c c o r d i n g t o V . P . F u r n i s h , t h e s e s e c t i o n s a l w a y s b e a r o n m a t t e r s at h a n d , s o t h a t t h e y n e v e r e x i s t m e r e l y for
the
sake
of form
1 9
.
O f c o u r s e , o n e m i g h t r e p l y t h a t it w o u l d b e
a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e f o r m a t e r i a l s o f s u c h a g e n e r a l h o r t a t o r y n a t u r e t o fail t o a p p l y t o a d e g r e e i n n e a r l y e v e r y c a s e . M o r e s i g n i f i c a n t , p e r h a p s , is t h e r e m a r k a b l e e x t e n t t o w h i c h the c o n t e n t s o f t h e p a r a e n e s i s s e c t i o n s o v e r l a p f r o m letter t o letter, suggesting t h e y h a d a c o m m o n s o u r c e in the early C h u r c h ' s teaching t o w h i c h Paul, like a n y o t h e r teacher, m i g h t instinc tively t u r n
2 0
.
T h e c l o s i n g p r o p e r o f t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r is as d e e p l y r o o t e d i n e p i s o l a r y c o n v e n t i o n as t h e o p e n i n g t o w h i c h it u n m i s t a k a b l y c o r r e s p o n d s
2 1
. Its g r e e t
2 2
ings are virtual s t e r e o t y p e s . It o r d i n a r i l y c o n t a i n s a b e n e d i c t i o n o r d o x o l o g y t o o i n s e e m i n g s u b s t i t u t i o n f o r the p r i v a t e l e t t e r ' s s t a n d a r d
eppojoo-
f o r m u l a , b e c a u s e s o m a n i f e s t a d e p a r t u r e f r o m c o n v e n t i o n is as i n t r i n s i c a l l y l i k e l y f o r r e a s o n s o f p i e t y as w a s t h e i n n o v a t i o n in t h e p r e s c r i p t t h a t substituted x ^ P ^ f ° ish c u s t o m h e r e
2 3
r
xaipeiv.
It is less c l e a r t h a t Paul w a s f o l l o w i n g J e w
.
While the p r e c e d i n g review o f the m a j o r generic elements o f the Pauline l e t t e r m a k e s c l e a r P a u l ' s i n d e b t e d n e s s i n m a n y w a y s , it a l s o m a k e s c l e a r h e w a s n o t a b o u t t o l e t c o n v e n t i o n d i c t a t e t h e f o r m his m e s s a g e w o u l d
1 8 F o r the Gattung 4.3ff.,
see the classic study b y M . Dibelius, Tradition,
2 3 3 - 6 5 , esp. 2 3 8 f f . C p . T o b .
1 2 . 6 f f . , R o m . 1 2 . 1 - 1 5 . 1 3 , e s p . 1 2 . 1 - 1 3 . 1 4 , G a l . 5 . 1 3 - 6 . 1 0 , I T h e s s . 4 . 1 - 1 2 , a n d esp.
5 . 1 — 2 2 . C p . also the T w o W a y s in D i d . 1—6 a n d Barn. 1 8 — 2 0 , f o r e x a m p l e , a n d consider III, 1 7 b f f .
See as well the s o m e w h a t
differing
nature o f the material b y V i e l h a u e r , Literatur, 1 9 Theology,
IQS
e s t i m a t e s w h i c h are inevitable in v i e w of the
5 0 , a n d L o h s e , Formation,
45.
esp. 2 5 9 f f . , in reply to D i b e l i u s , w h o s e t r e a t m e n t h a d the e f f e c t o f distancing c o m
p l e x e s o f paraenesis s o m e w h a t
f r o m the i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s e
w h i c h h e was a p p l y i n g t h e m . See also M a l h e r b e , Social,
o f the a u t h o r o r the c o n t e x t to
52ff.
2 0 A s e m p h a s i z e d particularly b y D o t y , 3 7 f . 2 1 See e s p . H . K o s k e n n i e m i , Studien, 'Subscriptions', 2 2 Koskenniemi author
1 4 8 f f . , a n d T . Y . M u l l i n s , 'Greeting*, 4 1 8 f f . , a n d G . H . Bahr,
27ff.
identified three t y p e s o f greeting in the c l o s e , f r o m a u t h o r t o addressee,
t o a third party with the addressee
a u t h o r as intermediary
from
as i n t e r m e d i a r y , a n d f r o m a third party w i t h the
t o the addressee. A c c o r d i n g t o F . X J . E x l e r , Form,
1 1 2 , the aoird^oiJaL-
f o r m u l a was n o t transposed f r o m the close to the o p e n i n g o f the late Hellenistic letter until the s e c o n d century A . D . 2 3 B u t c p . A c t s 1 5 . 2 9 , e p p o j a t f e , a n d see the Bar K o c h b a h letters w h i c h have a d a p t e d the valetudinis
formula
as an advance o n earlier H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c e p i s t o l o g r a p h y , a c c o r d i n g to A l e x a n d e r ,
'Epistolary', 5 9 2 .
24
A Literary Analysis
take.
Whether
borrowing outright,
modifying extensively, or exploring
a l t o g e t h e r n e w terrain, h e e v i d e n c e s e v e r y w h e r e that his d o m i n a n t
con
c e r n is t o a d d r e s s e f f e c t i v e l y w h a t are o f t e n r a d i c a l l y u n p r e c e n t e d situa t i o n s . I t is t h u s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t h e s h o u l d a d h e r e t o c o n v e n t i o n as m u c h as h e d o e s , a n d t h a t h i s l e t t e r s s h o u l d h a v e i n c o m m o n t h e f o r m a t
they
d o . B u t p o s s i b l y t h e g r e a t e s t t e s t i m o n y t o t h e e p o c h a l n a t u r e o f t h e Paul ine letter c o m e s f r o m
h i s m a n y i m i t a t o r s , m o r e o r less c a p a b l e , o f t h e
s e c o n d a n d t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n s , f o r it is a m o n g t h e m t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r w o u l d s e e m t o b e l o n g ( s o , H . K o s t e r , Introduction,
II, 52—6, 2 9 3 ) .
Like the Pauline letter, I Peter m a y b e readily o b s e r v e d t o d r a w o n a c o m m o n s t o r e o f e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e s . Y e t it is s i m i l a r l y t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m o t h e r t y p e s o f l e t t e r s b y v i r t u e o f i t s n a t u r e as a q u a s i - p u b l i c , o f f i c i a l ( e n c y c l i c a l ) d o c u m e n t o f relatively great length a n d c o m p l e x i t y . I n d e e d , u p o n closer i n s p e c t i o n I Peter seems t o bear a very strong r e s e m b l a n c e t o the Pauline letter. F o r i n s t a n c e , its prescript uses a bipartite f o r m u l a t o identify and
addressee a c c o m p a n i e d b y a salutation
as a s u r r o g a t e
sender
greeting ( c p .
D n . 4 . 1 a n d 6 . 2 6 , 0 ) . I Peter diverges f r o m the Pauline letter chiefly in the a b s e n c e o f a n y p r e s u m p t i o n
o n the author's part t o speak f o r G o d ,
and in the omission o f references t o G o d and the L o r d Jesus from the salutation.
It m a y b e that
t h e i r m e n t i o n earlier i n t h e p r e s c r i p t , as i n
I Thess. 1.1, w o u l d have m a d e a repetition o f t h e m in the salutation un desirable. Like
the Pauline
l e t t e r , I P e t e r ' s o p e n i n g is f o l l o w e d
b y a blessing
p e r i o d t h a t c e l e b r a t e s t h e p r o g r e s s t h e G o s p e l is m a k i n g a m o n g t h e a d dresses
despite
follows
the Pauline paradigm
and
the other
unfavourable
circumstances
( 1 . 3 — 1 . 1 2 ) . Here
I
Peter
c l o s e l y against, f o r e x a m p l e , I T i m . , T i t . ,
N T letters o u t s i d e o f the Pauline
c o r p u s . M o r e o v e r , the
b l e s s i n g p e r i o d serves l i k e w i s e t o i n t r o d u c e c e r t a i n o f t h e m a i n i d e a s t o b e taken u p later in t h e b o d y
2 4
. I t a l s o u n f o l d s t h r o u g h several d o x o l o g -
cal e x p a n s i o n s t o a n elevated e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c l i m a x
2 5
.
2 4 See a b o v e n. 1 4 f o r the uses o f t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y thanksgiving, a n d see I Pet. 1 . 6 f . f o r t h e m a i n t h e m e a n d o c c a s i o n f o r writing, a s well as t h e presence o f leading ideas in 1 . 3 — 1 2 , like resurrec t i o n , rebirth, h o p e , a n d salvation t o c o m e , a n d t h e t e s t i m o n y o f t h e P r o p h e t s a n d missionaries t o Christ. 2 5 R . D e i c h g r a b e r , Gotteshymnus,
7 7 , w o u l d restrict t h e p e r i o d t o w . 3 — 4 , o r 3 — 5 a t m o s t ,
whereas J . T . Sanders, 'Transition', 3 5 7 , stretches it t o v . 7 , eupetffj
elq eircuvov
KCLI
do^av
KCLI
Toiriv. B u t , as Best sees, 7 8 , t h e r e f e r e n c e is t o the reward awaiting the faithful at t h e Parousia, and
is, t h e r e f o r e , unsuitable f o r
ayaWtdode
( 1 . 6 ) , or ayaWtaode
closing a p e r i o d o f declarative praise t o G o d , u n l i k e , s a y , xapq> K T \ . ( 1 . 8 ) . A n y w a y , Sanders c o n c e d e s t h a t v. 1 2 is t h e
p r o p e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d o n o t h e r literary g r o u n d s , a n d B r o x , f o r instance, agrees ( 3 5 7 ) . W i t h W i n d i s c h ( 5 2 ) , a c c o r d i n g l y , I Pet. 1 . 3 — 1 2 appears t o consist o f five s t r o p h e s o f five or seven lines e a c h , 3 — 5 , 6 — 7 , 8 — 9 , 1 0 — 1 , a n d 1 2 ( s o S e l w y n , Beare, R e i c k e , S p i c q , Schniew i n d , B e s t , K e l l y , a n d G o p p e l t , f o r e x a m p l e ) , against Chevallier, 'Structure', 1 3 4 , w h o prefers three paragraphs, 3 — 5 , 6 — 9 , a n d 1 0 — 2 , despite t h e o b v i o u s seam at 7 / 8 . A n elegant parallel t o the design o f I Pet. 1 . 3 — 1 2 exists in E p h . 1 . 3 — 1 4 , w h e r e the r e p e t i t i o n o f e U avrov a t 1 . 6 , 1 2 , a n d 1 4 , distinguishes three s t r o p h e s .
eirawov
T T K 6O£TJC
Generic and Compositional Elements More
s t r i k i n g still is t h e a f f i n i t y o f I P e t e r ' s b o d y w i t h t h a t o f t h e
P a u l i n e l e t t e r . Its n a t u r a l body
25
o f the
divisions c o r r e s p o n d
neatly t o the
tripartite
Pauline letter, b o d y - o p e n i n g ( 1 . 1 3 - 2 . 1 0 ) , -middle
4 . 1 1 ) , and -closing ( 4 . 1 2 — 5 . I I )
2 6
(2.11-
. T h e likeness e x t e n d s t o the t w o - f o l d
s u b d i v i s i o n o f I Peter's b o d y - m i d d l e (at 3 . 1 2 / 1 3 ) , a n d t o the c o m p a r a t i v e l y c a r e f u l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e first p o r t i o n ( t h e s e q u e n c e o f
Haustafeln).
A s J . T . S a n d e r s n o t e s , t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o I P e t e r ' s b o d y at 1 . 1 3 is m a d e in an a n a l o g o u s f a s h i o n w i t h 5 to p l u s a shift f r o m i n d i c a t i v e t o i m p e r a t i v e ( T r a n s i t i o n s ' , 3 5 7 ) . T h e r e is f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f several f o r m u l a e in 1.13— 2 7
2 . 1 0 t h a t c o m m o n l y o c c u r in b o d y - o p e n i n g s . E v e n m o r e c o m p e l l i n g is the w a y I Pet. 2.11—2 a p p r o x i m a t e s t o the sort o f transition Sanders 2 8
f i n d s Paul u s i n g t o b e g i n m a j o r n e w p e r i o d s i n t h e b o d i e s o f his l e t t e r s . The
transition
effected
t o the s e c o n d part
o f I P e t e r ' s b o d y - m i d d l e ( 3 . 1 3 f . ) is 2 9
b y t h e u s e o f y e t a n o t h e r f o r m u l a (a r e a s s u r a n c e - s t a t e m e n t ) .
T h e last p r i n c i p a l t r a n s i t i o n in I P e t e r ' s b o d y ( 4 . 1 2 ) p r o c e e d s b y m e a n s o f a vocative
(dya-nriroi)
w i t h a s y n d e t o n , a c o m m o n o c c u r r e n c e in Paul's 3 0
l e t t e r s , a n d r e i t e r a t e s r e a s s u r a n c e . F i n a l l y , I P e t e r shares w i t h t h e P a u l i n e
2 6 A g a i n s t F . W . D a n k e r , ' C o n s o l a t o r y ' , 9 3 f f . , w h o d i s c o u n t s the seam a t 2 . 1 0 / 1 1 , o n the h a n d , a n d against W . J , D a l t o n , Spirits,
one
o n t h e o t h e r , w h o claims t h e m a j o r division is a t 3 . 1 2 /
1 3 rather than at 4 . 1 1 / 1 2 . 2 7 T h e clearest is 1 . 2 5 b , asserting m u t u a l awareness o f the c o n t e n t s o f m i s s i o n p r e a c h i n g ( c p . 1 . 1 2 ) . See W h i t e , 1 5 5 f . A n o t h e r effects a m i n o r transition at 1 . 1 7 in the f o r m o f the c o n d i t i o n , t h o u g h W h i t e finds these t o b e rather infrequent in the b o d y - o p e n i n g o f the p a y p r i , 2 8 . A third m a y b e a n o v e l twist given t o the very c o m m o n d i s c l o s u r e - f o r m u l a (ov tfeXco de vnaq R o m . 1 . 1 3 , o r , yvcopLZaj
yap
vniv,
ayvoelv,
G a l . 1 . 1 1 , a n d see I T h e s s . 2 . 1 , Phil. 1 . 1 2 , II C o r . 1 . 8 ) . T h e
b o d y - o p e n i n g starts w i t h a reference t o 'ignorance' o n the part o f the addressees alright ( 1 . 1 4 ) , b u t n o t in reference t o a m a t t e r a b o u t w h i c h t h e y actually k n o w n o t h i n g at present. Because it is u n e x p e c t e d , this m a y have represented a n effective attention-getting device. F o r the dis c l o s u r e - f o r m u l a p r o p e r , see W h i t e , Body,
l l f f . , a n d M u l l i n s , 'Disclosure', 4 4 f f .
2 8 See a b o v e n. 1 5 f o r the f o r m u l a ' s d e s c r i p t i o n . A p a r t f r o m m i n o r deviations in t h e f o r m o f a s y n d e t o n a n d the a b s e n c e o f vnep,
w h i c h is o p t i o n a l in a n y case, each i t e m is e v i d e n c e d b y I
Peter: 1 ) a 7 r a p a K a \ a ) - s t a t e m e n t , 2 ) the recipients in the a c c . (rrapoiKovq 3 ) the variant v o c , ayaixr\Toi, Kvpiov),
Kal
irapem&tinovq),
4 ) the appeal t o the L o r d ' s a u t h o r i t y displaced t o 2 . 1 3 (5cd TOV
5 ) a n d the i n j u n c t i o n i n t r o d u c e d b y the inf., anexeo&ai.
I Peter s e e m s t o be u n i q u e in
using a f o r m u l a a p p a r e n t l y restricted t o t h e Pauline c o r p u s . 2 9 See
White,
1 6 — 8 , f o r e x x . I Pet. 3 . 1 3 d o e s n o t c o n f o r m with t h e s t e r e o t y p i c a l
reassurance-
f o r m u l a , y e t this s h o u l d n o t militate against the l i k e l i h o o d , since 3 . 1 3 is clearly a h e i g h t e n e d rhetorical m o m e n t , witness the o p t a t i v e in 3 . 1 4 . T h e transition is further d e f i n e d b y t w o c o n ditional c o n s t r u c t i o n s , w h i c h is n o t a t y p i c a l , a c c o r d i n g t o W h i t e , 2 8 — 3 0 . 3 0 Paul's preferred t e r m is a8e\yol 2 . 1 2 . In I Pet. 4 . 1 2 aya-nr\Toi
a
t these j u n c t u r e s , b u t see ayairr\Toi
in I C o r . 1 0 . 1 4 a n d Phil.
is n o t a c c o m p a n i e d b y a f o r m u l a as it w a s in 2 . 1 I f . , b u t neither
are the equivalent t e r m s in Paul, a c c o r d i n g t o W h i t e ( 6 2 , n. 5 6 ) , w h o says t h e vocative 'seems t o indicate a m a j o r transition p o i n t even w h e n it d o e s n o t a c c o m p a n y a f o r m u l a ' . H e n c e the transition at 5 . 1 m a y b e less significant, lacking the v o c a t i v e , certainly n o t m o r e so despite the presence o f the 7rapa/ca\d>-statement. C o n d i t i o n s again assist the start o f the p e r i o d in 4 . 1 3 f . O f such W h i t e c o n c l u d e s ' C o n d i t i o n s in the b o d y - c l o s i n g . . . serve a rather u n i f o r m a n d m a j o r f u n c t i o n . T h e y a l m o s t a l w a y s refer b a c k t o a n i m p o r t a n t a n d earlier m a t t e r w i t h i n the b o d y (especially requests a n d c o m m a n d s ) a n d f u n c t i o n as a m e a n s o f f o r c e f u l l y urging the addressee t o p a y a t t e n t i o n to that m a t t e r ' ( 2 8 f . ) . T h e r e
is n o t h i n g in 5 . 1 f f . equivalent t o the c o n d i t i o n s
A Literary Analysis
26
letter the use o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p e r i o d s b o d y (esp. 4 . 7 - 1 1 , 1 7 - 9 , 5 . 1 0 - 1 ) However,
for
the
3 1
t o c o n c l u d e various parts o f
its
.
s a k e o f a c c u r a c y several
significant
differences
be
t w e e n I P e t e r ' s b o d y a n d t h e b o d y o f the P a u l i n e l e t t e r m u s t b e a c k n o w l e d g e d . T h e e m p h a s i s o f I P e t e r ' s b o d y - m i d d l e is p r a c t i c a l t h r o u g h o u t ,
even
in its. first p a r t w h e r e P a u l t e n d s t o b e t h e o r e t i c a l . A l s o , t w o f o r m u l a e d o not
appear until
appear formula piv
rov
I Peter
in
the
5.12,
(eypaxjja,
deov),
the
letter's
close,
whereas
b o d y - c l o s i n g o f Paul's letters, the napaKa\u)v
ernpaprvpoju
KCLI
a n d , the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
mention
a c o m i n g visit
'apostolic parousia',
whereas the
would
el vat
Pauline fashion
b o d y o f the
3 3
usually
aXrjdrj x a -
32
r)v oTrjre) .
Nor does
o f the
it is j u s t p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u e t h e
t o S i l v a n u s in 5 . 1 2 in s o m e s u c h t e r m s I Peter's b o d y and
ravrrjv
f o r m u l a (elq
in t h e
they
motivation-for-writing
so-called reference
. N o w these differences
between
P a u l i n e l e t t e r are o b v i o u s l y n o t s o
g r e a t as t o o u t w e i g h t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s , a n d m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a c o m b i n a tion o f c o n t e x t u a l and personal factors, including stylistic
considerations
a n d i d i o s y n c r a c i e s . W h a t t h e y d o i n d i c a t e is t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r d i d n o t imitate the genre o f the Pauline letter slavishly, o r superficially. L i k e t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r , I P e t e r s e e m s t o h a v e a p a r a e n e s i s s e c t i o n , 5.1 — 1 1 , at l e a s t o n this v i e w it is e a s y t o e x p l a i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y artificial t i o n s h i p t h e s e verses h a v e t o t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t , as w e l l as t h e
rela
distinc
tively ad h o c nature o f the c o n t e n t s . T h e section begins suitably e n o u g h w i t h t h e 7rapaKaAa)-formula
(see R o m . 1 2 . 1 , Phil. 4 . 2 , I T h . 4 . 1 , 5 . 1 2 )
3 4
.
T h e r e s u l t is t h a t t h e b o d y - c l o s i n g m u s t b e l i m i t e d t o 4 . 1 2 — 9 , w h i c h in f a c t p o s e s n o d i f f i c u l t y , s i n c e v v . 1 2 — 9 c a n serve as a f i t t i n g c o n c l u s i o n t o the m a i n thrust o f the b o d y - m i d d l e . I P e t e r d o e s h a v e a p r o p e r c l o s i n g as w e l l t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e o p e n i n g . It starts, p r e s u m a b l y ,
after the
b e n e d i c t i o n a n d d o x o l o g y o f 5.1 Of.
in 4 . 1 2 f f . , w h i c h h o o k u p t o the suffering t h e m e f r o m 1.6f., as well as in the b o d y - m i d d l e , for e x a m p l e , 3 . 1 3 f . , so the transition at 4 . 1 2 is of greater c o n s e q u e n c e f o r the letter's d e v e l o p m e n t than the o n e at 5 . 1 . 3 1 F o r the Pauline letter see a b o v e n. 1 7 . 3 2 F o r the f o r m u l a e see W h i t e ' s e v i d e n c e , 4 3 - 5 1 , a n d 1 6 0 , n. 5 , a n d R o m . 1 5 . 1 4 - 3 3 , G a l . 5 . 1 - 1 2 ( b u t c p . 6 . 1 1 ) , I T h e s s . 1 . 1 7 - 4 . 1 8 , Phil. 2 . 1 9 - 3 0 ( b u t c p . 3 . 1 ) , a n d P h m . 1 9 - 2 2 . A l s o absent f r o m I Peter is the peculiarly Pauline c o n f i d e n c e - f o r m u l a , o n w h i c h see W h i t e , 1 6 2 . 3 3 A s in A c t s 1 5 . 2 3 , 8vd ZiXovavov amanuensis
. . . eypaxpa
( s o , J . A . T . R o b i n s o n , Redating,
p r o b a b l y refers t o a letter-carrier rather than an 1 6 8 , f o l l o w i n g F . H , C h a s e ) . H e n c e 'Silvanus' m a y
b e the apostle's emissary, like ' T y c h i c h u s ' in E p h . and C o l . , w h o s e visit w o u l d b e c o m e the surrugate for an a p o s t o l i c 'parousia'. A g a i n s t F u n k , therefore, I Peter m a y n o t deviate entirely f r o m Pauline c o n v e n t i o n here (Language, 3 4 F o r the Gattung KALO,
257).
see a b o v e n. 1 8 . F o r the 7rapaKa\tJ-formula see e s p . C J . B j e r k e l u n d ,
PARA-
passim, w h o d e m o n s t r a t e s its origin is in the familiar (private) letter, a n d that Paul
p r e s u m a b l y a d a p t e d it f r o m there because it imparts a m o r e personal t o n e than the paraenetic f o r m u l a e o f the moralists, f o r instance. C J . R o e t z e l , Letters,
3 5 f . , distinguishes three t y p e s of
paraenetical f o r m s in Paul, the list, the cluster o f m a x i m s , a n d the p r o l o n g e d discourse. A m o n g the lists in I Peter are 2 . 1 , 3 . 8 , 4 . 3 , and 4 . 1 5 ; a m o n g the units, 4 . 7 — 11 a n d 5 . 1 — 1 1 , whereas the longer discourses are 1 . 1 3 — 2 . 1 0 , e t c .
Generic and Compositional Elements
27
P o i n t s o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r i n c l u d e the f o r m u l a i c g r e e t i n g s a n d m e n t i o n o f the ' k i s s ' in v v . 1 3 — 1 4 a , a n d , t h e b e n e d i c t i o n in v . 1 4 b
3 S
.
F r o m t h e b r i e f c o m p a r i s o n a b o v e it a p p e a r s I P e t e r r e f l e c t s m o s t o f the major elements generic t o the Pauline letter. W i t h o u t m i n i m i z i n g the differences, the author's
acquaintance with the pattern must have b e e n
r a t h e r t h o r o u g h f o r it t o h a v e h a d s o p e r v a s i v e an i n f l u e n c e o n his a p p r o a c h t o t h e task o f c o m p o s i t o n , e x e c u t e d , a l b e i t ,
with a measure o f
f r e e d o m . I n d e e d , the f r e e d o m w i t h w h i c h h e a d a p t s t h e g e n r e t o his p u r p o s e is e v i d e n c e o f l i t e r a r y skill o n his p a r t , s o m e w h a t m o r e p e r h a p s t h a n h e has b e e n c r e d i t e d w i t h o n o c c a s i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , W . G . K u m m e l rules against t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e m i g h t h a v e m a d e e x t e n s i v e u s e o f l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s i n his l e t t e r . K i i m m e l insists against M . A . C h e v a l l i e r t h a t 1 . 3 — 2 . 1 0 a n d 4 . 1 2 — 5 . 1 1 are n o t ' c a r e f u l l y s t r u c t u r e d o n t h e basis o f c a t c h w o r d s a n d v e r b a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s ' , u r g i n g 3 6
t h a t 'this c a n b e e x p l a i n e d o n a t h e m a t i c b a s i s ' . I n fairness t o K u m m e l C h e v a l l i e r d o e s s e e m t o g o t o e x t r e m e s at t i m e s , a n d i f K u m m e l m e a n s t h e a u t h o r d i d n o t d e l i b e r a t e l y set o u t t o c o n t r i v e t h e f o r m his m e s s a g e w o u l d t a k e s o i n g e n i o u s l y , t h e n his p o i n t is w e l l - t a k e n . B u t i f h e m e a n s t h e au thor
h a d n o c l e a r p l a n i n m i n d t o a c h i e v e his p u r p o s e , w a s artless,
t e n d e d n o particular
effect
w h i l e h e p r o c e e d e d t o a r r a n g e his
in
material,
a n d f a i l e d t o e x p l o i t o p p o r t u n i t i e s as t h e y a r o s e , t h e n t h e r e is r e a s o n t o d i s a g r e e . H e e x h i b i t s s u f f i c i e n t d e x t e r i t y i n his h a n d l i n g o f t h e letter genre a l o n e t o suggest o t h e r w i s e . A c t u a l l y , K u m m e l
Pauline
betrays
some
thing o f a m i s c o n c e p t i o n o f the p r o b l e m b y o p p o s i n g thematic d e v e l o p ment
t o literary
technique. Ordinarily, a writer's
t a l e n t is m e a s u r e d
in
p a r t b y an a b i l i t y t o c o m b i n e t h e s e . There
is in f a c t a m p l e e v i d e n c e t h a t g e n e r i c e l e m e n t s are n o t
responsible
for
I
Peter's
design. T h e
solely
formative role o f compositional 3 7
d e v i c e s e l s e w h e r e in t h e N T has a l r e a d y b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d . N o r has I P e t e r b e e n w h o l l y n e g l e c t e d in this r e s p e c t ( s e e a b o v e n . 1 ) . S u c h t e c h n i q u e s are, g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , s e l f - e v i d e n t in n a t u r e , h a v i n g b e e n w e l l -
3 5 I Pet. 5 . 1 3 instances the third k i n d o f greeting identified b y H . K o s k e n n i e m i (see a b o v e n. 2 2 ) , f r o m a third p a r t y , in this case the church at R o m e w i t h the a u t h o r as intermediary t o the ad dressees. F o r the 'kiss' as a greeting see I T h e s s . 5 . 2 6 , I C o r . 1 6 . 2 0 b , II C o r . 1 3 . 1 2 , a n d R o m . 1 6 . 1 6 . Against the prevailing interpretation o f the kiss as a liturgical act see R o e t z e l , 3 8 . 3 6 Introduction,
4 1 7 , n. 1 . B e c a u s e o f the l o o s e w a y in w h i c h 'catch-word',
a n d related terms
are o f t e n used in the literature, o c c a s i o n m a y be taken t o p r o p o s e w o r k i n g definitions. T h e r e p e t i t i o n of a w o r d t o c o n n e c t t w o adjacent p e r i o d s is a l i n k - w o r d , b u t if o n e or m o r e p e r i o d s intervene it is a k e y - w o r d . T h e r e p e t i t i o n o f a w o r d i n t r o d u c e d f r o m a f o r m a l source is a catch w o r d . E v e n s o , s o m e flexibility in usage is still desirable, d e p e n d i n g o n the primary f u n c t i o n in a given c o n t e x t , or the i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n s o f the investigation. It is evident that f u n c t i o n s m a y overlap. 3 7 F o r R o m a n s see K . P r u m m , 'Struktur', 3 3 3 ) 4 9 , A . Feuillet, 'Plan', 3 3 3 - 8 7 , S. L y o n n e t , 3 0 1 - 1 6 , J. D u p o n t , 'Probleme', Vaganay,
'Plan',
'Oral', 4 0 3 - 3 5 .
'Note',
3 6 5 - 9 7 , a n d J . C a m b i e r , 'Plan', 4 5 8 - 6 8 . F o r H e b r e w s see L .
2 6 9 — 7 7 , a n d A . V a n h o y e , Structure,
passim.
For M a t t h e w see
C.H. Lohr,
28
A Literary Analysis
e s t a b l i s h e d in o r a l d i s c o u r s e l o n g b e f o r e w r i t i n g e v e n b e c a m e p o p u l a r , a n d 3 8
from w h e n c e they were t r a n s p l a n t e d . T h e repetitive devices especially are s u b j e c t
t o v i r t u a l l y i n f i n i t e v a r i a t i o n a n d r e f i n e m e n t , s t r e t c h i n g all
the w a y f r o m
the
simplest link-words, through paraphrase, key-words,
leitmotives, to choruses, for example. Another compositional technique may
4 0
b e t h e u s e o f q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s . T h e s e a p p e a r in a b u n d a n c e
within I Peter. For
i n s t a n c e , t h e r e is a n i n c l u s i o n s p a n n i n g t h e l e t t e r , 1 . 1 / 5 . 1 3 (enXeK -
Toiq/ovvenXeKTr)).
It
is
subtly
reinforced
r e c i p i e n t s i n t h e o p e n i n g as napeiuSrjHOLS
by
the
bLaonopas
c o m m u n i t y i n t h e c l o s i n g as r e s i d e n t ev BafivXtivL cale,
3 3 8 ) . The effect
designation o f
the
a n d o f the sending
( s o , R . L e D e a u t , Pas-
o f t h e i n c l u s i o n is t o h e i g h t e n t h e c o r r s p o n d e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e l e t t e r ' s p r e s c r i p t a n d s u b s c r i p t . A s e c o n d d e v i c e a p p e a r s in the
opening
as
the
expository
equivalent o f narrative
foreshadowing,
n a m e l y , p r i o r a n n o u n c e m e n t , n o t o f a t h e m e p e r se, b u t o f ideas p r e d o m i nant
4 1
w i t h i n t h e l e t t e r . A t h i r d , a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g , d e v i c e a p p e a r s in
t h e c l o s i n g , t h e r e t r o s p e c t i v e m o t i v a t i o n - f o r - w r i t i n g f o r m u l a itself summarizes the letter's
that
c o n t e n t s . T h e c l o s i n g is h o m e t o y e t a f o u r t h
d e v i c e , r e f r a i n , in t h e f o r m o f t h e b e n e d i c t i o n t h a t e c h o e s t h e k e y - w o r d , ' p e a c e ' , w h i c h is first s o u n d e d b y t h e o p e n i n g s a l u t a t i o n . T h u s I P e t e r ' s prescript and subscript m a y b e seen t o contain n o fewer than four c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s , in a d d i t i o n t o t h e g e n e r i c e l e m e n t s , t h r o u g h w h i c h they have been closely c o o r d i n t a t e d with each other t o p r o d u c e a kind o f f r a m e w o r k for the letter's c o n t e n t s . Further instances o f c o m p o s i t o n a l t e c h n i q u e s m a y b e cited that involve m o r e t h a n o n e o f t h e l e t t e r ' s m a j o r s e c t i o n s . T h e r e is i n c l u s i o n in 1 . 3 / 2.10
(eXeoq/rjXerjiJievoL-eXerjdevres).
T h i s is n o m e r e l i t e r a r y e m b e l l i s h
m e n t . T h e b o d y - o p e n i n g e n d s o n the same n o t e w i t h w h i c h the blessing
3 8 A s the e p o c h - m a k i n g studies o f H o m e r b y M . Parry have s h o w n , 'Studies I / I I ' , 7 3 — 1 4 7 a n d 1 5 0 . F o r further b i b l i o g r a p h y see A . B . L o r d , ' H o m e r ' , 4 3 — 5 . 3 9 A s generally agreed, for e x a m p l e , b y V a n h o y e , L o h r , D a l t o n , Chevallier, a n d Balch. 4 0 D a l t o n , 7 6 , s e e m s t o have b e e n the first t o observe the p h e n o m e n o n in I Peter. H e cites a paral lel in the w a y m a i n p o r t i o n s o f R o m a n s can b e t e r m i n a t e d b y e x t e n d e d q u o t a t i o n s , 3 . 1 0 — 1 8 , 1 1 . 3 3 — 6 , a n d 1 5 . 9 — 1 2 , or the w a y shorter passages can b e c l o s e d similarly, 1 . 1 7 b , 2 . 2 4 , 9 . 3 3 , 1 0 . 1 8 f f . , e t c . T . P . O s b o r n e , 'Citations',
6 4 — 7 7 , has since e l a b o r a t e d further the t e c h n i q u e in
I Peter. A c c o r d i n g t o K . T h r a e d e , Brieftopik,
1 4 4 , the practice has classical a n t e c e d e n t s w h i c h
arose f r o m the n e e d to a d d u c e e v i d e n c e , claim a u t h o r i t y , and the like. C p . the use o f the q u o t a t i o n f r o m A r a t u s in A c t s 1 7 . 2 8 . It is therefore reasonable t o s u p p o s e that J e w i s h practice in the citation o f Scripture s h o u l d have arisen f r o m the same n e e d s . See also R . B u l t m a n n , tribe, 41
Diab-
94f.
F o r instance, alien status ( 1 . 1 7 , 2 . 1 1 ) , e l e c t i o n ( 2 . 4 f f . ) , f o r e k n o w l e d g e ( 1 . 4 f . , 1 2 , 2 0 ) , G o d as Father ( 1 . 3 , 1 7 ) , holiness
(1.15f., 2.5ff., 3 . 5 ) , obedience
( 1 . 1 4 , 2 2 ) , a n d the b l o o d o f J e s u s
( 1 . 1 9 ) . D a l t o n , 7 6 f f . , n o t e s the parallel w a y s R o m a n s a n d H e b r e w s e x p a n d ideas a n n o u n c e d in their prescripts, a n d is f o l l o w e d b y B a l c h , 1 2 4 . N o w n o t all o f these carry the s a m e w e i g h t , n o r is it necessary t o a s s u m e the a u t h o r began with the prescript a n d p r o c e e d e d t o c o m p o s e . It is rather easier t o imagine he w r o t e the letter first a n d then selected certain o f its terms for the prescript (against D a l t o n , 7 9 , a n d Balch, 1 2 a n d n n . 9 a n d 1 0 ) .
Generic and Compositional Elements period
began
for appropriate
pastoral
29
m o t i v e s . O f all t h e w a y s at
the
a u t h o r ' s d i s p o s a l t o r e m i n d t h e a d d r e s s e e s o f t h e basis o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n s incumbent recipients
upon
them
surely
his r e p e a t e d
o f divine c o m p a s s i o n must
assertion
that
they
b e o n e o f the least
are
the
objectionable
a n d m o s t u p l i f t i n g . T h u s t h e d e v i c e serves t o h i g h l i g h t t h e p o s i t i v e t h r e a d running through b o t h blessing p e r i o d and b o d y - o p e n i n g . S o m e t h i n g a k i n t o i n c l u s i o n a l s o s e e m s t o e x i s t in 1 . 6 / 5 . 1 0 (oXiyov XuTTridevTeq/bXiyov
na&ovTaq).
This
time
it
holds
the
entirety
. . .
of
the
l e t t e r ' s m a i n c o n t e n t s in its e m b r a c e . A g a i n t h e r e p e t i t i o n is f o r t h e s a k e o f e m p h a s i s , a n d again f o r o b v i o u s p a s t o r a l r e a s o n s . B y r e i t e r a t i n g a t t h e start a n d f i n i s h o f his l e t t e r a q u a l i f i e d o p t i m i s m as t o t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e a d d r e s s e s ' h a r d s h i p s his w h o l e m e s s a g e is g i v e n a h o p e f u l a s p e c t . H e n c e , like the
p r e v i o u s c a s e s , t h e d e v i c e assists t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e g e n e r i c e l e
m e n t s a r o u n d w h i c h the letter has b e e n o r g a n i z e d . Yet
another
e x a m p l e o f a c o m p o s i t o n a l technique arching over m o r e
t h a n o n e o f t h e l e t t e r ' s p r i n c i p l e s e c t i o n s m a y b e o b s e r v e d in t h e at 4 . 1 2 f . w h i c h r e s u m e s
. . . \virr} Sevres ev
ayaWiaode
boKina£ofievov . . . bdfav rf?
ev
VIJLLV
nvpLJoet
refrain
1.6f. TTOLKLXOK:
treipaofioU Xva
boKifivov
TO
. . . bid
irvpbq be
.. . ev diroKaXv^ei 'Irioov Xpiorov ( 1 . 6 — 7 )
Trpds neLpaofiov vniv . . . KowtoveiTe rolq TOV avrov. . . ayaWitJjiievoi ( 4 . 1 2 — 3 )
-nadi\p.aoLv . . .
XPLOTOV
Xva . . . ev TIQ diroKaXvtyei rrjq bo^q
T h e i n t e n t o f t h e refrain is t o r e t u r n t o a l e a d i n g i d e a b r o a c h e d at a n ear lier t i m e . In c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
that inaugurate
the
b o d y - c l o s i n g , s u c h as t h e v o c a t i v e , t h e s t a t e m e n t o f r e a s s u r a n c e , a n d
the
conditional
constructions,
the generic elements
the refrain's e f f e c t
is t o b r i n g t o a n e x p l i c i t
c o n c l u s i o n t h e t h e m e t h e a u t h o r t r e a t e d at l e n g t h in t h e b o d y - m i d d l e o f his l e t t e r , n a m e l y , t h a t t h e b e n e f i t s o f l o y a l t y t o C h r i s t in e v e r y c i r c u m stance o u t w e i g h the p o t e n t i a l liabilities. T h e last l i t e r a r y d e v i c e t o b e e x a m i n e d o f this n a t u r e is t h e refrain 2 . 1 1 w h i c h e x p a n d s o n t h e p r e s c r i p t , napeTnbrjuoiq Siaonopdq/ KGLI
TTapenidriiiovs.
TOP
Trjq napoLKLas
Its r e t r o s p e c t i v e vncjv
xpovov
in
napotKOvq
function reaches b a c k , m o r e o v e r , to
i n 1.17 a n d yevoq
enXenrdv
K T X . in 2 . 9 f .
T h e p o i n t is t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t status has e v e r y t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e h a r d ships
they
rehearsed of
face. Just
as t h e y
o w e the privileges t h e y have w h i c h w e r e
in 2.4f. t o their status, s o t o o d o e s the m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c side
their e x p e r i e n c e derive f r o m the alienation
p e o p l e scattered
w h i c h is i n e v i t a b l e f o r a
a m o n g the n a t i o n s . T h u s the a u t h o r links t o g e t h e r
pre
s c r i p t , b o d y - o p e n i n g , a n d t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e b o d y - m i d d l e in a n e c o n o m i c a l manner
t h a t r e f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n o n c i r c u m s t a n c e s f o r w h i c h h e is a b o u t
to offer counsel. Evidence does therefore certain
generic
elements
seem t o exist o f a close c o o p e r a t i o n a m o n g and
compositional
techniques
that
stretches
a c r o s s e x t e n s i v e p o r t i o n s o f I P e t e r . It e v e n a p p e a r s t h a t e v e r y m a j o r s e c tion o f the letter instances s o m e such orchestration. But additional m a y b e c i t e d as w e l l o f s i g n i f i c a n t
cases
c o o r d i n a t i o n t h a t are l i m i t e d t o
the
s e a m s b e t w e e n a d j o i n i n g s e c t i o n s , t h a t is, at p r i n c i p a l p o i n t s o f t r a n s i t i o n , like 1 . 1 2 / 1 3 , 2 . 1 0 / 1 1 , 3 . 1 2 / 1 3 , 4 . 1 1 / 1 2 , and 4 . 1 9 / 5 . 1 .
A Literary Analysis
30
A s s i s t i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n at 1 . 1 2 / 1 3 f r o m t h e b l e s s i n g p e r i o d t o t h e b o d y o p e n i n g are f o u r c o m p o s i t i o n a l d e v i c e s . T h e first is t h e c h a n g e f r o m state ment
to exhortation.
The second
is t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e
key-words
' h o p e * a n d ' g r a c e ' in 1 . 1 3 ( s e e 1.3 a n d 1 . 1 0 ) . T h e t h i r d c o n s i s t s o f t h e spectacular
eschatological
refrain
t o e x p r e s s i o n at 1 . 1 3 , eXitloare Xv^ei
'lrjovv
in
eiu
TT)V
the
blessing
yepopevrjv
period VJJLLV
that
comes
x&piv ev
anona-
( c p . 1.4, 5 , 7 , 9 , a n d 1 0 ) . T h e f o u r t h is a l e i t m o t i f ,
XPLOTOV
in as m u c h as t h e E s c h a t o n r e m a i n s a s u b j e c t o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e b o d y o p e n i n g ( 1 . 1 7 , 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 . 2 ) . T h e fact that s o m a n y devices have b e e n c o m p r e s s e d i n t o a single v e r s e m a r k e d l y e n h a n c e s its c a p a c i t y t o serve as a transition. T h e start o f t h e
t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d t o t h e b o d y - m i d d l e ( 2 . 1 1 — 2 ) is
s i g n e d o n c e a g a i n b y a shift f r o m s t a t e m e n t t o e x h o r t a t i o n , ( c p . 1 . 1 3 ) . A n u m b e r o f iterative devices also a p p e a r w i t h i n it, f o r e x a m p l e , a l i n k - w o r d , e&voq/edveoiv
( 2 . 9 / 1 2 ) , m a n y k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n s , TrapoiKOvq
7u8f}p.ov
KCLI
nape-
(1.9, 22, 2.25, 3.20), (2.1, 3.16;cp. 2.15,
2 3 , 3 . 9 , 4 . 4 ) , KCLKoiroiuv ( 2 . 1 , 1 4 , 1 6 , 3 . 9 , 1 0 f . , 1 3 , 1 7 , c p . 2 . 2 0 , 2 2 , e t c . ) , a n d , epycov
( 1 . 1 7 , 4 . 3 ) , a seeming variation o n the holiness t e r m i n o l o g y
w i t h KaXrjv . . . naXdjv ( e s p . 2 . 1 2 a n d 1 . 1 4 f . ) , a d o x o l o g i c a l refrain ( 1 . 3 , 6 , 8, 2 . 9 , 4 . 1 1 ) , a n d a f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e f r a i n , ev riptepa eiriOKOirrjs
( e s p . 1.3ff., 1 3 , 1 7 , 2 . 2 , 4 . 5 , 7 )
4 2
. T h e m a i n f u n c t i o n o f these
d e v i c e s i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n is t o p r e s e r v e c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n b o d y - o p e n i n g and b o d y - m i d d l e . Indeed, m o s t o f t h e m remain recapitulative throughout the b o d y - m i d d l e .
S e v e r a l , h o w e v e r , d o n o t . In t h e cases o f ' c o n d u c t ' ,
' s l a n d e r ' , a n d ' e v i l - d o e r / d o i n g ' , e x t e n s i v e e x p o s i t o r y d e v e l o p m e n t s later i n t h e b o d y - m i d d l e are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n t i c i p a t e d . T h u s t h e r e c a p i t u l a tive f u n c t i o n
o f these terms in the transition b e c o m e s especially i m p o r
t a n t , b e c a u s e it p r e s u p p o s e s a f o u n d a t i o n
has b e e n l a i d in t h e b o d y -
o p e n i n g e x p r e s s l y f o r later e l a b o r a t i o n . S e v e r a l e n t i r e l y fresh t e r m s a p p e a r in t h e t r a n s i t i o n as w e l l w h i c h are p u r e l y a n t i c i p a t o r y in n a t u r e , eiron-
4 2 Identification
o f m a n y o f the literary devices o f f e r e d here a n d t h r o u g h o u t the
investigation
d e p e n d s o n the a s s u m p t i o n that s y n o n y m s a n d s y n o n y m o u s e x p r e s s i o n s m a y c o u n t as well as identical o n e s , b e c a u s e , a m o n g o t h e r things, a u t h o r s m a y b e e x p e c t e d t o a v o i d t i r e s o m e repeti t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , there is a standing invitation t o be arbitrary, o u t - r u n the e v i d e n c e , e t c . , a n d it is i n c u m b e n t
u p o n the practitioner o f literary-critical analysis t o exercise restraint. T h u s
m a n y suggestions have had
t o b e dismissed w h e n these were d e e m e d i m m a t e r i a l , irrelevant,
f a r - f e t c h e d , o r relatively insignificant, a n d the sheer wealth o f detail has usually f o r b i d d e n a n y discussion o f these. T h e n a g a i n , m a n y o f the m o r e o b v i o u s o n e s have b e e n a c c e p t e d o f t e n with o u t c o m m e n t f o r the s a m e r e ason . A g o o d l y n u m b e r are fresh suggestions, b u t even this fact f r e q u e n t l y passes u n o b s e r v e d . A sufficient q u a n t i t y o f e vi d e n c e has b e e n a m a s s e d despite the difficulties to p e r m i t o f s o m e provisional estimates o f the author's c o m p o s i t o n a l m e t h o d , rely ing primarily u p o n the identification
o f a f e w patterns recurring w i t h e n o u g h regularity a n d
c o n s i s t e n c y t o infer that t h e y p r o b a b l y exist
in the letter a n d n o t s i m p l y in the m i n d o f the
interpreter. It suits the present p u r p o s e m e r e l y t o garner the i n f o r m a t i o n required t o b e able t o m a k e s o m e instructive a n d useful c o m p a r i s o n s in the w a y the a u t h o r h a n d l e s his sourcematerials.
Generic and Compositional Elements TevovTeq
( 3 . 2 ; c p . 3 . 1 6 ) , ayaitrtrol
31
( 4 . 1 2 ) , a n d napaKaXco
t w o suggesting that w h e n t h e y reappear afterwards
( 5 . 1 ) , t h e last
t h e y w i l l h a v e a simi
lar, i n t r o d u c t o r y f u n c t i o n . H e n c e n o t o n l y d o t h e s e d e v i c e s s u p p o r t generic elements
that m a k e
2.11—2 a transition,
but others
the
elsewhere
as w e l l . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e analysis o f I P e t e r ' s g e n r e , t h e n e x t p r i n c i p a l s e a m is at 3 . 1 2 / 1 3 . T h e r e s e e m t o b e at least t h r e e l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s in e v i d e n c e . F o r a start t h e r e is t h e o u t s t a n d i n g c i t a t i o n o f Ps. 3 4 in 3 . 1 0 — 2 t h a t ter minates
t h e first p a r t o f t h e b o d y - m i d d l e . T h e n t h e r e are several w o r d s
l i n k i n g 3 . 1 3 f . t o t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , KaKcboojv aya&ov
(aya&ov,
3 . 1 1 ) , a n d , buiaioovvr)v
(noiouvTaq
(Sinaiovq,
nana,
3 . 1 2 ) . Last
3.12), perhaps
is frjXcjrcu in t h e f o r m o f a p a r a p h r a s e o f d . . . de'Xcov $03r)v ayanav {rjTodru)
. . .
e\pr\vr\v nal 5ICJ£CITCO avTrjv, 3 . 1 0 L ) .
S u c h t e c h n i q u e s are, r e m a r k a b l y , a l m o s t a b s e n t f r o m t h e s e a m at 4 . 1 1 / 1 2 . It m a y b e t h e r e is a k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n i n %evl$eode of 4.4.
OVTCLI
r e c a l l i n g £e*>tf-
B u t t h a t is a w e a k l i n k t o b e sure a n d d o e s n o t a c t u a l l y
o c c u r in t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e b o d y - m i d d l e , 4 . 7 — 1 1 . P o s s i b l y t h e o n l y t r u e c o n n e x i o n is t h e c o n c e p t u a l a f f i n i t y w h i c h ' t h e f i e r y o r d e a l ' has
with
TeXoq rjyjLKev the
heightened
e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s , ndvTcov
de TO
( 4 . 7 ) . It is a p p r o p r i a t e h e r e t o v e n t u r e a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r
l a c k o f literary
t e c h n i q u e s tying 4 . 1 2 f . t o 4 . 7 — 1 1 . T h e analysis o f
generic elements g o v e r n i n g b o d y - c l o s i n g n o t e d that the f u n c t i o n o f c o n d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s , s u c h as t h o s e in 4 . 1 4 L , w a s t o b r i n g t o a c o n c l u sion the p r i m a r y
thrust o f the b o d y - m i d d l e , a n d the inclusion involving
1.6f. a n d 4 . 1 2 f . o n l y r e i n f o r c e s t h a t f u n c t i o n . S i n c e t h e p r i m a r y t h r u s t o f the
b o d y - m i d d l e lies e l s e w h e r e t h a n in its e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n c l u s o n , it
would be misplaced to expect
m u c h in t h e w a y o f a c o n n e x i o n w i t h it
r a t h e r t h a n w i t h w h a t p r e c e d e s *it. I n d e e d , it s o h a p p e n s t h e r e are l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s in 4 . 1 2 f . t h a t body-middle. For
indicate
instance,
the
t h e l i n k s t h e b o d y - c l o s i n g has w i t h macarism and the sentiment
the
associated
w i t h it in 4 . 1 4 r e c a l l 3 . 1 4 , a n d t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f s u f f e r i n g in t e r m s o f G o d ' s w i l l in 4 . 1 9 recalls 3 . 1 7 . T h u s t h e a u t h o r w o u l d h a v e r i s k e d d e t r a c t ing f r o m t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a d h e c o n n e c t e d t h e b o d y - c l o s i n g c l o s e l y t o the eschatological c o n c l u s i o n . T h e last s e a m t o b e e x a m i n e d c o n c e r n s 4 . 1 9 / 5 . 1 . T w o c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s a p p e a r t o b e c o n n e c t i n g t h e m . T h e first is the l i n k - w o r d ' s u f f e r ' ( 4 . 1 9 ; see also 4 . 1 3 , 1 5 ) -nadr)iiaT(jjv,
6 nai
iv
TT]
.
T h e s e c o n d is t h e refrain
Tr)q p.e\Xovorjq
w h i c h clearly resumes nai
4 3
aitOKaXbtyei
KOL&6
Trjq
anoKaXvnTeo&ai
noivcoveiTe
Sogrjc
CLVTOV
Tolq
TOV
(4.13).
TGJV
TOV
XPIOTOV
do^rjq noivcovoq XPIOTOV
(5.1),
-na#r\iiaiv . . .
The net effect
of both
d e v i c e s is t o s m o o t h s o m e w h a t t h e a w k w a r d m o v e t o t h e t o p i c o f C h u r c h o r d e r , a l t h o u g h it m a y b e s e e n f r o m r e t r o s p e c t n o t t o b e w i t h o u t a n t e c e d e n t s (see e s p . 4 . 1 0 L , 1 7 ) .
4 3 A s in n. 4 2 a b o v e , a s y n o n y m is involved, perhaps explaining the neglect o f this device b y D a l t o n , Chevallier, a n d B a l c h .
32
A Literary Analysis In s u m , the p r e c e d i n g investigation o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l devices has f o u n d
e v i d e n c e o f e x t e n s i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h g e n e r i c e l e m e n t s at c r i t i c a l j u n c tures i n I P e t e r . T h e t e c h n i q u e s o n d i s p l a y a r e m a n y a n d v a r i e d , a n d at least o n e i n s t a n c e o f e v e r y k i n d o f t e c h n i q u e w a s u n c o v e r e d e x c e p t s y m metrical arrangement. Furthermore, a correlation seems t o exist b e t w e e n the relative i m p o r t a n c e c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y o f a n y given transition and the n u m b e r and kinds o f devices e m p l o y e d . T h e transitions o f 1 . 1 2 / 1 3 a n d 2 . 1 0 / 1 1 are c r u c i a l f o r t h e w h o l e l e t t e r ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d c o n t i n u i t y is at a p r e m i u m , w h i c h
m a y explain the relatively high c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
t e c h n i q u e s a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e m . B y c o m p a r i s o n , t h e t r a n s i t i o n s at 3 . 1 2 / 1 3 a n d 4 . 1 9 / 5 . 1 are less d e c i s i v e , s o t h a t f e w e r l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s are re quired t o get the j o b d o n e . T h e r e are several i m p o r t a n t o u t c o m e s o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f I P e t e r ' s g e n e r i c e l e m e n t s a n d c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s . It h a s d e l i n e a t e d t h e e p i s t o l a r y f r a m e w o r k i n t o w h i c h t h e a u t h o r s i t u a t e d his s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s s o t h a t t h e w a y h e d i s p o s e d o f t h e s e m a y b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d . It has l a i d t h e b a s i s f o r a d d i t i o n a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e u s e o f c o m p o s i t o n a l d e v i c e s in t h e l e t t e r b y c l a r i f y i n g t h e i r n a t u r e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e . It b e a r s d i r e c t l y o n m a n y o f the literary q u e s t i o n s associated w i t h the letter's exegesis t o b e discussed
later,
like the partition-theories, o r t h e o r i e s a b o u t liturgical
o r i g i n s , in as m u c h as c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e w a s a m a s s e d f a v o u r i n g t h e letter's
original integrity. Finally, the influence
reflected significant
o f the Pauline
school
i n t h e a u t h o r ' s d e c i s i o n t o a d o p t its l i t e r a r y p r a c t i c e s gives a h i n t as t o t h e d i r e c t i o n
from
w h i c h s o m e i n f l u e n c e o n his
hermeneutic was likely t o have c o m e .
2 . T h e Non-Biblical Formal Sources o f I Peter I Peter i n c o r p o r a t e s n u m e r o u s formal sources in a d d i t i o n t o the O T
4 4
.
4 5
A t the turn o f the c e n t u r y these were assumed m o s t l y t o b e w r i t t e n . H o w e v e r , as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e larger r e a c t i o n against s i m p l i s t i c s o u r c e c r i t i c a l t h e o r i e s t h a t b r o k e o u t n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d s , I P e t e r has c o m e t o
4 4 S p a c e d o e s n o t p e r m i t taking into a c c o u n t all the possible i t e m s the a u t h o r o f I Peter m a y have received f r o m tradition. T h e discussion is restricted t o f o r m a l source-materials the prior shape of w h i c h m a y still b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d partially with s o m e c o n f i d e n c e , because o n l y materials that possess a degree o f integrity in their transmission can b e p r o p e r l y u s e d f o r c o m p a r i s o n with O T sources. 4 5 F o r a r e v i e w o f earlier o p i n i o n see esp. Bigg, 1 6 . F e w w e n t as far as H J . H o l t z m a n n in claim ing I Peter's direct literary d e p e n d e n c e o n virtually every N T d o c u m e n t with w h i c h it bears a n y affinity w h a t s o e v e r , Einleitung,
3 1 3 f . A l m o s t every o p t i o n c o n c e i v a b l e h a d its supporters,
b u t the c o n s e n s u s f a v o u r e d s o m e direct d e p e n d e n c e o n R o m a n s , E p h e s i a n s , a n d J a m e s (see F . H . C h a s e , 'Peter', 7 8 8 f . ) . Oral tradition w a s n o t entirely o v e r l o o k e d all the s a m e , b u t it re m a i n e d f o r A . Seeberg's Katchismus
t o stress the integrity o f oral sources t o such a n e x t e n t that
t h e y m i g h t begin t o rival the theories o f literary d e p e n d e n c e . It s e e m s W a n d , 3 — 9 , w a s a m o n g the first o f the c o m m e n t a t o r s t o e m b r a c e Seeberg's p o s i t o n , s u b s e q u e n t l y refined a n d e x p a n d e d b y P. C a r r i n g t o n , A . M . H u n t e r , E . G . S e l w y n , a n d o t h e r s .
The Non-Biblical Formal Sources of I Peter
33
4 6
b e r e g a r d e d as d r a w i n g p r i m a r i l y o n o r a l s o u r c e s . L i s t e d b e l o w are t h e different
kinds o f unit w h i c h
form-critical
s t u d y has i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n
I Peter. 1)
41
topoi ,
such as 'rebirth* ( 1 . 3 , 2 3 , c p . 2 . 2 ) , ' j o y in suffering' ( 1 . 6 , 4 . 1 3 f . ) , ' b r o t h e r l y l o v e '
( 1 . 2 , 2 . 1 7 , 3 . 8 , c p . 4 . 8 ) , 'spiritual c u l t u s ' ( 2 . 5 ) , a n d 'non-retaliation' ( 2 . 2 3 , 3 . 9 ) 2 ) ethical l i t s t s
4 8
( 2 . 1 , 3 . 8 , 4 . 3 , cp. 4 . 1 5 )
3)
kerygmatic/creedal s t a t e m e n t s
4)
hymnic fragments
5 0
5)
doxologies/eulogies
6)
household r u l e s 5 3
5 2
7)
testimonia
8)
dominical s a y i n g s
4 9
(1.20, 2.24, 3.18, 22, 4.5)
( 1 . 3 f . , 1 8 f . , 2 . 2 1 f., 3 . 1 8 f . , 5 . 5 f . ) 5 1
(1.2, 3, 4.11, 5.11, 14b)
( 2 . 1 3 f . , 18f., 3.1f., 7, cp. 5 . 5 )
(2.6-8)
4 6 S u c h is the case
5 4
even for t h o s e w h o claim that m u c h o f the letter b e g a n as a liturgical creation
of o n e sort o r a n o t h e r , thus s i m p l y pushing b a c k o n e step t h e process o f transfer f r o m a n oral t o w r i t t e n state. F . W . B e a r e , 2 1 9 f . , a n d W . M u n r o , Authority,
7 , f o r e x a m p l e , b e l o n g t o a dis-
• tinct m i n o r i t y o f t h o s e w h o w o u l d h o l d o u t f o r significant literary d e p e n d e n c e . 4 7 See D . G . B r a d l e y , 'Topos\
2 3 8 - 4 6 , f o r the paraenetical f o r m itself. F o r 'rebirth' see e s p . Sel
w y n , 3 9 1 , and G o p p e l t , 9 2 f .
F o r ' j o y in suffering' see W . N a u c k , ' F r e u d e ' , esp. 6 9 — 7 3 . F o r
' b r o t h e r l y l o v e ' , see V . P . Furnish, Love,
e s p . 1 5 9 — 6 8 , a n d R . S c h n a c k e n b u r g , Teaching,
90—
1 0 9 . F o r 'spiritual c u l t u s ' see E . B e s t , 'Sacrifice', 2 8 0 - 9 0 , G o p p e l t , 1 4 5 f . , a n d D . Hill, 'Spiri tual', 4 5 — 6 3 . F o r 'non-retaliation' see K e l l y , 1 3 6 f . 4 8 F o r the virtues/vices
see e s p . A . V o g t l e , Lasterkataloge,
e s p . 7 7 - 1 0 8 , E . K a m l a h , Form,
passim,
S. W i b b i n g ,
esp. 1 7 6 - 2 0 7 , H . - D . W e n d l a n d , Ethik,
Lasterkataloge,
ad l o c , a n d E . Schwei-
zer, 'Patterns', e s p . 1 9 5 - 2 0 1 . 4 9 See a b o v e all E . L o h s e , 'Paranese', 6 8 - 8 9 . 5 0 See R . B u l t m a n n , ' B e k e n n t n i s ' , 1 — 1 4 , M . - E . B o i s m a r d , Quatre, 38-9,
4 5 - 6 , R . D e i c h g r a b e r , Gotteshymnus,
Lieder,
e s p . 8 3 — 6 , 1 6 1 — 5 , a n d J . T . Sanders, Hymns,
359—63.
For a
recent
discussion
and
169-73,
esp. 1 7 — 8 and 9 5 — 6 .
criteria specific t o such materials see e s p . E . Stauffer, Theology, 'Evidence',
p a s s i m , G . Schille,
esp. 7 7 - 8 , 1 4 0 - 3 ,
o f early
Hymnen,
K , Wengst,
F o r the f o r m a l
3 3 8 — 9 , and G . W . H . Lampe,
Christian h y m n o d y see M . H e n g e l ,
'Hymns', 7 8 - 9 6 . 5 1 F o r their general f u n c t i o n see L . G . C h a m p i o n , Benedictions, tions',
passim, a n d R . J e w e t t ,
'Benedic
passim, D . S c h r o e d e r , Haustafeln,
passim,
18-34.
5 2 F o r the h o u s e h o l d c o d e see K . W e i dinger, Haustafeln,
W . Schrage, ' H a u s f a f e l n ' , 1 - 2 2 , a n d E . S c h w e i z e r , 'Patterns', e s p . 2 0 1 - 9 . See also J . E . C r o u c h , Haustafel,
p a s s i m , W . M u n r o , Authority,
2 7 — 1 1 4 , D . C . V e r n e r , Household,
esp. 8 3 — 1 1 1 , a n d
B a l c h , Wives, e s p . 1 - 2 0 . 5 3 For the t e s t i m o n i a see J . R . Harris, Testimonies esp. 4 1 — 3 , B . Lindars, Apologetic,
I/II,
passim, a n d esp. C . H . D o d d ,
According,
1 6 9 f f . , and J . A . Fitzmyer, 'Testimonia', 59ff.
5 4 V e r y p r o b l e m a t i c is the q u e s t i o n of d o m i n i c a l logia in I Peter. See J.P. B r o w n , 'Parallels', 2 7 — 1
4 8 , a n d C . S p i c q , ' t e m o i g n a g e ' , 3 7 — 6 1 . F o r a sharp d e b a t e see R . H . G u n d r y , 'Verba , a n d 'Further Verba\
336—50,
2 1 1 - 3 2 , against E . Best, 'Tradition', 9 5 - 1 1 3 . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r the lit
erary q u e s t i o n p r o p e r , the c o n t r o v e r s y has turned m a i n l y o n evidence for or against genuine ness, a p o s t o l i c transmission, e t c . Best is the m o r e c a u t i o u s h e r e , a n d grants o n l y a ' m i n i m a l ' a m o u n t o f material as d e m o n s t r a b l y present in the letter. H e a c c e p t s f o u r isolated sayings, M k . 1 0 . 4 2 / / 5 . 3 , 1 0 . 4 5 / / 1 . 1 8 , M t . 5 . 1 0 / / 3 . 1 4 , a n d 5 . 1 6 b / / 2 . 1 2 b . H e also sees t w o b l o c k s o f tradition in L u k e as having s o m e i n f l u e n c e , 6 . 2 2 - 3 3 ( 2 2 / / 4 . 1 4 , perhaps 2 6 / / 3 . 1 6 , p e r h a p s 28//3.16,
32f.//2.19f.)
and
12.32-45
(perhaps 3 2 / / 5 . 2 - 4 ,
27f.//3.9,
3 3 / / 1 . 4 , 3 5 / / 1 . 1 3 , perhaps 4 2 / /
4 . 1 O f . ) . H e is the first t o a d m i t that m a n y o f these m a y b e legitimately q u e s t i o n e d . A detailed e x a m i n a t i o n o f the evidence w o u l d b e q u i t e b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f the present investigation, a n d it m a y suffice to observe the evidence o n Best's view is t o o scanty t o carry m u c h w e i g h t with a few exceptions.
A Literary Analysis
34
S i n c e n e a r l y all o f t h e a b o v e p r e s u p p o s e a l i t u r g i c a l l i f e - s e t t i n g , e s p e c i a l l y b a p t i s m a l c a t e c h e s i s , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t w r i t t e n s o u r c e s m i g h t still h a v e b e e n a f a c t o r b e h i n d I P e t e r has u n d e r s t a n d a b l y h e l d l i t t l e a t t r a c t i o n f o r a n y o n e , w h i c h e x p l a i n s w h y t h e s u b j e c t has all b u t d r o p p e d o u t o f dis cussion. T h a t is, u n t i l a w h i l e a g o w h e n H . S c h l i e r a r g u e d f o r its d e p e n d e n c e o n 5 5
R o m a n s , an i d e a that S c h e l k l e also finds i n t r i g u i n g . A f e w o t h e r s a c c e p t the possibility would
find
o f indirect influence
it d i f f i c u l t
from
t o imagine that
that source a n y w a y
5 6
.
They
R o m a n s might have b e e n read
w i d e l y f o r d e c a d e s in R o m e w i t h o u t l e a v i n g its s t a m p o n t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s t h o u g h t . This m a y b e grasped even f r o m the fact the a u t h o r o f I Peter had t o h a v e k n o w n a P a u l i n e e x e m p l a r in o r d e r t o a d a p t t h e g e n r e as h e d i d , a n d R o m a n s w o u l d h a v e s e r v e d his p u r p o s e w e l l of
a component
5 7
. H e n c e the possibility
o f direct dependence however conceived m a y n o t be
e n t i r e l y e x c l u d e d f r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Y e t t h e r e is r e a s o n t o g u a r d against e x a g g e r a t i n g its i m p o r t a n c e , s i n c e p r o b a b l y h a l f o f t h e a f f i n i t i e s c a n n o t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r in t h o s e t e r m s , a n d , as far as t h e q u e s t i o n o f d e p e n d e n c e o n s o u r c e s g e n e r a l l y is c o n c e r n e d , n o t a g r e a t m a n y m a t e r i a l s l i s t e d a b o v e c o u l d h a v e c o m e d i r e c t l y f r o m R o m a n s in a n y c a s e
5 8
.
But t o grant the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a m o r e than casual relationship b e t w e e n R o m a n s a n d I P e t e r is n o t t o g i v e an i n v i t a t i o n t o r e v i v e t h e s o u r c e - c r i t i c a l t h e o r i e s o f a b y g o n e d a y . T h e r e is n o t h i n g l i k e t h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e o t h e r leading
candidates, James,
Hebrews,
and
E p h e s i a n s , t h a t t h e r e is f o r
5 5 See 'adhortatio', 5 9 - 8 0 , 3 6 9 - 7 1 , a n d S c h e l k l e , 5f. 5 6 B e s t , 3 3 , traces 2 . 1 3 f . u l t i m a t e l y t o R o m . 1 3 . I f f . , a n d J . H . E l l i o t t , ' S t e p - C h i l d ' , 2 4 7 , a l l o w s the influence m i g h t have b e e n pervasive. It is t e m p t i n g likewise t o ascribe s o m e t h i n g as distinctive as t h e charismata
in 4 . 1 Of. to R o m . 1 2 . 6 f . ( c p . J . D . G . Dunn, Jesus,
2 0 5 ) , o r the S t o n e t e s t i m o
nia in R o m . 9 . 3 2 f . m i g h t have persisted as a f a c t o r b e h i n d t h e catena in 2 . 6 f . F o r the so-called 'Paulinism' in I Peter see e s p . B r o x , 4 7 — 5 1 , w h o can find n o m o r e o f a direct link t o Paul than that p r o v i d e d b y tradition, or p o s s i b l y a ' s c h o o l ' presence. H e j u s t l y criticizes H . G o l d s t e i n , Gemeinde,
f o r failing t o p e r f o r m the kind o f tradition-historical inquiry required t o s u p p o r t
his a t t e m p t t o situate the e c c l e s i o l o g y o f I Peter within the Pauline c o m m u n i t y . 5 7 A s n o t e d b y E l l i o t t , 'Step-Child', 2 4 7 . It is clear R o m a n s instances all the m a j o r generic features f o u n d in I Peter: o p e n i n g ( 1 . 1 - 7 ) , thanksgiving p e r i o d ( 1 . 8 - 1 2 ) , tripartite b o d y with internal division ( 1 . 1 3 - 5 ; 1 . 1 6 - 4 . 2 5 / 5 . 1 - 1 1 . 3 6 ; 1 5 . 1 4 - 3 3 ) , a paraenesis-section ( 1 2 . 1 - 1 5 . 1 3 ) , a n d a closing ( p r o b l e m a t i c , perhaps 1 6 . 2 1 — 3 ) . 5 8 T h e r e is relatively little overlap b e t w e e n the items in n n . 4 7 — 5 4 a b o v e a n d the R o m a n s / / I Peter affinities
cited here: 2 . 6 , 1 1 / / 1 . 1 7 ; 4 . 2 4 / / 1 . 2 1 ; 5 . 2 / / 3 . 1 8 ; 6 . 7 / / 4 . 1 b ; 6 . 1 0 / / 3 . 1 8 ;
6.11//2.24;
8.17//5.1; 8.34//3.22; 9.25//2.10; 9.32f.//2.6f.; 10.15ff.//1.23f.,2.8f.; 12.1//2.2,5; 12.2//1.14; 12.3,
6f.//4.7b,
10f.;
12.9a,
10a//1.22;
12.9-13,
13.8-12a//4.7-9;
12.9f.,
14ff.//3.8ff.;
1 3 . 1 — 7 / / 2 . 1 3 - 7 ; 1 4 . 1 2 / / 4 . 5 . M o r e o v e r , the affinities outside o f chaps. 1 2 — 3 have e x p e r i e n c e d f o r m u l a i c r e f i n e m e n t b y t h e t i m e t h e y reach I Peter, necessitating
s o m e sort o f
intervening
stage at the least. T h o s e w i t h i n c h a p s . 1 2 — 3 have n o t , or so it s e e m s . T h e y deviate again a n d again f r o m all the k n o w n parallels w i t h rare t e r m s , f o r m s , a n d c o n j u n c t i o n s o f the s a m e , c o n trary to w h a t o n e m i g h t e x p e c t f r o m the largely traditional character o f the c o n t e n t s . H e n c e a correlation d o e s s e e m to exist b e t w e e n R o m . 1 2 - 3 a n d I Peter that is b e t t e r e x p l a i n e d t h r o u g h s o m e kind o f positive influence o f the f o r m e r o n the latter. Its c o n t i n u e d use in the w o r s h i p o f the c o m m u n i t y in R o m e a c c o u n t s a d e q u a t e l y f o r the relationship, particularly if c h a p s . 1 2 — 3 h a d , u n d e r s t a n d a b l y , b e c o m e a favourite.
The Biblical Sources of I Peter Romans
5 9
.
35
F o r t h a t m a t t e r , J a m e s a n d E p h e s i a n s m i g h t j u s t as e a s i l y 6 0
depend on I Peter . Therefore, dependence
the possible e x t e n t t o w h i c h I Peter might reflect direct o n written, Christian sources d o e s
n o t c o m p a r e with the
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f its d i r e c t d e p e n d e n c e o n S c r i p t u r e . A n d , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t indirect influence f r o m Christian d o c u m e n t s m a y b e a factor the nature o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p is n o t a p p r e c i a b l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m that o f o r a l s o u r c e s , despite
the acute m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s
the
former
raises, b e c a u s e
b o t h k i n d s o f s o u r c e s s t a n d at r o u g h l y t h e s a m e r e m o v e f r o m t h e a u t h o r a n d p o s e c o m p a r a b l e p r o b l e m s as far as t h e i r r e d a c t i o n is c o n c e r n e d . In any event, the d e p e n d e n c e
o f First
P e t e r o n o r a l C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s is
d e m o n s t r a b l y g r e a t e r t h a n it m i g h t b e o n w r i t t e n C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s .
3. The Biblical Sources o f l Peter T h e investigation m a y n o w p r o c e e d t o a description o f I Peter's literary d e p e n d e n c e o n O T m a t e r i a l s . It is a p p r o p r i a t e t o b e g i n b y s p e c i f y i n g t h e criteria f o r distinguishing a m o n g various kinds o f q u o t a t i o n a n d allusion. A f t e r w a r d s , a catalogue o f I Peter's O T references m a y b e presented w h i c h was c o m p i l e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h o s e criteria, c o n c l u d i n g w i t h a discus 6 1
sion o f p r o b l e m a t i c c a s e s . 1)
Quotations
T h e m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s , f o r m a l , a n d deliberate sort o f literary d e p e n d e n c e
a)
Explicit
A n explicit q u o t a t i o n is a l w a y s i n t r o d u c e d b y a f o r m u l a
b)
Implicit
A n implicit
q u o t a t i o n r e p r o d u c e s a t e x t in e x t e n s o , such that it m i g h t
have b e e n i n t r o d u c e d b y a f o r m u l a a n d so have b e e n virtually indistinguish able f r o m a n explicit q u o t a t i o n 2 ) Allusions
Less f o r m a l b u t still d e m o n s t r a b l e , o f t e n i n t r o d u c e d into the c o n t e x t
with
little o r n o interruption
5 9 F o r I Pet.//Jas.,
see
1.11//1.1;
1.3//1.18;
1.6f.//1.2f.,
1 2 ; 1 . 2 3 / / . 1 . 1 8 ; 1 . 2 4 / / 1 . 1 Of.; 2 . 1 f . / /
1.20f.; 2 . 1 1 / / 4 . 1 ; 2 . 2 5 / / 5 . 1 9 ; 3 . 1 5 f . / / 3 . 1 3 ; 4 . 8 / / 5 . 2 0 ; 4 . 1 3 / / 1 . 2 , 1 2 ; 5 . 4 / / 1 . 1 2 ; 5.5f.//4.6f., 1 0 ; 5.9//4.7.
F o r I P e t . / / H e b . , see 1 . 1 , 2 . 1 1 / / 1 1 . 1 3 ; 1 . 2 / / 1 2 . 2 4 ; 1 . 2 3 / / 4 . 1 2 ;
2,2f.//5.12f.,
6.4;
2.5//13.15f.; 2.24//10.10; 2.25//5.4, 13.20; 3.9//12.17; 3.18//9.28; 3.22//12.17; 4.8f.//13.1f.; 4.14//13.13.
F o r I P e t . / / E p h . , see 1 . 3 - 1 2 / / 1 . 3 - 1 4 ;
1.10-2//3.2-6,
1 0 ; 1 . 1 3 / / 6 . 1 4 ; 1.13f.//
2.2f., 4 . 1 8 , 2 2 ; 1 . 1 8 / / 4 . 1 7 , 2 2 ; 1 . 2 0 / / 1 . 4 , 9 ; 1 . 2 3 / / 1 . 1 3 ; 2 . 1 f . / / 4 . 2 2 , 25f., 3 1 ; 2 . 2 - 6 / / 2 . 1 8 - 2 2 ; 2.13//5.21; 2.18//6.5; 3.1, 5//5.21f.; 3.4//3.16; 3.7//5.25; 3.8//4.32; 3.15//3.17; 3.18//2.18, 3 . 1 2 ; 3 . 2 2 / / 1 . 2 0 f . ; 4 . 2 f . / / 2 . 3 f . ; 4 . 1 0 / / 3 . 2 . T h e m a j o r i t y o f these are hardly c o m p e l l i n g , a n d m a n y m a y be e l i m i n a t e d , a s s u m i n g influence f r o m R o m a n s , b e c a u s e t h e y overlap. A n u m b e r o f o t h e r s , such as t h e Haustafeln
in E p h . , are m o r e likely t o have c o m e to I Peter orally. D e p e n d
e n c e o n E p h . rather t h a n o n C o l . is e n t e r t a i n e d , b e c a u s e I Pet. f o l l o w s E p h . w h e r e it deviates f r o m C o l . (see C M . M i t t o n , ' R e l a t i o n s h i p ' , 6 7 — 7 3 ) . F o r the relatively f e w r e m a i n i n g affinities I Peter has w i t h o t h e r N T d o c u m e n t s see F . H . C h a s e , 'Peter', 7 8 8 . 6 0 A g a i n s t the priority o f J a m e s see D i b e l i u s , James,
3 0 f . , 7 4 — 7 , a n d 2 2 5 — 8 . A g a i n s t the priority
o f E p h e s i a n s see E l l i o t t , 'Step-child', 2 4 7 , n. 1 7 , p o i n t i n g o u t that even M i t t o n m u s t c o n c e d e the evidence can b e read either w a y . 6 1 T h e a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e criteria is especially i n d e b t e d t o the w o r k s b y B e s t , ' R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n ' , 2 7 1 f.,
H . M . Shires, Finding,
6 5 - 6 a n d 2 4 8 - 9 , a n d T . P . O s b o r n e , 'Citations', 6 4 f f . , as well as
to certain criticisms b y D r . H u g h W i l l i a m s o n h e l p f u l in their r e f i n e m e n t .
A Literary Analysis
36 a)
Explicit
A n explicit allusion either m a k e s ( 1 ) a p o i n t e d reference t o a n O T p e r i c o p e , o r , ( 2 ) r e p r o d u c e s a sufficient q u a n t i t y o f t e x t so as t o leave one O T l o c u s the o b v i o u s p o i n t o f origin
b)
Implicit
A n implicit allusion d o e s n o t r e p r o d u c e sufficient t e x t t o m a k e o n e such l o c u s o b v i o u s , o n l y likely w h e n m o r e t h a n o n e possible l o c u s exists, b u t its basis in Scripture r e m a i n s clear
c)
Incipient
A n incipient allusion refers t o an O T p e r i c o p e b u t d e p e n d s f o r its recogni tion u p o n an exegetical tradition associated w i t h that p e r i c o p e
d ) Iterative
A n iterative allusion r e s u m e s or anticipates part o f a n O T t e x t cited else w h e r e b y the a u t h o r , a n d o f t e n it w o u l d have g o n e u n d e t e c t e d
without
such a favourable literary c o n t e x t 3)
Biblicisms
W h o l l y i n f o r m a l i d i o m characteristic of G r e e k - s p e a k i n g ( f o r present p u r p o s e s ) Jewish p i e t y , largely the p r o d u c t o f the L X X in a m a n n e r r e m i n i s c e n t o f the i m p a c t o f Luther's version o n G e r m a n o r t h e K i n g J a m e s o n English. Specific origins in the O T are i n c a p a b l e o f verification, so that O T materials m a y b e u s e d f o r illustrative p u r p o s e s o n l y
T h e s e m a y b e s e e n t o b e r a n k e d in d e s c e n d i n g f a s h i o n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e degree that a distinct o r i m m e d i a t e p o i n t o f c o n t a c t w i t h the O T m a y b e p l a u s i b l y d e m o n s t r a t e d , a n d t h a t o n e p a r t i c u l a r O T l o c u s is m o r e l i k e l y t o b e the p o i n t o f reference than a n y other. Any
s u c h s y s t e m i n e v i t a b l y h a s its l i m i t a t i o n s . C h i e f a m o n g t h e s e is
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y a g i v e n c a s e m a y fall o n t h e b o r d e r b e t w e e n t w o c l a s s e s , i n as m u c h as t h e r e w i l l a l w a y s b e r o o m f o r a m e a s u r e o f d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r w h a t m a k e s f o r explicitness, e t c . In respect t o iterative allusions especially s o m e f u r t h e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n is n e e d e d , b e c a u s e t h e y c a n b e s u f f i c i e n t l y p r o n o u n c e d s o as t o s t a n d o n t h e i r o w n . B u t f o r t h a t v e r y r e a s o n t h e r e is n o risk o f c o n f u s i n g t h e m w i t h c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t a l l u s i o n s . S o , t h e y may
b e p l a c e d w h e r e t h e y have t o highlight their derivative nature. A
s o m e w h a t u n e a s y arrangement also seems t o exist pertaining t o biblicisms, f o r this h a s h a d t o s e r v e as a k i n d o f m i s c e l l a n e o u s c a t e g o r y w h e r e a n y p u r p o r t e d O T reference m i g h t have t o b e relegated that c o u l d n o t b e p u t in a h i g h e r c a t e g o r y . R e l a t i v e d i f f i c u l t i e s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e s e p r o p o s e d definitions sharpen the degree t o w h i c h discrete t y p e s o f literary d e p e n d e n c e m a y b e discerned a n d m a k e f o r greater p r o c e d u r a l r i g o u r
6 2
.
I P e t e r has n i n e e x a m p l e s o f f i r s t - o r d e r l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c e . A t least six b e l o n g t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f e x p l i c i t q u o t a t i o n s : 1 . 1 6 ( 5 t o r t yey Lev. 1 9 . 2 )
6 3
, 1 . 2 4 - 5 a (Stdrt, I s . 4 0 . 6 - 8 ) , 2 . 6 - 8 ( 5 t d r t nepiexei
panrai.
ev ypcupr]
6 2 T h e O T references m e n t i o n e d in this c h a p t e r have b e e n culled f r o m a great m a n y sources, b u t m a i n l y f r o m the lists in W e s t c o t t a n d H o r t , F . H . C h a s e , 'Peter', ad l o c , a n d the N e s t l e - A l a n d t e x t ( 2 6 t h e d . ) . It m a y b e that a f e w have e l u d e d the nets, nevertheless. O c c a s i o n a l l y , a n alleged O T reference w a s n o t m e n t i o n e d if it clearly d i d
n o t c o n f o r m as well as a n o t h e r c a n d i d a t e . In
d o u b t f u l cases t h e y were retained, or if there were n o rivals. T h e r e f o r e , the data have b e e n b u t slightly sifted. 6 3 O f c o u r s e , the p l u r i - f o r m state o f the O T in H e b r e w a n d G r e e k during t h e N T p e r i o d inevitably c o m p l i c a t e s the task o f securing a particular reference w h e n m o r e t h a n o n e possibility m a y exist. O f the five candidates in G r e e k I Peter c o r r e s p o n d s m o r e nearly w i t h L e v . 1 0 . 2 , f o r w h a t it is w o r t h , a n d clearly n o t w i t h L e v . 1 1 . 4 4 — 5 , f o r e x a m p l e (against V . P . Furnish, Love,
163).
The Biblical Sources of I Peter . . . K C U , Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 , Is. 8 . 1 4 )
6 4
37
, a n d , 3 . 1 0 - 2 (yap, P s . 3 4 . 1 3 -
7 ) . D e p e n d i n g o n h o w the c o n j u n c t i o n s are t o b e construed, remaining 4.18
quotations
the three
m a y b e e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t , 4 . 8 (6ri, P r v . 1 0 . 1 2 ) ,
(nai, P r v . 1 1 . 3 1 ) , a n d 5 . 5 b ( o n , P r v . 3 . 3 4 ) . I n f a v o u r o f t a k i n g P r v .
1 0 . 1 2 a n d 3 . 3 4 as e x p l i c i t is t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t on m a y r e f l e c t 5 t o r t , t h e author's seemingly preferred
I F u s e d c o n s i s t e n t l y f o r t h e first f o u r cita
t i o n s , a n d m a y c o m p a r e as w e l l w i t h t h e c a u s a l u s e o f yap t o i n t r o d u c e w h a t c a n o n l y b e t h e e x p l i c i t q u o t a t i o n o f Ps. 3 4 in 3 . 1 0 — 2 . T h e q u o t a t i o n o f P r v . 1 1 . 3 1 i n 4 . 1 8 is m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o c l a s s i f y , b e c a u s e nai s e e m s to
be used
author's 2.8
6 5
more
t o draw
discourse
than
the quotation
into
t h e natural f l o w o f t h e
t o serve t h e p r o p e r i n t r o d u c t o r y
r o l e it d i d in
. I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e c o n j u n c t i o n p e r f o r m s b o t h tasks s i m u l t a n e o u s
l y , s o t h a t t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g
m o r e t o b e said f o r a n e x p l i c i t
quotation
than implicit. Next
for consideration
allusions.
is t h e s e c o n d o r d e r
Perhaps thirteen qualify
o f literary
dependence,
f o r its first c a t e g o r y : 2 . 3 ( P s . 3 4 . 8 ) ,
2,9 ( E x . 1 9 . 5 - 6 , c p . 2 3 . 2 2 L X X ; Is. 4 3 . 2 0 - 1 ) , 2 . 1 0 ( H o s . 1 . 6 - 2 . 1 , 2 5 L X X ) , 2 . 2 2 (Is. 5 3 . 9 ) , 2 . 2 4 , (Is. 5 3 . 5 ) , 2 . 2 5 (Is. 5 3 . 6 ) , 3.6 ( G e n . 1 8 . 1 2 ) , 3.14f. (Is.8.12f.), 3.20 (Gen. 7.13ff.),
3 . 2 2 (Pss. 1 1 0 . 1 , 8 . 6 - 7 ) , a n d 4 . 1 4
(Is. 1 1 . 2 ) . N o t e w o r t h y are t h e p o i n t e d references t o O T scenes in 3 . 6 a n d 3.20 m a d e with a m i n i m u m o f b o r r o w e d t e r m i n o l o g y , a n d the t w o kinds of
c o n f l a t e d O T materials in 2 . 9 a n d 2 . 1 0 . T h a t in 2 . 9 brings
items
f r o m different
together
c o n t e x t s , a n d that in 2 . 1 0 t e l e s c o p e s i t e m s f r o m a
single, relatively l o n g , passage. There are t w o additional
a l l u s i o n s w h i c h p r o b a b l y o u g h t t o b e classi
f i e d s i m i l a r l y , 2 . 1 2 ( I s . 1 0 . 3 ) a n d 4 . 1 7 ( E z e k . 9 . 6 ) . I P e t . 2 . 1 2 , ev enioKonrjc;, irrjq,
c o m p a r e s m o r e c l o s e l y w i t h I s . 1 0 . 3 , iv TTJ r)fiepa rrjq
t h a n t h e n e a r e s t c o m p e t i t o r , W i s . 3 . 7 , ev naip&
less M a i . 3 . 1 7 , elq fipepav,
fjv eyco
noidj
elq Tiepvnoir\aiv
eTnoKOTrrjq, (against
' C o n s o l a t o r y ' , 9 8 a n d n . 2 8 ) . In the same vein E z e k . 9 . 6 , ayicov
fiov ap^aode,
is v e r b a l l y n e a r e r t o I P e t . 4 . 1 7 , naipoq
( 1 1 . 4 4 ) 07101 e a e a t f e , o n a y to?
KCU
TOV
mepa eitioKOmuch Danker,
and
TCOV
ap^aodai
einieyib
( 1 1 . 4 5 ) e'aeatfe 07101, o n ayioq etjui eyu) (20.7)
eoeode 07101, 6'ndyioq eyco
( 2 0 . 2 6 ) e a e a t f e noiayioi, (19.2)
o n eyw
07101 e a e a t f e , OTL eycj
dyioq
aytoq
(I Pet.) 07101 e a e a t f e , o n kyu) dytoq [etjut] 6 4 T h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a refers t o Scripture a n d n o t t o a c o n j e c t u r e d h y m n , as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y E l l i o t t , Elect,
1 3 3 - 8 , against S e l w y n , 2 7 3 . Its unusual f o r m m a y b e attrib
u t e d t o a desire t o i n t r o d u c e t h e entire c o n c a t e n a t i o n o f O T references in 2 . 6 f f . 6 5 T h e use o f nai as a n i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a is generally regarded as a r e f l e c t i o n o f ancient J e w ish practice
which
constructed
chains
o f O T q u o t a t i o n s using- waw, t h e
string in a r o w ' , a c c o r d i n g t o W . Bacher, Terminologie, las', 3 0 1 , E . E . Ellis, Use, 4 9 - 5 0 , Targums,
T"l n - m e t h o d ( ' t o
I , 6 5 ) . See also B . M . M e t z g e r , ' F o r m u
citing R o m . 9 - 1 1 , 1 5 . 1 Of., a n d II C o r . 6 . 1 6 f . ; J . B o w k e r ,
7 4 , and J . A . F i t z m y e r , ' Q u o t a t i o n s ' , e s p . 7 — 1 6 . H e n c e a b e t t e r case f o r the m e t h o d
can b e m a d e in I Pet. 2 . 8 , b e c a u s e o f the catena o f t e x t s , t h a n in 4 . 1 8 .
A Literary Analysis
38
Kpifia
TO
and
TOV
OLKOV
tieov,
TOV
than the t w o alternatives cited m o s t
f r e q u e n t l y , J e r . 2 5 . 2 9 ( 3 2 . 2 9 L X X ) , ev rroXei, ev r] uvopdodr] (iov
en' avTrjv,
eyco
TOV
vaov
the
status o f e x p l i c i t allusion
eavTov
dpxopat
Kvpioq,
KaKcboat,
or, Mai. 3 . 1 ,
TO
e^ai^vqq
KCLI
dvopa
r)'%ei eic.
H e n c e there m a y b e insufficient reason t o d e n y t o t h e m , bringing the total in I Peter t o
fifteen. The number twenty:
o f i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n s i n P e t e r is q u i t e a b i t l a r g e r , p e r h a p s
1.18 ( I s . 5 2 . 3 ) , 1.19 ( I s . 5 3 . 7 ; E x 1 2 . 5 / 2 9 . 3 8 ) , 1.21 ( I s . 5 2 . 1 3 ) ,
1 . 2 5 b (Is. . 4 0 . 9 ) , 2 . 4 (Ps. 3 4 . 5 ) , 2 . 9 (Is. 4 2 . 1 2 ; Mai. 3 . 1 7 o r Hag. 2 . 9 ) , 2 . 1 7 (Prv. 2 4 . 2 1 ) , 2 . 2 3 (Is. 5 3 . 7 ; 5 3 . 1 2 ) , 2 . 2 4 (Is. 5 3 . 4 ; 5 3 . 1 2 ) , 3 . 6 (Prv. 3 . 2 5 ) , 3 . 1 3 (Is. 5 0 . 9 ) , 3 . 1 8 (Is. 5 3 . 1 1 L X X ) , 4 . 1 9 (Ps. 3 1 . 5 ) , 5.7 (Ps. 5 5 . 2 2 ) , a n d 5.8 ( P s . 2 2 . 1 4 ; J o b 1 . 7 ) . S u f f i c i e n t t e x t a n d a n a b s e n c e o f g o o d parallels elsewhere 2.17, Kai
make
t h e S c r i p t u r a l l o c i o f at least five o f t h e s e l i k e l y : 1 . 1 8 ,
5 . 7 , a n d 5.8 (bis). M a y b e three m o r e c a n b e a d d e d here: 3.6 ( c p . pr\ yopovpevai
pr]8epiav
TTTorjoiv eneXdovoav), KdKcboei xjjvxd^ In
fie), a n d , 4 . 1 9 ( c p .
other
instances
contextual
6
TTLOTC^
w i t h Ps. 3 1 . 5 , e k \eipdq
CLVTCOV
uniquely
with
TTTOTJOLV
and, 3.13 (cp.
P r v . 3 . 2 5 , Kai vpdq
KCLKCJOCOV
napaTide
KTLOTT]
oov napa&rjooiiai
factors
TO
OU
^o/fytfrjaT?
w i t h Is. 5 0 . 9 , o&oooav
rdc
irvevpdpov).
b u l k m o r e d e c i s i v e l y . S o , it is
b e c a u s e I s . 4 0 . 6 — 8 w a s q u o t e d at l e n g t h
immediately
before
h a n d t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o ' p r o c l a i m i n g ' in 1 . 2 5 b m a y b e c o n s t r u e d as a p r o b a b l e alluson
t o Is. 4 0 . 9 w h e r e t h e p t c . a p p e a r s t w i c e . S i m i l a r l y , t h e
explicit
t o Ps. 3 4 . 8 in 2 . 3 invites
allusion
taking the reference
t o 'ap
p r o a c h i n g ' i n 2 . 4 as a n a l l u s o n t o P s . 3 4 . 5 . Y e t n o O T c o n t e x t m a k e s i t s e l f felt as s t r o n g l y i n this r e s p e c t as t h a t o f I s . 5 3 . T h e t h r e e e x p l i c i t a l l u s i o n s t o it a l r e a d y
identified in 2 . 2 2 , 2 4 , a n d 2 5 , m a k e three m o r e in 2.23—4
likely, s o that v v . 4—14 in Is. 5 3 are s p a n n e d
6 7
.
T h u s o t h e r p o s s i b l e allu
s i o n s t o I s . 5 3 at 1 . 1 9 ( 5 3 . 7 ) a n d 3 . 1 8 ( 5 3 . 1 1 L X X ) b e c o m e l i k e l y . S o , b y v i r t u r e o f t h e a l l u s o n t o I s . 5 2 . 3 at 1 . 1 8 a b l o c k o f Isaiah c o m e s i n t o v i e w , h e l p i n g t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r a n o t h e r a l l u s i o n at 1 . 2 1 ( 5 2 . 1 3 , 6 naiq pov Kai 68
v\p wdrjoeTCu Kai do^ao&rjoeTai) .
It t h e n m a y b e s u p p o s e d t h a t I s . 5 3 is
a b b r e v i a t e d a t 2 . 2 2 - 5 l i k e H o s . 1 - 2 w a s at 2 . 1 0 .
6 6 C o n c e r n i n g 2 . 1 0 , c h a p s . 1—2 o f H o s e a suffice f o r the materials p r e s e n t , a n d n o o t h e r sources are r e q u i r e d , such as Is. 5 1 . 1 6 , Xaoq yov el ov. 6 7 T o start w i t h , t h e ' m i n i m a l i s t ' v i e w o f M . D . H o o k e r , Servant, 1 2 5 , a c c e p t s allusions in I Pet. 2 . 2 2 — 5 t o Is. 5 3 . 5 , 6 , 9 , a n d 1 2 . T o her list m a y b e a d d e d v. 4 , b e c a u s e r d ? dfiapriaq r\i±Cjv in 2.24
occurs o n l y there. A n allusion t o v . 7 is possible, as Beare p r o p o s e s , b e c a u s e 2 . 2 3 , oq
Xoibopovixevoq OVK dt»reA.ot6dpet, txaoxLOV OVK Tj7ret'\et, m a y b r o a d l y paraphrase Kai avroq 6 i d TO KenaKCjodcu OVK
avoiyei
TO
OVK CLVoiyei TO OTOixa . . . Kai tJq ajivoq evavTivo TOV nelpovroq &
vo<; ovTtoq ard/ua
aVTOV
( 1 4 9 ) . L a s t l y , there m a y b e a s e c o n d allusion t o v. 1 2 in 2 . 2 3 ,
b e c a u s e -napeblbov recalls napeSodr) there ( b i s ) , a n d n o t napebu)Kev for
in 5 3 . 6 , w h i c h has G o d
its subject a n d a n entirely different sense (see L o h s e , 'Paranese', 8 8 , n. 1 0 9 , a n d .against
Goppelt, 2 0 9 ) . 6 8 F o r 1 . 2 1 / / 5 2 . 1 3 L X X see H o r t , 8 4 , w h o c o m p a r e s A c t s 3 . 1 3 , 1 5 . C o n c e r n i n g I Pet. 3 . 1 8 , Is. 53.11
L X X reads
avoioet....
SIKCUUNJGU
biKavov
ev bovXevovTa iroWoiq,
Kai r d q djuapriaq
CLVTLJV
abroq
A t the very least t h e f o r m u l a is t a n t a m o u n t t o a n iterative allusion t o t h e material
f r o m Is. 5 3 in 2 . 2 2 - 5 .
The Biblical Sources of I Peter
39
R e l a t e d t o , b u t d i s t i n c t f r o m , t h e l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t as a f a c t o r in t h e detection
o f i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n s is t h e
factor o f transmission history. A
given O T text m a y acquire such p r o n o u n c e d associations over t i m e that t o r e f e r t o t h e s e is t o p r e s u p p o s e a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e o r i g i n a l p a s s a g e . A c a s e i n p o i n t c o n c e r n s Is. 5 2 — 3 . T h e m o r e p r o m i n e n t its C h r i s t o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r i o r t o I P e t e r t h e b e t t e r t h e c h a n c e s o f a d e l i b e r a t e allu s i o n t o it e v e n in a n i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e l i k e 1 . 1 9 d e s p i t e t h e c l o s e r v e r b a l a f f i n i t i e s t h a t coc, aytvov aidojidov ( E x . 1 2 . 5 ) a n d / o r a^vovq
KCLI
CLOTILXOV
t i o n o f an a l l u s i o n t o D t . 2 1 . 2 3 w i t h eni TO %V\OV i m p r o b a b l e apart concerns the
has w i t h npofiarov
. . . ajucojuouc, ( E x . 2 9 . 3 8 )
6 9
reXeiov
. L i k e w i s e , the detec
in 2 . 2 4 w o u l d b e m o s t 7 0
f r o m e x i s t i n g e x e g e t i c a l t r a d i t i o n . T h e last e x a m p l e
great c o m p l e x o f t r a d i t i o n s c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h I P e t .
7 1
3 . 1 9 f . T h e Fall o f t h e H e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s e v i d e n t l y lies b e h i n d it, re gardless o f h o w this crux is t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d , a n d s o , t h e r e f o r e , d o e s an a l l u s i o n t o G e n . 6 . P r e v e n t i n g t h e s e i n c i p i e n t a l l u s i o n s f r o m q u a l i f y i n g as explicit
is t h e i r d e p e n d e n c e o n p r o m i n e n t e x e g e t i c a l t r a d i t i o n t o m a k e
their p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e o b v i o u s rather than o n sufficient quantities o f r e p r o d u c e d text o r a clear attribution. P o s i n g a n e v e n g r e a t e r c h a l l e n g e , h o w e v e r , are t h e i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n s in I P e t . 2 . 9 , w h i c h m u s t b e c o m p a r e d in d e t a i l a l o n g w i t h t h e e x p l i c i t allu s i o n s t h a t a n c h o r t h e m in o r d e r t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e i r i n t r i c a t e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n ships. I Pet. 2 . 9
Ex. 1 9 . 5 - 6
6 9 C p . Is. 5 3 . 7 , Cjq -npofiarov
. . . u>q duvoq.
Is. 4 3 . 2 0 - 1
T h e r e is p r o b a b l y n o allusion t o E x . 2 9 . 3 8 , despite
the p a l p a b l e a f f i n i t y , because the c o n t e x t is different, referring t o the daily offering w i t h stan dard
terminology
for sacrificial victims. T w o streams o f early Christian exegetical
c o n v e r g e here associated with
tradition
Is. 5 2 — 3 , o n the o n e h a n d ( M k . 1 0 . 4 5 a , see a b o v e n. 5 4 ) , a n d
with P a s s o v e r / E x o d u s , o n the other (I C o r . 5 . 7 , L k . 9 . 3 1 ) . F o r the f o r m e r see also F. H a h n , Titles,
1 8 6 , a n d f o r the latter, L . G o p p e l t , Typos,
a n d R . E . B r o w n , Churches,
1 5 4 f f . , J . D a n i e l o u , Sacramentum,
7 7 f . Regarding the usefulness
104ff.,
of r e c o n s t r u c t i n g exegetical tradi
tions t o aid in the d e t e c t i o n o f allusions, see M . W i l c o x , 'Investigation', 2 3 1 — 4 3 . 7 0 F o r the N T interpretation o f D t . 2 1 . 2 3 see M . W i l c o x , ' T r e e ' , 8 5 - 9 9 , a n d M . H e n g e l ,
Crucifix
ion, e s p . 8 4 f f . 71 See the recent detailed s t u d y b y A . T . H a n s o n , Interpretation,
1 2 2 - 5 6 , a n d the review o f the
c o n t r o v e r s y surrounding this v e x e d passage b y W . J . D a l t o n , ' R e c o n s i d e r e d ' , 9 5 — 1 0 5 . E f f o r t s t o e x c l u d e the W a t c h e r s f r o m 3 . 1 9 f . have a p p a r e n t l y b e e n unsuccessful.
Literary c o n t e x t is in
part r e s p o n s i b l e , since the e p i s o d e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s the F l o o d narrative. B u t the 'preach ing' to s o m e kind o f n e t h e r w o r l d is as m u c h r e s p o n s i b l e , since the m o s t familiar tradition for such a gesture involved E n o c h and the W a t c h e r s .
40
A Literary Analysis
It is c l e a r I P e t . 2 . 9 is an a m a l g a m o f t h e t w o o f E x . , b e g i n s w i t h viieis interposes
yevoq
de
enXenTdv
of Ex.
7 2
. It d r o p s Xadq nepLOvaioq
( c o p u l a , eoeo&e,
is m i s s i n g ) , t h e n ,
f r o m Is., o n l y t o r e s u m e the s e q u e n c e o f E x .
i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d s u n t i l e x h a u s t e d , a n d , f i n a l l y r e t u r n s t o Is. f o r its concluson The
7 3
.
f e w s i g n i f i c a n t d e v i a t i o n s o c c u r in t h e c l o s i n g m a t e r i a l s f r o m Is.,
t h u s els
nepinoLr\oiv
for the verb,
a n d e^ayyeiXrjTe
f o r dvqyeio&ai.
The
latter m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o i n f l u e n c e f r o m t h e parallel in Is. 4 2 . 1 2 ,
rdq
aperdq
KCU
eoovraiJJLOL ev
rc/3
. . . dvayyeXovoiv,
CLVTOV
. . . etc, r)^epav,
Tonc^
KTL^OVTL
TOV
dcooco
TOVTU)
dvaoTrjoai
a n d the f o r m e r t o either Mai. 3 . 1 7 ,
fjv eyco
noidb elq
. . . eipr\vr\v
TOV
vaov
TOVTOV.
nepinolr}oiv,
iiv\r\q
eis
or, Hag. 2 . 9 ,
nepinoir\oiv
itavri
rco
There might b e cause to prefer
H a g . 2 . 9 at first g l a n c e f o r t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l T e m p l e m o t i f it shares w i t h I P e t . 2 . 4 f . , b u t t h e p r e p , p h r a s e itself refers t o t h e p e a c e t h e p e o p l e w i l l p o s s e s s a n d n o t t o t h e p e o p l e as G o d ' s p o s s e s s i o n , t h e w a y it
d o e s b o t h in
I Peter and Mai. 3 . 1 7 . If a p r e f e r e n c e m u s t b e d e c l a r e d , therefore, then M a l a c h i l o o k s b e t t e r . M i l i t a t i n g against t h e a l t e r a t i o n s as s h e e r c o i n c i d e n c e is t h e f a c t that I P e t e r a l r e a d y c o m b i n e s l a n g u a g e f r o m t h r e e O T t e x t s as it is. M o r e o v e r , t h e c o n f l a t i o n o f t h e t w o Isaianic t e x t s has b e e n facilita t e d n o t s i m p l y b y v e r b a l tallies b u t b y a h e i g h t e n e d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e as w e l l , w h i c h p r i n c i p l e s are n o less l i k e l y t o h a v e f i g u r e d in t h e case o f M a i . 3 . 1 7 . With
this last t e r m
the n u m b e r o f allusions w i t h
independent
status
nigh well e n d s , leaving iterative allusions t o b e treated. O n l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s e x a m p l e s n e e d t o b e c i t e d f o r illustrative p u r p o s e s , b e c a u s e t h e p h e n o m e n o n as a w h o l e is b e t t e r t r e a t e d in d e t a i l later d u r i n g t h e d i s c u s sion o f source-integration. In s o m e instances iterative
a l l u s i o n s are q u i t e e x t e n s i v e . T h e e x p l i c i t
q u o t a t i o n o f L e v . 1 9 . 2 at 1 . 1 6 is a l r e a d y p a r a p h r a s e d
in 1 . 1 5 , as c a n b e
s e e n at a g l a n c e . A c o m p a r a b l e o c c u r r e n c e m a y b e o b s e r v e d in 2 . 4 — 5 , 7 a n d 8 b , w h e r e t h e m a s s o f q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s in t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g verses has b e e n p a r a p h r a s e d . tion
o f Is. 4 0 . 6 — 8 at
ipdapTrjs
dXXd
S o m e w h a t less sharp is t h e w a y t h e q u o t a
1.24—5a is r e f l e c t e d a l r e a d y
dyddprov
did
Xoyov
$U)VTOC;
deov
in 1 . 2 3 , £K on op as nai
jievovroq.
Other
i n s t a n c e s are p e r h a p s less s e l f - e v i d e n t . A f t e r t h e q u o t a t i o n in 1.24—5a TO prjfia r e a p p e a r s
at
1 . 2 5 b b y w a y o f a p p l i c a t i o n . T h e n again, the expres
s i o n s in 3 . 7 (oTyKXrjpovofiOLS
xdpiTos
Scorjs) a n d 3 . 9 (tva efXoyiav
KXTJPO-
vopirjoriTe) w o u l d a l m o s t s e e m t o a n t i c i p a t e p o i n t e d l y t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e p s a l m q u o t a t i o n in 3 . 1 0 , w h i l e t h o s e t h a t a p p e a r in 3 . 1 3 f . (6 TOV
dyadov
7 2 D e s p i t e the
^riXcoTai ye'vrjo&e,
doublet of
Ex.
a n d duiaioovvqv)
paraphrase the
KCLKCOOCOV,
psalm
1 9 . 5 f . in L X X t o E x . 2 3 . 2 2 , the l o c u s classicus is i n h e r e n t l y m o r e
likely t o be in v i e w . 7 3 It is c o n c e i v a b l e
that the
n o m i n a t i v e in
I Peter, was
i n f l u e n c e d b y Xaoq f r o m E x .
g r a m m a t i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y in I Peter w o u l d d e m a n d it a n y w a y .
19.5,
but
The Biblical Sources of I Peter
41
7 4
a f t e r w a r d s . I t is i n this r e g a r d t h a t e v e n t h e a n t i t h e s i s ' w e l l - d o i n g ' / ' e v i l d o i n g ' m a y b e c o n s t r u e d as a k i n d o f i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o P s . 3 4 . T h e r e m a y b e a f u r t h e r s u c h a l l u s i o n t o t h e p s a l m ' s navodroj w i t h TTenavreL duapTLas
KCLKOV
TT]V
yXdoaaav and
i n 4 . 1 . I n 4 . 8 a ayd-nr\v s e e m s t o a n t i c i p a t e
t h e p r o v e r b ' s dy dnrj, w h i l e yC\6£evoi
i n 4 . 9 seems t o e c h o the p r o v e r b in
8 b . F i n a l l y , Ta-neivo^ppoovvr^v i n 5 . 5 b a n t i c i p a t e s t h e p r o v e r b ' s r e i t e r a t e d at 5 . 6 w i t h ra-neivdj^rire.
Taireivoiq,
S o I Peter appears t o contain a b r o a d
a s s o r t m e n t o f i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n s o f a p l a i n l y s e c o n d a r y n a t u r e as far as l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c e is c o n c e r n e d . The
t h i r d a n d last o r d e r o f l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c e f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n is
m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c , s o s a y t h e l e a s t , t h a n t h e f o r e g o i n g . I t is e v e n q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r a l i t e r a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p is a l w a y s i n v i e w , b e c a u s e b i b l i c ally-patterned discourse m a y n o t simply have been the p r o d u c t o f the G r e e k versions, n o r perpetuated b y t h e m , b u t m a y well have p r e c e d e d t h e m a n d existed alongside their use in t h e Diaspora. Nevertheless, t o d o c u m e n t p a r t i c u l a r b i b l i c i s m s is n o t a fruitless e f f o r t , i f n o m o r e is h o p e d for than t o emphasize the difference b e t w e e n t h e m a n d the m e m b e r s o f t h e first a n d s e c o n d o r d e r s o f l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c e j u s t d i s c u s s e d . S u c h i n s t a n c e s a r e p l e n t i f u l i n I P e t e r ' s first c h a p t e r : 1.2 ( D n . 4 . 1 o r 6 . 2 6 0 ) , 1.3 ( S i r . 1 6 . 1 2 ) , 1.7 ( P r v . 1 7 . 3 , 2 7 . 2 1 , Z e c h . 1 3 . 9 , M a i . 3 . 2 b - 3 , Sir. 2 . 5 ) , 1 . 1 0 ( I M a c e . 9 . 2 6 ) , 1 . 1 2 (Pss. 1 4 . 1 2 , 8 5 . 1 1 , L a m . 3 . 5 0 , I E n . 9 . 1 , 1 6 . 3 , J a s . 1 . 2 5 , G e n . 2 8 . 1 2 P T ) , 1 . 1 3 ( E x . 1 2 . 1 1 , J e r . 1 . 1 7 , II K , 4 . 2 9 , 9 . 1 , Prv. 3 1 . 1 7 ) , 1.17 (Jer. 3 . 1 9 , Ps. 8 9 . 2 7 , Ps. 6 2 . 1 2 , Prv. 2 4 . 1 2 ) , a n d 1.23 ( D n . 6 . 2 7 0 ) . T h e y m a y b e discussed seriatim. 1)
C o n c e r n i n g t h e salutation's
eipi\vr\
ir\r)dvv$eLr),
t h e evidence f r o m T h e o d o t i o n d e m a n d s
n o m o r e than t h e presence o f epistolary c o n v e n t i o n 2 ) N e a r l y identical with Sir. 1 6 . 1 2 is Kara
TO noki) avrov e'Xeoq in 1 . 3 , b u t the phrase m i g h t
b e a freely circulating liturgical s t y l i z a t i o n , a possibility t h e c o n t e x t in I Peter favours 3)
T h e reference t o the smelting o f p r e c i o u s m e t a l s in 1 . 7 as a m e t a p h o r f o r character d e v e l o p
4)
T h e rare c o n j u n c t i o n o f verbs in 1 . 1 0 , e fcefrjrTjaai/ KCLI e %r\pavvr\oav
m e n t is n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a s t o c k - e x p r e s s i o n , as s h o w n b y t h e O T e v i d e n c e a l o n e d o e s have a parallel
in I M a c e . 9 . 2 6 , b u t there the m e a n i n g is d e c i d e d l y p r o f a n e a n d spatial whereas here it is esoteric a n d cognitive. It is m u c h easier t o a c c o u n t f o r I Peter in t e r m s o f literary embellish m e n t t h a n literary influence 5)
T h e reference in 1 . 1 2 t o t h e secrets angels strive t o p e n e t r a t e has t o o c o m p l e x a b a c k g r o u n d
6)
T h e c o m m a n d in 1 . 1 3 , ava%uodnevoi r d c bo^pvaq, is clearly a n e v e r y d a y saying b y the N T
in pre-Christian J u d a i s m t o sustain a n y sort o f literary d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e part o f I P e t e r
7 5
p e r i o d , a n d n o m o r e g r o u n d s exist f o r a case o f literary d e p e n d e n c e here t h a n exist f o r t h e parallels in L k . 1 2 . 3 5 o r E p h . 6 . 1 4 (see Best, 8 4 ) 7)
T h e i n v o c a t i o n o f G o d as F a t h e r in 1 . 1 7 n e e d n o t b e a n y m o r e influenced b y O T t e x t s t h a n b y t h e L o r d ' s o w n practice ( M k . 1 4 . 3 6 , G a l . 4 . 6 , R o m . 8 . 1 5 )
7 4 I n e f f e c t these w o u l d c o m p l y w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f ' c a t c h - w o r d ' o f f e r e d in n. 3 6 . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e y have a linking f u n c t i o n w h i c h helps preserve t h e c o n t i n u i t y f r o m t h e first part o f the b o d y - m i d d l e t o t h e s e c o n d . 7 5 M o s t a p p o s i t e t o I Peter are T g . J e r . a n d T g . N e o f . t o G e n . 2 8 . 1 2 , w h e r e Jacob-Israel is revealed at last t o t h e h o s t s o f h e a v e n (see J . R a m o n D i a z , ' T a r g u m ' , 7 7 ) . See G o p p e l t , 1 0 9 , n. 9 0 , f o r a d d i t i o n a l references. F o r t h e 'ignorance' o f t h e angels see e s p . H . Schlier, Ignatius, a n d see M k . 1 3 . 3 2 , a n d c p . t h e use o f napaKunru)
in Jas. 1 . 2 5 .
esp. 5 — 8 1 ,
A Literary Analysis
42 8)
T h e 'impartial j u d g e ' o f 1 . 1 7 w h o 'requites each a c c o r d i n g t o his d e e d ' m a y b e illustrated from
m a n y passages
in a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e cited ( D t . 1 0 . 1 7 , II C h r o n . 1 9 . 7 , Sir. 3 5 . 1 2 f . ,
R o m . 2 . 6 , A c t s 1 0 . 3 4 ; Ps. 2 8 . 4 , Is. 5 9 . 1 8 , J e r . 1 7 . 1 0 , R o m , 2 . 1 1 , R e v . 2 . 2 3 , e t c . ) . T h e s e can o n l y be t r o p e s r o o t e d in standard legal discourse that w o u l d have circulated i n d e p e n d e n t l y a n d w i t h o u t a n y specific O T basis i m p l i e d 9)
T h e phrase, $<JjvToq deou Kai p.evovToq,
in 1 . 2 3 p r o b a b l y d o e s n o t allude t o D a n i e l , because
the participles s h o u l d b e c o n s t r u e d w i t h \6yov
and not
prjtia in the q u o t a t i o n o f Is. 4 0 . 6 — 8 , a n d prjua
is the s u b j e c t o f fie'vei'm
Oeou. Since \6yov
stands t o r e a s o n that jde'vovToq is c o o r d i n a t e d with \&yov,
substitutes for that q u o t a t i o n , it
a n d thus $QvToq>
similarly, o n
the strength o f that relatibnship ( s o , B e s t , ' R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n ' , 2 7 4 )
T h e r e are m a n y f u r t h e r e x a m p l e s o f b i b l i c a l d i s c o u r s e i n t h e rest o f I P e t e r ' s c h a p t e r s : 2 . 9 ( I s . 9 . 2 ) , 2 . 1 1 ( G e n . 2 3 . 4 , Ps. 3 9 . 1 3 ) , 2 . 2 3 ( J e r . 1 1 . 2 0 ) , 2 . 2 5 ( E z e k . 3 4 . 5 , 1 6 , J o b 1 0 . 1 2 , Wis. 1.6), 3 . 3 - 4 (Is. 3 . 1 8 - 2 4 ) , 3 . 1 9 (Ps. 8 8 . 4 , 6 ) , 4 . 1 2 (Prv. 1 7 . 3 , e t c . , again, see a b o v e n o . 3 t o I Pet. 1.7), 4 . 1 4 (Pss. 7 2 . 1 9 , 7 9 . 9 , e t c . ) , 4 . 1 9 (II M a c e . 1 . 2 4 ) , 5 . 4 (Is. 2 8 . 5 ) , 5 . 6 ( G e n . 1 6 . 9 , E x . 3 . 1 9 , 6 . 1 , D t . 9 . 2 6 , J o b 3 0 . 2 1 ) , a n d , 5.7 (Wis. 1 2 . 1 3 ) . 1 0 ) T h e darkness/light
imagery o f 2 . 9 is already h a c k n e y e d in pre-Christian J u d a i s m , as the
a b u n d a n t parallels in Isaiah, the Psalms, e t c . , i n d i c a t e , so as t o p r e c l u d e the possibility o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g literary d e p e n d e n c e 1 1 ) T h e reference in 2 . 1 1 t o napoiKOvq
Kai napeinbrjiAovq
m a y recall c o m p a r a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s
in the O T ( t h o u g h singular), b u t these are standard legal t e r m s a n d w o u l d have b e e n i m m e d iately intelligible as such h a d t h e y never b e e n u s e d in the O T 1 2 ) D e s p i t e t h e fact that the d e s i g n a t i o n o f G o d in 2 . 2 3 as ' O n e w h o j u d g e s j u s t l y ' d o e s n o t o c c u r elsewhere in the O T e x c e p t f o r J e r . 1 1 . 2 0 , it w o u l d b e precarious t o argue for liter ary d e p e n d e n c e b e c a u s e the e x p r e s s i o n is a t r o p e 1 3 ) Because I Pet. 2 . 2 5 c o n n o t e s a great f u s i o n o f images a n d m e t a p h o r s f r o m a r o u n d the O T as t o G o d ' s role as s h e p h e r d , strict literary d e p e n d e n c e is i n c a p a b l e o f p r o o f 1 4 ) M o r e a p p o s i t e t o I Pet. 3 . 3 - 4 t h a n the o f t - c i t e d Is. 3 . 1 8 - 2 4 are Prv. 3 . 1 3 - 8 or 3 1 . 3 0 , pecially in view o f the allusion t o Prv. 3 . 2 5 at I Pet. 3 . 6 (against H . M . Shires, Finding, Yet
the s e n t i m e n t s u t t e r e d are so c o m p l e t e l y at h o m e t h r o u g h o u t the sapiential
es
121).
tradition
that there d o e s n o t s e e m t o be sufficient reason t o claim direct d e p e n d e n c e 1 5 ) T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g t o be said for the possibility that kv yvXaK-Q in 3 . 1 9 m a y d e p e n d o n eiq XOIKKOV
o f the Psalm. B u t the allusion t o the n e t h e r w o r l d in precisely these t e r m s is n o t all
that unusual in the O T (Pss. 2 8 . 1 , 3 0 . 3 , 1 4 3 . 7 , E z e k . 3 1 . 1 6 , 3 3 . 1 8 ) , a n d the t w o c o n t e x t s differ 1 6 ) W i t h reference to I Pet. 4 . 1 4 TO rrjq 6 O £ T K , n o single O T l o c u s r e c o m m e n d s itself. O n l y if o n e a c c e p t s the longer reading, TO Trjq bo^riq Kai bvvdideojq
TOV tfeou 6i>ofj.a K T \ . , is it p o s
sible t o cite s o m e possibilities where 'the n a m e of the glory ( o f G o d ) ' o c c u r s , such as Pss. 7 2 . 1 9 , 7 9 . 9 , N e h . 9 . 5 , D n . 3 . 5 2 , J u d i t h 9 . 8 , I M a c e . 1 4 . 1 0 , a n d III M a c e . 2 . 9 . A s it stands, t h e r e f o r e , TO Trjq bo^-qq s e e m s
to b e a liturgical c o m m o n p l a c e f o r the Shekinah,
having its
nearest parallel in R o m . 9 . 4 , r) 6 d £ a . In this sense the ' g l o r y ' is m e t o n y m y for the T e m p l e 1 7 ) T h e d e s i g n a t i o n of G o d as creator in 4 . 1 9 has a parallel in II M a c e . 1 . 2 4 , b u t this, like n o . 1 2 a b o v e , is a t r o p e , so that a n y literary d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n the t w o m u s t s e e m a r e m o t e pros p e c t at best 1 8 ) In I Pet. 5 . 4 there m a y be a r e m i n i s c e n c e o f Is. 2 8 . 5 ( c p . Tr)q bo^r\q oTeyavov voq Trjq eXrriboq,
6 irKeKeiq
Trjq b6%T)q), created b y substituting bo^q
ber o f the parallel f o r eXniboq
with 6 a r e ^ a -
f r o m the s e c o n d m e m
o f the first, a l t h o u g h d e p e n d e n c e o n s o m e recension closer t o
the M T is p o s s i b l e . T h e c o n t e x t s are so different, h o w e v e r , for in Isaiah the L o r d himself is the c r o w n whereas in I Peter the c r o w n is distinct f r o m the L o r d w h o a w a r d s it. B u t the phrase m a y just as easily have arisen f r o m e v e r y d a y talk o f athletic c o m p e t i t i o n ( c p . I C o r . 9.25) 1 9 ) T h e r e are verbal affinities TOV
between
I Pet. 5 . 6 , Taix€ivd)-&r\Te . . . vno TT\V
Oeou, and G e n . 1 6 . 9 , raTrewcbdriTi
c o n t e x t s are again very d i f f e r e n t .
vno
Taq
xeipaq
avTrjq.
KpaTaidv
xefpa
T h e p r o b l e m is that b o t h
In I Peter the reference is t o the O T c o m m o n p l a c e of
The Biblical Sources of I Peter
43
G o d ' s ' m i g h t y h a n d ' ( E x o d u s , D e u t e r o n o m y , J o b ) , whereas in Genesis it is t o Sarah's h a n d . It is t h e r e f o r e difficult t o s u p p o s e that a n y t h i n g o t h e r than a p i o u s m a x i m lies b e h i n d I Peter ( c p . Jas. 4 . 1 0 ) 2 0 ) W i t h the m e n t i o n o f G o d ' s c o n c e r n f o r the addressees in I Pet. 5 . 7 a faint e c h o o f W i s . 1 2 . 1 3 is p o s s i b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the essential idea m i g h t well have b e e n seeing w i d e circulation in the Diaspora as an u n d e r s t a n d a b l e r e a c t i o n against Hellenistic views o n t h e impassibility o f D e i t y , c o m i n g t o the a u t h o r o f I Peter t h r o u g h S y n a g o g u e preaching
T h e preceding investigation o f s o m e t w e n t y instances o f what m a y b e c a l l e d b i b l i c i s m s f o r w a n t o f a b e t t e r w o r d has e x p o s e d n o m o r e t h a n t h e slenderest f o u n d a t i o n s for literary d e p e n d e n c e , especially w h e n c o m p a r e d t o earlier e v i d e n c e f o r q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s . It m a y b e that t h e p r o s p e c t s for certain o f these c o u l d b e e n h a n c e d w e r e their exegetical histories s c r u t i n i z e d o n a m i n u t e s c a l e , b u t as it s t a n d s o n l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l g r o u n d s t h e o u t l o o k is u n f a v o u r a b l e . W h a t e v e r e x a c t l y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
the
O T m a y h a v e b e e n , a n y l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e is p e r c e p t i b l y a t t e n u a t e d in its force,
such
that
demonstration. dependence
direct
dependence b e c o m e s incapable
of
satisfactory
T h e d r a m a t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t status o f this o r d e r o f l i t e r a r y
therefore justifies
restricting
the
analysis
o f the
formative
u s e o f t h e O T in I P e t e r p r i m a r i l y t o m e m b e r s o f t h e first a n d s e c o n d o r d e r s , t h a t is, t o cases m o r e l i k e l y t h a n n o t t o b e g e n u i n e e x a m p l e s o f literary d e p e n d e n c e p r o p e r . Hence
t h e o p p o r t u n i t y has arrived t o s u m m a r i z e t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e
description
o f I P e t e r ' s l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e O T . It is c l e a r
the
l e t t e r fairly t e e m s w i t h O T r e f e r e n c e s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y f o r t y - s i x q u o t a t i o n s and
a l l u s i o n s i n all, n o t c o u n t i n g i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n s t h a t w o u l d g r e a t l y
b o o s t t h e t o t a l , o r n e a r l y o n e f o r e v e r y t w o v e r s e s . It a l s o s e e m s t h e S c r i p t u r e s are b r o a d l y r e p r e s e n t e d ,
four b o o k s o f the Pentateuch
(Gen., Ex.,
L e v . , D t . ) , f o u r o f the latter P r o p h e t s (Is., H o s . , E z e k . , M a i . ) , a n d three o f t h e W r i t i n g s ( P s . , Prv., J o b ) , a l t h o u g h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n is u n e v e n l y c o n c e n t r a t e d in j u s t t h r e e , Isaiah ( t w e n t y - o n e ) , t h e P s a l m s ( e l e v e n ) , a n d P r o v e r b s (
s i x
)Y e t n o t h i n g is q u i t e s o s i g n i f i c a n t as e v i d e n c e o f t h e f o r m a t i v e u s e o f
t h e O T in I P e t e r as t h e v a r i e t y o f w a y s t h o s e m a t e r i a l s h a v e b e e n h a n d l e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e u s u a l , r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e f o r m s o f c i t a t i o n t h e r e are p o s s i b l y six c o m p a r a t i v e l y c o m p l e x k i n d s : 1 ) t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n o r ' t e l e s c o p i n g ' of a text
(2.10/Hos. 1 - 2 ;
2 . 2 2 - 5 / I s . 5 3 ) , 2) a catena o f texts
gathered
a r o u n d a single i d e a ( 2 . 6 — 8 / t h e S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a ) , 3 ) t h e c o n f l a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e t e x t s ( 1 . 1 9 / I s . 5 3 . 7 , E x . 1 2 . 5 ; 2 . 9 / E x . 1 9 . 5 L , Is. 4 3 . 2 0 f . , 4 2 . 1 2 , Mai. 3 . 1 7 ; 2.24/Is. 5 3 . 4 , 1 , Dt. 2 1 . 2 3 ; 5.8/Ps. 2 2 . 1 4 , J o b
1.7), 4 ) the
w i d e r t e x t - p l o t is p r e s u p p o s e d ( 1 . 1 8 f . / I s . 5 2 . 3 ; 1 . 2 4 f . / I s . 4 0 . 6 f f . ; 2 . 3 f . / P s . 3 4 . 5 f f . ; 2 . 2 2 f f . / I s . 5 3 ; and perhaps 4 . 1 7 f . / E z e k . 9 . 6 f . ) , 5 ) a crucial associa t i o n o f t h e t e x t w i t h a familiar e x e g e t i c a l t r a d i t i o n is p r e s u p p o s e d ( 1 . 1 8 f . / Is. 5 2 . 3 a n d t h e E x o d u s m o t i f ; 2 . 2 4 / D t . 2 1 . 2 3 a n d t h e C r o s s ; 3 . 1 9 f . / G e n . 6.1 ff. a n d the Fall o f t h e H e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s ) , a n d , 6 ) a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f numerous sustained
texts,
or 'florilegium' ( 2 . 3 — 1 0 ) . B y such means the
and p r o f o u n d engagement with Scripture
letter c o m e s f o r c i b l y to expression.
author's
t h a t lies b e h i n d his
A Literary Analysis
44
4.
I Peter and Psalm 34
M o r e than sixty years have passed since W . B o r n e m a n n m a d e a case for a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g d e p e n d e n c e b y I P e t e r o n Ps. 3 4 . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a f a v o u r a b l e r e m a r k f r o m t i m e t o t i m e t h e q u e s t i o n has b e e n v i r t u a l l y 7 6
n e g l e c t e d u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t . B u t w h e t h e r this c a n b e r e g a r d e d as a sat isfactory
s t a t e o f affairs it s e e m s fair t o q u e r y o n t h e s t r e n g t h
results f r o m
o f the
the p r e c e d i n g investigation. O u t o f the forty-six q u o t a t i o n s
a n d a l l u s i o n s a s c e r t a i n e d in I P e t e r , l e a v i n g i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n s a s i d e , a m e r e t h r e e h a v e i n v o l v e d Ps. 3 4 : t h e e x p l i c i t q u o t a t i o n in 3 . 1 0 — 2 , t h e e x p l i c i t a l l u s i o n i n 2 . 3 , a n d t h e v e r y w e a k i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n in 2 . 4 . I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e w o u l d s e e m t o b e as m a n y as s i x i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n s , as p r e v i o u s l y d e t e r m i n e d , all g r o u p e d a r o u n d t h e q u o t a t i o n ( 3 . 7 , 9 , 1 3 f . ) , m a k i n g f o r a g r a n d t o t a l o f n i n e , as c o m p a r e d w i t h s o m e f i f t y - o n e b y B o r n e m a n n
7 7
.
H e n c e he appears t o have over-stated the case. N e v e r t h e l e s s , w h e n s o m a s s i v e a n d d e t a i l e d an e x a m i n a t i o n has b e e n c o n d u c t e d in d e f e n s e o f his p o s i t i o n , it is i n c u m b e n t u p o n t h e o n e w h o w o u l d m a k e s u c h a c l a i m t o assess t h e e v i d e n c e a f r e s h . T o b e g i n , s o m e thirty-three
o f his a l l e g e d i n s t a n c e s m a y b e t a k e n
up
c o n v e n i e n t l y in
TOV Kvpiov
( 3 4 . 2 ) . Surely this is
r o u g h l y the same s e q u e n c e he d i d . 1 ) H e h o l d s that evXoyrjToq
6 tfecfc ( 1 . 3 ) recalls ev\oyr\ouj
f o r t u i t o u s . T h e f o r m u l a has already b e e n s h o w n t o b e part o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l ing/blessing
period
in early Christian letters, having its
thanksgiv
origin in the liturgical
tradition
evident in the p s a l m itself 2)
H e attributes iSouTec
in
OVK.
ibovTeq
ayairdTe
( 1 . 8 ) t o ibeTe
in yevaaode
Kai
LSCTC
xfi'Oo-
Toq 6 Kvpuoq ( 3 4 . 8 ) . H o w e v e r , the p s a l m is m e t a p h o r i c a l a n d t h e letter literal — p r o b a b l y t o b e traced instead t o a n early Christian m a x i m ( c p . J n . 2 0 . 2 9 ) 3)
H e p r o p o s e s that ^pQq in elq TO dav/iaoTov
avTov yibq
tfare
which,
npoq
CLVTOV
Kai
( 2 . 9 ) reflects «^u>ri'a^i7re in
like
the e x a m p l e
immediately
rcpooeXabove,
b e l o n g s t o a part o f Ps. 3 4 to w h i c h f o r m a l allusion is m a d e elsewhere in I Peter. B u t in 2 . 9 'light' is o p p o s e d t o 'darkness', suggesting passages in Isaiah m u c h s o o n e r than Ps. 3 4 b y virtue o f the several f o r m a l allusions t o Isaiah in 2 . 9 4)
B o r n e m a n n c o n j e c t u r e s that ov pr) KaTaCoxvv^r)
( 2 . 6 ) bears s o m e sort of relationship w i t h
Ps. 3 4 because it tallies w i t h t h e s a m e e x p r e s s i o n in 3 4 . 5 . F o r e x a m p l e , the selection o f Is. 2 8 . 1 6 m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n s . H o w e v e r , he gives n o e x p l a n a t i o n as t o t h e author's m o t i v e s f o r having d o n e s o . M o r e o v e r , unlike the allusion t o Is. 5 0 . 9 at 3 . 1 3 w h i c h recalls the last line o f the q u o t a t i o n f r o m Ps. 3 4 , the a u t h o r d o e s n o t provide a favourable c o n t e x t for discerning a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n differing O T refer e n c e s . In the a b s e n c e of supporting a r g u m e n t s , t h e r e f o r e , this m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o coin cidence. 5) He notes
'eine auffallende
sachliche U e b e r e i n s t i m m u n g ' , 1 4 7 , b e t w e e n the references
' h u m i l i t y ' in 5 . 5 b — 6 a n d in Ps. 3 4 . 1 8 , eyyvq Kai
7 6 See his
T O V \ Tditewovq
T\O itvevpaTi
'Taufrede', 1 4 3 - 6 5 ,
esp.
otjoeu
147-51.
Kvpioq
Toiq ovvTeTpyxv-evoiq
TT\V
to
Kapbiav
N o one w o u l d d e n y the affinity, y e t the a u t h o r
See, for e x a m p l e , the a p p r o v i n g c o m m e n t s
C . F . D . M o u l e , 'Nature', 1 3 7 , b u t c p . the c a u t i o n o f Elliott, Elect,
by
2 0 5 a n d n. 5 . B o r n e m a n n ' s
p o s i t i o n has b e e n recently d e f e n d e d b y K . R . Snodgrass, 'Affinities', 9 7 — 1 0 6 . 7 7 H e identified just t w o o f w h a t the present investigation has t e r m e d iterative allusions, o n e at 3 . 7 and o n e at 3 . 1 3 . T h e discussion so far has unearthed f o u r m o r e , o n e 3 . 1 3 f . , a n d o n e in 4 . 1 .
in 3 . 9 , t w o m o r e in
I Peter and Psalm 34
45
turns t o Prv. 3 . 3 4 in 5 . 5 b t o illustrate his p o i n t a n d n o t t o Ps. 3 4 , t h o u g h there w a s n o t h i n g t o k e e p h i m f r o m d o i n g s o . It w o u l d therefore s e e m t o b e a gratuitous a s s u m p t i o n t o c l a i m any
sort o f literary relationship b e t w e e n the p s a l m a n d I Peter h e r e , a n d the basic idea is a
paraenetical c o m m o n p l a c e 6)
B o r n e m a n n d e t e c t s a relationship b e t w e e n Tovq ev bvvdtiei irapenpaKei
dyyeXoq
Kvpiov
KVKXL^
TLJV
fo^ovfieVCJV
deov
CLVTOV
^povpovfie'vovq
(34.7).
( 1 . 5 ) and
B u t a closer parallel
w o u l d be 4 . 1 4 w h e r e the Spirit o f G o d rests o n t h e p i o u s o p p r e s s e d . Y e t the idea o f divine agencies p r o t e c t i n g t h e interests o f the r i g h t e o u s is such a c o m m o n p l a c e that it is d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t the n e e d t o p o s t u l a t e t h e influence o f t h e p s a l m h e r e , a n d the t w o c o n t e x t s are o t h e r w i s e so divergent as t o militate against a n y c o r r e l a t i o n 7)
H e is c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e references t o salvation in 1 . 5 , 9 , 1 0 , 2 . 2 , a n d 3 . 2 1 reflect the p r o m i n e n c e o f t h a t idea in 3 4 . 6 , 1 8 , a n d 2 2 (see also w . 3 a n d 1 6 ) , b u t such a t y p i c a l l y biblical n o t i o n c a n n o t b e s h o w n t o derive f r o m the p s a l m unless a d d i t i o n a l verbal affinities b e ad d u c e d in s u p p o r t , linking its use t o t h e p s a l m directly
8)
H e s u p p o s e s that ete$riTr\oav
B u t in 1 . 1 0 it refers t o intellectual pursuits w h e r e a s in t h e p s a l m it refers t o p e t i t i o n s
for
r e s c u e . M o r e o v e r , t h e verb's origin m i g h t m o r e easily b e traced t o I M a c e . 9 . 2 6 , because
it is c o u p l e d w i t h e^r\pavvr\aav. 9)
( 1 . 1 0 ) is related t o t w o instances o f the s a m e verb in 3 4 . 4 a n d
10.
H o w e v e r , that possibility also h a d t o be r e j e c t e d
B o r n e m a n n ascribes the references t o h o p e in 1 . 3 , 1 3 , 2 1 , 3 . 5 , a n d 3 . 1 5 t o the p r e s e n c e o f the idea in 3 4 . 8 a n d 2 2 , b u t o n c e again the c o n c e p t is so basic t o religious e x p r e s s i o n in the Hellenistic p e r i o d that n o special relationship w i t h the p s a l m is d e m o n s t r a b l e in the a b s e n c e o f a d d i t i o n a l verbal affinities f r o m the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t
10)
H e discerns a relationship b e t w e e n TCKVCL
viraKorjs
( 1 . 1 4 ) a n d Sevre
reKva
(34.11),
but
c o n d e s c e n d i n g address is c o n v e n t i o n a l in the w i s d o m tradition t o w h i c h this p s a l m b e l o n g s , and 11)
it is u n e x c e p t i o n a l in I Peter
H e attributes the references t o holiness in 1 . 1 5 , 2 . 9 , a n d 3 . 5 t o s o m e sort o f influence f r o m 34.9,
Ttdvreq
19.2,
t h e s e c o n d is part o f a n explicit allusion t o E x . 1 9 . 6 ( t o w h i c h there is a n iterative
o\ 07101 CLVTOV.
Y e t the first instance is part o f a n iterative allusion t o L e v .
allusion in 2 . 5 ) , a n d t h e third scarcely requires such a p o s t u l a t e for the presence o f y e t a n o t h e r biblical c o m m o n p l a c e 12)
B o r e n m a n n takes the references t o reverence in 1 . 1 7 , 2 . 1 7 , 1 8 , a n d 3 . 2 ( t o w h i c h a d d 3 . 1 6 ) as r e m i n i s c e n t o f similar references in 3 4 . 7 a n d 9 ( b i s ) . O f c o u r s e , the e x h o r t a t i o n t o rever ential a w e is a leading topos
o f the sapiential tradition. N e v e r t h e l e s s , its p r o m i n e n c e in I
Peter m a y b e ascribed t o o n e O T t e x t in particular, b u t n o t Ps. 3 4 . A s p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d , in 2.17
TOV deov
yopitJ
^o^eio^e
is part o f an implicit allusion t o Prv. 2 4 . 2 1 , such that ev
in as m u c h as the reference is t o G o d as 'Father', H e n c e 3 . 2 , ev V?OJ3^J • . . may ev
ITCLVTI
in 2 . 1 8 m a y be t a k e n as an iterative allusion. S o t o o m a y 1 . 1 7 b e an iterative allusion, dvoxjTpoSr\v,
b e regarded as a k i n d o f c o n f l a t i o n o f 1 . 1 5 , a u r o t dyuoi ev ndorf dvaoTpo^, ^6j3(^. . . dvaoTpdipr\Te,
and 1 . 1 7 ,
k e e p i n g t h e variation at 2 . 1 8 in m i n d , w h i c h 3 . 1 6 e c h o e s . S h o u l d
a s p e c t s of this e x p l a n a t i o n s e e m c o n t r i v e d , at least t h e y are b a s e d m o r e f i r m l y in f o r m a l literary d e p e n d e n c e that t h e y c o u l d b e in respect t o Ps. 3 4 13)
B o r n e m a n n attributes napoiKi'a
( 1 . 1 7 ) t o e « naoCjv
TLOV
irapouucjv
( 3 4 . 4 ) , and for once
the c o n t e x t s are n o t very d i f f e r e n t , b u t the t e r m is a standard o n e f o r residence in the Dias p o r a , so that a n y d e p e n d e n c e o n the p s a l m m u s t s e e m t o b e a r e m o t e possibility at b e s t 14)
H e observes the possible affinities o f CJC
deov
SovXoi
( 2 . 1 6 ) w i t h \pvxdq
6OVXOJV
CLVTOV
( 3 4 . 2 2 ) . Y e t the c o n c e p t is such a c o m m o n p l a c e in biblical discourse, that it w o u l d s e e m t e n u o u s t o p o s t u l a t e a relationship o n this basis 15)
H e suspects that TOV
npae'ojq
( 3 . 1 6 ) e c h o dKovoaTOJoav
KCLI r\ovxvov
npaeiq
nvevfiaToq
( 3 . 4 ) and /uerd npavTr\T0q
KCLI
^ o v
( 3 4 . 2 ) , b u t this desirable trait is t o o familiar t o warrant
t h e p o s t u l a t e o f direct d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e p s a l m 16)
H e d e e m s t h a t nandpioi
( 3 . 1 4 , 4 . 1 4 ) m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o fiaKapioq
dvr\p
( 3 4 . 8 ) , yet had
the p s a l m b e e n in the f o r e g r o u n d o f the author's vision, it w o u l d b e surprising he s h o u l d have o m i t t e d the rest o f the line, 6q eXiri'^et hit' CLVTOV,
b e c a u s e it c h i m e s so p e r f e c t l y w i t h
the t h e n K o f h o p e that pervades the letter. In f a c t , such m a c a r i s m s are f o u n d so w i d e l y t h r o u g h o u t the sapiential t r a d i t i o n , a n d e l s e w h e r e , that it w o u l d b e precarious t o claim in fluence b y the p s a l m
A Literary Analysis
46 17)
B o r n e m a n n maintains that
ixp (Jjoojpev
ev OVOIACLTI Xpiorov ( 4 . 1 4 ) and ev T& OVOIMLTL ovona CLVTOV(V. 3 ) . H o w e v e r , r e f e r e n c e s t o 'the
the
psalm's
are
c o m m o n p l a c e in biblical d i s c o u r s e , a n d
TO
s o w e r e the
( 4 . 1 6 ) echo
TOVT^J
n a m e o f the
Lord'
p e c u l i a r l y Christian s t y l i z a t i o n s in
r e s p e c t to J e s u s b e f o r e I Peter was w r i t t e n , w i t h the result t h a t it is u n w a r r a n t e d t o l i n k the a u t h o r ' s usage t o the p s a l m ' s , as attractive as that m i g h t b e
O n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e o b j e c t i o n s e n t e r e d a b o v e against
Bornemann's
f i n d i n g s it s e e m s safe t o s a y h i s c o n c l u s i o n s o u t r u n t h e e v i d e n c e . In e a c h c a s e r e a s o n s w e r e a d v a n c e d t h a t are at least as p l a u s i b l e , a n d o f t e n m o r e s o , f o r s u p p o s i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Ps. 3 4 w a s far less d i r e c t t h a n h e c l a i m e d . T h e o u t c o m e renders e v e n so great a q u a n t i t y o f detail unimpressive. Nevertheless,
these
Thirteen remain to be
are n o t
the
o n l y instances
is a l t o g e t h e r u n l i k e l y t h a t ev r)nepa enLOKonrj^ vpdjv
4/VXOJV
Bornemann
adduces.
c o n s i d e r e d . T w o are r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o e l i m i n a t e . It ( 2 . 1 2 ) a n d enloKonov
( 2 . 2 5 ) r e f l e c t t h e p s a l m ' s by&aXpoL
Kvplov
eni
TOJV
SiKaiovq ( v .
1 5 ) , as h e asserts ( 1 5 0 ) , a l t h o u g h t h e y are c o n s o n a n t w i t h its
sentiment.
A s n o t e d earlier, the first is a n i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n t o Is. 1 0 . 3 , a n d , t h e s e c ond
belongs to biblically-patterned
e l s e w h e r e in t h e which
must
discourse with
likelier
antecedents
O T . A t m o s t t h e p s a l m r e i n f o r c e s a train o f
be attributed to
the
thought
author's broadly-based eschatological
outlook. It
is c o m p a r a t i v e l y m o r e d i f f i c u l t n e x t
instances B o r n e m a n n presents $cooav),
2 . 4 (Xi&ov
fr?aco/xe^) deXuv
to dispense with four
( 1 4 9 ) . H e l i n k s t h e v e r b s i n 1.3
f c o ^ r a ) , 2 . 5 (Xidot
fco^rec), and 2.24
other
(eXiriSa
(buiaioovvr)
t o t h e c o g n a t e n o u n f r o m Ps. 3 4 . 1 2 c i t e d at I P e t . 3 . 1 0 , 6
£ur)v
ayairdv.
yap
Y e t it is p o s s i b l e t h e first t h r e e a r o s e q u i t e i n d e
p e n d e n t l y o u t o f the a u t h o r ' s desire t o c o i n m e t a p h o r s t o c o n n o t e s i m p l y t h a t w h i c h is vital i n c o n t r a s t
e i t h e r t o t h a t w h i c h is d o r m a n t ( 1 . 3 ) o r
i n e r t ( 2 . 4 , 5 ) . T h e f o u r t h has o r i g i n a t e d in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n p a r a e n e s i s the
parallel
with
as
R o m . 6 . 1 1 e v i n c e s . T h e i n f l u e n c e m a y h a v e c o m e as
m u c h f r o m t h a t d i r e c t i o n as f r o m t h e p s a l m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e u n i f o r m l y e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o l o u r o f t h e m e t a p h o r s is striking,
e s p e c i a l l y as
regards
the
participles, and
invites
explanation,
b e c a u s e it c a n b e n o t h i n g less t h a n d e l i b e r a t e . L i g h t m a y b e s h e d b y a case B o r n e m a n n o m i t t e d t o m e n t i o n . A fourth instance o f the p t c . o c c u r s in 1 . 2 3 , Xoyov
{COVTOS,
w h i c h b e i n g c o u p l e d w i t h nai iievovToq,
t o t h e i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 4 0 in 1 . 2 5 a , TO 8e pr)iia Kvpiov TOV
aitiva.
belongs iievei ei
It a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n o c c a s i o n e d b y t h e i d e a t h a t t h e d y n a
m i c , e n d u r i n g W o r d o f G o d is r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m f o r m s o f life w h i c h f a d e all t o o q u i c k l y . T h e a u t h o r ' s p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t a p p e a r s t o b e in the c o n t i n u i n g c o n t e m p o r a n e i t y o f G o d ' s W o r d , b e c a u s e t h a t is w h a t g u a r a n tees
the
perpetual
v a l i d i t y o f t h e t e a c h i n g his a d d r e s s e e s o r i g i n a l l y en
d o r s e d ( 1 . 1 2 , 2 5 b ) . Y e t his c o n c e r n is a l s o t o r e l a t e t h e i r n e w status as the
' r e b o r n ' ( 1 . 2 3 ) t o t h e W o r d w h i c h , as t h e s o u r c e o f all l i f e , is t h e
source b y definition
o f e t e r n a l l i f e , t h a t is, the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o m i s e
t h e y h a v e c o m e t o e m b r a c e as 'a l i v i n g h o p e ' ( 1 . 3 ) . H a v i n g t h u s a m p l i f i e d t h e life-full p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e W o r d , t h e a u t h o r is t h e n in a p o s i t i o n t o c o n t i n u e t o stress this d i m e n s i o n s o o n a f t e r w a r d s in 2 . 4 a n d 5 . It w o u l d s e e m ,
I Peter and Psalm 34 therefore,
47
t h a t t h e p t c . has b e e n e l a b o r a t e d b y t h e a u t h o r q u i t e
apart
f r o m a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n a t a n g e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e p s a l m at m o s t . W i t h t h e t o t a l o f B o r n e m a n n ' s d o u b t f u l a l l u s i o n s t o Ps. 3 4 at
thirty-
n i n e , o n l y a b o u t s e v e n r e m a i n t o b e s t u d i e d . T h e y all p e r t a i n t o w h a t is p e r h a p s t h e l e t t e r ' s m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s r e c u r r i n g m o t i f , n a m e l y , t h e anti thesis o f ' w e l l - d o e r / d o i n g ' v s . ^ e v i l - d o e r / d o i n g ' . T w o o f B o r n e m a n n ' s e x a m p l e s involve the s e c o n d o f the pair. H e p r o p o s e s t h a t I P e t . 2 . 1 {anode pevoi Kai
ndoaq
yXooooav Kanov
ovv ndoav
KaraXaXidq) r e f l e c t s Ps. 3 4 . 1 3 f . and
Kai x e ^ i ?
KCLKOV
. . . noiovvraq
nana).
T°V
KCLKLCLV
Kai navia
hoXov . . .
(I P e t . 3 . 1 Of., navodrco
M*? XaXrjoat, 86Xov,
e KKXivdroo
rrjy and
H e o v e r l o o k s t h e f a c t that a n y s u c h r e l a t i o n
s h i p c o u l d o n l y b e v e r y i n d i r e c t , b e c a u s e 2 . 1 is a Lasterkatolog
o f sorts,
7 8
a n d is f o r m a l l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h a t t r a d i t i o n . P e r h a p s t h e p s a l m in fluenced
the
choice
o f c e r t a i n w o r d s , l i k e boXov
a n d KaraXaXtdq,
but
t h e s e m i g h t j u s t as w e l l b e t r a c e d t o m a t e r i a l s in 2 . 2 2 f . , f r o m Is. 5 3 ( 6 c diiapTtav
OVK
enoir\oev
povi±evo<; OVK
ovSe evpe#77 86Xoq ev rep oToiiaTt, avrov,
dvTeXoibopei).
6q Xoido-
O n t h e basis o f s u c h i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m a list
o f v i c e s a n d m a t e r i a l s f r o m Is. 5 3 a n y i n f l u e n c e b y Ps. 3 4 s e e m s p r o b l e m a tic. B o r n e m a n n ' s o t h e r e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s KaKonoioq
( 4 . 1 5 ) . F o r n o apparent
r e a s o n h e fails t o c i t e t w o m o r e e x a m p l e s o f t h e w o r d at 1 . 1 2 a n d 2 . 1 4 , and
o f t h e p t c . at 3 . 1 7 . A n d it m u s t b e a s k e d i f aptapTavovTeq
(2.20)
s h o u l d n o t b e i n c l u d e d a l s o , b e i n g c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e first m e m b e r o f t h e p s a l m ' s a n t i t h e s i s l a t e r i n t h e s a m e v e r s e , dyadonoiovvreq. does
cite four
further
Bornemann
i n s t a n c e s o f t h e first m e m b e r o f t h e
ayadonoLOVVTaq
(2.15),
dy ad onoiovoai
(3.6),
a n d ayadonoiia
( 4 . 1 9 ) , t o w h i c h a d d ayadonoidjv
antithesis,
dyadonoiovvraq
(3.17),
( 2 . 1 4 ) . S o , t h e r e are
e l e v e n p o s s i b l e i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n s in all t h a t i n v o l v e t h e a n t i t h e s i s , f u l l y five m o r e t h a n B o r n e m a n n o b s e r v e d . W h a t r e m a i n s u n c l e a r , h o w e v e r , is w h e t h e r e v e n s o m u c h fresh e v i d e n c e r e a l l y s t r e n g t h e n s his c a s e f o r t h e f o r m a t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f Ps. 3 4 u p o n I P e t e r . It c o u l d b e a r g u e d , t h o u g h B o r n e m a n n d o e s n o t , t h a t t h e slight t e n d e n c y o n the part o f the author t o prefer participial f o r m s m i g h t b e o w i n g t o t h e p s a l m ' s noiovvraq
Ka/cd, b u t s h o u l d that b e s o t h e n the use
o f five s u b s t a n t i v e s m u s t k e e p s u c h a n i n f l u e n c e t o a m i n i m u m . I n d e e d , a significant t e n d e n c y m a y b e associated w i t h the antithesis b u t n o t w h a t m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d . H o w is it t h e a u t h o r u s e s t h e p a r t i c i p i a l f o r m t i m e s f o r t h e first m e m b e r o f his a n t i t h e s i s (dyadonoicbv),
t i m e s f o r t h e s e c o n d a n d o n l y o n e o f t h e s e is a c o g n a t e ( 3 . 1 7 )
7 8 S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , S e l w y n , 1 5 3 , a n d n. 4 8 a b o v e f o r the lit. G . K l e i n , Katechismus, gested that Ps. 3 4 a n d the Haustafeln
four
but only t w o 7 9
? N o w it
1 3 7 f . , sug
w e r e already associated w i t h o n e a n o t h e r i n d e p e n d e n t l y
of I Peter. 79 A
third
ptc,
KCLKLOCHJJV ( 3 . 1 3 ) ,
m u s t also b e m e n t i o n e d here, b u t since it derives f r o m Is.
5 0 . 9 , its relationship t o the p s a l m is of a secondary nature. T h e substantives o f 'well-doer' in 2 . 1 4 a n d 'evil-doer' in 2 . 1 2 , 2 . 1 4 , a n d 4 . 1 5 , are b e t t e r e x p l a i n e d as having their origin in the
A Literary Analysis
48
is n o t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e p s a l m m i g h t h a v e s u p p l i e d t h e basis f o r t h e par ticipial
form
in t h e
first
m e m b e r b y w a y o f nofoodru)
a n d a p e r c e i v e d j u x t a p o s i t o n w i t h irocovvras
nana,
aya&ov
(v.
11)
b u t this m u s t b e c a l l e d
i n t o s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n w h e n a n o t h e r s o u r c e is a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e w h e r e
the
p a r t i c i p i a l f o r m is e x t a n t . I t w a s p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d t h a t I P e t . 2 . 1 9 f . b e a r s a f o r m u l a i c s t a m p p r o b a b l y t o b e a s c r i b e d t o L k . 6 . 3 2 f . , . . . edv TTOirjre
rovq
ayadonoLOVvraq
vpaq,
iroia
VJJLLP
xapic eartV
8 0
.
dya&o-
If the
first
m e m b e r o f t h e a n t i t h e s i s is t h u s m o r e l i k e l y t o d e r i v e f r o m a s a y i n g t h a n t h e p s a l m , t h e n it is d i f f i c u l t t o see h o w t h e a n t i t h e s i s as a w h o l e m i g h t h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d d e c i s i v e l y b y t h e p s a l m . T h e m o s t t h a t c a n b e said c o n f i d e n t l y is t h a t t h e a n t i t h e s i s h a s b e e n c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e p s a l m as things
presently
particularly
its
s t a n d in I P e t e r , a n d c e r t a i n s e c o n d m e m b e r , have
aspects o f the
been elaborated
in
antithesis,
terms o f
the
psalm. In s u m , n o n e o f B o r n e m a n n ' s p u r p o r t e d
a l l u s i o n s t o Ps. 3 4 are suffi
c i e n t l y c o n v i n c i n g s o as t o q u a l i f y m o r e e a s i l y as e v i d e n c e o f d e p e n d e n c e than
of
biblically-patterned
discourse, with
the
exception
of
several
iterative allusions that c o u l d hardly have b e e n traced t o the p s a l m unless its r e l e v a n t
p o r t i o n h a d b e e n q u o t e d in e x t e n s o ( 3 . 7 , 1 3 , 1 7 b i s , 4 . 1 9 ) .
T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a d d e d several m o r e t o t h e s e ,
3.9, 13bis, and 4 . 1 , and
gave reasons f o r curtailing c o n s i d e r a b l y the psalm's p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e o n other instances
o f t h e a n t i t h e s i s ' u s e in I P e t e r . It t h e r e f o r e
satisfactorily d e m o n s t r a t e d
cannot
be
t h a t Ps. 3 4 w a s a n y w h e r e n e a r l y as f o r m a t i v e
in t h e w r i t i n g o f I P e t e r as B o r n e m a n n s u p p o s e d , a n d t o t h e
d e g r e e it
m a y h a v e b e e n , this w o u l d s e e m t o b e a l m o s t entirely restricted t o
the
verses i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t t h e m a j o r c i t a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , e x c e p t i o n m a y b e taken w i t h the o p i n i o n v e n t u r e d b y K . R . Snodgrass: Ps. x x x i v d o e s p l a y a f o r m a t i v e role in the c o m p o s i t o n o f I Peter a n d especially o f ii. 1 — 1 0 . I w o u l d g o so far as to say that t h e a u t h o r o f I Peter a t t e m p t e d to c o n v e y the c o n s o l a t i o n a n d e x h o r t a t i o n o f the r i g h t e o u s sufferer in Ps. x x x i v t o his readers a n d that he u s e d explicit q u o t a t i o n s , allusions, a n d t h e m e s f r o m Ps. x x x i v t o d o so ('Affinities', 1 0 2 ) .
W h e n t h e s a m e s t r i n g e n t c r i t e r i a are i m p o s e d o n p u r p o r t e d r e f e r e n c e s t o Ps. 3 4 in I P e t e r as w e r e i m p o s e d o n o t h e r a l l e g e d O T a l l u s i o n s in t h e l e t ter, e x a c t l y o n e e x p l i c i t q u o t a t i o n , o n e e x p l i c i t a l l u s i o n , o n e v e r y w e a k i m p l i c i t allusion, and a h a n d f u l o f iterative allusions c o u l d b e c o n f i d e n t l y identified. T h e m o s t f o r m a t i v e e f f e c t was u p o n 3 . 7 — 1 7 . In 2.3f. the t w o a l l u s i o n s are u t t e r l y d o m i n a t e d b y t h e b l o c k o f O T m a t e r i a l s in 2 . 4 — 1 0 . They
serve m o r e
o f an i n c i d e n t a l
function than anything
else, helping
w i t h the transition f r o m 2 . 1 - 3 t o 2 . 4 - 1 0 .
s t e r e o t y p e d language o f c o n v e n t i o n a l
descriptions o f the t w o - f o l d magisterial r o l e . C p . R o m .
13.3f. 8 0 See a b o v e n. 5 4 . T h i s is easily o n e o f the clearest cases o f a d o m i n i c a l l o g i o n influencing I Peter.
Source-Integration in I Peter
49
In fairness t o S n o d g r a s s it m a y b e a g r e e d t h e a u t h o r h a d f o u n d in Ps. 3 4 a c l a s s i c e x p r e s s i o n o f a n O T t h e m e w e l l - s u i t e d t o his p u r p o s e , b u t t h a t is n o t t h e s a m e t h i n g as t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e f o r m his m e s s a g e t o o k d e p e n d e d h e a v i l y u p o n m a t e r i a l s t a k e n f r o m it. T o g u i d e a n d rein f o r c e a train o f t h o u g h t m u s t n o t b e c o n f u s e d w i t h l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c e i n t h e strict s e n s e . H e n c e Ps. 3 4 a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t O T s o u r c e f o r t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r , b u t t h e r e is r e a s o n t o w a r n against e x a g gerating that i m p o r t a n c e .
5 . Source-Integration in I Peter T h e p r e c e d i n g discussion o f generic elements, c o m p o s i t i o n a l features, f o r m a l t r a d i t i o n s , a n d O T r e f e r e n c e s has o p e n e d a p a t h a l o n g w h i c h t h e investigation m a y p r o c e e d t o e x p l o r e the disposition o f source-materials t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e t t e r , a n d a b o v e all t h e w a y t h e u s e o f O T s o u r c e s c o m pares w i t h the use o f others. Y e t the g o i n g will n o t b e easy b e c a u s e o f the
letter's
intricately
w o v e n texture, a nearly c o n t i n u o u s synthesis o f
s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s o f o n e s o r t o f a n o t h e r . I n f a c t S p i c q g o e s s o far as t o call I P e t e r ' u n e " E p i t r e d e la T r a d i t i o n " ' ( 1 5 ) . A s a r e s u l t , t h e b e s t t h a t c a n b e h o p e d f o r u n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s is t o d i s t i n g u i s h p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e o f p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s o f s o u r c e s i n a n e f f o r t t o assess h o w r e l a t i v e l y f o r m a t i v e t h e O T s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n in t h e l e t t e r ' s c o m p sition. T o this e n d it is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t r e p e a t e d c o n s u l t a t i o n o f earlier re 8 1
sults m a y w e l l b e d e s i r a b l e , b e c a u s e t h e s e are e v e r y w h e r e p r e s u p p o s e d . It b u t r e m a i n s t o p u l l t h e m t o g e t h e r in o r d e r t o c l a r i f y t h e a u t h o r ' s c o m p o s i t i o n a l m e t h o d as a w h o l e . A t t e n t i o n is t o b e f o c u s e d as s q u a r e l y as p o s s i b l e o n p u r e l y l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l details t o a v o i d a n y p r e j u d i c e t o
the
h e r m e n e u t i c a l issues w h i c h m a y b e i n v o l v e d . T h u s t h e O T has t o c o m p e t e successfully w i t h o t h e r sources t o merit any special consideration here. T h e analysis m a y t h e r e f o r e b e g i n w i t h t h e l e t t e r ' s p a r t s as p r e v i o u s l y ascertained. T h e o p e n i n g and closing n e e d n o further e x a m i n a t i o n , having b e e n treated
a d e q u a t e l y a l r e a d y . T h e d i s c u s s i o n m a y pass o n i n s t e a d t o
c o n s i d e r t h e l e t t e r ' s five r e m a i n i n g m a j o r s e c t i o n s : b l e s s i n g p e r i o d ( 1 . 3 — 12), body-opening ( 1 . 1 3 - 2 . 1 0 ) , body-middle ( 2 . 1 1 - 4 . 1 1 ) ,
body-closing
( 4 . 1 2 — 9 ) , a n d parting paraenesis ( 5 . 1 — 1 1 ) , in that o r d e r . Regarding the 8 2
integrity .
b l e s s i n g p e r i o d , t h e l e a d i n g issue c o n c e r n s its
A t least t w o o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n s
literary
b e t w e e n its s t r o p h e s are p r o b
l e m e n o u g h . T h e u n c e r t a i n a n t e c e d e n t o f ev
in
1.6
makes for some
8 1 It w o u l d b e c u m b e r s o m e in the e x t r e m e t o n o t e e a c h instance in passing, so the n u m b e r o f such references is to b e k e p t at a
minimum,
in the a s s u m p t i o n that earlier findings of a pertinent
nature are to b e recalled, a n d perhaps c o n s u l t e d , as n e e d e d . 8 2 See a b o v e
n.
2 5 for its design, b u t
p e r i o d as c o m p r i s i n g 1.3—9.
see also D . Hill, 'Spiritual', 4 5 - 6 3 , esp. 5 6 - 5 3 , f o r
the
50
A Literary Analysis
a w k w a r d n e s s t h a t is o n l y i n t e n s i f i e d b y t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g et . . . i'va . . . w h i c h interrupts the p r e d o m i n a n t l y paratactic o r d e r o f the p e r i o d a g a i n , t h e r e is t h e s u d d e n c h a n g e at
1.1 Of. i n t h e f o r m
8 3
. Then
o f a digression
a w a y f r o m t h e r e c i t a l t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d 1.3—9. What keeps these and
the rest o f the transitions f r o m
getting o u t o f
h a n d , h o w e v e r , is t h e u s e o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s . A s t r i n g o f rela tive p r o n o u n s l e n d s a d e g r e e o f u n i f o r m i t y
t o the w a y each successive
s t r o p h e is i n t r o d u c e d , c r e a t i n g a refrain-like e f f e c t . A l i n k - w o r d a p p e a r s at 1 . 9 / 1 0 in s u p p o r t
o f o n e o f t h e s e p r o n o u n s (owTtipiavjooorripiaq).
Sev
eral o f t h e l a t e r s t r o p h e s p i c k u p k e y - w o r d s f r o m t h e first, s u c h as ' C h r i s t ' ( 1 . 3 b i s , 7, l l b i s ) , ' h e a v e n ' ( 1 . 4 , 1 2 ) , a n d 'faith' ( 1 . 5 , 7, 8, 9 ) . M o r e o v e r , a tissue o f a l l u s i o n s t o t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f s a l v a t i o n s t r e t c h e s a c r o s s e v e r y s t r o p h e as a l e i t m o t i f ( 1 . 4 , 5 , 7 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 ) . L a s t l y , a n o t h e r appears
with
the
praise-language
refrain
w h i c h begins o p e n l y ( 1 . 3 , 6 f . ) , then
s w e l l s t o a n a v o w a l o f t h e p o v e r t y o f all s u c h l a n g u a g e ( 1 . 8 ) , a n d c l i m a x e s b y e x t o l l i n g the p a r a d o x and m y s t e r y o f salvation ( 1 . 1 0 — 2 ) . T h e of
effect
this d e v i c e is t o u n i f y t h e p e r i o d b y p r o p e l l i n g it f o r w a r d t o its c o n
clusion. But
the
transitions b e t w e e n
t h e b l e s s i n g p e r i o d ' s s t r o p h e s are m e r e l y
p a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m i n v o l v i n g its l i t e r a r y i n t e g r i t y . T h a t t h e a u t h o r strug gles w i t h o u t
c o m p l e t e success t o c o n n e c t t h e m suggests h e was w o r k i n g
u n d e r t h e k i n d o f c o n s t r a i n t s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s are n o t o r i o u s f o r p o s i n g . S o t h e r e is l i t t l e c a u s e f o r s u r p r i s e t o f i n d t h a t s o u r c e s h a v e b e e n d e t e c t e d behind every strophe,
t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s f o r m a l in n a t u r e . H e n c e all, o r
a
of
significant
portion,
fragment
adapted
formula
with Eph.
m a l topos,
by
the
1.3—5
m a y have b e e n a pre-existing
author
8 4
.
It
clearly
d o e s share a n
1.3, a n y w a y . T h e n e x t strophe
liturgical opening
draws u p o n the
for
' j o y in s u f f e r i n g ' , w h i c h t h e a u t h o r has a m p l i f i e d b y a t t a c h i n g
8 3 C o n c e r n i n g the p r o n o u n ' s a n t e c e d e n t , see C . F . D . M o u l e , Idiom,
1 3 1 f . H e suggests the possibil
ities o f a vague r e s u m p t i v e , 'and so . . . ' , o r a genuine relative, 'in w h i c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s . . . ' . 8 4 S o , M . - E . B o i s m a r d , 'Liturgie', 1 8 3 - 9 1 , a n d Quatre, 7 a n d p r o p o s i n g a c o m m o n Vorlage. consistency
within
1 5 - 5 6 , citing the affinities w i t h T i t . 3 . 4 -
S p i c q rejects the t h e o r y , observing t o o m u c h internal
1 . 3 — 1 2 t o imagine it m i g h t b e a 'pastiche', 4 3 . E . C o t h e n e t , 'Liturgie',
9 7 f f . , agrees, a n d D e i c h g r a b e r , Gotteshymnus,
7 7 , p r e s u m a b l y thinks so little o f the idea he
d o e s n o t m e n t i o n it. B u t , as V . P . Furnish, 'Elect', 6 , understands, I Pet. 1 . 3 — 5 displays the kind of b a l a n c e , r h y t h m , a n d polish entirely c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the idea o f i n d e p e n d e n t circulation. It satisfies Stauffer's criteria because o f the c o n t e x t u a l a n d syntactical d i s l o c a t i o n after 1 . 5 , a m o n u m e n t a l stylistic c o n s t r u c t i o n (see the privatives), a preference for a p p o s i t i o n a n d partici ples, a n d an a b s e n c e o f particles. O n this v i e w the a w k w a r d shift f r o m was
(v. 3 ) t o Ujud? (v.
4 ) represents a partial a d a p t a t i o n o f a p r e f o r m u l a t e d w o r k that the a u t h o r w a s reluctant to change m o r e than his p u r p o s e s necessitated. H e w a n t s very m u c h t o begin t o f o c u s o n his ad dressees' situation, a n d thus m o v e s naturally t o the second p e r s o n to d o so. A suitable close for the f r a g m e n t m i g h t be r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m materials surviving in w . 6 — 8 , ayaWcdooe ayaWidode
napp. aveKka\r)T<+)
Kai
dedo^aofievri.
. . .
H o w e v e r , a n y relationship with T i t . 3 . 4 — 7
c a n n o t b e very c l o s e , because I Peter prefers avayevvau)
to naXiyyeveoLa,
and omits to men
tion 'justification' a n d 'Spirit', while T i t u s o m i t s 'resurrection'. A n y influence f r o m L k . 1 2 . 3 3 o n 1 . 4 is m o r e distant still.
Source-Integration in I Peter the c o m m o n p l a c e
o f 'the refiner's fire'
(1.6f.)
8 5
.
51
In t h e t h i r d s t r o p h e
a n t i t h e s e s a p p e a r w h i c h are m o r e e a s i l y a t t r i b u t e d t o f o r m a l
influence
f r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n a t t e s t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y in J n . 2 0 . 2 9 t h a n t o c o i n c i d ence
8 6
. In t h e f o u r t h a c o m p l e x o f t r a d i t i o n s m a y b e v i s i b l e , a n d p o s s i b l y
several t r o p e s , b u t it
m a y b e m o r e than the e v i d e n c e can bear t o find 1
w i t h G . S c h i l l e a Zeugenformed .
T h e fifth s t r o p h e c e r t a i n l y m a k e s u s e o f
t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s e v e n i f it is i m p o s s i b l e t o b e sure t h e y w e r e f o r m a l i n 8 8
nature .
From
t h e a d h o c w a y t h e a u t h o r has f o r m e d
each
strophe
a r o u n d s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s i t is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t p o i n t s o f t r a n s i t i o n m a y e x p e r i e n c e a m e a s u r e o f strain. Y e t this o n l y g o e s t o s h o w h o w h e a v i l y he
relied
upon
compositional
t e c h n i q u e s t o harness diverse
materials
t o g e t h e r , b e c a u s e t h e l a s t i n g i m p r e s s i o n is o n e o f p r o g r e s s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t within the blessing p e r i o d despite a seemingly p i e c e m e a l a p p r o a c h t o its c o m p o s i t i o n . In s o m e respects the contrast w i t h the n e x t section o f I Peter c o u l d n o t b e m u c h sharper. Whereas a multiplicity o f sources have b e e n formative for the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the blessing p e r i o d a n d n o particular o n e o f these is d o m i n a n t , w h i l e n o t i c e a b l e i n f l u e n c e b y O T s o u r c e s is c o n s p i c u o u s l y absent, a q u i c k scan o f the b o d y - o p e n i n g suffices t o establish that o n e s o u r c e especially has b e e n
cited repeatedly and extensively, the Scrip
8 9
t u r e s . A s it i s , five e x p l i c i t q u o t a t i o n s are a d d u c e d t h e r e , a m a j o r i t y f o r
8 5 See W . N a u c k , ' F r e u d e ' , esp. 6 8 - 7 3 , f o r his c o m p a r i s o n o f I Pet. 1.6 (and 4 . 1 3 f . ) with Jas. 1 . 2 , 1 2 , a n d M t . 5 . 1 1 f . / / L k . 6 . 2 2 — 3 . A s regards the c o m m o n p l a c e o f the 'refiner's fire' in 1 . 7 a n d 4 . 1 2 , C . H . D o d d , According,
6 6 , singles o u t Z e c h . 1 3 . 9 o n the basis o f verbal tallies a n d a
shared eschatological o u t l o o k ( b u t c p . M a i . 3 . 2 b — 3 , t h e n see a b o v e biblicism n o . 3 ) . T h e r e is i n a d e q u a t e reason t o s u p p o s e a n y t h i n g o t h e r than that a t r o p e has b e e n given a n e w lease o n life w h e n t a k e n u p in c o n t e m p o r a r y a p o c a l y p t i c d i s c o u r s e . 8 6 A g a i n s t Best, 'Tradition', 9 8 , w h o d i s c o u n t s the affinity b e t w e e n I Pet. 1 . 8 a n d J n . 2 0 . 2 9 , c o n trary t o its general a c c e p t a n c e . H e is correct t o claim that the p a r a d o x is n o t entirely unparallelled elsewhere in the N T (II C o r . 5 . 7 , H e b . 1 1 . 2 7 ) , a n d that such a p a r a d o x m i g h t well have o c c u r r e d t o different persons at r e m o v e f r o m o n e a n o t h e r , b u t that a c c o u n t s f o r the material affinity a n d n o t the f o r m a l a f f i n i t y , s o m e t h i n g less easily ascribed t o c h a n c e than t o a c o m m o n source. 8 7 See his Hymnen,
1 1 1 , c o m p a r i n g C o l . 1 . 2 6 a n d E p h . 3 . 5 , 8ff., t o w h i c h a d d R o m . 1 6 . 2 5 , a n d
l Q p H a b V I I , 1—5, f o r e x a m p l e . So very varied are t h e t r e a t m e n t s o f the m a i n ideas it really n e e d s t o b e a s k e d w h e t h e r a f o r m u l a is truly present, a n d n o t a kind o f t r o p e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t i m e s b e f o r e a n d after revelation. A n o t h e r t r o p e m a y b e t h e sufferings/ glories s c h e m a , as in M k . 8 . 3 1 a n d pars., L k . 2 4 . 2 5 — 7 , a n d 4 4 . A third figure m a y b e reflected in the affinity o f 1 . 1 0 w i t h M t . 1 3 . 1 6 — 7 / / L k . 1 0 . 2 3 — 4 , t h o u g h w h e n he p r o p o s e d this c o n n e x i o n , T . W . M a n s o n was entertaining strict d e p e n d e n c e o n a f o r m a l s o u r c e , ' R e v i e w ' , 2 2 0 . 8 8 T h e influence f r o m the tropes discussed directly a b o v e m a y reach as far as v. 1 2 . I E n . 1 . 2 is o f t e n cited h e r e , OVK e\q TT)V VVV yeveav is f r o m A . - M . D e n i s , Fragmenta,
8 levoovuriv
1 9 ) . P. T a c h a u , Einst,
dAA* em
noppoj
ovoav
eyoj
\a\d)
(text
1 2 , a c k n o w l e d g e s the ' t h e n / n o w ' t r o p e
as present in I Pet. 2 . 2 5 despite the a b s e n c e o f TTOTC t h e r e , b u t neglects 1 . 1 2 f o r n o a p p a r e n t reason. F o r the traditions a b o u t the angels see a b o v e biblicism n o . 5 a n d n. 7 5 . 8 9 It is possible t o o b j e c t that each s t r o p h e o f the p e r i o d recalls Jesus-tradition, a n d so p o i n t t o that as a p r i m a r y s o u r c e . A difficulty is k n o w i n g w h e t h e r such materials m i g h t n o t b y the t i m e o f I Peter b e l o n g t o the early Christian vernacular, as stressed b y B e s t , m u c h as in the case o f b i b l i c i s m s , so that it w o u l d b e precarious t o claim d e p e n d e n c e o n a discrete source.
A Literary Analysis
52
the letter, but c o n f i n e d t o a p o r t i o n c o m p r i s i n g just one-fifth o f the total length.
T h e y are a c c o m p a n i e d , f u r t h e r m o r e ,
i m p l i c i t allusions, again a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e However,
the
body-opening
does
not
b y s o m e twelve explicit or
n u m b e r relative t o the s p a c e .
differ
from
the
blessing
s o l e l y i n t e r m s o f t h e n a t u r e a n d d e g r e e o f its d e p e n d e n c e o n but
period
Scripture,
i n o t h e r e q u a l l y o b v i o u s w a y s as w e l l , l i k e its p a r a e n e t i c i n t e n t , a n d
d e s i g n . H e n c e t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s o f its u s e o f s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s m a y p r o v e m o r e i n s t r u c t i v e t h a n in t h e b l e s s i n g p e r i o d . W h e n l o o k i n g f o r c l u e s as t o t h e the
organization o f 1.13—2.10
between
transition ( 1 . 1 3 ) and afterthought ( 2 . 1 0 ) , a kind o f inclusion can be
s e e n t h a t r e l a t e s start a n d f i n i s h : yepr}&r)Te/biieL<; KaXeoavToq tionally
TOP
KakeoavTa
(1.14f./2.9)
functions
9 0
.
Because
the
. . .
bfidq
. . . ( c o p u l a m i s s i n g ) . . . edvoq
dyiov
technique
dytoi
CLVTOI
. . .
. . . TOV . . . vpaq
o f inclusion
conven
t o i d e n t i f y t h e m a i n e m p h a s i s o f a n y g i v e n p a s s a g e , it
is t h e r e f o r e r e a s o n a b l e t o t a k e ' G o d ' s call t o h o l i n e s s ' as t h e r u b r i c u n d e r w h i c h t h e several p a r t s o f t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g l i n e u p To
determine
whether
9 1
.
this is s o t h e p a r t s o f t h e
body-opening must
t h e m s e l v e s b e e x a m i n e d . T h e first s u b - u n i t ( 1 . 1 4 — 6 ) i n t r o d u c e s t h e in
terms
o f Lev. 1 9 . 2 , setting the imitation
theme
o f d i v i n e h o l i n e s s in
strict
o p p o s i t i o n t o c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the k i n d o f c o n d u c t that h a d t y p i f i e d the addressees' f o r m e r lives. T h e s e c o n d ( 1 . 1 7 — 2 1 ) g o e s b e h i n d the c o m m a n d ment
t o the
G o d w h o u t t e r e d it, e n j o i n i n g u p o n t h e a d d r e s s e e s
attitudes c o m m e n s u r a t e
specific
w i t h his h o l y c h a r a c t e r as r e v e a l e d in t h e
story
o f s a l v a t i o n , ' r e v e r e n c e ' , ' f a i t h ' , a n d ' h o p e ' . A n d this t r i a d is f o u n d a t i o n a l to a fourth wards
a t t i t u d e p r o m o t e d in 1 . 2 2 — 5 , o n e d i r e c t e d this t i m e n o t t o
G o d but
f e l l o w Christians, ' l o v e ' . Afterwards,
2.1—3 resumes
t o p i c o f c o n d u c t antithetical t o the w a y o f holiness in o r d e r t o
the
enlarge
u p o n those f o r m s especially inimical t o the l o v i n g f e l l o w s h i p just e m p h a sized
9 2
.
The
fifth
sub-unit
(2.4—9)
erects
a veritable
edifice o f cultic
i m a g e r y t o b r i n g t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g t o an e x a l t e d c o n c l u s i o n , b u t n o t t h a t the addressees m i g h t b e r e m i n d e d o n c e m o r e o f the duties laid o n t h e m b y their h o l y calling, rather, that t h e y m i g h t b e e n c o u r a g e d b y recalling
the
9 0 T h i s inclusion appears t o have e l u d e d the literary analyses of D a l t o n , 7 8 f f . , Chevallier, 1 3 0 f . , and B a l c h , 1 2 4 . A l l three d o a c c e p t ' m e r c y ' as a n inclusion ( 1 . 3 / 2 . 1 0 ) . B u t this has m u c h less internal s u p p o r t in 1 . 1 4 - 2 . 9 than 'the call t o holiness', witness the identification o f the Chris tian message w i t h that call in 1 . 2 2 , a n d , r e p e a t e d l y thereafter, q u i t e apart f r o m all the sacral t e r m i n o l o g y . T h e inclusion also appears t o have e l u d e d t h e c o m m e n t a t o r s . If the one b e gran t e d , t h e n h o w m u c h m o r e the o t h e r . 91 So, somewhat differently,
Selwyn,
1 4 1 , w h o r e m a r k s a similar d e v e l o p m e n t
t h e m e in I C l e m . 3 0 . 1 f f . See a l s o , f o r e x a m p l e , R e i c k e ( 8 4 f f . ) ,
o f the
holiness
Spicq ( 5 9 f f . ) , Kelly ( 2 2 f f . ) ,
a n d Senior ( 1 9 f f . ) , b u t the t e n d e n c y a m o n g the c o m m e n t a t o r s is t o take it as s i m p l y o n e m o r e t h e m e a l o n g w i t h ' h o p e ' , 'faith', e t c . , pertaining t o p r o p e r Christian c o n d u c t Schweizer,
27ff.,
Goppelt, HOff.,
E l l i o t t , Peter,
(for example,
7 7 f f . , Beare, 9 5 f f . , B e s t , 8 4 f f . , a n d B r o x ,
7 2 f f . ) . O f c o u r s e , holiness is the traditional t h e m e in t e r m s o f w h i c h 'the w a l k ' is e l a b o r a t e d . 9 2 See esp. t h e discussions b y S p i c q , 7 8 , a n d Best 9 6 . Their insight g o e s a l o n g w a y t o w a r d s re lieving a n y perceived strain in the transition f r o m 1 . 2 5 t o 2 . I f .
Source-Integration in I Peter unparalleled
53
privileges w h i c h b e l o n g t o t h o s e w h o have a n s w e r e d G o d ' s
s u m m o n s . T h u s it
w o u l d s e e m p o i n t l e s s t o d e n y t h a t t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g in
all its p a r t s carries f o r w a r d t h e t h e m e o f ' G o d ' s call t o h o l i n e s s ' , t h a t is, t h a t a c l e a r train o f t h o u g h t g o v e r n s its c o m p o s i t i o n , t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s in a r i g o r o u s l y l o g i c a l f a s h i o n However, rubric
for
a
.
literary-critical
as e s t a b l i s h e d
inadequate
9 3
enquiry
to
take
the
body-opening's
s i m p l y o n t h e basis o f c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s
b e c a u s e i n c o m p l e t e . H e n c e e a c h sub-unit
must
would be
be
inspected
f o r a n y c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s it m a y c o n t a i n , a n d h o w t h e s e r e l a t e t o the t h e m e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t . A l i n k - w o r d a p p e a r s t o assist t h e s e c o n d s u b - u n i t ' s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e from
the
first
in the
form o f a play on words,
KaXeoavTa/enLKaXeiode
( 1 . 1 5 / 1 . 1 7 ) , e s p e c i a l l y as t h e l a t t e r ' s o b j e c t , narepa,
has t h e s a m e
e n t as t h e
former, G o d . The effect
preference
f o r t h e p t c . as a c i r c u m l o c u t i o n f o r G o d , TOV . . .
reserving e x p l i c i t identification
o f this l i n k p e r s i s t s in t h e
for the
. . . e t c &eov.
as in t h e r e p r i s e (1.17),
different
TOV eyeipavTa
. . .
A n o t h e r d e v i c e is k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n a n d p a r a p h r a s e ,
o f avaoTpoyr]
avaoTpcapr)Te
uptvovTa,
s u b - u n i t ' s c l i m a x at 1 . 2 1 , w h e r e
p a r t i c i p l e s r e a p p e a r b y w a y o f a m p l i f i c a t i o n , etc. deov 86VTCL
refer
author's
(1.17),
from and
1.15
w i t h / c a r d TO enaoTov
avaoTpoyrjc;
(1.18), but
epyov
e a c h serves a
p u r p o s e . T h e p a r a p h r a s e s h a r p e n s t h e call t o h o l i n e s s b y
insist
i n g u p o n u l t i m a t e a c c o u n t a b i l i t y f o r c o m p l i a n c e w i t h it. T h e v e r b r e l a t e s the
first
m e m b e r o f the
t r i a d , ipopcp,
b a c k t o the s u m m o n s
to
indicate
t h a t ' f e a r ' is o n e o f t h e f o r m s h o l i n e s s s h o u l d t a k e i n t h o s e w h o r e s p o n d t o it. T h e n o u n h e l p s i n t e n s i f y t h e r a d i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n t h e
ad
d r e s s e e s ' f o r m e r a n d p r e s e n t m o d e s o f l i f e as p a r t o f a larger e f f o r t t o dra m a t i z e w h a t t h e i r r e s c u e c o s t . A t h i r d d e v i c e is t h e l e i t m o t i f i n v o l v i n g t h e theme
o f h o l i n e s s i t s e l f w h i c h s u r f a c e s in t h e e x p l i c i t , sacral t e r m s w i t h
w h i c h t h e o n e w h o p a i d t h e p r i c e is p o r t r a y e d , rt/itcp a t / x a r t djicbpLov
K a t doiriXov
cbc.
dfivov
( 1 . 1 9 ) . T h e c o m b i n e d e f f e c t o f t h e last t w o
XPIOTOV
is t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e g r o u n d s f o r c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e s u m m o n s , n o t t h r o u g h warnings
o r d i r e o b l i g a t i o n this t i m e , b u t
w a r d s C h r i s t f o r his s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g Unlike the s e c o n d sub-unit, I n s t e a d , fjyvLKOTeq the
holiness
of
9 4
the third d o e s n o t o p e n w i t h a l i n k - w o r d .
ev TT) unaKor]
terminology
o u t o f personal gratitude to
intervention .
rryc dXrj^eiaq
1.14—6
after
the
recalls Teuva fashion
of
vnaKorjq an
and
elaborate
9 3 A s e v e n B r o x ( 7 3 ) a d m i t s , t h o u g h he refuses t o say a n y t h i n g m o r e precise a b o u t the train o f t h o u g h t t h a n that it is g o v e r n e d b y ' h o p e ' . 9 4 T h u s v. 2 0 s e e m s t o b e i n t e n d e d t o e n h a n c e t h e desired i m p a c t o f r e c o u n t i n g G o d ' s ' m i g h t y a c t s ' ( c p . 2 . 9 ) b y enlarging u p o n the s c o p e of the Christ-event in c o s m i c a n d eschatological t e r m s f o r the b e n e f i t o f the addressees (8i* viidq). H e n c e , v. 2 1 m a y b e c o n s t r u e d likewise, and a p p r o p r i a t e l y s o , since early Christian t h e o l o g y k n o w s o f n o t w o m o r e pivotal m o m e n t s for 'faith' a n d ' h o p e ' in the course o f salvation history t h a n the death a n d resurrection o f Christ (see I C o r . 1 5 . 1 f . ) .
54
A Literary Analysis
key-word repetition
9 5
. T h e author appears t o return directly t o the holi
n e s s t h e m e i n o r d e r t o q u a l i f y t h e l o v e - c o m m a n d e x p l i c i t l y i n its t e r m s . Holiness applies t o 'brotherly l o v e ' a c c o r d i n g t o the integrity w i t h w h i c h it is d e m o n s t r a t e d . L o v e f o r t h e o t h e r is h o l y w h e n it is s i n c e r e xpuov),
heart-felt
( £ K Kapbiaq),
9 6
a n d fervent ( e K T e v c b q ) .
{dvvno-
A s w i t h his
triad o f 'fear', 'faith', a n d ' h o p e ' in 1 . 1 7 — 2 1 , s o ' b r o t h e r l y l o v e ' m a y re present a f o u r t h a t t e m p t t o translate w h a t it m e a n s t o b e h o l y , resulting in
a p o i n t o f contact b e t w e e n 1.22 a n d 1.17—21, where h e began the
list
9 7
.
S h o u l d 1 . 2 2 l o o k primarily b a c k t o 1.14—6, h o w e v e r , then 1.23f. m a y to
1 . 1 7 — 2 1 , f o r t h e n e x t m a j o r c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e i n 1 . 2 3 , OVK . . .
ipdapTrjq . . . aydaprov,
a c t s l i k e a refrain t o r e c a l l 1 . 1 8 L , ov
ydaproiq.
The
a u t h o r u s e s this t o c o n t r a s t a m e d i u m o f t r a n s i t o r y s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h
one
o f permanent significance, ransom m o n e y a n d biological r e p r o d u c t i o n
as c o m p a r e d w i t h C h r i s t ' s b l o o d a n d G o d ' s W o r d , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h u s h e establishes
a parallel b e t w e e n the instrument
(message) that b r o u g h t n e w
life a n d t h e a g e n t ( v i c t i m ) w h o m a d e n e w life p o s s i b l e . B y c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n t o y e t a s e c o n d i n i t i a t i v e b y G o d o n b e h a l f o f t h e a d d r e s s e e s , h e is not
o n l y reassuring t h e m o f G o d ' s c o m p a s s i o n , b u t i n d u c i n g in t h e m an
e v e n g r e a t e r d e s i r e t o c o m p l y w i t h h i s p a r a e n e s i s . H e r e it m e a n s r e s p o n d ing t o G o d ' s l o v e b y l o v i n g o t h e r s . Whereas the third sub-unit s h o w s a measure o f c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h b o t h o f its p r e d e c e s s o r s , t h e f o u r t h is c o o r d i n a t e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y w i t h 1 . 2 2 — 5 . It w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e t o v i e w t h e list o f v i c e s i n 2 . 1 as a n e x p a n s i o n o f e-nidviilaiq
i n 1 . 1 4 , b u t this r e l a t i o n s h i p is o v e r s h a d o w e d b y t h e t h r e e
f o l d r e p e t i t i o n o f ndq, w h i c h s i m p l y c o n t i n u e s a p a t t e r n a l r e a d y e s t a b lished
b y the two-fold
repetition
o f t h e a d j e c t i v e i n t h e q u o t a t i o n at
9 5 D a l t o n , 7 8 f . , a n d B a l c h , 1 2 4 , take 1 . 2 2 — 5 as t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e first m a i n section in the letter o n t h e strength o f a n alleged inclusion involving 1.3—4 a n d 1 . 2 3 — 5 , such a s 'born a n e w ' , ' i n c o r r u p t i b l e ' a n d 'living'. Y e t this material m a y o c c u r t o o s o o n in 1 . 2 2 — 5 t o c o n s t i t u t e in clusion p r o p e r (see 1 . 2 5 b ) . A b e t t e r c a n d i d a t e w o u l d b e Chevallier's avr\yye\r\ • • • fdv
Xtoaiieuojv buds/rd evayyekiodev
cvayye-
eiq vn&q ( 1 . 2 1 / 1 . 2 5 b , see his chart, 1 3 1 ) . B u t since 1 . 1 2 is
at t h e e n d o f the blessing p e r i o d rather than t h e beginning o f t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g , neither c a n this be entirely satisfactory. T h e p r o b l e m a p t l y illustrates t h e difficulties a n d d i s t o r t i o n s t o w h i c h a one-sided literary analysis m a y easily lead. In n. 9 2 a b o v e Spicq a n d Best w e r e cited as having e x p l a i n e d t h e transition t o 2 . 1 c o n v i n c i n g l y in a w a y that p r e s u p p o s e s a n i m m e d i a t e c o n n e x ion in t h o u g h t b e t w e e n t h e l o v e - c o m m a n d a n d t h e vices w h i c h threaten t o u n d e r m i n e it. In a d d i t i o n , t h e over-arching inclusion
correlated w i t h
the theme
o f ' G o d ' s call
t o holiness',
having e s c a p e d D a l t o n , Chevallier, a n d B a l c h , has t o b e given m o r e weight than a n y intermed iate o n e s . L a s t l y , t h e catechetical p a t t e r n t h e a u t h o r begins to redact in 1 . 2 3 is i n e x t r i c a b l y related w i t h the materials h e c o n t i n u e s t o redact f r o m that pattern in 2 . I f . , f o r w h i c h see b e l o w nn.
1 0 8 and 1 0 9 .
9 6 T h e reading en na-dapaq KapSiaq c o u l d b e original. If n o t , it still attests t o t h e naturalness o f the v i e w e s p o u s e d h e r e . 97
A g a i n s t D a l t o n , 7 8 , w h o finds ' n o o b v i o u s link', see K e l l y , 7 8 , w h o , s o m e w h a t m a k e s ' l o v e ' t h e third i t e m a d d e d t o 'fear' a n d 'holiness'.
differently,
Source-Integration in I Peter 1.24
9 8
55
. S o it is d i f f i c u l t n o t t o s u p p o s e t h a t ndq is a k e y - w o r d p o s s e s s i n g
t h e f o r c e o f a l i n k i n g d e v i c e . I n d e e d , it m a y b e c o n s t r u e d as a n a m p l i f i c a t i o n d e s i g n e d t o e x p l o i t t h e p e j o r a t i v e m o r a l c o n n o t a t i o n s l a t e n t in a d p £ a n d S d £ a , s u c h as ' w e a k ' a n d ' p r o u d ' , a l l o w i n g t h e v i c e s t o b e r e a d as s u b s t i t u t e s f o r t h e s e b y w a y o f e x p a n s i o n . O n e o f t h e v i c e s , vnoKpioetq, i t s e l f a k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n o f avvnonpiTov the
leitmotif
whereby
of
eruKaXeiode
'rebirth'
in
1.23
resumed
( 2 . 2 ) e c h o e s prjpa
XOJLKOU
a n d naXeoavra
in
is
f r o m 1.22. O t h e r links i n c l u d e in
2.2, and
the
word-play
( 1 . 2 5 b i s ) in a m a n n e r r e m i n i s c e n t o f
1.17
and
1.14
9 9
.
It t h e r e f o r e s e e m s
the
b o n d b e t w e e n 1.22—5 a n d 2 . 1 — 3 is a t i g h t o n e . T h e fifth s u b - u n i t , 2 . 4 — 9 / 1 0 , is a l s o c l o s e l y t i e d t o its i m m e d i a t e decessor
but
not
TTpooepxopevoi
through
linking
is i n 2 . 3 , w h e t h e r
devices. The xpr)OToq
antecedent
o r Kv'ptoq,
and
pre
o f npoq the
6v
transition
is f a s h i o n e d f r o m a l l u s i o n s t o Ps. 3 4 t h a t fall o n b o t h sides o f t h e s e a m , s o the
absence o f
l i n k i n g d e v i c e s is s c a r c e l y f e l t . I t e r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s
p l a i n l y in e v i d e n c e n o n e t h e l e s s . T h e r e are k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n s :
are
'living'
( 2 . 4 , 5 ; see 1 . 2 3 ) , ' h o l y ' ( 2 . 5 , 9 ; see 1 . 1 5 f . , 1 . 2 2 ) , ' w o r d ' ( 2 . 8 b ; see 1 . 2 3 - 5 ) , 'faith'
( 2 . 6 , 7 ; see 1 . 2 1 b i s ) , ' d i s o b e d i e n c e ' ( 2 . 8 b ; see 1 . 1 4 , 2 2 ) , a n d , ' p r e
c i o u s ' ( 2 . 4 , 6 , see 1 . 1 9 ) . T h e r e are l e i t m o t i v e s : ' p r e d e s t i n e d ' 1 . 2 0 ) , the
cultus
1 0 0
t e n c e ' ( 2 . 9 ; see 1 . 1 4 ,
17f., 23f., 2 . I f . )
these
t h e last s u b - u n i t ' s c o n t i n u i t y
devices preserve
2.1—3, recapitulating them
( 2 . 8 b ; see
( 2 . 4 f f . ; see 1 . 1 8 f . ) , a n d , a b o v e all, ' n e w ( a n d o l d ) e x i s
certain
.
It is q u i t e c l e a r t h a t m o s t o f with
o f their leading ideas a n d
those prior to
themes to bring
t o a f i t t i n g c o n c l u s i o n , w h i c h is, a r a d i c a l l y C h r i s t o - c e n t r i c transla
t i o n o f G o d ' s call t o h o l i n e s s . The from
literary
analysis
o f I Peter's b o d y - o p e n i n g c o n f i r m s the
c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s . A single t h e m e w a s a d v a n c e d a n d c a r r i e d
progressively
for
paraenetical
purposes. Careful
results forward
attention t o the use o f
l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s c l a r i f i e d h o w t h e several p a r t s o f t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g are c o ordinated references
with
one another
t o a c c o m p l i s h that e n d . A t the s a m e
t o the p r e s e n c e o f a n y source-materials
time,
were kept to a mini
m u m s o as n o t t o p r e j u d i c e t h e q u e s t i o n . It r e m a i n s , t h e r e f o r e , t o r e t u r n to
the
body-opening
to
examine
the
disposition
of
source-materials
w i t h i n it, p a y i n g s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e i r r e d a c t i o n and the use o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s .
9 8 A s d e m o n s t r a t e d b y F . W . D a n k e r , ' C o n s o l a t o r y ' , 9 8 . His c o n t r i b u t i o n w a s a p p a r e n t l y over l o o k e d b y Chevallier a n d B a l c h . 9 9 D a l t o n , Chevallier, a n d Balch did see linking devices in ' h y p o c r i s y ' a n d 'birth'. 1 0 0 In a d d i t i o n , 'house-building' implies the creation of, or entrance into a n e w social unit, that is, e x i s t e n c e (see N . H i l l y e r , ' R o c k ' , 5 8 - 8 1 , perhaps reflecting u n d e r l y i n g w o r d - p l a y , / H J l / I S N ]n
as per G e n . 3 0 . 3 , 7] 272B
"OJN
DA
TUSKI).
A transfer f r o m darkness t o light,
m o r e o v e r , n o t o n l y c o n n o t e s the ' e n l i g h t e n m e n t ' s y n o n y m o u s w i t h c o n v e r s i o n (see H e b . 6 . 4 , J o s . a n d A s e n . 1 5 . 1 3 ) , a n d h e n c e a n e w e x i s t e n c e , b u t is an equally a p t m e t a p h o r f o r birth itself. A s regards nation-building ( 2 . 1 0 ) , J o s e p h u s can designate the return f r o m exile a n d w i K TT]OLV
Kai
naXtyyeueaiav (Ant. X I I , 6 6 ) .
56
A Literary Analysis R e g a r d i n g 1 . 1 4 — 6 , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e f o r m u l a i c m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t in t h e
a f f i n i t y 1 . 1 4 has w i t h R o m . 1 2 . 2 , ' b e n o t c o n f o r m e d ' , e t c . It lies b e h i n d the antithesis w h i c h
c o m e s t o e x p r e s s i o n in 1.15 t h r o u g h t h e i t e r a t i v e
a l l u s i o n t o L e v . 1 9 . 2 c i t e d in 1 . 1 6
1 0 1
. F o l d e d i n t o t h e a n t i t h e s i s are t e r m s
c o m m o n t o p r o s e l y t i s m , a n d e v e n the c h o i c e o f L e v . 1 9 . 2 m a y b e attrib uted
t o the prior association o f the Levitical Holiness C o d e w i t h such
tradition
1 0 2
. It is n e v e r t h e l e s s c l e a r
t h e e m p h a s i s is o n S c r i p t u r e , f o r m a l
ized b y the i n t r o d u c t o r y formula ( c p . M t . 5 . 4 9 , L k . 6 . 3 6 , E p h . 5 . 1 , 1 Jn. 3 . 3 ) . T h e d o m i n a n c e o f this s o u r c e c o n t i n u e s t o b e f e l t w h e r e v e r t h e b o d y o p e n i n g r e t u r n s t o t h e ' p o s i t i v e ' s i d e o f t h e a n t i t h e s i s in its u s e o f h o l i ness t e r m i n o l o g y . C o n c e r n i n g 1 . 1 7 — 2 1 , t h e r e are t r a d i t i o n a l figures o f s p e e c h a n d p r o s e l y t i z i n g r h e t o r i c in 1 . 1 7 , b u t n o f o r m a l s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s p r o p e r u n t i l t h e a l l u s i o n s t o Is. 5 2 . 3 a n d 5 3 . 7 / E x . 1 2 . 5 in 1 . 1 8 - 9 s a w , 1.20 p r o b a b l y
1 0 3
does instance formulaic m a t t e r
. T h e n , as B u l t m a n n 1 0 4
. It c o n t i n u e s t h e
rehearsal o f p i v o t a l m o m e n t s in t h e C h r i s t - e v e n t b e g u n at 1 . 1 8 L , t o w h i c h v . 2 1 has b e e n a p p e n d e d t o p r o l o n g t h e r e c i t a l , p o s s i b l y itself e m b o d y i n g a f o r m u l a o f s o r t s a n d a n a l l u s i o n t o Is. 5 2 . 1 3
1 0 5
. T h u s 1.18—21 t a k e s o n
t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f a u n i f i e d p e r i o d i n a u g u r a t e d b y t h e shift f r o m e x h o r t a t i o n t o s t a t e m e n t at 1 . 1 8 a n d b y t h e O T a l l u s i o n s e x p l i c i t l y c o r r e l a t e d with the holiness t h e m e .
1 0 1 T h e rarity o f
avoxruiarL^LJ
m a k e s the affinity b e t w e e n R o m . a n d I Pet. striking. G o p p e l t ,
1 1 6 , m a y be f o l l o w e d in attributing even the antithesis in 1 . 1 4 f . t o t h e s o u r c e . T h e r e m a y b e s o m e t h i n g o f literary significance as well in the f a c t that this seminal paraenetical idea stands b o t h at the h e a d o f R o m . 1 2 — 3 a n d I Peter's b o d y - o p e n i n g . 1 0 2 See esp. P. C a r r i n g t o n , Catechism,
1 3 f f . , S e l w y n , 3 6 9 f f . , D . D a u b e , Rabbinic,
1 0 6 - 4 0 , a n d for
the relationship o f L e v . 1 8 — 9 t o p r o s e l y t e instruction see P . W . van der H o r s t , 'Phocylides', 187ff. (Jer.
Significant t e r m s include s t e r e o t y p e s o f the G e n t i l e s , 'ignorance' o f G o d a n d his w a y s 10.25,
Ps. 7 9 . 6 , W i s . S o l .
( = ' t h e evil inclination'/
V"1 71
1 4 . 2 2 , Acts 1 7 . 3 0 , Eph. 4 . 1 8 ) , and domination by
T 2 ? o n
w h i c h see W . D . D a v i e s , Paul,
'desire'
17ff., and J. Marcus,
'Inclination', 6 0 6 — 2 1 ) , as well as ' c o n d u c t ' (for d^aarpo«^>?/dt«oarpe0cj'=7rept7rareu>=
T^H
see esp. G o p p e l t , 1 1 8 , n. 3 1 . T h e T w o W a y s is clearly b e h i n d t h e s o u r c e . ) . See also K . G . K u h n , TDNT,
6, 727ff.
1 0 3 In a d d i t i o n t o ' c o n d u c t ' again, are further s t e r e o t y p e s , 'futile' ( L e v . 1 7 . 7 , Jer. 8 . 1 9 , W i s . S o l . 1 3 . 1 , A c t s 1 4 . 1 5 , E p h . 4 . 1 7 ) , a n d 'captivity' to 'ancestral c u s t o m * (see W . C . van U n n i k , 'Crit ique', 1 2 9 f f . ) . Perhaps the o p e n i n g a d m o n i t i o n t o 'fear' G o d as the first principle o f w i s d o m reflects the i m p o r t a n t c o n t e x t that n o t i o n h a d in the h i s t o r y of p r o s e l y t i s m ( f o r
yoPovnevoi
d e n o t i n g partial a d h e r e n t s t o the M o s a i c l a w see already II C h r o n . 5 . 6 L X X , a n d , TDNT,
IX,
2 0 7 ) . See also H . G u l z o w , ' S o z i a l e ' , 1 9 4 f f . 1 0 4 'Bekenntnis', 1 0 — 2 , t h o u g h , as W e n g s t a n d others have n o t e d , it is unnecessary t o f o l l o w h i m in the claim that 1 . 2 0 b e l o n g s t o the s a m e f r a g m e n t u n d e r l y i n g 3 . 1 8 — 2 2 (Formeln, D e i c h g r a b e r , Gotteshymnus,
169f.).
O f c o u r s e , the e n d o f
1 6 1 — 5 , and
1 . 2 0 m u s t b e e x c i s e d , Si
u/udc.
W e n g s t suggests further that 1 . 1 8 f . m a y reflect f o r m u l a i c e x p r e s s i o n s using ' b l o o d ' in t h e c o n t e x t o f r a n s o m language ( 9 1 , n. 3 ; R o m . 3 . 2 5 , 5 . 9 , E p h . 1 . 7 , C o l . 1 . 2 0 , I J n . 1 . 7 , R e v . 1 . 5 , e t c . C o n s i d e r M k . 1 0 . 4 5 ) . F o r possible associations of 1 . 2 0 w i t h G e n . 2 2 . 8 a n d the A q e d a h see R . Le Deaut, 'Targum', 1 0 3 f . 1 0 5 F o r . t h e Auferweckungsformel
see
Wengst, 4 8 , comparing R o m . 4.24f. Hort, 84f.,
suggests
a plausible parallel in the w a y Is. 5 2 . 1 3 m a y have i n f l u e n c e d the particular version o f the for m u l a L . A c t s 3 . 1 5 , edo^aoev
TOV nalba
CLVTOV
'lr]oovv.
Source-Integration in I Peter
57
A s o b s e r v e d earlier, t h e t h i r d s u b - u n i t , 1 . 2 2 — 5 , o p e n s w i t h s u c h a n e x p r e s s r e p r i s e o f t h e h o l i n e s s t h e m e as t o h a v e e c l i p s e d f o r m a n y its i m m e d i a t e p o i n t o f c o n t a c t w i t h 1 . 1 7 — 2 1 in f a v o u r o f 1 . 1 4 — 6 ton and
S e l w y n are c o r r e c t
1 0 6
. A n d i f Carring-
in a s c r i b i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e topos
on
' b r o t h e r l y l o v e ' t o a n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h its O T l o c u s c l a s s i c u s , L e v . 1 9 . 1 8 , t h e n an e v e n c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e h o l i n e s s t h e m e m a y e x i s t , b e c a u s e 1 9 . 1 8 falls in t h e s a m e p e r i c o p e as 1 9 . 2 c i t e d in 1 . 1 6
1 0 7
. H e n c e an allusion
t o the O T m a y be difficult t o avoid here. T h e n e x t piece o f formal sourcem a t e r i a l is t h e ' n e w e x i s t e n c e ' m o t i f , in as m u c h as this l o o k s t o b e a b o r r o w i n g f r o m the early Christian c a t e c h e s i s
1 0 8
. It is e l a b o r a t e d in t e r m s o f
t h e ' s e e d ' m e t a p h o r w h i c h is p a r t o f t h e i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o t h e q u o t a t i o n o f Is. 4 0 w h i c h c a p s t h e s u b - u n i t . In 1 . 2 5 b a n i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n a n d an i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n f o l l o w t h e q u o t a t i o n t o m a k e p l a i n its a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e addressees' e x p e r i e n c e / T h u s the third
sub-unit maintains a significant
correlation b e t w e e n the holiness t h e m e a n d the r e d a c t i o n o f O T materials o n the strength o f w h i c h o t h e r traditional e l e m e n t s have b e e n i n t r o d u c e d . R e g a r d i n g 2 . 1 — 3 , it h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t t h e list o f v i c e s e x p a n d u p o n ndaa a d p £ a n d ndoa 6 d £ a o f 1 . 2 4 , b u t w h a t w a s n o t s u g g e s t e d is t h a t it r e p r e s e n t s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Isaiah q u o t a t i o n f r o m 1 . 2 5 b . O f c o u r s e , t h e list is b u t a p a r t o f t h e c a t e c h e t i c a l p a t t e r n c o m e s i n t o v i e w at paraeneticum,
and
2 . I f . , i n c l u d i n g t h e deponentes 'new
m a t e r i a l in 1 . 1 4 f . a n d 1 8
existence',
1 0 9
adumbrated
which
(anodenevoi), by
the
ovv-
' T w o Ways'
. H o w e v e r , it is t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e p a t t e r n
1 0 6 S e e , f o r instance, H o r t , 8 6 f . , calling 1 . 1 7 — 2 1 a digression. 1 0 7 Catechism,
1 8 , a n d S e l w y n , 3 7 0 f f . In this t h e y f o l l o w A . Seeberg, Wege.
O n e m a y hesitate t o
e m b r a c e their o b s e r v a t i o n , b e c a u s e n o n e o f the c o m m e n t a t o r s seems to have taken n o t i c e o f it. A f e w parallels m a y b e cited, I T h e s s . 4 . 9 in the c o n t e x t o f 4 . 1 ff., M t . 5 . 4 3 in t h e c o n t e x t of 5 . 4 3 f f . , and I J n . 3 . 1 0 in the c o n t e x t o f 3 . 3 f f . C p . R o m . 1 2 . 9 f . a n d 1 3 . 8 f f . F o r the essence o f T o r a h stated in t e r m s of L e v . 1 9 . 1 8 see M k . 1 2 . 2 8 a n d pars., Philo, Decal. 89.
See also
the
1 1 0 , a n d Siphra
f a m o u s a n e c d o t e a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h Hillel delivers the G o l d e n R u l e t o a
p r o s p e c t i v e p r o s e l y t e ( S h a b . 3 1 a , and see S.-B.,
I, 9 0 7 ) .
1 0 8 See J a s . 1 . 1 8 , C o l . 3 . 1 0 , E p h . 4 . 2 3 L , I J n . 3 . 9 , J n . 3 . 3 f . , a n d see the n o t e f o l l o w i n g . 1 0 9 T h e pattern is a l r e a d y incipient nature a n d e x t e n t 364ff.,
of
in I T h e s s . 4 . 1 — 2 , a n d is f u l l - b l o w n b y E p h . 4 . 1 7 f f . F o r the
the tradition's n u c l e u s see esp. Carrington, Catechism,
A . M . H u n t e r , Predecessors,
and Davies, Paul,
1 2 8 - 3 1 , D a u b e , Rabbinic,
3Iff.,
Selwyn,
1 0 6 f f . , C . H . D o d d , Law,
20ff.,
1 1 9 f f . O n b a l a n c e , it seems a f o u r - f o l d rubric is discernible w h i c h d o e s n o t
a l w a y s o c c u r in the s a m e s e q u e n c e : 1 ) n e w p e r s o n / b i r t h , 2 ) p u t - o f f / p u t - o n , 3 ) w a t c h / p r a y / b e s o b e r , 4 ) resist/stand firm. T h e integrity o f the tradition is clearest at Jas. 1 . 2 1 , E p h . 4 . 2 5 , a n d I Pet. 2 . 1 of w h i c h H u n t e r states ' T h e "Put o n " s e c t i o n begins with a " w h e r e f o r e " ( 6 t o ) or a " t h e r e f o r e " (ovv),
i m p l y i n g that the imperatives o f the f o u r - f o l d pattern d e p e n d e d o n s o m e
p r e v i o u s doctrinal indicative. A n d , o n investigation, w e find that in each case there is a preced ing paragraph w h i c h describes Christian b a p t i s m as a n e w creation or a n e w b i r t h ' 1 3 0 ) . T h e r e is greater d o u b t as t o w h e n o t h e r i t e m s , such as the HaustafeIn
(Predecessors,
a n d church-order,
m i g h t have b e e n assigned a place in the catechesis, or even w h e t h e r such a relationship is de m o n s t r a b l e , since E p h e s i a n s d e p e n d s o n Colossians. F o r the T w o W a y s tradition the c a t e c h i s m m e d i a t e s see H . R o s t e r , Introduction,
I I , 1 5 8 f . , and c p . already 1 Q S III, esp. 1 3 f f . , a n d see D i d .
1 0 6 , Barn. 1 8 — 2 0 , a n d H e r m a s , passim, a l t h o u g h he claims q u e s t i o n a b l y that the a u t h o r of T h e D i d a c h e is responsible for c o n n e c t i n g the l o v e - c o m m a n d t o the T w o W a y s ( 1 . 2 ) . B u t see
A Literary Analysis
58
with
the
quotation
T h u s anodepevoi avdoq
that facilitates
the
transition f r o m
e%€7Teoev,
to
2.If.
a possibility o n l y e n h a n c e d b y the e v o c a t i o n o f the bap
t i s m a l rite in w h i c h c l o t h e s are e x c h a n g e d simile, previously correlated w i t h the metaphor,
1.22—5
w o u l d s e e m t o a n s w e r t o t h e q u o t a t i o n ' s m o r e v i v i d TO 1 1 0
. T h e n t o o the ' n e w existence'
quotation
b y virtue
o f the
'seed'
is e x t e n d e d in 2 . 2 t o o f f e r a startling c o n t r a s t t o t h e ' e v i l in
c l i n a t i o n ' r e f l e c t e d at 1 . 1 4 , 1 8 , a n d 2 . 1 , in t h e f o r m o f t h e i n f a n t w h o has an insatiable w i t h 86Xov,
' c r a v i n g ' f o r t h e p u r e ' m i l k ' (a&oXov,
c p . the p l a y o n w o r d s
2 . 1 ) . H e n c e the p o s i t i v e side o f the holiness c o m e s t o the f o r e
a g a i n . L a s t l y , t h e c o n j u n c t i o n m a y b e a t e c h n i c a l t e r m in h o r t a t o r y r i c , d e s i g n e d t o r o o t t h e p a r a e n e s i s in t h e p r e c e d i n g i n d i c a t i v e
1 1 1
rheto
. Because
t h e p r e c e d i n g i n d i c a t i v e is c o m p o s e d o f a l l u s i o n s t o t h e c i t a t i o n , its f o r c e may
be such
as
to
establish
an
exact
c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the
text
as
a p p l i e d t o the addressees' c i r c u m s t a n c e s and the c a t e c h e t i c a l p a t t e r n . T h e c o n n e x i o n is f u l l y b o r n e o u t in t u r n b y t h e w a y t h e n u r s i n g m e t a p h o r occasions
the
repetition
' L o r d ' a n d t h e r e f e r e n c e t o ' t a s t i n g ' his ' k i n d n e s s ' a n e q u a t i o n
apt
allusion afterwards
t o Ps. 3 4 . T h r o u g h t h e
key-word
with the events surrounding the addressees' r e c e p t i o n o f the G o s p e l just m e n t i o n e d at 1 . 2 5 is v i r t u a l l y i r r e s i s t i b l e . H e n c e , e v e n in a s u b - u n i t formal source-materials
other
where
t h a n S c r i p t u r e p r o v i d e at l e a s t as m u c h o f
t h e b u l k , t h e l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s i n e v i d e n c e s e r v e d t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e m all with the O T . F i n a l l y , as p r e v i o u s l y s e e n , t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o 2 . 4 f f . is f a c i l i t a t e d b y a s e c o n d a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 4 . T h e n i t e r a t i v e d e v i c e s t a k e o v e r c o m p l e t e l y t o d r a w O T m a t e r i a l s i n t o t h e l e t t e r . V v . 4—5 are c r e a t e d l a r g e l y f r o m itera tive w.
allusions, 6—9
1 1 2
.
for e x a m p l e , w h i c h anticipate
Furthermore,
the
internal
the extensive citations
organization
itself
of
vv.
d e p e n d s o n d e v i c e s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e O T m a t e r i a l s : evripovlripr], 6
moTevasv/Toiq
TtpooKoitrovoiv
Tttorevovoiv
(6/7),
Xldoq/Xldoq
( 8 a / 8 b ) , a n d e v e n Xaoq/Xaoq
and,
( 7 / 8 a ) , TrpoonoppaToq
(9/10)
1 1 3
in
6—9 /
. O n l y the transition
I T h e s s . 4 . 1 — 9 , C o l . 3 . 1 — 1 5 , a n d E p h . 4 . 1 — 5 . 2 0 . In a n o t h e r vein, G . K l e i n traces the incep tion o f the T w o W a y s to Ps. 3 4 . 1 2 (Katechismus,
137ff.).
1 1 0 F o r the possibility see H u n t e r , 1 3 0 . l
1 1 1 In a d d i t i o n t o the c o m m e n t b y H u n t e r in n. 1 0 9 a b o v e see also W . N a u c k , o t w - p a r a n e t i c u m ' , 134f. 1 1 2 T o this e f f e c t
see
esp.
the
close analysis b y E l l i o t t , Elect,
3 8 — 4 9 . T h e topos
on
'spiritual
w o r s h i p ' is present (see a b o v e n. 4 7 ) , the m o s t significant parallel t o w h i c h is likely t o b e R o m . 1 2 . 1 f.,
again b y virture o f the parallel at I Pet. 1 . 1 4 f . S e l w y n claims the subject b e l o n g e d t o
the catechetical p a t t e r n , Jas. 1 . 2 7 , C o l . 3 . 1 6 f . , a n d E p h . 4 . 1 7 f f . (see his chart, 4 0 3 ) , a c c o u n t i n g for the c o n j u n c t i o n o f ideas in I Pet. 1 . 2 3 f f . , a c c o r d i n g l y . 1 1 3 D e i c h g r a b e r , 8 4 , discerns the influence of the liturgy u p o n 2 . 9 — 1 0 , b e c a u s e o f the associations w i t h b a p t i s m in its reference t o ' l i g h t ' a n d because it appears to b e 'poetisch struktiert'. H e did n o t see w h a t Elliott d i d , that 2 . 1 0 m a y instance a freely circulating liturgical phrase, as in N u m . R . II, 15f., Use,
a n d in M i d . Ps. 2 2 . 7 (Elect,
4 5 , n. 2 ) . C p . R o m . 9 . 2 5 f . A c c o r d i n g t o E . E . Ellis,
5 0 — 1 a n d n. 8 , such Scriptural a b b r e v i a t i o n s are s o m e t h i n g o f a n o v e l t y in R a b b i n i c a .
H e n c e 2 . 1 0 , a n y w a y , m a y reflect a c o n v e n t i o n a l use o f H o s . 1—2 via a kind o f c o d a , m a k i n g
Source-In tegra Hon in I Peter f r o m 8 b t o 9 is a n e x c e p t i o n , w h e r e bfieiq implied occur.
antithesis w i t h In addition
eredrjoav
the
59
r e s u m e s bixlv f r o m v . 7 a n d a n
'unbelievers'
is p r e s e n t , b u t
no
link-words
t o an easily o v e r l o o k e d k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n ,
TI#TJ/LU/
( 6 / 8 ) , t h e r e a r e several i n c l u s i o n s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e m a s s o f O T
m a t e r i a l s , enXenTOV/eKXenrov
( 4 / 9 ) a n d dyiovjdyiov
( 5 / 9 ) , the s e c o n d o f
w h i c h returns the sub-unit tellingly t o the holiness The
preceding
investigation
I Peter's b o d y - o p e n i n g leads
theme.
o f the integration o f source-materials
in
t o several s i g n i f i c a n t c o n c l u s i o n s . N o t o n l y
d o e s S c r i p t u r e p r o v i d e m o r e o f t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m w h i c h it has b e e n c o m p o s e d t h a n a n y o t h e r s o u r c e , b u t the central t h e m e g u i d i n g the i n c o r p o r a tion
o f topoi,
kerygmatic/creedal
formulae, h y m n i c fragments,
chesis, also derives f r o m that s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s are
compositional
1 1 4
techniques
t h e m into their present configuration T h e O T is f r e q u e n t l y
and
cate-
. Inextricably u n i t e d with these oral which around
have the
been used
summons
u s e d as w e l l t o e l a b o r a t e a n d s u p p o r t
to
draw
to holiness. these
formal
materials, e s p e c i a l l y the catechesis w h i c h p r o v i d e s the b o d y - o p e n i n g w i t h s e m i n a l p a r a e n e s i s . A n d , n o less t h a n f o u r o f t h e s u b - u n i t s are c o n c l u d e d b y p r o n o u n c e d O T c i t a t i o n , w h i c h invests t h e p a r a e n e s i s w i t h a d e g r e e o f a u t h o r i t y it w o u l d n o t o t h e r w i s e c o m m a n d each appeal
is f i r m l y
anchored
1 1 5
in S c r i p t u r e ,
. T h e i m p r e s s i o n results that and
that b e h i n d the w h o l e
s w e e p o f the a u t h o r ' s e x h o r t a t i o n stands a divine m a n d a t e . Compared
with
straight-forward
the
in
b o d y - o p e n i n g , I P e t e r ' s b o d y - m i d d l e is
design.
Leaving aside f o r the
relatively
time being the
tional p e r i o d , 2 . 1 1 — 2 , o n the strength o f the k e y - w o r d repetition, ocoy
a series
possibly
3.7.
o f units can b e distinguished, S o the
pattern
t h e r e is a c l e a r a t t e m p t at
extends
2.13—7, 18—25, 3.1—6, and
unbroken
a summation
right u p t o 3 . 8 ,
where
b a c k e d b y an O T citation.
organization
o f the
obvious, but
four units can also be distinguished
excellent
transi biroTda-
The
s e c o n d p a r t o f I P e t e r ' s b o d y - m i d d l e is n o t q u i t e s o w i t h i n it, 3 . 1 3 — 7 , 18—
sense o f the w a y it has b e e n a p p e n d e d t o I Pet. 2 . 9 a l m o s t as a n a f t e r t h o u g h t . F o r
' t h e n / n o w ' in 2 . 1 0 see T a c h a u , Einst,
esp. 12ff.
1 1 4 F o r the sake o f being t h o r o u g h , several m o r e instances o f catechetical tradition in 1 . 1 3 — 2 . 1 0 may
b e n o t e d . T h e rubric w a t c h / p r a y / b e sober o c c u r s in 1 . 1 3 , vq^povreq,
for e x a m p l e , b y S e l w y n , 3 7 7 , Davies, Paul, at 4 . 7 b a n d 5 . 8 . See W . G r u n d m a n n ,
a case o v e r l o o k e d ,
1 2 8 , a n d H u n t e r , 1 2 9 , w h o d o n o t e its o c c u r r e n c e
*NHniOI\
1 8 8 f f . , for the didactic c o n n o t a t i o n s o f the
simile o f the n e w b o r n child in 2 . 2 (a deliberate e c h o o f 1 . 1 4 / 1 7 ) . Whereas npooepxoiJLai p r o b a b l y bears a cultic m e a n i n g [TDNT, of a p r o s e l y t e ( = 2 1 1 5 Against E l l i o t t , Elect, these
II, 6 8 4 ) , irpoodycj
in 2 . 4
in 3 . 1 8 m a y refer t o the m a k i n g
1 j7 H ) . 2 0 5 , n. 5 , it d o e s n o t necessarily f o l l o w f r o m the p o s t e r i o r p o s i t i o n o f
O T q u o t a t i o n s that t h e y exist
m e r e l y for the
sake o f illustration. T h e i n t r o d u c t o r y
f o r m u l a e indicate t h e y m u s t b e taken seriously as p r o o f - t e x t s . N e i t h e r m u s t it b e granted that there is n o exegesis o f the O T h a p p e n i n g here. T h e unwavering a i m o f the a u t h o r is t o e n u n ciate
w h a t L e v . 1 9 . 2 m e a n s for his addressees in the light o f t h e Christ-event, a n d he r e p e a t e d l y
returns to his O T sources, a n d o t h e r s , t o d o s o . It seems anachronistic t o e x p e c t the ancients t o adhere to m o d e r n criteria as t o w h a t passes for exegesis. A g o o d e x a m p l e o f a n illustrative use of the O T can be a d d u c e d in Jas. 1.1 Of., the r e m i n i s c e n c e o f Is. 4 0 . 6 — 8 , w h i c h is m a r k e d l y different f r o m the w a y the s a m e passage is treated in I Pet. 1 . 2 3 f .
A Literary Analysis
60
2 2 , 4.1—6, and
7 — 1 1 . A s p r e v i o u s l y o b s e r v e d , t h e first t a k e s its p o i n t o f
d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g p s a l m q u o t a t i o n . T h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d start from
similar assertions a b o u t
eschatological climax. Thus
the
the
d e a t h o f C h r i s t . A n d t h e f o u r t h is a n
t w o parts differ e n o r m o u s l y f r o m
o t h e r , a n d b o t h f r o m t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g . It is t h e r e f o r e b e s t
to
each
approach
the literary analysis o f these t w o parts separately. The
opening unit
paoiXea
o f the
first
part
is f r a m e d
( 2 . 1 3 / 1 7 ) , p o s s i b l y r e i n f o r c e d b y naori
TLnrioare.
b y i n c l u s i o n , /taatXet/
avVpcjirivri
KTioet/nduTaq
A prime e x a m p l e o f symmetrical arrangement closes the unit, 116
TivrioaTe-ayaTTaTe/yoPeiode-TLiJidTe . w o r d s , -ndvraq
Between
. . . yoPeiode/TravTL
2.17
and
18
are
^oj3
1 9 ) . T h e r e is an i n t e r n a l i n c l u s i o n w i t h i n 2 . 1 9 — 2 0 ,
TOVTO
link(2.17/
. . .
x&PW/TOVTO
xdptc, w h i c h s e e m s t o m a r k it o f f as a s u b - u n i t . T h e n 2 . 2 1 b e g i n s w i t h a l i n k i n g d e v i c e , etc,
yap,
TOVTO
a n d is q u i c k l y f o l l o w e d b y a shift f r o m e x
h o r t a t i o n t o s t a t e m e n t w h i c h e n d s at 2 . 2 5 . T h e r e is still a n o t h e r i n c l u s i o n in
3 . 1 — 6 , yvvaineq
viroTaooopievai
VT\0Taoo6p.eva{.
Toiq
idioiq
dvhpdow
t h e r e is l i t t l e o p p o r t u n i t y dv8pdoLv/dv8peq.
rote
tStotc.
dvbpdoivjyvvaiKeq
for literary
finesse
apart
from
a link-word,
T h e r e is n o l i n k i n g d e v i c e at t h e start o f 3 . 8 — 1 2 , h o w
e v e r , m e r e l y a s t a n d a r d e x p r e s s i o n , TO 6 e reAoc. ndvTeq. c o m e s o n eiq €K\ridr]T€
. . .
( 3 . 1 / 5 f . ) . A s far as 3 . 7 is c o n c e r n e d ,
€K\rjdr}T€
TOVTO
. . .
Iva,
tva,
so reminiscent
Soon
thereafter
o f 2 . 2 1 , etc.
yap
TOVTO
as t o s u g g e s t it serves a n a n a l o g o u s f u n c t i o n , t o in
augurate a s e c o n d sub-unit again o f O T material. T h u s there s e e m s t o b e a k i n d o f s y m m e t r y (i.e., parallel d e v e l o p m e n t ) b e t w e e n the internal struc tures o f 2 . 1 8 - 2 5 a n d 3 . 8 - 1 2 . Feeding
into
source-materials.
this
well-ordered
F o r the
format
is
an
assortment
s a k e o f c o m p l e t e n e s s t h o s e in t h e
of
formal
transitional
p e r i o d m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d first. A case can b e m a d e There
is t h e
118
fiicov .
for three, n o t including a selection o f
c a t e c h e t i c a l abstinentes,
The
infinitive
airexeodaL
coincides with
the
oapKiKdiv
TOOV
seventh
tropes
element
1 1 7
.
eitidvidentified
earlier as g e n e r i c t o t r a n s i t i o n s t o t h e b o d y - m i d d l e o f t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r (see a b o v e nn.
1 5 a n d 2 8 ) . T h u s it r e p r e s e n t s t h e t r a n s i t i o n ' s c e n t r a l in
j u n c t i o n , a n d in that c a p a c i t y m a y b e seen t o r e s u m e pecially, maintaining the T h e abstinentes and
continuity
1.14
a n d 2 . 1 es
between body-opening and -middle.
sets u p i n t u r n t h e a n t i t h e s i s b e t w e e n ' w e l l - d o e r / d o i n g '
' e v i l - d o e r / d o i n g ' in 2 . 1 2 w h e r e it is d r a w n s h a r p l y f o r t h e first
out o f anticipation
time
o f f u r t h e r e x t e n s i v e e l a b o r a t i o n in t h e b o d y - m i d d l e .
1 1 6 F o r the analysis o f the c h i a s m see E . B a m m e l , ' C o m m a n d s ' , 2 7 9 — 8 1 . 1 1 7 In a d d i t i o n t o a figurative d i m e n s i o n t o irapoiKovq
Kai napemb'niAovq,
there is the tired m e t a
p h o r o f the war w h i c h sin wages against t h e soul (see R o m . 7.7f., Jas. 4 . 1 , 1 Q S I I I , 1 7 f . , a n d c p . the references t o Plato, A r i s t o t l e , Philo, a n d o t h e r s , in S e l w y n , 1 7 0 ) , a n d there is the m e n t i o n o f ' g o o d w o r k s ' in the p o p u l a r sense (see W . C . van U n n i k , 'Teaching', 9 2 — 1 1 0 ) . 1 1 8 See e s p . S e l w y n ' s chart, 4 2 0 . See A c t s 1 5 . 2 0 , 2 9 , I T h e s s . 4 . 3 , 5 . 2 2 . S e l w y n argues that the deponentes
is, in e f f e c t , a later d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h m a y have taken its cue f r o m the
abstinentes.
Source-Integration in I Peter
61
T h e s e c o n d l i k e l y c a s e o f f o r m a l s o u r c e d e p e n d e n c e c o n c e r n s vpuv €K
TCOV
KCLXGJV
epyojv
eno-nrevovTeq
bo^eouoiv
m a x i m ' w i t h its c l o s e s t p a r a l l e l i n M t . 5 . 1 6
1 1 9
. . .
&edv, a ' m i s s i o n a r y
TOV
. Its p u r p o s e is t o i n t r o d u c e
the possibility o f favourable practical o u t c o m e s f r o m g o o d c o n d u c t w h i c h m a y then b e translated i n t o s o m e r e m e d i e s f o r the hardships facing the a d d r e s s e e s at 2 . 1 5 , 3 . I f . , 7 , 1 3 , a n d 1 6 . T h e t h i r d c a s e is t h e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 1 0 . 3 t h a t t e r m i n a t e s 2 . 1 1 — 2 . I t k e e p s alive t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e f r a i n f r o m earlier o n i n t h e l e t t e r a n d a n t i c i p a t e s its r e h e a r s a l later in t h e b o d y middle ( 1 . 5 , 7, 9 , 1 3 , 2 . 2 , and 3 . 7 , 9f., 4 . 5 , 7 f . ) . F r o m the transitional p e r i o d ' s reaffirmation o f the catechetical pattern t h e w a y is o p e n e d f o r t h e a u t h o r t o p r o c e e d w i t h his c h a i n o f 120
s t r i c t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n , bnoTaoou .
Haustafeln Whether
the h o u s e h o l d c o d e h a d already b e e n assigned a place w i t h i n catechetical i n s t r u c t i o n b y t h e t i m e o f I P e t e r , as C o l o s s i a n s a n d E p h e s i a n s s u g g e s t , its e x p r e s s p o l i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r gives it i m m e d i a t e a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o a situa t i o n i n v o l v i n g o n e n a t i o n (edvos
aytov,
2.9) with others ( 2 . 1 2 )
1 2 1
. In any
e v e n t t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e t r a d i t i o n is c l e a r f r o m t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f i m p e r a tival p a r t i c i p l e s a n d a d j e c t i v e s w i t h i n t h e s t r a t u m o f a s s o c i a t e d m a t e r i a l s w h i c h a p p e a r i n I P e t e r , m a k i n g it d i s t i n c t l y easier t o s u p p o s e s o m e s o r t o f pre-existing c o l l e c t i o n w a s available t o the a u t h o r
1 2 2
.
1 1 9 O f the d o m i n i c a l l o g i o n B e s t , 1 1 2 , can say ' T h e w h o l e o f 1 2 b . . . a l m o s t certainly d e p e n d s o n it'. F o r the 'missionary m a x i m ' see D a u b e , Rabbinic,
3 3 8 , a n d I Pet. 3 . 1 f . , T e s t . N a p h . 8 . 4 ,
a n d a l s o , W . B r a n d t , ' W a n d e l ' , 1 0 — 2 5 . T h u s the v i e w o f van U n n i k , 'Teaching', 1 0 5 , has clearly less to b e said f o r it. H e m a i n t a i n e d that t h e d o x o l o g y in the author's m i n d c o n c e r n e d j u d g m e n t . Y e t a m e a n i n g consistent
w i t h the m a x i m is possible applicable t o t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n ,
w h e n t h o s e positively i n f l u e n c e d b y Christian c o n d u c t m a y w e l c o m e the D a y , regardless o f whether they might be converts. 1 2 0 F o r the verb see E . K a m l a h ,
'TnOT A E 2 E 2 0 A I ' ,
2 3 7 - 4 3 . F o r the lit. see a b o v e n. 5 2 . C p .
I Pet. 3 . 2 2 . 1 2 1 A s B a l c h a b l y d e m o n s t r a t e s , I f f . , the h o u s e h o l d c o d e a p p l i e d t o w h a t were p e r c e i v e d t o b e the very f o u n d a t i o n s o f political a n d social o r d e r . 1 2 2 See D . D a u b e , 'Participle*, 4 6 7 — 8 8 , f o r e x x . o f the participle o f the 'correct p r a c t i c e ' f r o m the oldest strata o f M i s h n a h ( A b o t h a n d D e m a i ) . See P. K a n j u p a r a m b i l , 'Participles', f o r a n example from
1QS V , 2,
D *»
ft,
predating R o m a n s , a n d against N . T u r n e r ,
Insights,
1 6 5 — 8 , w h o f o l l o w e d M o u l t o n a n d others in contesting D a u b e ' s e v i d e n c e . T h e m a t t e r m a y therefore b e t a k e n as resolved. T h e p h e n o m e n o n is a genuine d e v e l o p m e n t o f J e w i s h paraenetical r h e t o r i c , a c c o r d i n g t o M o u l e , Idiom,
1 7 9 f . T h e chief places a f f e c t e d in I Peter are 2 . 1 8 ,
3 . 1 , 7 , 8f., a n d 4 . 8 f . E l s e w h e r e in t h e N T see R o m . 1 2 . 9 - 1 3 , 1 6 - 9 , 1 3 . 1 1 , H e b . 1 3 . 5 , E p h . 5 . 2 1 . A g a i n s t C . K . Barrett's c o n t e n t i o n that the p h e n o m e n o n in R o m a n s m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d to a S e m i t i z i n g i d i o m , C . H . Talbert's m e t i c u l o u s r e c o n s t r u c t o n o f the c o d e b e h i n d R o m . 1 2 . 1 4 — 2 1 d e m o n s t r a t e s that Paul or p o s s i b l y s o m e o n e b e f o r e h i m , h a d s i m p l y m e r g e d it w i t h o t h e r paraenetical materials. H a d a S e m i t i z i n g i d i o m b e e n o p e r a t i v e , t h e n these m i g h t have b e e n m a d e t o c o n f o r m . R a t h e r , the p h e n o m e n o n seems t o b e vestigial, in as m u c h as the participles were retained ('Tradition', e s p . 8 3 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the c h a n c e s are slim t h e a u t h o r o f I Peter m i g h t have b e e n relying o n E p h e s i a n s , say, f o r the Haustafeln,
because that w o u l d necessitate
the r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f the p t c . f r o m 5 . 2 1 a n d its s u b s t i t u t i o n f o r vnaKovere
in the c o d e f o r slaves
a t 6 . 5 t o get I Pet. 2 . 1 8 . T h e so-called imperatival adjective is c o n s t r u e d b y s u p p l y i n g t h e parti cipial f o r m o f its missing predicate o n a n a l o g y with the imperatival p t c .
A Literary Analysis
62
It is o b v i o u s at o n c e , t u r n i n g t o t h e first u n i t , t h a t t h e t e a c h i n g o n t h e S t a t e is d o m i n a n t
a n d e x h i b i t s an e x t e n d e d affinity w i t h R o m . 1 3 . I f f . ,
having c o m p a r a b l e ideas in a c o m p a r a b l e s e q u e n c e : 1) e x h o r t a t i o n t o sub mission,
2 ) divine s a n c t i o n , 3 ) dual magisterial f u n c t i o n , 4 ) incentives t o
c o m p l y , 5 ) divine constraint, a n d , 6 ) a four-part s u m m a r y in 2 . 1 7 e m p h a sizing ' h o n o u r ' a n d 'fear' like R o m . 1 3 . 7 the e x h o r t a t i o n of
what
the
exovreq
author
KaXrjv
extended
1 2 3
. T h r o u g h its l e a d i n g p o s i t i o n
t o s u b m i s s i o n m a y b e t a k e n as t h e first r u l e i l l u s t r a t i v e means
in t h e
by
rr]v
avaoTpoyrjv
ev
VJJLCOV
rolq
e&veoiv
transitional p e r i o d . T h e n he m a y b e seen t o have
the principle b y the w a y he e x p l o i t s the dual magisterial
func
tion w h i c h c a m e t o h i m f r o m the tradition. T h r o u g h k e y - w o r d repetition, KanonoiuvJKaKonoiLov catechetical routinely
(2.12/14),
imperative
the kind o f c o n d u c t e s c h e w e d b y
(abstinentes)
in
2.11
out
t o b e the
the kind
p u n i s h e d b y p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r s , a n d t h a t w h i c h is g o o d , r o u
tinely praised . . . naXtiv
(ayadonoicjv,
epyoov).
2 . 1 4 , c p . 2 . 1 2 , rr\v
s h o w s his
primary
interest
strategy o f g o o d c o n d u c t likely t o eventuate silences m a l i c i o u s adversaries. the a u t h o r f r o m especially b y the stulto
avaorpoyrjv
. . .
KaXrjv
But the l i n k - w o r d w h i c h fastens 2 . 1 5 t o 2 . 1 4 ,
notoov/ayadorroiovvTaq,
inponit
turns
silentium
in a f a v o u r a b l e v e r d i c t t h a t
T h e strategy itself m a y also h a v e c o m e t o
a formal source, perhaps Latin
ayado-
lies in p r o m o t i n g a
the sort o f p r o v e r b reflected
t o Prv. 2 6 . 1 0 , indicium 124
iras mitigat .
determinat
causas et
qui
A n y w a y , 2 . 1 6 returns t o the o t h e r
s i d e o f t h e a n t i t h e s i s w i t h t h e k e y - w o r d naniac;
elaborated
in t e r m s o f
several t r o p e s , a n d t h e n t h e w h o l e u n i t is s u m m e d u p b y a n O T a l l u s i o n coordinated with
t h e Haustafel
provides, 0aaiXet/0aatXe'a
through
(2.13/17)
1 2 5
t h e m e m b e r o f t h e i n c l u s i o n it
.
T h e s t o r y is m u c h t h e s a m e w i t h t h e s e c o n d u n i t . T h e c o d e f o r slaves is i n t r o d u c e d in similar f a s h i o n , a n d t h e O T is u s e d a t t h e e n d t o p r o v i d e a climax
1 2 6
. T h e r e are e v e n signs o f a l i n k b e t w e e n 2 . 1 3 — 7 a n d
1 2 3 F o r Paul's teaching o n the State see e s p . A . S t r o b e l , 'Verstandnis', 6 7 - 9 3 , Romer,
p a s s i m , a n d in I Peter, G o p p e l t , 'Prinzipien', 2 8 5 f f . , K . Philipps, Kirche,
a general s t u d y , W . Schrage, Staat.
18—25
and G .
Delling,
passim, a n d for
F o r the t w o - f o l d magisterial f u n c t i o n see W . C . van U n n i k ,
'Parallel', 1 9 8 - 2 0 2 , a n d i d e m , ' L o b * , 3 3 4 - 4 3 . See a b o v e p . 1 5 , n. 7 1 , for further discussion. 1 2 4 A s cited b y S e l w y n , 1 7 3 . S o m e w h a t less a p p o s i t e , b u t better t h a n t h e L X X , are Q u i n t a a n d T h e o d o t i o n t o Prv. 1 7 . 2 8 . H e n c e an e x p l a n a t i o n suggests itself for t h e c o n f i d e n t m a n n e r in w h i c h the a u t h o r i n t r o d u c e s the saying in 2 . 1 5 w i t h art ovrojq
koTiv
TO OeXrjMa. TOV
deov
(cp.
3 . 1 7 , 4 . 2 , 1 9 ) . H e m a y s u p p o s e he is referring t o Scripture. H e certainly can f o l l o w a n o n - L X X version elsewhere to his o w n advantage ( f o r e x a m p l e , 4 . 8 , c o n t r a r y 'to his c u s t o m ' , in the w o r d s o f A . T . H a n s o n , Utterances,
145).
1 2 5 A g a i n , Prv. 2 4 . 2 1 . F o r the sense o f ' c l o a k ' o r 'veil' ( 2 . 1 6 ) as that w h i c h hides o n e ' s true inten t i o n s , see Philo, de Dec.
1 7 2 , a n d J o s e p h u s , Bell.
V I I , 2 5 6 . F o r the warning against licence see
G a l . 5 . 1 3 . F o r the biblicism 'slaves o f G o d ' see e s p . E p h . 6 . 5 , as there t o o d e c e i t f u l c o n d u c t is in q u e s t i o n , a n d I C o r . 7 . 2 2 . 1 2 6 B r o x , 1 1 9 , observes correctly that the c o d e t o slaves, wives, a n d h u s b a n d s , has b e e n a t t a c h e d secondarily t o that o f the S t a t e , p r e s u p p o s i n g an i n d e p e n d e n t transmission-history f o r b o t h . But as Balch learned, 1 4 f . , the topoi nepi noMreiaq,
nepi oiKovoniaq, a n d , wept ydnov were
T h e d e c i s i o n b y the a u t h o r iof I Peter to p u t th<* b o u g h t
in a n y case. T h e decision b y the
Source-Integration in I Peter l i k e t h e r e w e r e b e t w e e n 2 . 1 1 — 2 a n d 1 3 — 7 , deov a n d , navTaq
TLiirjoare
. . . ipoPeiode/navTi
63
bovXoijoiKerai
ipo^cp ( 2 . 1 7 / 1 8 )
is a s e n s e w h e r e b y t h e c o m m a n d t o s u b m i t
1 2 7
(2.16/18), . H e n c e there
' w i t h all r e s p e c t t o
masters'
m a y b e t a k e n as a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e p r e v i o u s c o m m a n d s t o ' h o n o u r a l l ' , especially higher authorities. A t the same time the r e p e t i t i o n o f
VTTOTCLGOU
p u t s t h e u n i t o n a n e q u a l f o o t i n g w i t h its p r e d e c e s s o r as t h e s e c o n d m a j o r r u l e i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e f o r m w h i c h g o o d c o n d u c t is t o a s s u m e a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s . It r e s e m b l e s its p r e d e c e s s o r , m o r e o v e r , in t h e p a r a l l e l l i n e s a l o n g w h i c h it d e v e l o p s its p a r a e n e s i s i n t e r m s o f t h e g o o d v s . evil m o t i f
intro
d u c e d at 2 . 1 1 — 2 , as m a y b e s e e n f r o m r e p e a t e d r e f e r e n c e s t o ' w e l l - d o i n g ' , ' s i n n i n g ' , ' p u n i s h m e n t ' , a n d s y n o n y m o u s e x p r e s s i o n s . W h e r e it d i f f e r s m o s t is in t h e l a c k o f i n c l u s i o n , i n a s u b - d i v i s i o n i n t o t w o p a r t s at 2 . 2 0 / 2 1 , a n d , in t h e u s e o f a m a s s o f s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l in t h e s e c o n d o f t h e s e . I n t h e first sub-unit the tradition attested b y L k . 6 . 3 2 f . seems t o have b e e n r e d a c t e d a l o n g w i t h a r e m i n i s c e n c e o f t h e ' j o y in s u f f e r i n g ' topos strength
of
(6.33/2.20)
the 1 2 8
key-word
repetition,
primarily o n the
aya&onoiovvTas/aya&onoiOVVTes
. T h e s e c o n d s u b - u n i t is a s y n t h e s i s o f a k e r y g m a t i c / c r e e d a l
formula
( 2 . 2 1 ) , a tissue o f a l l u s i o n s t o Is. 5 3 a n d D t . 2 1 . 2 3 ( 2 . 2 2 - 4 a ) ,
another
kerygmatic/creedal formula
(2.24b),
and
5 3 , s u c h as t o h a v e i n v i t e d m a n y t o p o s t u l a t e fragment
1 2 9
.
However
m o r e a l l u s i o n s t o Is.
the p r e s e n c e o f a h y m n -
t h a t m a y b e , it is c l e a r t h a t f o r m a l m a t t e r
from
a u t h o r o f I Peter t o p u t t h e State at the h e a d o f t h e list w o u l d s e e m t o testify as m u c h . H e n c e o n e still has t o d o w i t h t h e ' c o d e ' , w h e t h e r in 2 . 1 3 — 7 , or 2 . 1 8 f f . , b u t d i f f e r e n t
components
o f it. F o r lit. o n slavery in the R o m a n E m p i r e , a n d o n t h e significance o f I Peter here see esp. G o p p e l t , 1 8 9 f . , a n d n. 1 . 1 2 7 D a n k e r , ' C o n s o l a t o r y ' , 9 9 , a n d B a l c h , 9 6 , w h o f o l l o w s h i m , g o t o o far in h y p o t h e s i z i n g d e p e n d e n c e o n M a l a c h i t o a c c o u n t f o r the transition at 2 . 1 7 / 8 . T h e w o r d - p l a y 'slaves o f G o d ' / ' l e g a l slave' o c c u r s just this w a y in E p h . 6 . 5 — 7 . T h e a u t h o r has a p e n c h a n t f o r w o r d - p l a y t o facilitate transitions, as previously n o t e d ( 1 . 1 5 / 7 , 1 . 2 5 b / 2 . 2 ) . B u t the d e c i s i o n t o p u t the e x h o r t a t i o n t o slaves b e f o r e h u s b a n d s a n d wives, c o n t r a r y t o c o n v e n t i o n , d o e s n o t in a n y e v e n t rest o n such f l i m s y g r o u n d s as external verbal tallies p r o v i d e in the f o r m o f the linking devices
identified
here ( c p . the s e q u e n c e in C o l . 3 . 1 8 f f . a n d E p h . 5 . 2 1 f f . , a n d see B a l c h , I f f . ) . R a t h e r , given their greater e x p o s u r e t o a b u s e , the a u t h o r addresses slaves first o u t o f pastoral c o n c e r n . 1 2 8 See a b o v e n n . 4 7 , 5 4 , a n d 8 5 , recalling that the ' j o y in suffering' topos
intersects at L k . 6 . 2 2 f .
w i t h the s a m e b l o c k o f tradition t o w h i c h 6 . 3 3 b e l o n g s , a c c o r d i n g t o B e s t . H e n c e b o t h sayings m a y be a f a c t o r a t 2 . 1 9 - 2 0 . It s e e m s 2 . 1 9 - 2 0 m a k e s e x p l i c i t the g r o u n d s f o r rejoicing, t h o u g h unlike
1.6f. a n d 4 . 1 3 f . , n o allusion t o rejoicing is a c t u a l l y m a d e , since undeserved
m e a n s that xdpiq
napa
1 2 9 F o r the Sterbensformel 15,
#ev>,
or K\eoq,
suffering
accrues o n their behalf.
in 2 . 2 1 see W e n g s t , Formeln,
esp. 83f., comparing R o m . 5 . 6 , 8, 1 4 ,
I T h e s s . 5 . 1 0 , G a l . 2 . 2 1 b , II C o r . 5 . 1 4 f . F o r I Pet. 2 . 2 4 b see R o m . 6 . 8 , 1 1 , a n d 1 8 , such
that the e x p r e s s i o n in I Peter m i g h t a l m o s t result f r o m the creative f u s i o n o f these three state ments.
See also H . Patsch, 'Hintergrund', 2 7 5 — 9 , p r o p o s i n g that R o m . 4 . 2 5 b e
considered.
F o r the h y m n - f r a g m e n t see e s p . R . B u l t m a n n , 'Bekenntnis', 1 3 f . , E . L o h s e , 'Paranese', M . - E . B o i s m a r d , Quatre,
1 1 2 — 3 2 , G . Schille, Hymnen,
4 5 f . , R . Deichgraber,
1 4 0 — 3 , a n d m o s t r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s . A g a i n s t B u l t m a n n , Xptaroq
eiradev
87f.,
Gotteshymnus, imep
vn&v
does
n o t b e l o n g t o the h y m n , b u t is a n i n d e p e n d e n t f o r m u l a b r o u g h t in as a superscript (so Bois mard, Deichgraber, and Wengst; cp. 3 . 1 8 ) .
O n this v i e w , t h e r e f o r e , 2 . 2 4 b s h o u l d p r o b a b l y
have t o be e x c l u d e d f r o m the h y m n a l s o , because t h e s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n intrudes o n the paratactic order ( D e i c h g r a b e r ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , there is very little left t o be said f o r the
64
A Literary Analysis
sources other than tents
t h e h o u s e h o l d c o d e p r o v i d e s n e a r l y all o f t h e c o n
a n d d o m i n a t e s its i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h r o u g h t h e c o n s t r a i n t s
these i m p o s e o n t h e a u t h o r ' s efforts t o assimilate t h e m . With 3.1—6, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e a u t h o r has r e s u m e d t h e m o r e uni fied a p p r o a c h t o c o m p o s i t i o n f o u n d in 2 . 1 3 — 7 . T h e p e r i c o p e ' s integrity is c l e a r f r o m t h e i n c l u s i o n n o t e d e a r l i e r , vitoraoooiievai nevai
KT\.
(3.1/5f.),
L i k e t h e p r e c e d i n g Haustafeln,
KrX.jv-noTaaaothe c o d e for wives
is i n t r o d u c e d i n a w a y t h a t a l l o w s it t o b e c o n s t r u e d e a s i l y as t h e t h i r d m a j o r rule illustrative o f 2 . 1 2 attempt
1 3 0
. It differs m o s t in t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y
t o link it d i r e c t l y t o t h e p r e v i o u s unit. I n t e r p o l a t e d i n t o t h e
c o d e ' s r e d a c t i o n a t 3 . I f . is t h e ' m i s s i o n a r y m a x i m ' f r o m 2 . 1 2 w h i c h re a f f i r m s t h e c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e n 2 . 1 1 — 2 a n d 3.1—6 ( s e e e s p . t h e k e y - w o r d s 'conduct' and'observe')
1 3 1
. T h e n ' c o n d u c t ' is e l a b o r a t e d a t 3.3—5 i n t e r m s
o f a m o r p h o u s didactic materials reflecting J e w i s h a n d G r e e k t r a d i t i o n Two
1 3 2
.
O T a l l u s i o n s h a v e b e e n c a l l e d u p o n t o c o n c l u d e t h e u n i t , as m i g h t
b y n o w b e e x p e c t e d ( G e n . 1 8 . 1 2 , Prv. 3 . 2 5 ) . F r o m t h e w a y bjioicoq
is u s e d i n 3 . 7 l i k e it w a s i n 3 . 1 t h e r e c a n b e l i t t l e
d o u b t t h e c o d e f o r h u s b a n d s is t o b e c o n s t r u e d as t h e f o u r t h m a j o r r u l e illustrative o f 2 . 1 2
1 3 3
. It is m o r e o v e r p o s s i b l e t h a t vnoTaooco
(bitOTaaab-
h y p o t h e s i s w h a t s o e v e r , b e c a u s e nearly every o t h e r p o r t i o n o f t h e t e x t has b e e n seriously chal l e n g e d . B u l t m a n n , Schille, a n d W e n g s t reject 2 . 2 3 , ascribing it t o t h e a u t h o r u n d e r t h e press o f c i r c u m s t a n c e . B o i s m a r d , Schille, a n d W e n g s t reject 2 . 2 4 c f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n s , t o p o i n t u p a n a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e situations o f slaves u n l i k e l y , t h e y a s s u m e , t o have b e l o n g e d originally t o a liturgical
creation
intended
f o r general w o r s h i p . A l l reject 2 . 2 5 , m o s t l y f o r similar reasons.
A d d i t i o n a l a r g u m e n t s m i g h t b e m o u n t e d , such as t h e S e m i t i s m in 2 . 2 4 c , ov . . . avrov,
reflect
ing t h e p l e o n . pers. p r o n o u n , a n d q u i t e u n l i k e l y t o b e original t o t h e h y m n in v i e w o f t h e s e q u e n c e 6q . . . 6 e . . . b q . . . ( 2 . 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 ) . T h u s it m a y b e distinctly less difficult t o s u p p o s e the a u t h o r o f I Peter is responsible f o r this p e r i o d as w e l l after t h e f a s h i o n o f t h e blessing p e r i o d w h i c h is largely, if n o t entirely, f r o m his h a n d . I n 2 . 2 4 a h e h a s k e p t w i t h t h e first pers. plural of
Isaiah, b e c a u s e h e c a n n o t really wish t o restrict t h e saving b e n e f i t s o f Christ's d e a t h t o his
addressees a l o n e . H e h a s i n t e r p o l a t e d t h e f o r m u l a i c 2 . 2 4 b t o a m p l i f y t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r Christian c o n d u c t w h i c h Christ's d e a t h h a s . H e then switches t o t h e sec. pers. plural f o r t h e h o m i l e t i c p u r p o s e o f driving h i s p o i n t h o m e t o t h e slaves. S o it is p o s s i b l e t o regard 2 . 2 1 — 5 as substantially his o w n c r e a t i o n , a kind o f c a m e o o f t h e Passion carved f r o m Is. 5 3 . Best, 1 2 0 , prefers this p o s i t i o n , n o t i n g f u r t h e r t h e a b s e n c e o f c o m p a r a t i v e materials t o test the h y p o t h e s i s , u n l i k e in t h e case o f I Pet. 3 . 1 8 - 2 2 a n d I T i m . 3 . 1 6 . J . T . Sanders has f i r m l y rejected t h e h y p o thesis, significantly, since h e is ordinarily s y m p a t h e t i c t o w a r d s a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n s t r u c t h y m n s in t h e N T (Hymns,
1 8 , n. 2 ) , a n d so d o e s T . P . O s b o r n e , ' G u i d e ' , 3 1 8 f f . , b u t c p . D . Hill, 'Spiri
tual', 5 3 - 6 . 1 3 0 T h i s s e e m s likely f r o m t h e a d d i t i o n o f 6/uotu;?. In a d d i t i o n t o the lit. already c i t e d , see K . H . R e n g s t o r f , Frau,
p a s s i m , a n d K . T h r a e d e , 'Frauen', 3 1 — 1 8 1 , f o r o t h e r m a j o r studies o f t h e e x
hortation t o wives. 131
See a b o v e n. 1 1 9 ; f o r KepSaivoj as a standard t e r m w i t h i n m i s s i o n a r y parlance see D a u b e , Rabbinic, may
3 5 5 - 6 1 , esp. 3 6 0 f o r I Pet. 2 . 1 2 a n d 3 . 1 f . A s in M t . 1 8 . 1 5 , o r I C o r . 9 . 1 9 f . , t h e t e r m
s t o p short o f c o n v e r s i o n , b u t it goes a t least as far as persuasion.
1 3 2 See e s p . B a l c h , 1 0 1 — 3 , f o r virtue rather t h a n c o s m e t i c s as t h e p r o p e r a d o r n m e n t f o r a w i f e , 3.3,
a n d , f o r gentleness a n d quietness as a response t o slander, 3 . 4 . F o r t h e 'inner p e r s o n '
figure see R o m . 7 . 2 2 , II C o r . 4 . 1 6 , a n d f o r *precious in G o d ' s sight', see I S a m . 1 6 . 7 . E c h o e s w i t h t h e sapiential tradition a b o u n d (see a b o v e b i b l i c i s m n o . 1 4 . ) . 133
See esp. K e l l y , 1 3 2 .
Source-Integration in I Peter pevai)
65
s h o u l d b e supplied o n the strength o f the parallel, b u t
ovvoiKovvreq
m a y b e t a k e n i m p e r a t i v e l y as a s u b s t i t u t e , s i n c e it o c c u r s in t h e c o r r e c t position
1 3 4
. A f t e r w a r d s c o m e s a t r o p e , an iterative allusion t o Ps. 3 4 (at
3 . 1 0 ) , a n d t h e i d e a again o f f a v o u r a b l e p r a c t i c a l o u t c o m e s f r o m p r o p e r c o n d u c t as a p p l i e d t o t e a c h i n g o n p r a y e r
1 3 5
.
T h e r e d a c t i o n o f the h o u s e h o l d c o d e w o u l d s e e m t o have c o m e t o an e n d at 3 . 8 f . , b e c a u s e t h e s e q u e n c e o f s p e c i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n s h a s b e e n arres t e d . B u t t h e n a m e r e g l a n c e at t h e string o f a d j e c t i v e s s u f f i c e s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e e m p h a s i s r e m a i n s , in t h e order
1 3 6
first i n s t a n c e a n y w a y , o n d o m e s t i c
. T h e c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e Haustafeln
is p r e s e r v e d as w e l l b y t h e
s t r i n g o f i m p e r a t i v a l a d j e c t i v e s a n d p a r t i c i p l e s , s u g g e s t i n g t h e a u t h o r is still b o r r o w i n g f r o m a p r e - e x i s t i n g p a r a e n e t i c a l c o d e , p e r h a p s l i k e t h e o n e behind
R o m . 12.9ff.
1 3 7
Goppelt's
comparison
o f the affinities
merits
reproduction (224). Rom 12
I Peter 3
I n f a c t t h e a f f i n i t y b e t w e e n 1 2 . 1 4 a n d 3 . 9 is c l o s e r t h a n h e s a w . T h e p r o h i b i t i o n i n 1 2 . 1 4 , evXoyeire p r e c e d e s rovvavriov dvrl
Xoibopiaq.
nai jur} Karapdode,
be evXoyovvreq
corresponds to what
i n 3 . 9 , fir) dno8ibovreq
. . .
Xoibopiav
T h u s any influence o n I Peter here f r o m the
tradition
a t t e s t e d at L k . 6 . 2 8 is e s p e c i a l l y l i k e l y t o h a v e b e e n s e c o n d a r y , c o n v e y e d precisely b y just such a c o l l e c t i o n . A s e c o n d p o i n t o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n the paraenetical c o d e a n d I Peter m a y b e d e t e c t e d in the nearest N T parallel t o t h e terse a n t i t h e s i s o f R o m . 1 2 . 9 b w h i c h t h e q u o t a t i o n o f Ps. 3 4 at
1 3 4 S o K e l l y , 1 3 2 , S e l w y n , 1 8 2 , a n d esp. B r o x , 1 4 7 , s u p p l y vnordoou) f o r e x a m p l e , w h e r e a s Bigg, 1 5 4 , denies that o p t i o n . K a n j u p a r a m b i l , 'Participles', 2 8 5 , n. 1 , takes ovvoiKOvvreq
imperativ-
ally. 1 3 5 F o r CT/ceOoqas ' b o d y ' ( = ' r e c e p t a c l e f o r the soul') rather than as 'wife' ( = ' s e x u a l p a r t n e r ' ) , see K e l l y , 1 3 3 , a n d c p . I T h e s s . 4 . 4 . Since the c o n t e x t is clearly oriented t o w a r d s salvation, a n d , the a u t h o r regularly refers t o t h e 'soul' in that regard ( 1 . 9 , 2 . 1 1 , 3 . 2 0 , 4 . 1 9 ) , the f o r m e r m e a n ing m a y b e preferred. F o r g o o d relations a m o n g h u m a n beings as a necessary f o r g o o d relations with G o d see esp. M t . 5 . 2 3 , 6 . 1 2 f f . , 2 5 . 3 1 f f . , Jas. 4 . 1 f . , I J n . 4 . 1 9 f . 1 3 6 B e s t , 1 2 8 f . , observes that I Peter is unusual in a p p e n d i n g t o the Haustafeln
s o m e general ex
h o r t a t i o n in the s a m e m o d e , so that the relationship in I Peter is a s e c o n d a r y o n e created b y the a u t h o r . Nevertheless, o n t h e strength o f the parallel units of paraenesis such as C o l . 3 . 8 — 1 5 , R o m . 1 2 . 9 — 1 2 , a n d I T h e s s . 5 . 1 3 — 2 2 , he favours a n origin in catechetical 1 3 7 See a b o v e esp. the discussion o n p p . 6 I f . , a n d n. 1 2 2 .
instruction.
A Literary Analysis
66
3 . 1 1 p r o v i d e s ( c p . dnooTvyovvTeq be
€KK\IV&T(JJ
The
psalm's
although
Kai
CLTTO KCLKOV
next
line,
TO novrjpov, nocqodrco
'pursue
KoWobpevoi
dya&ov
ayadc^
with
and, also, I Thess. 5 . 1 5 ) .
p e a c e ' , m a y b e e c h o e d at R o m . 1 2 . 1 8 ,
this is c l e a r e r at 1 4 . 1 9 ( c p . H e b . 1 2 . 1 4 ) . H a d t h e a u t h o r ' s s o u r c e
c o n t a i n e d t h e s e i t e m s as w e l l , t h e n t h e p s a l m m i g h t h a v e s u g g e s t e d itself t o h i m n o t s i m p l y as a c o n v e n i e n t w a y t o c o n c l u d e t h e c o d e , b u t a l s o t o s u p p o r t the ' g o o d ' vs. ' e v i l ' antithesis a n d the s u b - t h e m e o f 'evil-speaking'. T h e treatment o f formal source-materials
in I P e t . 2 . 1 1 — 3 . 1 2 has
been
sufficiently discussed t o p e r m i t o f s o m e tentative c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h their treatment
in
1.13—2.10.
It
exhibits
nothing
like
the
latter's
holiness
t h e m e w h i c h t a k e s its p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f r o m a single O T r e f e r e n c e a n d then undergoes
further e l a b o r a t i o n
p r i m a r i l y in t e r m s o f m o r e O T
refer
e n c e s . R a t h e r , t h e c a t e c h e t i c a l t r a d i t i o n a l r e a d y s o i m p o r t a n t in t h e b o d y o p e n i n g assumes u n c o n t e s t e d from
c o n t r o l in t h e f o r m o f t h e h o u s e h o l d
w h i c h the basic f r a m e w o r k
o f the
code
b o d y - m i d d l e ' s first p a r t c a n b e
seen t o have b e e n a d a p t e d . T o b e sure, the
O T is still u s e d , y e t n o t as
o f t e n n o r e x t e n s i v e l y , a n d a p a r t f r o m t w o n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n s its f o r m a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e is k e p t l a r g e l y t o p r o v i d i n g t h e u n i t s w i t h
punctuation.
T h e t w o e x c e p t i o n s are in 2 . 1 8 — 2 5 a n d 3 . 8 — 1 2 . F o r n o a p p a r e n t rea son
t h e i r i n t e r i o r s are s t r i k i n g l y similar in d e s i g n . E a c h has t w o s u b - u n i t s
with
roughly
the
same proportions
o f n o n - b i b l i c a l t o biblical materials
a n d an i d e n t i c a l c o n n e c t i n g f o r m u l a , ' f o r u n t o this y o u h a v e b e e n c a l l e d ' . C u r i o u s l y e n o u g h , this is the s a m e t h e m e at t h e h e a r t o f t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g w h e r e t h e O T f i g u r e s far m o r e p r o m i n e n t l y . Its k e y - w o r d , ' c a l l e d ' , a p p e a r s j u s t o n e m o r e t i m e in t h e l e t t e r , at t h e v e r y e n d ( 5 . 1 0 ) . M i l i t a t i n g a g a i n s t c o i n c i d e n c e in the c o n j u n c t i o n o f s o m a n y u n t o w a r d f a c t o r s is t h e g e n e r a l care w i t h w h i c h the a u t h o r o t h e r w i s e e x e c u t e s the task o f c o m p o s i t i o n . A d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n is r e q u i r e d , h o w e v e r , b e f o r e an e x p l a n a t i o n be ventured (see b e l o w , p p . P r o c e e d i n g t o the
may
17If.).
s e c o n d p a r t o f I P e t e r ' s b o d y - m i d d l e , it m a y b e re
c a l l e d t h a t t h e first u n i t t a k e s its p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e p s a l m q u o t a t i o n via c e r t a i n i t e r a t i v e d e v i c e s
1 3 8
. F i x i n g t h e l i m i t s o f t h e first u n i t is a
t h r e e - f o l d i n c l u s i o n , KaKooocov/KaKonoiovvrac; noLoOuraq
Balch, 1 2 6 ) . T h e transition t o the from
exhortation
(3.17/18) 4.1.
(1.13/17),
( 3 . 1 3 / 1 7 ) , a n d ndoxoire/ndoxetv
1 3 9
to
statement
dya&ov/dyado-
( 3 . 1 4 / 1 7 , so Dalton, 8 1 , and
s e c o n d u n i t is s i g n a l l e d b y a c h a n g e
and
by
a link-word,
Ttdoxeivjd'nedavev
. T h e u n i t c o n t i n u e s u p u n t i l t h e shift b a c k t o e x h o r t a t i o n
at
T h e r e s e e m s t o b e a p o c k e t w i t h i n 3 . 1 8 — 2 2 m a r k e d b y an i n c l u s i o n ,
nvevpaoiv
nopevdeis
3.19/22),
the
jitopevdeis
transition
TTvevpaTL/nvevpaoLv c l u s i o n , oapKi/oapKi
to
. . . dyyeXoiv which
has
( 3 . 1 8 / 1 9 , so Dalton,
been
Kai e^ovoicbv facilitated
Kai
bvvdpeoov
b y a link-word,
8 1 ) . T h e t h i r d u n i t a l s o has in
( 4 . 1 / 6 ) , a n d starts w i t h a r e s u m p t i o n
o f 3.18 ( c p .
3 8 See a b o v e p p . 5 8 , a n d , 4 4 - 4 9 for Ps. 3 4 in I Peter. 3 9 T h e reading enadev
in 3 . 1 8 is m o r e likely t o be a h a r m o n i z a t i o n w i t h 2 . 2 1 than is
so the latter m a y b e preferred.
anedavev,
Source-Integration in I Peter XpiOTOV on
. . . nadovToq
. . . XptoToq
oapni
d-na% rrepi
. . . o n d iradobv apapruov
67
oapni
anedavev
. . . aptaprias
. . . oapKi).
with
H e r e is t h e
last b i t o f e v i d e n c e n e e d e d t o see that 3 . 1 9 — 2 2 is a d i g r e s s i o n a n d t h a t in 4.1
the author
p i c k s u p again w h e r e h e l e f t - o f f
in 3 . 1 8 t o c o m p l e t e its
train o f t h o u g h t . A n d , t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g a k i n t o i n c l u s i o n b e t w e e n 3 . 1 8 and
4 . 6 , dauarcodeiq
. . . aapKt
pev
8e
OCOOL
oapni
faonoiri&eiq
. . . nvevpari
8e
nisei)pan/upi&dooi
pev
(Dalton, 8 1 ) . The eschatological climax,
4 . 7 — 1 1 , is l i n k e d t o t h e t h i r d u n i t in t h e w a y t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e E n d ' s arrival at 4 . 7 a s e e m s t o t a k e its c u e f r o m t h e r e f e r e n c e t o i m p e n d i n g J u d g m e n t at 4 . 5
1 4 0
.
T h e transition b e t w e e n the
t w o p a r t s o f t h e b o d y - m i d d l e at
3.10—2
a n d 3 . 1 3 — 7 is s u f f i c i e n t l y i m p o r t a n t t o w a r r a n t r e s t a t e m e n t . F o u r l i n k i n g devices
were
aya&ov e\pr\vT\v
identified:
(3.11/13),
noiovvraq
8inaiovq
KaKa/nanobocov
fiwaioovvriv
Kai 5tco£dra> avrrjv/triXcoTai
(3.12/13),
(3.12/14),
KT\.
aya&ovj
and,
$r\Tr)oaT(jj
T h e first t w o o f t h e s e p a r t i c i
p a t e i n t h e p e r i c o p e ' s i n c l u s i o n as w e l l , s o as t o c o o r d i n a t e it e x p r e s s l y w i t h t h e p s a l m . B u t t h e q u o t a t i o n is n o t t h e o n l y f o r m a l s o u r c e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h s u c h d e v i c e s . T h u s KaKcbacov 5 0 . 9 , a n d 8iKaioavvqv 141
topos .
b e l o n g s t o p a r t o f t h e a l l u s i o n t o Is.
t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e ' j o y in suffering*
O n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e s e t w o it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d a t h i r d
in t h e w a y t h e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 8 . 1 2 f . , Kvpiov, m a y b e c o n s t r u e d as a k i n d o f c a t c h - w o r d f o r t h e p s a l m q u o t a t i o n ' s Kvpiov
( 3 . 1 2 b i s ) . T h e c l o s e s t parallel
in I P e t e r s o far w o u l d s e e m t o b e t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f 2 . 1 — 3 w i t h
the
Isaiah q u o t a t i o n , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e w a y t h e a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 4 tallies w i t h 1 . 2 5 a , KvptoqJKvpiov.
With s o m u c h w e i g h t b e i n g p u t o n the relationship
o f 3 . 1 3 — 7 t o t h e p s a l m q u o t a t i o n , a b o v e all at its start, t h e r e is a n invita t i o n t o v i e w t h e rest o f its c o n t e n t s in t h a t l i g h t . 1) 2)
'readiness t o a c c o u n t ' ( 3 . 1 5 ) as o p p o s e d t o 'dissembling s p e e c h ' ( 3 . 1 0 ) ' h o p e ' ( 3 . 1 5 ) a n s w e r i n g t o the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y
c o l o u r e d n o t i o n s o f 'life' a n d ' g o o d d a y s '
(3.10) 3)
'defense' conducted
'with gentleness
a n d r e s p e c t ' ( 3 . 1 5 f . ) as o p p o s e d t o the
provocations
o c c a s i o n e d b y an 'evil t o n g u e ' ( 3 . 1 0 ) 4)
'suffering' a n d ' g o o d c o n s c i e n c e ' ( 3 . 1 4 , 1 6 , 1 7 ) are c o n s o n a n t w i t h the 'righteous' oppres sed w h o 'plead' their cause t o their h e a v e n l y L o r d ( 3 . 1 2 )
Such
a favourable reading o f the relationship
b e t w e e n the p s a l m and
3 . 1 3 — 7 is m a d e t h e m o r e p l a u s i b l e b y t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e p s a l m ' s as s o c i a t i o n w i t h p e r s e c u t i o n a n d m a r t y r d o m in J e w i s h t r a d i t o n . It is a large l y n e g l e c t e d f a c t t h a t I V M a c e . 1 8 . 1 5 singles o u t Ps. 3 4 a m o n g a h a n d f u l o f c l a s s i c O T t e x t s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r e r , rov epe\(Jo8ei
bpiv Aavi8
\eyovra
XioXkai
ai
t?Xti//etc
TOOV
bpvoypdyov 142
8LKaicov .
And
t h e p s a l m q u o t a t i o n has i n d e e d a l r e a d y b e e n a p p l i e d t o s i t u a t i o n s o f s o c i a l c o n f l i c t b y v i r t u e o f t h e w a y it b r i n g s t h e c o d e in 3.8—9 t o a c o n c l u s i o n ,
1 4 0 S o , for e x a m p l e , B e s t , 1 5 8 , G o p p e l t , 2 8 1 , a n d Balch 1 2 7 . 1 4 1 A s m e d i a t e d b y the stratum o f tradition in M t . 5 . 1 0 f . , n o t L k . 6 . 2 2 — 3 3 . 1 4 2 Ps. 3 4 . 1 9 . I a m i n d e b t e d t o the R e v d Peter R o d g e r s f o r this r e f e r e n c e .
68
A Literary Analysis
s o t h a t 3 . 1 3 — 7 m a y b e t a k e n as a c o n t i n u a t i o n i n t e n d e d t o b r i n g o u t t h e full f o r c e o f t h e p s a l m ' s p a r a e n e s i s as it c a n b e m a d e t o r e l a t e t o t h e situa tions o f interrogation facing the a d d r e s s e e s The
1 4 3
.
n e x t u n i t carries f o r w a r d the t h e m e o f r i g h t e o u s suffering t h r o u g h
a l i n k - w o r k -ndo\eiv/hiredavev
( 3 . 1 7 / 1 8 ) , and a k e y - w o r d , 'Christ' ( 3 . 1 5 ,
1 6 / 1 8 ) , c o r r e l a t e d w i t h y e t a n o t h e r s o u r c e - i t e m , w h a t is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p ted in
as a k e r y g m a t i c / c r e e d a l f o r m u l a , a v e r s i o n o f w h i c h a p p e a r e d earlier 2.21
53.11
1 4 4
. F r o m its a s s o c i a t i o n t h e r e w i t h Is. 5 3 , a n d a p o s s i b l e e c h o o f
(LXX),
it a l s o a p p r o x i m a t e s t o an i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o t h a t O T
t e x t . T h e f o r m u l a is a m p l i f i e d a f t e r w a r d s i n 3 . 1 8 b y
8LKCLIO<;
vnep
OSLKCJV,
again t h r o u g h k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n p r e v i o u s l y e x p l o i t e d in 3 . 1 3 — 7 ( c p . 3.12
1 4 5
with 3 . 1 4 )
. T h e n the
epexegetical
Iva vpdq npooaydyxi
possessing rich religious o v e r t o n e s , e x p a n d s u p o n the f o r m u l a
r^r^ew 1 4 6
. Hence,
the c o m p o s i t i o n a l m e t h o d b e g u n in 3 . 1 3 , w h i c h correlates f o r m a l sourcematerials w i t h the p s a l m q u o t a t i o n t o d e v e l o p the t h e m e o f righteous suffering, seems t o c o n t i n u e u n b r o k e n t h r o u g h 3 . 1 8 b . But in
w i t h o u t warning a p o l i s h e d antithesis r e m i n i s c e n t o f 1.20 appears
3 . 1 8 c , inaugurating the recital o f pivotal events in salvation h i s t o r y
w h i c h r u n s t h r o u g h t h e d i g r e s s i o n t o 3 . 2 2 . T h e o n l y tie w i t h t h e f o r m u l a is anedavev/davaTudek.
T h e a n t i t h e s i s is l i n k e d in t u r n w i t h 3 . 1 9 , as
p r e v i o u s l y o b s e r v e d , nvevpaTi/irvevpaoLV,
a n d 3 . 1 9 serves t o o p e n t h e w a y
f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f b a p t i s m a l d o c t r i n e in t e r m s o f t h e N o a c h i c e p i s o d e formulated with the help o f the eschatological ' t h e n / n o w ' t r o p e
143
1 4 7
. From
A s the discussion a b o v e , p p . 6 5 f . , w a s i n t e n d e d t o s h o w regarding t h e affinities b e t w e e n I Pet. 3.8-9
a n d R o m . 1 2 . 9 f f . in relation t o the p s a l m . See a l s o Best, 1 3 0 .
1 4 4 See a b o v e n. 1 2 9 , a n d e s p . R o m . 6 . 1 0 , H e b . 9 . 1 2 , 2 6 f . , 1 0 . 1 2 , a n d p e r h a p s G a l . 1 . 4 . See also N e u f e l d , Confessions, 145
137f.
F o r the a p p e l l a t i o n 'righteous o n e ' o r 'just o n e ' see A c t s 3 . 1 4 , 7 . 5 2 , 2 2 . 1 4 , perhaps m e t o n y m y for M e s s i a h , o r a s u r n a m e , as in E n o c h 'the R i g h t e o u s ' , b u t c p . W i s . S o l . 5 . 1 .
146
See a b o v e n. 1 1 4 f o r the m a k i n g o f p r o s e l y t e s , b u t as Beare observes, 1 6 9 , f o l l o w i n g Perdelwitz, the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h t h e role of the ^vxaywyoq
in the ancient oriental tradition is so p r o
n o u n c e d as t o b e virtually u n d e n i a b l e . 1 4 7 A g a i n , o v e r l o o k e d b y P. T a c h a u , Einst.
F o r ' c o n s c i e n c e ' see e s p . C . A . Pierce, Conscience,
esp.
9 7 f . F o r 3 . 1 9 see D a l t o n , ' R e c o n s i d e r e d ' , 9 5 — 1 0 5 . P r e s u m a b l y , the reason f o r the digression is primarily t o r e m i n d the addressees o f t h e significance o f their b a p t i s m f o r their present cir c u m s t a n c e s . T h u s the reference t o 'a g o o d c o n s c i e n c e ' in 3 . 1 6 is r e s u m e d in 3 . 2 1 , the thrust of w h i c h is clear despite the great uncertainties that plague this p e r i c o p e . T h e k i n d o f c o n d u c t required o f t h e m at their d e f e n s e is t h e s a m e as that required b y their b a p t i s m . Just as t h e y s h o u l d never have c o m p r o m i s e d their c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e w a y o f holiness t o b e culpable of any tangible w r o n g d o i n g , so neither s h o u l d the w a y t h e y c o n d u c t themselves u n d e r the stress of
interrogation
M u r r a y , Baptism, R.E.
Nixon,
a d m i t o f a n y c o m p r o m i s e . O n the subject generally see esp. G . R . Beasleyesp.
2 5 1 ff.,
G . Delling,
'Baptism', 4 3 7 — 4 1 .
J . D . G . D u n n , Baptism,
Taufe,
esp.
8 2 f f . , O . K u s s , 'Tauflehre',
121-50,
See a b o v e all the closely argued a n d convincing s t u d y
by
esp. 2 1 5 f f . A s D u n n says a b o u t I Pet. 3 . 2 0 f . , 'Baptism saves, n o t in its
washing a w a y the filth of the flesh, b u t b y expressing m a n ' s r e p e n t a n c e a n d / o r faith t o G o d ' ( 2 1 8 ) . H e n c e the insistence that t h e addressees have a n obligation t o r e m a i n in the state o f pur ity w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e d their conversion-initiation.
See also D . Hill, 'Suffering', 1 8 1 — 9 , for the
a p p l i c a t i o n o f b a p t i s m a l instruction t o their situation. A s p r o b l e m a t i c as the issue of b a p t i s m is in 3 . 1 8 — 2 2 , the issue of the D e s c e n t i n t o Hell is perhaps m o r e difficult still. It p r o v i d e s , after
Source-In tegra tion in I Peter nopevdeLs
69
K T X . in 3 . 2 2 a n i n c l u s i o n w i t h 3 . 1 9 is s o u n d e d that b r i n g s the
w h o l e a s s e m b l a g e t o a c l o s e , a l t h o u g h n o t b e f o r e a l l u s i o n s t o Pss. 1 10.1 and
8 . 6 f . h a v e b e e n h e a r d . T h u s 3 . 1 8 c — 2 2 is s o s h a r p l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
f r o m 3 . 1 8 a b a n d has s u c h m a n i f e s t parallels w i t h I T i m . 3 . 1 6 , t h e r e h a v e b e e n several a t t e m p t s
t o r e c o n s t r u c t an u n d e r l y i n g h y m n , o r t h e l i k e ,
w h i c h m a y b e said t o h a v e m e t w i t h a m e a s u r e o f s u c c e s s
1 4 8
. Remarkable
t o o is a p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e w a y 3 . 1 8 a b a c t s as t h e s u p e r s c r i p t l o r 3 . 1 8 c 2 2 a n d t h e w a y 2 . 2 1 serves a similar p u r p o s e l o r a n o t h e r r e c i t a l , this t i m e m o s t l y o f Is. 5 3 , d i s c l o s i n g a s y m m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n . W i t h 4 . 1 , h o w e v e r , t h e Sterbensformel
o f 2 . 2 1 a n d 3 . 1 8 is r e s u m e d a n d
w i t h it t h e t h e m e o f r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r i n g , s o t h a t o n e m a y e x p e c t t h e au-
all, the f r a m e w o r k into w h i c h the b a p t i s m a l d o c t r i n e has b e e n inserted, a n d because it t o u c h e s m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y o n the a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c , s o m e discussion Dalton,
'Reconsidered', 9 5 — 1 0 5 ,
see e s p .
F. Spitta, Predigt,
J e r e m i a s , ' Z w i s c h e n ' , 3 2 3 - 3 1 , B. R e i c k e , Spirits,
K.
G s c h w i n d , Niederfahrt,
W . Bieder, Hollenfahrt,
S . E . J o h n s o n , 'Preaching', 4 8 — 5 1 , G . R o d d i n g , ' D e s c e n d i t ' , J.J. V o g e l s , Abstieg,
is necessary. In a d d i t i o n t o
W.J. Dalton,
J.
Spirits,
S t r y n k o w s k i , Descent,
H.J.
A . Grillmeier, T o t e n r e i c h ' , 7 6 — 1 7 4 , and A . T . Hanson, 'Background', 1 2 2 —
5 6 . A m o n g the c o m m e n t a t o r s see e s p . B e s t , 1 3 5 — 5 0 , a n d G o p p e l t , 2 5 0 — 4 . T h e r e is space o n l y for a c o n s p e c t u s of the m a j o r p r o p o s a l s that have b e e n a d v a n c e d . In 3 . 1 9 , kv £ is likely t o be either t e m p o r a l or o f m e a n s . While a possible a n a l o g y t o the spirit-beings m e n t i o n e d afterwards favours the latter, the e m p h a s i s in the c o n t e x t o n t i m e - s e q u e n c e favours the f o r m e r , a n d is w i n n i n g w i d e r a c c e p t a n c e . A l s o in 3 . 1 9 , 'the spirits in p r i s o n ' m a y refer t o 1) the W a t c h e r s o n l y , 2 ) the g e n e r a t i o n o f the F l o o d o n l y , or 3 ) b o t h . N o . 2 is unlikely for the reasons stated a b o v e in n. 7 1 . N o . 1 m a y b e preferred slightly t o N o . 3 , b e c a u s e the a b s o l u t e use o f 'spirit' for n o n - h u m a n s is b e t t e r a t t e s t e d during the p e r i o d . N o . 1 also m a k e s b e t t e r sense o f the ap parent desire o n the author's part to distinguish t h o s e w h o were saved as 'souls' (
2 ) t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f the F l o o d , 3 ) t h o s e w h o h a d died 'in Christ', c p .
I T h e s s . 4 . 1 3 f . , or 4 ) the 'spiritually d e a d ' . T h e f o u r t h is virtually a n intrusion o n the c o n t e x t . T h e third is o b s c u r e a n d lacks the qualifications Paul gives, f o r e x a m p l e . T h e s e c o n d is arbi trary. O n l y the first gives the b r o a d e r sense that a l l o w s it t o f o l l o w easily o n f r o m 4 . 5 . T h e 'place' o f the prison is still e x t r e m e l y p r o b l e m a t i c . T h e m o m e n t a preaching t o the d e a d gener ally is a c c e p t e d , t h e n a reference t o t h e U n d e r w o r l d , regardless o f o t h e r possibilities in a d d i t i o n , is nearly inescapable. A very great difficulty is the nature o f the preaching envisaged. It m a y b e the s a m e f o r b o t h categories o f beings a d d r e s s e d , o r d i f f e r e n t , w i t h slightly m o r e to be said for the latter. W h e r e a s preaching t o the ' d e a d ' anticipates a positive result, n o t h i n g so explicit is said w i t h respect to the 'spirits'. In the c o n t e x t o f 3 . 2 2 t h e y m a y well b e l o n g to t h o s e w h o m Christ has s u b j e c t e d , a n d as t h o s e responsible for the sins w h i c h infest
h u m a n k i n d in 4 . 3 , f o r
w h i c h there will b e J u d g m e n t ( 4 . 5 ) , there is n o invitation t o s u p p o s e his preaching t o t h e m w a s r e d e m p t i v e . M o r e v o e r , the closer the a n a l o g y with E n o c h , the less likely Christ m i g h t b e taking a n y positive a c t i o n o n their behalf, since E n o c h w a s p r o v e d t o b e grossly m i s t a k e n in this m a t ter (see B . Lindars, ' E n o c h ' , 2 9 5 - 9 9 ) . 1 4 8 See, for e x a m p l e , S e l w y n , 1 7 f . , B u l t m a n n , 'Bekenntnis', 3f., G . Schille, Hymnen, graber,
Gotteshymnus,
1 7 0 — 3 , M . - E . B o i s m a r d , Quatre,
38f., Deich-
5 7 — 1 0 9 , K . W e n g s t , Formeln,
C . - H . H u n z i g e r , 'Struktur', 1 4 2 - 5 6 , esp. 1 4 2 f . , a n d J . T . Sanders, Hymns,
161—5,
17f. G o p p e l t , 2 4 0 - 2 ,
is sharply critical o f these a t t e m p t s . S o m e o f the difficulty s t e m s f r o m a neglect o f t h e paral lels w i t h I T i m . 3 . 1 6 , as in the case o f Deichgraber, f o r instance. H e finds n o m o r e than a f e w confessional
e l e m e n t s . C o n t r a s t the very clear c o m p a r i s o n Sanders m a k e s b e t w e e n I Pet. a n d
I T i m . , in w h i c h 3 . 1 8 c / 1 9 / 2 2 are in the s a m e o r d e r as I T i m . H e suggests that I Peter's version is closer t o the original. See O . S . B r o o k s , ' Q u e ' , 2 9 0 — 3 0 5 , f o r a n exaggerated v i e w o f i m p o r t a n c e o f 3 . 2 1 in the letter.
the
A Literary Analysis
70 thor
to
pursue
departed
once
again
the
compositonal method
from
which
he
f o r t h e s a k e o f d i g r e s s i o n . C e r t a i n l y s u c h a n e x p e c t a t i o n is rea
s o n a b l e f r o m t h e w a y his r e d a c t i o n o f t h e
Sterbensformel
in 4 . 1 r e c a l l s
3 . 1 8 m o r e q u i c k l y than 2 . 2 1 . In 4.1 t w o k e y - w o r d s appear associated w i t h the
f o r m u l a ' s a d o p t i o n w h i c h o c c u r o n l y in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h 3 . 1 8 . O n e
is aapKL
( c p . na&oPToq
is dpapriaq nepi
caput
( c p . 6 -na&cdv
apapTtojv
aixedavev).
w i t h daparojdeic; caput
-ne-navrai
be oapni),
apapriaq
and the o t h e r
w i t h XpioToq
ana^
T h e r e is n o n e e d t o l o o k p a s t 3 . 1 8 f o r a n o t h e r
antecedent. N e v e r t h e l e s s , 4 . 1 d o e s h a v e a p o i n t o f c o n t a c t w i t h 2 . 2 1 in t h e f o r m o f a similar e m p h a s i s Xtoaode.
149
anoyevopevoL . i n g all
o n C h r i s t ' s e x a m p l e , Kai vpeiq
TT\P
avr'qp
evvoiav
A n d its ' d e a t h t o s i n ' t r o p e c l e a r l y recalls 2 . 2 4 b , rate.
bn-
apapTiatq
S o 4 . 1 m a y b e t a k e n as a c o m p o s i t e o f e l e m e n t s r e f l e c t
three l o c i , having
its p r i m a r y
seat in 3 . 1 8 , b u t
drawing o n
the
others t o bring o u t the ethical relevance o f Christ's death f o r the addres sees' i m m e d i a t e situation, and thus sustaining the practical f o c u s o f 3.13— 8b. T h e s e c o n d s u b o r d i n a t e clause in 4.1 merits further scrutiny b e c a u s e o f the
central
r o l e it p l a y s in a p p l y i n g t h e f o r m u l a t o t h e i r c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
It e m b o d i e s b o t h k e y - w o r d s , a n d 6 nadojp a d a p t a t i o n o f the T h e net
effect
S terb ens forme
aapKi
is p a t e n t l y a s e c o n d a r y
I as r e d a c t e d in 4 . 1 , nadoproq
aap/ct
1 5 0
.
o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s is t o a s s i m i l a t e t h e ' d e a t h t o s i n ' t r o p e
instanced
at
elements
h a v e in c o m m o n is a n o r i g i n in a f o r m a l s o u r c e , l e a v i n g TTeirav-
2 . 2 4 b t o the n o m e n c l a t u r e
o f the
rat t o b e e x a m i n e d . H e r e it is a p p r o p r i a t e neTiavTat,
f o r m u l a . W h a t all
these
t o recall the suggestion
that
t o o b e r e c k o n e d as s t e m m i n g f r o m a f o r m a l s o u r c e in t h e f o r m
o f a n i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 4 at 3 . 1 0 , navo&TCA)
. . . and KaKov.
In l i g h t
o f t h e w a y t h e a u t h o r has b e e n a p p l y i n g Ps. 3 4 t o t h e s i t u a t i o n o f inter r o g a t i o n in 3 . 1 3 f f . , a n d o f t h e r e s u m p t i o n at 4 . 1 o f t h e s a m e a p p r o a c h t o c o m p o s i t i o n , s e e n e s p e c i a l l y t o c o n s i s t in t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n itera tive d e v i c e s l i n k e d t o the p s a l m a n d the r e d a c t i o n o f o t h e r f o r m a l s o u r c e materials,
it w o u l d o n l y b e c o n s i s t e n t
t o f i n d h i m still t h i n k i n g
p s a l m in s u c h t e r m s a n d t o d r a w u p o n it y e t o n e m o r e t i m e t o
of
the
facilitate
the r e d a c t i o n o f a n o t h e r source-item (the 'death t o sin' figure). Like with
3 . 1 3 — 7 , the
the
rest
source-materials
o f the
u n i t ' s s t r u c t u r e is c l o s e l y
redacted
coordinated
at 4 . 1 . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e
continuity
f r o m 4 . 1 t o 4 . 2 is p r e s e r v e d in p a r t b y t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e r e d a c t i o n o f the s o u r c e f r o m w h i c h the 'death t o sin' t r o p e was taken. T h u s deov
TOP
eitlXontop
. . . Ptcjoai.
XPOPOP
deXrjpaTL
w o u l d seem t o reflect the s e c o n d
1 4 9 See e s p . R o m . 6 . 7 , a n d C . F . D . M o u l c , ' D e a t h ' , 1 4 9 - 5 7 , establishing a 'dative o f r e f e r e n c e ' or 'relation' f o r the m e a n i n g in I Peter, b u t e x c l u d i n g a n y sense o f 'obligation'. F o r the t r o p e o f spiritual ' a r m o u r ' see, f o r e x a m p l e , W i s . S o l . 5 . 1 5 f f . , R o m . 1 3 . 1 2 b , E p h . 6 . 1 I f f . , a n d cp
Is
11.5. 1 5 0 A c c o r d i n g t o I . T . B l a z e n , 'Suffering', 2 7 - 5 0 , w h o stresses a r e s u m p t i o n w i t h 3 . 1 8 - 2 2 , t h o u g h perhaps he sees t o o direct a relationship b e t w e e n the digression in 3 . 1 8 c - 2 2 a n d 4 . 1 f.
Source-In tegra tion in I Peter member both
o f the
a n t i t h e s i s i n 2 . 2 4 b , rrj bwaioovvri
k e y - w o r d s retain
Having appeared
their
significance in
t w i c e i n 4 . 1 , oapni
the
reappears
71 Zrjouiiev.
Moreover,
remainder
of
4.1—6.
in 4 . 2 as a l i n k - w o r d in
t h e c e n t r e o f t h e a b o v e p h r a s e (ev a a p / u ) . H e n c e it s u p p o r t s t h e
transition
t o t h e t o p i c o f ' t e m p o r a l e x i s t e n c e ' w h i c h is t h e n e x t e n d e d b y
another
l i n k - w o r d f r o m 4 . 2 t o 4 . 3 , xPovov/xpovoq.
returns
F i n a l l y , as n o t e d , oapni
in 4 . 6 as p a r t o f t h e p o w e r f u l i n c l u s i o n t o 4 . 1 a n d 3 . 1 8 c . A s far as t h e o t h e r k e y - w o r d is c o n c e r n e d , djuaprtac:, it a l s o r e a p p e a r s in 4 . 2 as a l i n k w o r d t a k i n g t h e f o r m o f a s y n o n y m , ein&vtiLaL<;,
w h i c h p l a y s a vital intro
d u c t o r y role, b e c a u s e the catalogue o f offenses
from
t h e T w o W a y s in
4 . 3 — 4 is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h it f o r t h e s a k e o f g r a p h i c i l l u s t r a t i o n t u r n raises t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f J u d g m e n t at 4 . 5 l i n k - w o r d s assist
b y w a y o f a paraphrase
f c o ^ r a c / f c o a t , a n d venpovq/venpoiq,
imitatio
.
This in
which
in
possibly
o f t h e f o r m u l a i c 3 . 1 8 c . I n a n y c a s e , t h e r e is a
c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n iterative
source-materials
1 5 1
. A n d , n o less t h a n t h r e e
the a p p e n d i n g o f w h a t s e e m s t o b e an after-thought
4 . 6 t o 4 . 5 , Kpivai/KpL&uoL, clear
1 5 2
unifies
devices and the redaction o f formal
the
period's
development
around
the
Christi.
T h e nature o f the relationship o f the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c l i m a x , 4 . 7 — 1 1 , t o the
f o r e g o i n g is c o m p a r a t i v e l y m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c still. T h e s o l e
termino
l o g i c a l l i n k b e t w e e n t h e m w h i c h s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d s o far, as previously
observed, involves 4.5 and 4.7a, 'impending J u d g m e n t '
' t h e E n d o f all t h i n g s ' . I n p o i n t o f f a c t , h o w e v e r , TOV
eniXomov
with
K T X . in
4 . 2 a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y a n t i c i p a t e s 4 . 7 a as w e l l , b e c a u s e it stresses t h e b r e v i t y of
t h e t i m e r e m a i n i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e m a y e v e n b e a v e r b a l t a l l y in
the
form
o f the sort o f w o r d - p l a y f o r w h i c h the a u t h o r s h o w s a certain
f o n d n e s s , i - e ^ t f o v T a i l $ i \ 6 % e v o i ( 4 . 4 / 9 ) . L e s t this s u g g e s t i o n s e e m f a n c i f u l , t h e c o n s t e r n a t i o n %evl$ovTai Christians
reflects stems f r o m the n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f
i n s o c i a l g a t h e r i n g s , w h e r e a s ipi\6%evoi
m a y offer the
antidote
t o the charges that Christians are hostile t o w a r d s s o c i e t y . O f greater material significance for the relationship b e t w e e n 4.1—6 and 7 — 1 1 , h o w e v e r , it is t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h e l a t t e r is c o m p l e t i n g a p a t t e r n ini t i a t e d b y t h e f o r m e r . I n 4 . 2 f . a b o l d a n t i t h e s i s is set o u t b e t w e e n l i v i n g in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h G o d ' s will o r w i t h ' h u m a n p a s s i o n s ' , that is, 'the will o f the n a t i o n s ' ( 4 . 3 , listed
in a series
TO
PovXrjpa
TCOV
edvcbv).
o f hedonistic and
W h a t t h e i r w i l l entails is t h e n
idolatrous corporate practices,
but
1 5 1 See e s p . R o m . 1 3 . 1 2 b - 4 , a b e t t e r parallel t h a n , say, the oft-cited R o m . 1.29f., b e c a u s e o f the spiritual ' a r m o u r ' t r o p e , the group-nature o f the activities, several o f w h i c h
are identical,
and
the contrasting m o d e s o f life. C p . G a l . 5 . 1 9 f . F o r the lit. see a b o v e n. 4 8 , a n d R e i c k e , 1 1 7 f . , Beare, 1 8 0 , G o p p e l t , 2 7 2 f . a n d n. 3 4 , K e l l y , 1 6 9 f . , B r o x , 1 9 3 f . , and for the relationship t o the T w o W a y s a n d early Christian catechesis see n. 1 0 9 . 1 5 2 F o r the figure 'to render a c c o u n t ' see, f o r e x a m p l e , R o m . 1 4 . 2 1 , L k . 1 6 . 2 . A s Balch o b s e r v e s , the figure highlights the ironic situation that those w h o c o n d e m n Christians n o w (I Pet. 3 . 1 5 ) will t h e m s e l v e s s o o n b e c o n d e m n e d ( 4 . 5 ) , e s p . 1 2 7 . This iterative device c o o r d i n a t e s the t w o p e r i c o p a e w i t h each o t h e r .
A Literary Analysis
72
n o t h i n g m o r e is s a i d a b o u t w h a t t h e w i l l o f G o d e n t a i l s b e y o n d t h e w a y t h e abstinentes
c a n b e seen t o c o m e t o e x p r e s s i o n in the ' d e a t h t o sin'
idea. O n e must wait for 4 . 7 b f f . t o learn what k i n d o f c o r p o r a t e behaviour G o d e x p e c t s f r o m C h r i s t i a n s i n t h e m e a n t i m e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a b o v e all b y a temperate,
self-sacrificing life-style and true w o r s h i p . T h u s 4.7—11 m a y
b e t a k e n as i n t e n d e d t o b r i n g o u t t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e a n t i t h e s i s a f t e r
a
f a s h i o n t h a t h a s a n i m m e d i a t e f o r m a l p a r a l l e l in t h e a n t i t h e s i s w h i c h t h e transition f r o m 4.1 t o 4 . 2 presupposes. The
format
strings its
of
several
dy dirt}/yLX6%e VOL
4.7—11 parts
( 8 / 9 ) , elq
biaKovovvTesjbiaKOvei
is
clear-cut.
A
sequence
t o g e t h e r : TTdPTOJv/nduTOjp eavrovq/eic
(10/11),
o f linking
(7a/8),
dXXrjXovq/elq
devices
dydirrju
eavrovq
.
.
.
(8/9/10),
#eou/#eou/#e(te/#e(k, ( 1 0 / l l a / l l b / l l c ) ,
symmetry (11a with l i b ) , and, 5o|dfr?rat/56|a ( l l c / l l b ) .
T h e fact that
m o s t o f t h e s e d e v i c e s are e x t e r n a l t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o n t e x t s o n l y h i g h l i g h t s t h e a d h o c n a t u r e o f this c o m p i l a t i o n
1 5 3
. In v i e w o f the
composi
t i o n a l m e t h o d t h a t t h e a u t h o r h a s b e e n f o l l o w i n g h e r e t o f o r e i t is c e r t a i n l y n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t e a c h o f t h e m is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h f o r m a l s o u r c e materials
1 5 4
.
1)
4 . 7 a is a n eschatological p r o n o u n c e m e n t f o r m u l a
2)
4 . 7 b draws o n the catechetical p a t t e r n
3 ) 4 . 8 a is a reprise o f the l o v e - c o m m a n d 4)
4 . 8 b is an O T q u o t a t i o n (Prv. 1 0 . 1 2 )
5 ) 4 . 9 is t h e topos 6)
o n 'hospitality*
4 . 1 Of. instances t h e topos
o n t h e 'gifts' a n d perhaps the tradition b e h i n d L k . 1 2 . 4 2
(OLKOVOLLOL)
7 ) 4 . 1 1 closes w i t h a d o x o l o g y
T h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e r e are p r e s e n t p l e s (exovreq
within 4.7—11 imperatival
. . . 5ta/covovvreq) and an imperatival adjective
partici
($iX6%evoi)
suggests the a u t h o r w a s taking o v e r m u c h o f the material f r o m an existing c o l l e c t i o n , p r e s u m a b l y f r o m t h e ' w a y o f l i f e ' s i d e o f t h e T w o W a y s tradi t i o n t o m a t c h the catalogue in 4 . 3 f
1 5 5
. T h e r e d a c t i o n o f this m a t e r i a l a l s o
has t h e i n c i d e n t a l e f f e c t o f a n n o u n c i n g t h a t t h e l e t t e r ' s b o d y h a s b e g u n t o m o v e t o w a r d s its c o n c l u s i o n , b e c a u s e s o m a n y o f t h e i t e m s e c h o c o n t e n t s f o u n d earlier. T h u s 4 . 7 — 1 1 h e l p s p r e p a r e f o r the b o d y - c l o s i n g , 4 . 1 2 — 9 . I n as m u c h as t h e first O T q u o t a t i o n s i n c e 3 . 1 0 — 2 o c c u r s i n 4 . 7 — 1 1 , t h e r e is i n c e n t i v e t o p a y it s p e c i a l h e e d . T o b e g i n , t h e o r i g i n a l f o r m o f the
compilation may
b e r e c o v e r e d b y r e m o v i n g 4 . 7 , as t h e i m p e r a t i v e s
r e q u i r e , a n d 4 . 1 1 , as t h e c h a n g e t o c o n d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s f o l l o w e d b y doxology
permits.
What
remains
is
a
self-contained
paraenetical
unit
t a k i n g its p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e l o v e - c o m m a n d w h i c h n o w s t a n d s
1 5 3 See E l l i o t t , Home,
1 6 2 f . , n. 4 7 .
1 5 4 F o r 1 ) see R o m . 1 3 . 1 2 a , M k . 1 . 1 5 , e t c . , a n d W . G . K u m m e l , Promise,
19ff.;
2 ) see a b o v e n n .
1 0 9 a n d 1 1 4 ; 5 ) see R o m . 1 2 . 1 3 , H e b . 1 3 . 2 , III J n . 5 - 8 , a n d V . H . K o o y , ' H o s p i t a l i t y ' , 6 5 4 ; 6 ) see J . R e u m a n n , 'Stewards', 3 3 9 - 4 9 , a n d i d e m , ' T e r m s ' , 2 8 2 - 9 9 ; a n d 7 ) Deichgraber, 2 7 f f . 1 5 5 See a b o v e n. 1 2 2 , f o r t h e i m p v l . p t c . a n d a d j .
Source-In tegra tion in I Peter at its h e a d
1 S 6
. A l l t h r e e share a p r o f o u n d l y
73
s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n as w e l l .
M o r e o v e r , t h e first a n d t h i r d h a v e a n e x p l i c i t l y sacral c h a r a c t e r , t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o sin ' c o v e r e d ' , a n d , t h e ' s e r v i c e ' o f t h e ' g i f t s ' b y ' ( c u l t i c ) a d m i n i s trators'
1 5 7
. T o g e t h e r t h e y c o m p r i s e a fitting c o u n t e r t o the w a y o f death
o u t l i n e d i n 4 . 2 f . , a n d it m a y b e t h e c o l l e c t i o n w a s a l r e a d y in t h e a u t h o r ' s m i n d at 1 . 2 2 ( s o B r o x ) , w h e r e its Tt\v . . . elq
aWrjXovs
m a y have influenced
dXXrjXouc, dyanrjaaTe
eKTevuq.
elq
eavrovq
ayanriv
eKTevrj
. . . els yikad
r\yviKOTeq
exovreq
e\
lav
. . .
S u c h a p o s s i b i l i t y is i m p r o v e d b y c u l t i c
o v e r t o n e s i n b o t h l o c i . B e t h a t as it m a y , w h a t is i n h e r e n t l y l i k e l y t o h a v e d r a w n t h e a u t h o r ' s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n this t i m e is t h e p r e s e n c e o f a w o r d c o n s p i c u o u s in I Peter's b o d y - m i d d l e , a n d t o the f o r e in 4 . 1 — 6 , a w o r d t h a t o c c u r s in t h e p r o v e r b , dpapTLCJV.
T h u s the c o l l e c t i o n l o o k s t o
have b e e n r e d a c t e d primarily o n the strength o f another k e y - w o r d repeti t i o n , o n e a s s o c i a t e d again w i t h an O T s o u r c e The
1 5 8
.
s e c o n d p a r t o f I P e t e r ' s b o d y - m i d d l e h a s b e e n a n a l y z e d f o r its u s e
o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s and the presence o f formal source-materials. As
in the b o d y - m i d d l e ' s
first p a r t , t h e r e is a h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n
between
t h e m . W i t h very f e w e x c e p t i o n s the a u t h o r has e m p l o y e d literary devices to
r e d a c t his s o u r c e s . I n t h e b o d y - m i d d l e ' s first p a r t , 2 . 1 3 — 3 . 1 2 , a p r o
g r e s s i o n o f u n i t s has b e e n c r e a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
Haustafeln,
and
any additional source-materials have been c o o r d i n a t e d with t h e m .
The
e x c e p t i o n s o c c u r w h e r e O T m a t e r i a l s are p r o m i n e n t , 2 . 1 8 — 2 5 a n d 3 . 8
—12. is
In the b o d y - m i d d l e ' s s e c o n d part, 3 . 1 3 — 4 . 1 1 , a progression o f units
also f o u n d
but
o f a d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e . T h e first u n i t arises f r o m
the
p r e c e d i n g q u o t a t i o n , P s . 3 4 , a n d o t h e r s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s are r e d a c t e d i n its t e r m s . T h e s e c o n d u n i t , 3 . 1 8 — 2 2 , is c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h its p r e d e c e s s o r , but
takes
it
starting
point
from
the
Sterbensformel,
o n e aspect of.
w h i c h , physical death, b e c o m e s the p o i n t o f departure f o r a digression in 3 . 1 8 c — 2 2 . T h e n t h e f o r m u l a is t a k e n u p o n c e m o r e i n 4 . 1 , m a i n t a i n i n g a c e r t a i n c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h 3 . 1 3 — 7 b y v i r t u e o f a n i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 34.,
w h i c h itself facilitates a s e c o n d a r y a d a p t a t i o n o f the f o r m u l a in terms
o f the 'death t o sin' t r o p e . T h e t r o p e b e c o m e s the p o i n t o f departure for t h e rest o f t h e u n i t ,
a n d t h e b o d y - m i d d l e ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c l i m a x is c o
o r d i n a t e d w i t h it p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e k e y - w o r d , ' s i n ' , b e c a u s e t h a t is t h e w o r d i n t h e p r o v e r b at t h e h e a d o f t h e s o u r c e b e h i n d 4 . 8 — 1 0 a r o u n d
156
S o , f o r e x a m p l e , B e s t , 1 5 8 . B r o x , 2 0 4 , d e t e c t s the seam a t 4 . 7 / 8 , a n d observes that the paraenesis w a s n o t originally so radical in its eschatological o r i e n t a t i o n , saying o f 4 . 8 f . 'Es w i r d n u n i m wieder t y p i s c h k u r z e n u n d p r a g n a n t e n Stil eine G e m e i n d e - E t h i k i m A b r i s s g e g e b e n ' . Perhaps 4.1 l a also m a y b e original t o the u n i t .
157
F o r OIKOVO^JLOL by
see a b o v e n. 1 5 4 t o n o . 6 , a n d BAGD,
E l l i o t t , Home,
s.v. See as w e l l the illuminating discussion
1 4 5 f f . , a n d e s p . 1 6 1 , n . 1 3 6 , f o r extensive b i b l i o g r a p h y . F o r t h e strong Paul
ine s t a m p o f the e c c l e s i o l o g y r e f l e c t e d b y 4 . 8 f . , see J . D . G . D u n n , Unity, Gemeinde, 158
1 1 6 , and H . Goldstein,
passim.
Careful search has failed t o u n e a r t h a n y c o m p a r a b l e a t t e m p t t o r e c o n s t r u c t the r e d a c t i o n a l m e t h o d o f the a u t h o r h e r e , or t o a c c o u n t f o r the relationship o f Prv. 1 0 . 1 2 t o the p r e c e d i n g c o n t e x t . H e n c e t h e suggestion is m a d e w i t h considerable reserve.
74
A Literary Analysis
w h i c h the c l i m a x was created. T h u s O T materials have figured
importantly
in t h e w a y at least t h r e e o f t h e f o u r u n i t s in 3 . 1 3 — 4 . 1 1 w e r e d e v e l o p e d . Nor
must
3.18—22 be
e x c e p t e d . Whether an implicit allusion
to
Is.
5 3 . 1 1 ( L X X ) b e a c k n o w l e d g e d in 3 . 1 8 , t h e o c c u r e n c e w i t h the S terb ensformel
o f nepi
apapridov
( c p . nepi
dpapriaq.
Is. 5 3 . 1 0 ) s u f f i c e s as
an
i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 5 3 at 2 . 2 4 a , o n e t h a t is r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e f a c t t h e f o r m u l a is a l s o t h e s u p e r s c r i p t
t o that sub-unit ( 2 . 2 1 )
1 5 9
. Even within
the
d i g r e s s i o n O T s o u r c e s m a k e a c o n s p i c u o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n , a l b e i t in a v a r i e t y of
f o r m s heavily i n f l u e n c e d b y exegetical a n d liturgical
tradition
(Gen.
6 . 1 f f . , t h e E n o c h a n d N o a h c y c l e s , Pss. 1 1 0 . 1 a n d 8 . 6 f . ) . It m a y t h e r e f o r e b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t in t h e h a n d s o f t h e a u t h o r t h e O T w a s g i v e n a s u s t a i n e d i n t e g r a t i v e f u n c t i o n in 3 . 1 3 — 4 . 1 1 a b s e n t f r o m 2 . 1 3 — 3 . 1 2 . T h e r e is e v e n a t h e m e in e v i d e n c e e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e t h r u s t o f t h e transitional p e r i o d necessary
opening
the
b o d y - m i d d l e , the
a v o i d a n c e o f sin as a
t o r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r i n g . H e n c e , as r e g a r d s t h e o r i e n t a t i o n
reflec
t e d b y his a p p r o a c h t o t h e t a s k o f c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n 3 . 1 3 — 4 . 1 1 a n d 1 . 1 3 - 2 . 1 0 is s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n b e t w e e n 2 . 1 3 — 3 . 1 2 and
1.13-2.10.
Passing o n t o c o n s i d e r t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e b o d y - c l o s i n g , it m a y b e s e e n at o n c e t o h a v e b e e n h e l p e d in p a r t b y t h e e x p a n s i v e , r e - c a p i t u l a t i v e of
mode
4 . 7 — 1 1 , w h i c h b e c o m e s f u l l - b l o w n in 4 . 1 2 — 9 . It a l m o s t g o e s w i t h o u t
s a y i n g t h a t t h e u n i t is d e n s e l y p a c k e d w i t h r e m i n i s c e n c e s o f earlier p o i n t s in t h e l e t t e r , s o m e o f w h i c h e v e n h e l p m a i n t a i n c o n t i n u i t y w i t h F o r e x a m p l e , , prj involving
%evl$eode
. . . cb c %evov
4 . 4 / 9 , %evi$ovTail$i\6%evoi.
( 4 . 1 2 ) recalls t h e
4.7—11.
word-play
T h e d o x o l o g y in 4 . 1 1 is
resumed
i n t h e d o x o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e o f 4 . 1 3 a n d 1 9 . T h e c h a r i s m a t a o f 4 . 1 Of. are inextricably 4.14
and
r e l a t e d t o t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y o f t h e S p i r i t d e s c r i b e d in
17.
And
the
eschatological pronouncement
c l i m a x at 4 . 7 a r e t u r n s in a h e i g h t e n e d
that begins
the
f o r m at 4 . 1 7 t o b e g i n t h e u n i t ' s
conclusion. The net effect o f so m a n y correspondences b e t w e e n
4.7—11
a n d 1 2 — 9 is t o align t h e l a t t e r w i t h t h e f o r m e r in t h e f u n c t i o n o f b r i n g i n g t h e m a i n t h r u s t o f t h e l e t t e r ' s m e s s a g e t o its p r o p e r c o n c l u s i o n . As
expected,
the
unit
boasts
an
inclusion
in
nadr\paoiv
jndoxovreq
( 4 . 1 3 / 1 9 ) , a c t u a l l y , t w o o f t h e m . T h e s e c o n d o n e is i n t e r n a l t o 4 . 1 4 / 1 6 , ev
bvopari
first, t h e because
XpioTOv/XptoTiavoq
. . . ev rep ovopari
unit's central t h e m e o f the
Tovrcp.
Because o f the
is l i k e l y t o p e r t a i n t o s u f f e r i n g a g a i n ,
s e c o n d , three sub-units distinguish
themselves
and
within
it,
4 . 1 2 - 3 , 1 4 - 6 , and 1 7 - 9 . T h e f a c t t h a t t h r e e o f t h e f o u r f o r m u l a i c e l e m e n t s c o n t a i n e d in 4 . 1 2 — 3 refer unit's
in s o m e w a y o r a n o t h e r t o s u f f e r i n g r e m o v e s a n y d o u b t a b o u t central t h e m e :
1 ) the
'fiery ordeal' trope
( a n d see 1 . 6 f . ) , 2 )
' s u f f e r i n g s o f C h r i s t ' p h r a s e ( a n d s e e 1 . 1 1 ) , 3 ) t h e ' j o y in s u f f e r i n g ' (see
esp. 1.6), and, 4 ) the
the the topos
' c o m i n g revelation' m o t i f ( 1 . 5 , 7, 1 3 ) . Their
1 5 9 See a b o v e esp. p . 7 0 , a n d , p p . 6 3 and 6 8 f .
Source-Integration in I Peter shared
retrospective
orientation
accentuates
the
75
s e n s e in w h i c h
the
' s u f f e r i n g ' t h e m e r e p r e s e n t s a r e p r i s e o f t h e i n t e r e s t in r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r i n g r e f l e c t e d b y t h e b o d y - m i d d l e . T h e p r e s e n c e f o r t h e first t i m e in t h e l e t t e r o f t h e i d e a o f ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n ' , w h i c h is c o n n e c t e d w i t h ' t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f Christ' phrase (see R o m . 8.17f., Phil. 3 . 1 0 , a n d c p . I Pet. 5 . 1 ) , p o i n t s u p t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e i m i t a t i o n o f C h r i s t in 4 . 1 ( c p . 2 . 2 1 ) . The
sub-unit
natural
a i m s t o set ' j o y ' against t h e
response
t o an u n p r e c e d e n t e d
'shock' which would be
deterioration
in the
the
addressees'
relationship w i t h their n e i g h b o u r s . T h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e n e x t s u b - u n i t is f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e w a y el eode
(4.14)
nadripaoiv,
approximates
to
a
paraphrase
o f na&d
. . .
b y the w a y the macarism reinforces the d o x o l o g i c a l language,
a n d b y t h e l i n k - w o r d , bo^q
/bo^rjq. T h e first t w o d e v i c e s are c o r r e l a t e d
w i t h m a t e r i a l s a t t e s t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y at L k . 6 . 2 2 (panapiol oiv),
dveiM$-
Kotvoovelre
. . .
dveiblou-
s o that the transition m a y b e seen t o h a v e a c o n t i n u o u s s o u r c e m u c h
l i k e t h e o n e at 2 . 3 / 4 h a d in Ps. 3 4 . T h e t h i r d d e v i c e , o n t h e o t h e r
hand,
is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 1 1 . 2 , t h o u g h bo^rjq d o e s n o t i t s e l f derive f r o m the Scripture. T h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f suffering o n Christ's c o u n t a n d the p r e s e n c e o f the Spirit w o u l d s e e m t o recall the behind
Mk. 13.9—13 and pars
traditon
where
'suffering
1 6 0
.
for the
T h i s is t h e
stratum o f
n a m e ' is p r o m i n e n t
ac
tradition
persecution-
and hence
may
e x p l a i n t h e t w o - f o l d e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e i d e a t h r o u g h t h e i n c l u s i o n in 4 . 1 4 — 6 . F i n a l l y , t h e d o x o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e ' j o y in s u f f e r i n g ' topos
i n 4 . 1 3 is r e v i v e d w i t h S o g a f e r c o i n 4 . 1 6 . T h i s refrain is u s e d in a
manner
that reflects
the
w a y ' j o y ' w a s set i n o p p o s i t i o n t o ' s h o c k ' in
4 . 1 2 — 3 , b e c a u s e it c o n c l u d e s a series o f v e r b s i n t h e s u b - u n i t e x p r e s s i v e o f s u f f e r i n g , bveibi$eo$e sub-unit
clearly
. . . naoxeroo
. . . aloxweodu.
S o the s e c o n d
elaborates u p o n the t h e m e o f suffering r e s u m e d b y the
first. T h e r e is a l i n k - w o r d b e t w e e n 4 . 1 4 — 6 a n d
17—9,
ftedv/deov
(16/17),
w h i c h is m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n m i g h t b e s u s p e c t e d at first g l a n c e , b e c a u s e it is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e a l l u s i o n t o E z e k . 9 . 6 . T h e r e f e r e n c e t o 4 . 1 7 a , w i t h w h i c h deov is c o o r d i n a t e d , s u b s t i t u t e s f o r ayiuv and
TCOV
ay loo
V
lel p h r a s e (oiKtp).
pov ap%ao$e
9
OL'KOV
a n d e v e n o c c u r s at t h e e n d o f 9 . 6 in a paral
T h e n t h e a u t h o r p a r a p h r a s e s ' h o u s e ' w i t h cup' fjpdov
4 . 1 7 b , w h i c h b e l o n g s in turn t o a c o n d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n modelled b y w a y o f anticipation f o l l o w s , w h e r e bUatoq
in
in EzekiePs in
presumably
o n t h e q u o t a t i o n o f Prv. 1 1 . 3 1 t h a t
o c c u p i e s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o s i t o n . T h u s 4 . 1 7 b is
t h e b r i d g e b e t w e e n t h e a l l u s i o n a n d t h e q u o t a t i o n . A f t e r w a r d s , 6 bluaioq is e x p a n d e d b y ol ndoxovreq
Kara
TO de'Xripa TOV
&eov i n o r d e r t o a d d r e s s
e x p l i c i t l y again t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r e r , a n d is
terminated
s u i t a b l y w i t h a n i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 1 . 5 ( c p . 2 . 2 3 , a n d see L k . 2 3 . 4 6 ) a n d t h e i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 4 .
1 6 0 F o r the a s s o c i a t i o n o f p r o c e d u r e
cognitio
extra
ordinem
w i t h this stratum o f material a n d f o r
its relevance in the c o n t e x t o f I Pet. 4 . 1 4 f . see a b o v e p p . 1 3 f f .
76
A Literary Analysis T h e i m p r e s s i o n is t h e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t t o resist t h a t 4 . 1 2 — 9 is c o m p o s e d
of
t h r e e s u b - u n i t s j o i n e d t o g e t h e r in t a n d e m b e h i n d t h e t h e m e o f right
eous
s u f f e r i n g . In this r e s p e c t t h e b o d y - c l o s i n g u n i t e s i t s e l f c o m p l e t e l y
with
the
materials
body-middle. A have
through
been
literary
relatively
integrated
devices yet
sizable
into
once
the
number
unit's
o f formal
development
m o r e . Where the
unit
source-
primarily
distinguishes
i t s e l f in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h o s e c o m p r i s i n g 3 . 1 3 — 4 . 1 1 , h o w e v e r , is in t h e a b s e n c e o f i n f l u e n c e f r o m t h e O T at its b e g i n n i n g . O n c e i n s i d e t h e u n i t , t h e O T b e c o m e s a f o r c e in t h e w a y t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y is d e p i c t e d as w e l l as i n t h e w a y t h e t h e m e o f r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r i n g is c o n cluded.
Thus
the
OT
still
design, and t o that e x t e n t
figures
as a n i m p o r t a n t
s o u r c e in t h e
unit's
resembles the i m p o r t a n c e the O T h a d f o r the
u n i t s in 3 . 1 3 — 4 . 1 1 e s p e c i a l l y . I n c o n t r a s t , w h e n it c o m e s t o t h e p a r a e n e s i s - s e c t i o n , 5 . 1 — 1 1 , f r o m napaKa\co
-formula
and
r e t u r n is u n m i s t a k a b l e Haustafeln vedoTepoi
units
the
address
the
classes o f p e r s o n s
the
t o the k i n d o f c o m p o s i t i o n that characterized
the
o f 2.13ff. The
VTTOTayqTe
o f specific
parallel
is c o n f i r m e d b y
5.5,
Ojuotcoc
(cp. 3.1).
O n t h e basis o f f o r m a n d c o n t e n t at least o n e s u b - d i v i s i o n m a y b e m a d e w i t h i n 5 . 1 — 1 1 . A t 5 . 6 f f . d i r e c t a d d r e s s t o classes o f p e r s o n s o n t h e t o p i c of
church-order
awareness
o f the
is l e f t
behind
for pastoral
concerns dominated b y
an
o p p o s i n g roles o f G o d and the Devil. A s e c o n d sub
d i v i s i o n m i g h t b e m a d e at 5 . 9 / 1 0 , b e c a u s e 5 . 1 — 9 is u n i n t e r r u p t e d e x h o r t a 1 6 1
. There does
s e e m t o b e a n i n c l u s i o n i n v o l v i n g 5 . 1 / 9 , TradriiiaTuv/na&ripaTuv,
b u t the
tion whereas
5 . 1 0 — 1 is e r s a t z
i n c l u s i o n b e t w e e n 5.1 a n d a n d 86%ri<;/86Zav. TatdvJKpciToq
benediction and d o x o l o g y
5 . 1 0 is e v e n s t r o n g e r ,
Moreover, 5.6 and
(so Chevallier,
evKaipGj/6\Lyov(6/10).
5 . 1 1 m a y e v i d e n c e i n c l u s i o n , Kpa-
1 4 1 ) , reinforced perhaps
A n d , v\pcoat? in
p e r o r a t i o n in 5 . 1 0 , KaTaprioei,
5.6
Lastly,
be
by
the
temporal
amplified
tfejueAuoaei,
by
k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n , xdpivjxapiTOc;.
coordinate Hence 5.10
a p p e a r a n c e o f a separate p e r i o d , b u t has b e e n f o r m u l a t e d
p r o v i d e 5.1—9 w i t h an e l e v a t e d c l i m a x
1 6 2
the
and the
w h o a c t s is c o n s o n a n t w i t h
t h e r e is an i n d i c a t i o n o f a d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t t o
5.10 with 5.5b through —1 h a s t h e
may
arTjpifei, odevcjjoei,
e m p h a s i s t h a t it w i l l b e G o d ' h i m s e l f (avToq) 5.6f.
nadrmaTuv/nadouTaq
to
.
T h e first s u b - u n i t , 5 . 1 — 5 , d e v e l o p s in a t h r e e - f o l d m a n n e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e set o f p e r s o n s a d d r e s s e d . T h e l o n g e s t a d d r e s s is t o t h e ' e l d e r s ' a n d is m a r k e d - o f f b y i n c l u s i o n , 86%rj<;/86%ric; ( 1 / 4 ) . T h e p e r i o d is i n a u g u r a t e d
by
a n e x t e n s i v e r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n ' in ' t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f C h r i s t ' and
' c o m i n g r e v e l a t i o n ' refrain
1 6 1 A l t h o u g h D e i c h g r a b e r , Gotteshymnus,
that o p e n e d the b o d y - c l o s i n g . H e n c e the
2 7 f f . , m a k e s n o such d i s t i n c t i o n , it seems 5 . 1 0 a p p r o x i
m a t e s t o a b e n e d i c t i o n w i t h its m a i n verbs in the indicative rather t h a n , say, o p t a t i v e . C p . Heb. 13.20. 1 6 2 F o r the traditional materials reflected in 5 . 1 0 - 1 see esp. K e l l y , 2 1 2 f . A n d , consider I T h e s s . 5 . 2 3 f . , a n d II T h e s s . 2 . 1 6 f .
Source-Integration in I Peter
77
a u t h o r ' s e f f o r t t o c r e a t e c o n t i n u i t y f r o m 4 . 1 2 — 9 t o 5 . I f f . is u n d e n i a b l e . B u t w h a t d i f f e r s is his e m p h a s i s o n a n t i c i p a t e d ' g l o r y ' , as t h e d e c i s i o n t o r e m o v e ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n ' f r o m its c o n n e x i o n w i t h ' s u f f e r i n g s ' in 4 . 1 5 s h o w s a n d t o c o n n e c t it w i t h t h e ' c o m i n g r e v e l a t i o n ' i n s t e a d . B y s u c h m e a n s h e signals a m o v e t o w a r d s a m o r e p o s i t i v e , o p t i m i s t i c n o t e o n w h i c h t o e n d . H e p r o c e e d s t o r e m i n d the elders o f their duties during the i n t e r i m ,
and
d r a w s u p o n m u c h t r a d i t o n a l m a t t e r t o d o s o , b e h i n d w h i c h at l e a s t o n e formal
s o u r c e has
been
noted
( M k . 1 0 . 4 2 ) KaraKvpievovreq,
and
closes the p e r i o d w i t h the t r o p e o f 'the unfading c r o w n o f g l o r y ' the a u t h o r
p a s s e s b l u n t l y t o t h e vedorepoi,
ordination with the
5.1—4 t h r o u g h
1 6 3
then
. Next
while preserving a certain c o
t h e r e f e r e n c e t o 7rp e a/tor ep O K . T h i r d in
s e q u e n c e is t h e a d d r e s s t o iravreq,
where the principle o f subordina
t i o n is b r o a d e n e d t o a p p l y t o t h e e n t i r e c o m m u n i t y in t e r m s o f ' h u m i l i t y ' a n d c o n c l u d e d b y Prv. 3 . 3 4 . B u t t h e q u o t a t i o n ' s s i g n i f i c a n c e as a p u n c t u a t i v e d e v i c e is n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n it g i v e s t o t h e
exhortation
in 5 . 5 b . I n as m u c h as ' p r i d e ' a n d ' h u m i l i t y ' are a l r e a d y o p e r a t i v e
from
r e t r o s p e c t in t h e a u t h o r ' s c o n c e r n f o r t h e c o n d u c t o f ' e l d e r s ' a n d ' y o u n g m e n ' , t h e p r o v e r b c a n b e s e e n t o b r i n g t h e w h o l e s u b - u n i t t o its p r o p e r close
1 6 4
.
Link-words
assist
TaTTeivois/TaneLvdjdriTe
the
transition
from
5.5b
to
5.6,
deoq/deov
and
( D a l t o n , C h e v a l l i e r , B a l c h ) . A l i n k is c r e a t e d
as
w e l l b y o u i > - p a r a e n e t i c u m , a n c h o r i n g t h e p a r a e n e s i s in t h e p r e v i o u s S c r i p tural a s s e r t i o n . H e n c e 5 . 6 starts f r o m t h e O T , as d o e s 5 . 7 w i t h Ps. 5 5 . 2 2 , j u x t a p o s e d w i t h 5 . 6 t h r o u g h a t u r n o f p h r a s e , ' u p o n h i m ' as c o m p a r e d t o 'under
. . . G o d ' . Then,
anxiety w h e n the asyndeton the
1 6 S
suddenly,
the
mood
shifts
to
in b i b l i c a l c o l o u r s as a tireless, v o r a c i o u s o p p o n e n t
catechetical p a t t e r n
theme
intimacy
. T h e e f f e c t is t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e p o r t r a i t t h a t f o l l o w s i n w h i c h
D e v i l is p a i n t e d
( 5 . 1 0 ) w h o m t h e a d d r e s s e e s m u s t 'resist' (dvriorriTe), the
from
c a t e c h e t i c a l p a t t e r n r e a p p e a r s in 5 . 8 a , u n d e r s c o r e d b y
1 6 6
.
Afterwards,
the
author
a third element f r o m moves through
o f suffering t o return t o the t h e m e o f G o d ' s unwavering
the
support
1 6 3 See a b o v e b i b l i c i s m n o . 1 7 . F o r traditional instruction see esp. A c t s 2 0 . 1 7 f f . , I T i m . 3 . 2 — 7 , a n d T i t . 1.5ff. A c t s 2 0 . 1 7 f f . is particularly a p p o s i t e b e c a u s e o f the s h e p h e r d = l e a d e r m e t a p h o r p r o m i n e n t in E z e k i e l . 1 6 4 See E l l i o t t , 'Order', 3 6 7 — 9 1 , for a t h o r o u g h discussion o f the e c c l e s i o l o g y reflected b y the sub-unit, a n d f o r the suggestion that ved^repot
designates 'deacons', n o t s i m p l y a n a g e - g r o u p .
See also W . N a u c k , ' P r o b l e m e ' , 2 0 0 - 2 0 , a n d E . S c h w e i z e r , Order, D a l t o n , Spirits,
e s p . 1 1 0 - 6 . It w o u l d s e e m
8 2 , a n d T . P . O s b o r n e , 'Citations', 7 1 , can o n l y limit the s c o p e o f Prv. 3 . 3 4 t o
5 . 5 b b y disregarding the plain m e a n i n g o f the t e x t in f a v o u r o f a relatively superficial verbal tally. 1 6 5 See a b o v e n. 1 0 9 for the rubric ' w a t c h / p r a y / b e sober', a n d see I Pet. 1 . 1 3 a n d 4 . 7 b . 1 6 6 See a b o v e n. 1 0 9 f o r t h e rubric 'resist/stand firm', a n d consider this as a n influence b e h i n d the transition to the letter's close at 5 . 1 2 , elq r\v arr\Tc.
See also E p h . 6 . 1 0 f f . F o r the ' l i o n ' t r o p e
see, for e x a m p l e , II T i m . 4 . 1 7 . M o r e a p p o s i t e t o I Peter perhaps is R e v . 1 3 . 2 , w h e r e a d e p e n d ence u p o n D n . 7.4ff. m a y b e detected ( G o p p e l t ) .
A Literary Analysis
78
a n n o u n c e d in 5 . 6 f . , in o r d e r t o w r a p u p his p a r a e n e s i s i n a n e n c o u r a g i n g fashion ( 5 . 1 0 )
1 6 7
.
It w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e p a r a e n e s i s - s e c t i o n i n I P e t e r e v i d e n c e s t h e s a m e b a s i c a p p r o a c h t o c o m p o s i t i o n a l m e t h o d i d e n t i f i e d e l s e w h e r e in t h e let ter's b o d y . T h e r e c o n t i n u e s t o b e a high c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the use o f l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s a n d t h e r e d a c t i o n o f f o r m a l s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s . T h e first s u b - u n i t a p p r o x i m a t e s c l o s e l y t o t h e w a y t h e Haustafeln
were developed,
even t o the p o i n t o f the closing O T reference. T h e s e c o n d sub-unit resem b l e s t h o s e t h a t start f r o m
the O T , like 3.13ff., i n t o w h i c h additional
f o r m a l m a t e r i a l s are i n t r o d u c e d t o e x p a n d t h e o p e n i n g t h e m e , n a m e l y , d i v i n e s u p p o r t i n t i m e o f trial. B e f o r e leaving the paraenesis-section b e h i n d , o p p o r t u n i t y m a y b e taken t o s p e a k t o t h e p r o b l e m a t i c t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e t o p i c o f c h u r c h - o r d e r at 5.If
1 6 8
. T h e d i f f i c u l t y is n o t o v e r c o m e b y t a k i n g ovv t o r e f e r t o ev
ayado-
noua in 4 . 1 9 , t h o u g h it h e l p s , b e c a u s e a n y s u b j e c t m i g h t h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d n e x t , and o n e w o u l d have t h o u g h t the a u t h o r h a d finished w i t h the household c o d e awhile b a c k
1 6 9
1 6 7 B u t , see esp. M . - E . B o i s m a r d , Quatre,
. H e has m a d e p r e v i o u s c o m m u n i t y - o r i e n -
1 3 3 — 6 3 , that I Pet. 5 . 5 — 9 is
a r e d a c t i o n o f a Christian
h y m n , b e c a u s e o f the parallels w i t h J a s . 4 . 6 — 1 0 . H o w e v e r , this is a great deal t o grant m e r e l y because o f a c o n j u n c t i o n o f Prv. 3 . 3 4 , 'resist the D e v i l ' , a n d the m a x i m , . ' h u m b l e y o u r s e l f in order t o b e e x a l t e d ' . T h e r e s e e m s t o b e n o evidence o f an e f f o r t o n the part o f the a u t h o r o f I Peter t o redact a single, sustained s o u r c e ( c p . 1 . 3 — 5 , 2 . 2 1 — 5 , 3 . 1 8 — 2 2 ) . It is c o m p a r a t i v e l y easier t o m a i n t i a n literary d e p e n d e n c e instead. Still less c o m p l i c a t e d w o u l d b e the a s s u m p t i o n of a shared paraenetical traditon w i t h a life-setting
in catechetical instruction, w h i c h can b e
put t o m a n y o t h e r g o o d uses as well. 1 6 8 A s B r o x o b s e r v e s , 'Dass m i t der A n r e d e der kirchlichen A m t s t r a g e r in 5 , 1 , ein weiterer Sinnabschnitt b e g i n n t , ist e v i d e n t (das ovv ist hier ein h o c h s t lockerer A n s c h l u s s ' ( 2 2 5 ) . T h u s it d o e s n o t seem the a u t h o r has p r o v i d e d a d e q u a t e l y f o r the transition as h e n o r m a l l y d o e s . It is sur prising h o w m a n y pass over it w i t h o u t c o m m e n t , such as v o n S o d e n , W a n d , S c h w e i z e r , Schlat ter, B a l c h , B e s t , F i t z m y e r , G o p p l e t , a n d R e i c k e . S o m e at least feel the n e e d t o p r o v i d e the subunit with a f o u n d a t i o n in the letter. L e a n e y , 1 2 4 , is representative, ' T h e c o n n e c t i o n in the writer's m i n d w i t h w h a t precedes is indicated b y the w o r d T H E R E F O R E . T h e fiery trial with its t e m p t a t i o n s t o a p o s t a s y , the j u d g m e n t beginning at the h o u s e o f G o d , the challenge to Chris tians t o c o m m i t their souls in w e l l - d o i n g t o a faithful Creator, as t h e y are called t o suffer — these things m a k e all the m o r e urgent h e n e e d f o r faithfulness in pastoral care', a n d see sim ilarly, S c h i w y , 2 1 6 . E l l i o t t , Peter,
w o u l d a d d the n e e d f o r solidarity p r o d u c e d b y respons
ible leadership crucial f o r a c o m m u n i t y e m b r o i l e d in the kind o f social conflict in v i e w . N o w there is n o g o o d r e a s o n to challenge these suggestions, t h e y d o s h o w t h e a u t h o r t o b e c o h e r e n t . W h a t t h e y d o n o t s h o w is his literary t e c h n i q u e . E l s e w h e r e in the letter ovv has b e e n satisfac torily a c c o u n t e d for as 'paraeneticum', c o n n e c t e d t o a p r e c e d i n g indicative. It is clear 4 . 1 9 is not
an indicative, n o r really are the c o n d i t i o n s in 4 . 1 7 b — 1 8 , t h o u g h all o f these m i g h t be
s t r e t c h e d far e n o u g h t o have the f o r c e e q u i v a l e n t t o o n e . T h e last servicable indicative is the un c o m p r o m i s i n g declaration in 4 . 1 7 a , w h i c h sets u p 4 . 1 7 b — 1 9 . W h a t clear e v i d e n c e o f literary technique
there
is c o n c e r n s
the reprise o f 4 . 1 2 — 3 that indicates Peter's identification
the s a m e situation all are facing, the p r o s p e c t o f suffering, h e n c e the l i n k - w o r d , -na^rmaTojv
with
ndaxovreq/
( 4 . 1 9 / 5 . 1 ) , a n d the h o p e o f g l o r y . Such a c o n n e x i o n m a y be seen a t o n c e t o b e
tangential t o the heart o f whatever kind o f relationship there m a y be b e t w e e n the subject o f legal e n t a n g l e m e n t s , or w o r s e , a n d m u c h o t h e r hardship besides, a n d t h e s u b j e c t o f h o w leaders are t o lead. T h u s the device c a n n o t have b e e n o f m u c h assistance in a transition t o a n e w s u b j e c t . 1 6 9 D a l t o n , Spirits,
8 2 , n. 2 7 , tries t o m e e t this o b j e c t i o n b y suggesting the a u t h o r deliberately
Source-Integration in I Peter
79
ted remarks in 4 . 8 — 1 1 , 1 4 , a n d 1 7 , b u t these scarcely a n n o u n c e the direc t i o n h e is a b o u t t o t a k e a n d m e r e l y h e l p o n e f r o m r e t r o s p e c t t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e a u t h o r has n o t d e p a r t e d
f r o m t h e b u r d e n o f his m e s s a g e as far
as h e is c o n c e r n e d . An
explanation
m a y b e h a z a r d e d o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t h e h a d in m i n d
t h e n e x t s e n t e n c e in E z e k . 9 . 6 f o l l o w i n g t h e o n e t o w h i c h h e h a d j u s t a l l u d e d in 4 . 1 7 a . T h e y b o t h r e a d Kai rip^avro
and
TLOV
avdpcov
G u i d e d b y his t e x t
and
npeofivTeptov,
TLOV
roov
ayicov
at
pov ap%aode.
r\aav
eooo
ev
T &
Kai O I K & .
t o s e e in t h e s o c i a l c o n f l i c t i n v o l v i n g C h r i s t i a n s t h e
d a w n o f the J u d g m e n t ,
h e might have surmised further that elders w e r e
at t h e h e a d o f t h e list. I n d e e d , E z e k . 9 . 6 b e g i n s w i t h a list o f t h o s e a b o u t to
b e k i l l e d , npeofivrepov
Kai veavioKOv
t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o vedbrepoi
w e r e b e f o r e h i m is l i k e l y f r o m rov
OLKOV
deov
K T X . , p e r h a p s e x p l a i n i n g as w e l l
at 5 . 5 a , a n d t h e n e v e r y o n e . T h a t b o t h s e n t e n c e s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f ' h o u s e ' in his and TOV
w h i c h h e might have r e m o v e d f r o m the e n d o f E z e k . 9 . 6 .
He
can retain elements adjacent
at
1.25b).
M o r e o e v e r , his
t o his p r i m a r y O T r e f e r e n c e ( s e e Is. 4 0 . 9
curious self-designation,
ovpnpeoPvTepoq,
is
p e r h a p s b e t t e r e x p l a i n e d n o t as a n i n g r a t i a t i n g p l o y b u t as a f r a n k a d m i s s i o n t h a t h e is at t h e s a m e risk t h e y are b e c a u s e all are at t h e h e a d o f t h e list
1 7 0
. T h u s successive allusions t o E z e k . 9 . 6 m a y facilitate the transition
at 4 . 1 9 / 5 . 1 l i k e t h e w a y t h o s e t o Ps. 3 4 d i d at I P e t . 2 . 3 / 4 . To
s u m u p , I Pet.
source-materials.
It
1.3—5.11 seems
the
has b e e n a n a l y z e d f o r its i n t e g r a t i o n o f use
o f c o m p o s i t o n a l devices was
indis
p e n s a b l e t o the r e d a c t i o n o f m o s t f o r m a l materials. T h e s a m e t e c h n i q u e s w e r e u s e d again a n d again t o d r a w u p o n d o x o l o g i e s , k e r y g m a t i c / c r e e d a l f o r m u l a e , J e s u s - t r a d i t i o n , h y m n i c f r a g m e n t s , a s s o r t e d topoi
including the
h o u s e h o l d c o d e , c a t e c h e t i c a l m a t e r i a l s , a n d O T r e f e r e n c e s . H e n c e t h e au thor's
technique
exception. formulae.
did
W h e n he
not
discriminate
quoted
Scripture
amongst
his
sources
in e x t e n s o h e u s e d
with
one
introductory
It is t h e r e f o r e u n d e n i a b l e h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h a t s o u r c e q u a l i t a
tively f r o m
the
rest
1 7 1
. S o h e m a y b e a s s u m e d n o t t o h a v e l o s t sight o f
t h e a u t h o r i t y a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h a t s o u r c e in t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h i r t y seven remaining d e m o n s t r a b l e i n d e p e n d e n t allusions, n o t t o m e n t i o n
the
reserved 5 . 1 — 5 for its present c o n t e x t b e c a u s e the c o n f l i c t is p o r t r a y e d in its sharpest terms just b e f o r e h a n d . But h a d h e b e e n so sensitive in that regard it is o n l y fair t o say he failed t o b e consistent. T h e r e is n o t h i n g in the w a y o f a n y strategy e n u n c i a t e d plainly in 5 . 1 — 5 , whereas in the o t h e r instances of the c o d e he a l w a y s brings o u t s o m e kind o f a p p l i c a t i o n to the situation at h a n d . 1 7 0 P s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r the self-designation t e n d t o b e preferred, w h e t h e r as a gesture of
m o d e s t y , e n d e a r m e n t , e m p a t h y , or i n t i m i d a t i o n . Schlatter a n d G o p p e l t are e x c e p t i o n a l ,
because t h e y see in it a cue that the a u t h o r is speaking in his official capacity t o o t h e r s in their official c a p a c i t y . T h e i r suggestion is c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f f e r e d here. 1 7 1 S o , A . T . H a n s o n c o n c l u d e s ' T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t writers are c o n s c i o u s o f haigraphai,
scripture,
as a definite b o d y o f literature m a r k e d o u t f r o m all o t h e r literature. T h i s is clear f r o m the refer e n c e s in Paul (e.g. R o m . 1 5 : 4 ) ; J o h n (e.g. J o h n 1 0 : 3 5 ) ; t h e Pastoral Epistles ( 2 T i m . 3 : 1 6 ) ; 1 Peter ( 1 : 1 0 - 1 2 ) ; a n d 2 Peter ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 ) ' , Utterances,
213.
A Literary Analysis
80
i n t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n s . T h i s is n o t t o s a y his a u d i e n c e n e c e s s a r i l y a l w a y s , r e c o g n i z e d t h e i r s o u r c e , n o r is it t o c l a i m h e m u s t h a v e b e e n a w a r e o f his s o u r c e i n e v e r y i n s t a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y as r e g a r d s t h o s e i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n s o f a v e r y f a i n t o r o b l i q u e n a t u r e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , in t h e c a s e o f i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n s w h e r e h e has g o n e o u t o f h i s w a y t o r e p r o d u c e e l e m e n t s a l r e a d y , o r a b o u t t o b e , r e d a c t e d f r o m O T s o u r c e s , t h e n t h e c h a n c e s are g r e a t e r h e k n o w s t h e o r i g i n a l l o c u s , a n d t h a t his a u d i e n c e is t o p e r c e i v e at least s o m e kind o f relationship with the Scriptures. T h e analysis o f source-integration also b r o u g h t t o light a n u m b e r o f p l a c e s w h e r e t h e O T w a s an e s p e c i a l l y f o r m a t i v e f a c t o r in t h e d e s i g n t h e a u t h o r g a v e t o his l e t t e r . T h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f I P e t e r ' s b o d y - o p e n i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , d i s c l o s e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f a d o m i n a n t t h e m e a n c h o r e d in S c r i p ture, G o d ' s call t o holiness, a n d carried f o r w a r d b y s u c c e e d i n g sub-units formulated decisively a r o u n d additional O T references
1 7 2
. N o equivalent
s u s t a i n e d u s e o f t h e O T w a s f o u n d e l s e w h e r e in t h e l e t t e r . I n c o n t r a s t j u s t t w o s u b - u n i t s in t h e first p a r t o f t h e b o d y - m i d d l e w e r e s e e n t o h a v e b e e n formatively influenced b y the use o f the O T , 2 . 2 1 - 5 a n d 3 . 8 - 1 2 . But the s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e b o d y - m i d d l e is a n o t h e r m a t t e r . It c o n s i s t e n t l y a l l o w s a m o r e f o r m a t i v e r o l e t o t h e O T , as is c l e a r in t h r e e o u t o f f o u r o f its s u b - u n i t s , 3 . 1 3 — 7 , 1 8 — 2 2 , a n d 4 . 7 — 1 1 , a l t h o u g h still n o t c o m p a r a b l e t o 1.14—2.9. T w o o f the three sub-units in the b o d y - c l o s i n g have likewise b e e n s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d , 4 . 1 4 — 6 a n d 1 7 — 9 , as h a s t h e e n t i r e p a r a e n e s i s s e c t i o n , e v e n p e r h a p s at t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f 4 . 1 9 / 5 . 1 . I n t h e s e i n s t a n c e s at least
the
author
displays
a
m e a s u r e o f l i t e r a r y c r e a t i v i t y vis-a-vis h i s
o t h e r s o u r c e s w h i c h is i n h e r e n t l y l i k e l y t o h a v e s o m e k i n d o f r e l a t i o n s h i p t o his h e r m e n e u t i c . I n d e e d , it w o u l d s u r e l y s p e a k a g a i n s t a n y h y p o t h e s e s r e g a r d i n g his h e r m e n e u t i c i f t h e y c o u l d n o t a d e q u a t e l y a c c o u n t f o r t h e w a y t h e O T is h a n d l e d i n s u c h c a s e s . It is t h e r e f o r e j u s t i f i e d t o d e v o t e
1 7 2 H e n c e e x c e p t i o n m a y b e taken w i t h B e s t , ' R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n ' , 2 7 1 , w h o says regarding the q u o t a t i o n o f L e v . 1 9 . 2 in I Pet. 1 . 1 6 'Prefaced b y 6 i 6 n yeypanpai b e e n said in 1 . 1 5 , a n d d o e s sure, since
it re-expresses w h a t has already
n o t i n t r o d u c e a n y c o n c e p t i o n n o t already present therein'. T o b e
1 . 1 5 is c o m p o s e d largely o f t e r m s d r a w n f r o m the q u o t a t i o n such as to warrant
classification as a n iterative allusion. T h u s the q u o t a t i o n is responsible f o r the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the holiness t e r m i n o l o g y into the e x p o s i t i o n , a n d it is beside the p o i n t that the citation func t i o n s as a p r o o f - t e x t . F o r the chiastic ar r an ge me n t o f 1 . 1 5 — 6 w h i c h p r e s u p p o s e s a p o i n t o f origin in the q u o t a t i o n see T . P . O s b o r n e , 'Citations', 6 7 . F i t z m y e r , ' Q u o t a t i o n s ' , 9 , c o m p a r e s the f o r m u l a t o that in C D X I , 2 0 ,
31D 3
* 0 . W h e n the a u t h o r o f I Peter returns again a n d
again to the t h e m e o f holiness in 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 , w h e t h e r e x p l i c i t l y o r i m p l i c i t l y , he can o n l y b e u n d e r s t o o d as seeking t o e l a b o r a t e a n d a p p l y t h e divine s u m m o n s as best he m a y t o the i m m e d iate situation. H e clearly m e a n s t o identify
Christian life as the w a y o f holiness revealed in
Scripture. If that is n o t a n interpretative a c t , it w o u l d b e difficult t o k n o w w h a t is. T h a t the f o r m o f the e x p o s i t i o n m a y n o t agree w i t h Best's p r e c o n c e p t i o n s is a n o t h e r m a t t e r . For a n o b j e c t i o n against a similar p r e c o n c e p t i o n o n the part o f Elliott see a b o v e n. 1 1 5 . E v e n in t e r m s o f such n a r r o w ideas as t o w h a t c o u n t s f o r Scriptural exegesis in the N T p e r i o d literary analysis has ? h o w n that Is. 4 0 is the p o i n t o f departure for 1 . 2 5 b f . , Ps. 3 4 . 1 3 - 7 f o r 3 . 1 3 f . , a n d Prv. 3 . 3 4 f o r 5 . 6 f . , t o n a m e b u t three ( B e s t , 2 7 3 , n o t e s this last b u t he attaches little to it).
significance
Concluding R emarks
81
m o s t o f t h e n e x t stage o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o t h e i r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . D e s e r v ing
of
s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n in this r e s p e c t
are
the
six r e l a t i v e l y
complex
f o r m s o f c i t a t i o n i d e n t i f i e d earlier: 1 ) a b b r e v i a t i o n , 2 ) c a t e n a , 3 ) c o n f l a tion, 4 ) the w i d e r text-plot p r e s u p p o s e d , 5 ) the reference d e p e n d s largely o n an a s s o c i a t e d e x e g e t i c a l t r a d i t i o n , a n d , 6 ) f l o r i l e g i u m . . Moreover,
the
analysis
of
source-integration
in I P e t e r
suggests
an
a n s w e r t o a q u e s t i o n r a i s e d at t h e e n d o f t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r c o n c e r n i n g the suitability
o f a m e s s a g e c l o t h e d s o h e a v i l y in O T g a r b f o r a m a i n l y
n o n - J e w i s h a u d i e n c e w h i c h m a y h a v e h a d m a n y n e w m e m b e r s . T h e r e is, f o r e x a m p l e , a c l o s e c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e n i t e m s f r o m t h e H o l i n e s s C o d e , Is. 5 2 — 3 , Ps. 3 4 , a n d t h e S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a in 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e c a t e c h e t i c a l p a t t e r n o n t h e o t h e r . O r , t h e r e is a p e r c e p t i b l e c o n j u n c t i o n o f e l e m e n t s f r o m Is. 5 3 a n d Ps. 3 4 w i t h b a p t i s m a l m a t e r i a l s later in the
l e t t e r . N o w it s t a n d s t o r e a s o n
catechetical and b e i n g familiar might
baptismal
traditions
the
author
turned t o the mass o f
because he could c o u n t o n
them
t o his a d d r e s s e e s , s u c h t h a t his s e l e c t i o n o f O T s o u r c e s
have b e e n slanted likewise towards texts he might s u p p o s e
they
k n e w f r o m t h e t i m e o f t h e i r i n i t i a t i o n , o r f r o m v e r y r e g u l a r u s e in w o r ship
1 7 3
. I n a d d i t i o n , b y u s i n g t h e s a m e c o m p o s i t i o n a l d e v i c e s t o r e d a c t all
f o r m a l s o u r c e s his a p p r o a c h t o t h e O T w o u l d in t h e o r y b e as i n t e l l i g i b l e t o his a u d i e n c e as his a p p r o a c h t o o t h e r f o r m a l s o u r c e s , a n d s o w o u l d p r o b a b l y n o t t h r e a t e n the c o g e n c y o f his m e s s a g e . B u t t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s o n l y resolve the q u e s t i o n partially, leaving the kind o f h e r m e n e u t i c
in
volved and
the
whatever
l e g i t i m a c y it m i g h t
have had
in t h e
eyes o f
a d d r e s s e e s still u n d e t e r m i n e d , q u e s t i o n s t o b e f a c e d in t h e n e x t c h a p t e r .
6.
Concluding Remarks
In the c o u r s e o f the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g discussion the n e e d f o r a c o m p r e h e n s i v e l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s o f I P e t e r s t a t e d in t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n become
ever m o r e apparent. A n u m b e r
relevant
to
the
o f questions were
has
entertained
a u t h o r ' s u s e o f t h e O T a n d h e n c e t o t h e n a t u r e o f his
h e r m e n e u t i c w h i c h have b e e n the victims o f inadequate s t u d y o r virtual n e g l e c t , l i k e t h e l e t t e r ' s g e n r e w i t h its c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s , the c o m p o s i t i o n a l m e t h o d e m p l o y e d , the e x t e n t o f d e p e n d e n c e o n w r i t t e n a n d o r a l s o u r c e s , t h e s p e c i e s a n d q u a n t i t y o f O T r e f e r e n c e s c o n t a i n e d , a n d t h e a c t u a l dis p o s i t i o n o f all its s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l s . B y a t t e n d i n g t o t h e s e in s o m e d e t a i l it has b e c o m e
p o s s i b l e t o d r a w w i t h s h a r p e r l i n e s t h e l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t in
w h i c h t h e O T has b e e n u s e d a n d t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h it has b e e n f o r m a tive. T o establish
the
integrity
o f 1.13—2.10 o n literary g r o u n d s ,
for
e x a m p l e , a u t h o r i z e s t h e s e a r c h o f its O T r e f e r e n c e s f o r a n y p o s s i b l e rela tionships
they
may
share w h i c h m i g h t
b e significant
for the
hermeneutic.
1 7 3 I a m i n d e b t e d t o the R e v d Prof. Barnabas Lindars, S . S . F . , for this suggestion.
author's
A Literary Analysis
82
T h e d i s c u s s i o n has p r o d u c e d c o n s i d e r a b l e s u p p o r t as w e l l f o r I P e t e r ' s l i t e r a r y i n t e g r i t y , p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e its several p a r t s c o u l d e a s i l y b e e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s o f t h e P a u l i n e l e t t e r . T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l devices c l o s e l y o r c h e s t r a t e d w i t h the letter's generic features o n l y strength e n e d this i m p r e s s i o n b y h e l p i n g t o o v e r c o m e m a n y d i f f i c u l t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with certain a w k w a r d transitions (esp. 1 . 2 5 / 2 . 1 , 3 . 1 2 / 1 3 , 4 . 6 / 7 , 4 . 1 1 / 1 2 , and 4 . 1 9 / 5 . 1 ) . H e n c e there seems t o b e n o c o m p e l l i n g internal e v i d e n c e against t h e l e t t e r ' s i n t e g r i t y d e s p i t e t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f l i t u r g i c a l - , parti tion-, and i n t e r p o l a t i o n - t h e o r i e s
1 7 4
. It w o u l d b e g o i n g t o o far t o s a y a n y
1 7 4 T h e liturgical h y p o t h e s e s have the m o s t venerable pedigree, b e g i n n i n g w i t h v o n H a r n a c k ' s t o the effect
that 1 . 3 — 5 . 1 1 w a s originally c o n c e i v e d as h o m i l y t o w h i c h prescript a n d subscript
w e r e a d d e d later for circulation (Literatur
II, 4 5 1 f f . ) . F r o m there s p e c u l a t i o n has p r o c e e d e d
a l o n g t w o closely related b u t parallel lines, o n e e m p h a s i z i n g the h o m i l e t i c , the o t h e r the ritual istic, s o m e t i m e s m a k i n g it difficult t o tell t h e m apart. T h e h o m i l e t i c w a s given a rather sensa tional turn b y R . Perdelwitz, Mysterienreligion,
e s p . 5 — 2 8 , w h o p o r t r a y e d 1 . 3 — 4 . 1 1 as a baptis
m a l h o m i l y heavily d e p e n d e n t o n ancient rites o f initiation. F r o m that t i m e o n w a r d s 1 . 3 — 4 . 1 1 t e n d s t o b e v i e w e d as the original d o c u m e n t b y o n e t h e o r y or a n o t h e r . W . B o r n e m a n n , *Taufrede', 1 4 3 f f . , w a s e x c e p t i o n a l in a c c e p t i n g the w h o l e o f 1 . 3 — 5 . 1 1 . W i n d i s c h f o l l o w e d Perdel witz* version o f the h y p o t h e s i s b y a n d large in his c o m m e n t a r y , b u t insisted that certain ele ments
in the h o m i l y w e r e b e t t e r e x p l a i n e d as actual directions f o r c o n d u c t i n g the
A b o u t the s a m e t i m e B . H . Streeter, Church,
service.
1 2 3 — 8 , a d o p t e d a similar v i e w , a n d s o m e w h a t
later the t h e o r y was e m b r a c e d b y F . W . Beare in his c o m m e n t a r y . T h e ritualistic interpretation e m e r g e d s h o r t l y thereafter c o n c e i v e d b y H . Preisker for his e d i t i o n o f W i n d i s c h ' s c o m m e n t a r y , o n l y to m e e t w i t h m i x e d r e s p o n s e . M . - E . B o i s m a r d , 'Liturgie I/FT, 1 8 2 - 2 0 8 a n d 1 6 1 - 8 3 , w e n t t o great lengths to a c c o u n t for the liturgical e l e m e n t s instead in terms o f the influence o f a c o m m o n b a p t i s m a l liturgy he r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m various N T t e x t s . F . L . Cross, Liturgy,
passim,
a n d A . R . C . L e a n e y , 'Passover', 2 3 8 — 5 1 , o n the o t h e r h a n d , pressed the t h e o r y even further, t y i n g it t o a Paschal festival. C . F . D . M o u l e replied w i t h m o r e than slight scepticism a b o u t the possibility that an o c c a s i o n a l creation m i g h t b e c o m e the basis f o r a n encyclical letter lacking a n y guidelines f o r its e m p l o y m e n t ( ' N a t u r e ' , esp. 1 0 7 ) , a n d T . C . G . T h o r n t o n , ' L i t u r g y ? ' , 1 4 26,
multiplied
the
o b j e c t i o n s . T h e criticism c o n t i n u e s t o m o u n t against this version o f
the
t h e o r y , as can b e seen f r o m B e s t , 2 0 - 7 , D . Hill, 'Suffering', 1 8 1 - 9 , a n d B r o x , 1 9 - 2 1 . It is safe t o say that
of the t w o versions o f the t h e o r y , the h o m i l e t i c a l o n e is the m o r e plausible.
H o w e v e r , M o u l e , 'Nature', I f f . , p r o p o s e d a n alternative to the h o m i l e t i c a l version b y rehabil itating the p a r t i t i o n - t h e o r y o f J . H . A . H a r t , 3 — 4 . T w o letters w e r e originally c o n c e i v e d , 1.1 — 4 . 1 1 / 5 . 1 2 - 4 a n d 1 . 1 - 2 . 1 0 / 4 . 1 2 - 5 . 1 4 . T h e first w a s issued b e f o r e the p e r s e c u t i o n b r o k e o u t w i d e l y , necessitating
the s e c o n d w h e n it d i d . A g a i n s t M o u l e , B e s t , 2 7 — 8 , argues the t h e o r y
c a n n o t e x p l a i n w h y 2 . 1 8 — 3 . 7 w a s o m i t t e d f r o m the o n e letter, since it c o n t a i n s s o u n d advice for difficult situations t h o u g h the s a m e letter d o e s c o n t a i n 5 . 1 — 5 , n o r similarly w h y it s h o u l d have l a c k e d
4.7-11
o r 3 . 1 7 - 2 2 . W i t h little e n t h u s i a s m f o r the p a r t i t i o n - t h e o r y s o m e have
returned t o that o f Perdelwitz, f o r e x a m p l e , S.I. B u s e , Baptism, tur,
1 7 2 - 5 , and Vielhauer,
Litura-
5 8 4 f . A l l these theories have in c o m m o n a n e m p h a s i s o n t h e b r e a k a t 4 . 1 1 / 1 2 a n d the as
sumption
that
the
sufferings
described in 4 . 1 2 — 9 are s o m e h o w qualitatively severer. A s t o
the first, a great deal is m a d e o f the d o x o l o g y in 4 . 1 1 , b u t as L o h s e o b j e c t s , 'Paranese',
81,
n.
6 7 , the series of d o x o l o g i e s within I C l e m e n t ( 2 0 . 1 2 , 3 2 . 4 , 3 8 . 4 , 4 3 . 6 , 4 5 . 7 f . , 5 0 . 7 , 5 8 . 2 , 6 1 . 3 , 6 4 , a n d 6 5 . 2 ) 'keineswegs i m m e r e i n e n A b s c h l u s s bilden'. F o r a d d i t i o n a l evidence see S e l w y n , 2 2 0 . J . A . T . R o b i n s o n , Redating,
1 5 8 , n o t e s the a b s e n c e o f textual evidence f o r a n original
e n d i n g at 4 . 1 1 , unlike that f o r the d o x o l o g y at R o m . 1 4 . 2 3 . A s t o the possible escalation o f sufferings in 4 . 1 2 f f . , the reprise o f 1.6f. suggests o t h e r w i s e , a n d the clarification o f judicial p r o c e d u r e o f f e r e d in the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r provides g r o u n d s instead for s u p p o s i n g the a u t h o r is spelling o u t b y w a y o f c o n c l u s i o n w h a t he h a d already covered at 2 . 1 3 - 7 a n d 3 . 1 3 - 7 t o pre clude a n y possible m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . F i n a l l y , s o m e m e n t i o n o f the i n t e r p o l a t i o n theories m u s t
Concluding Remarks
83
o f t h e m have b e e n d i s p r o v e d , but sufficient e v i d e n c e o n behalf o f I Peter's i n t e g r i t y has b e e n g i v e n t o a c c e p t it as a w o r k i n g - h y p o t h e s i s o f c o m p a r a ble
validity
1 7 5
. T h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a d v a n t a g e is t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m
all its p a r t s m a y b e t a k e n as i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e a u t h o r ' s s t a t e o f m i n d at the
time o f writing. O t h e r w i s e , questions o f internal c o n s i s t e n c y w o u l d
have t o b e raised relative t o the different c o n d i t i o n s a n d p u r p o s e s w h i c h o c c a s i o n e d the alleged subsequent m o d i f i c a t i o n s o r creations. The
results
another
from
question
the source-analysis
remaining
from
m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o a d d r e s s
the
previous
chapter,
yet
namely,
the
a u t h o r ' s i d e n t i t y . It is c l e a r t h a t h e b o r r o w e d f r e e l y a n d w i t h g r e a t f a c i l i t y s o m e forty-six times f r o m eleven O T b o o k s , n o t including a plethora o f i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n h e shares w i t h t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n s ( s ) a h o s t of
biblicisms and
thirty-nine
NT
116
hapax
legomena .
Thus
the
author
e v i d e n c e s a t h o r o u g h c o m m a n d o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . H e is n o t a c c u s t o m e d t o t h i n k i n g s o l e l y in their t e r m s , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e his G r e e k s e e m s t o b e t r a y certain
Semitic
sponsible
1 7 7
tendencies
f o r w h i c h t h e v e r s i o n ( s ) are n o t e n t i r e l y
re
. A l t h o u g h t h e r e a d i n g is p r o b l e m a t i c , t h e r e m a y b e a n o u t r i g h t
S e m i t i s m at
2 . 2 4 c in t h e
f o r m o f the r e d u n d a n t pers. p r o n o u n
1 7 8
.
But
m o s t telling are t h e i m p e r a t i v e p a r t i c i p l e s a n d a d j e c t i v e s l i k e l y t o s u r v i v e a l o n e in t h e
be
parlance
m a d e for the
sake o f
o f s o m e o n e for w h o m they were natural
1 7 9
. Such
t h o r o u g h n e s s , a l t h o u g h these have failed t o gain the s u p p o r t
the
others h a v e . Several relatively m o d e s t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f original letters b e h i n d I Peter have been attempted
(see W . S o l t a u ,
a n d , D . V o l t e r , Petrusbrief, Introduction,
'Einheitlichkeit',
3 0 2 — 1 5 , and idem, 'Nochmals', 4 5 6 — 6 0 ,
p a s s i m , but against, see the esp. telling criticisms b y J . M o f f a t t ,
3 4 3 f . ) . T h e t h e o r y has recently b e e n rehabilitated in apparent i n d e p e n d e n c e of
earlier e f f o r t s
by
W . M u n r o , Authority,
esp.
37—56.
Closely argued, and often
intriguing,
M u n r o u n c o v e r s a small fragment o f an original letter b e n e a t h an overlay o f materials she identifies
with
the
stratum in the Pastorals a n d elsewhere
(esp. 1 5 3 f . ) . R e g r e t t a b l y , M u n r o
d o e s n o t refer t o the analyses o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l devices p r o d u c e d b y D a l t o n , Chevallier, a n d Balch, the results f r o m w h i c h w o u l d c o m p l i c a t e a n y such r e c o n s t r u c t i o n because t h e y f a v o u r the letter's original u n i t y . It is t o o s o o n to say w h e t h e r M u n r o ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n will m e e t with greater success than its predecessors. 1 7 5 A s it has b e e n a c c e p t e d , for e x a m p l e , b y R . M . G r a n t , Introduction, tion,
224f., E. Lohse,
Forma
2 1 Of., a n d a m o n g the c o m m e n t a t o r s b y S c h e l k l e , S p i c q , Schneider, K e l l y , Best, a n d B r o x .
It is appropriate to n o t e here as well that the stylistic u n i t y o f the letter's several parts mili tates against m u l t i p l e a u t h o r s h i p (see e s p . E . Scharfe, Strdmung,
passim, a n d N . T u r n e r ,
Style,
124ff.). 1 7 6 F o r the list o f w o r d s see Bigg, 2f. 1 7 7 See e s p . the n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s in T u r n e r , Style, distinguish
1 2 6 f f . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , he d o e s n o t a l w a y s
cases where the L X X or oral c o n v e n t i o n s are the likeliest sources f r o m t h o s e that
s e e m t o be the author's c o i n a g e , such as 1 . 1 4 , reava t o w h i c h m a y be a d d e d 1 . 1 3 , raq boipvaq rrj
v-naKor]q, or 4 . 1 3 , xaprJTe
ayeWidjuevot,
(Bigg, 3 ) . See also A . W i f s t r a n d , 'Stylis
tic', 1 7 0 f f . 1 7 8 T h e witnesses for the variant are w e a k , a n d it is possible that it arose o u t o f h a r m o n i z a t i o n w i t h the
L X X t o Is. 5 3 . 5 , as so f r e q u e n t l y h a p p e n e d t o O T references transmitted in N T texts.
A g a i n s t the possibility here m u s t b e w e i g h e d the prevailing scribal practice w h i c h sought t o e l i m i n a t e just such barbarisms. F o r t h e S e m i t i s m see BDF,
1 5 5 , § 2 9 7 , a n d a b o v e , n. 1 2 9 .
1 7 9 F r o m the a b o v e discussion o f the participle o f the 'correct p r a c t i c e ' it m a y b e recalled that the p h e n o m e n o n appears t o be a vestigial o n e in the N T a n d is f o u n d there exclusively in w o r k s b y Jewish-Christian a u t h o r s
(Rom., Eph., Heb.).
A Literary Analysis
84
f a m i l i a r i t y a n d e x p e r t i s e w i t h t h e S c r i p t u r e s a n d J e w i s h i d i o m is m o r e r e a d i l y e x p l i c a b l e o n t h e basis o f e x t e n d e d c o n t a c t w i t h J e w i s h c u l t u r e t h a n o n a n y o t h e r g r o u n d s . A l t h o u g h it is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e a u t h o r w a s a G e n t i l e , at l e a s t b y b i r t h , this s u r e l y h a s less t o r e c o m m e n d itself t h a n that h e was a J e w b y birth a n d e d u c a t i o n It t h e r e f o r e
1 8 0
.
seems reasonable t o theorize that J e w i s h interpretative
presuppositions,
methods,
and techniques w o u l d
similarly have h a d a
decisive r o l e in shaping his h e r m e n e u t i c , particularly t h o s e c u r r e n t in the Synagogue,
although
allowances
f o r sectarian, o r peculiarly Christian,
influences m u s t b e m a d e . T h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y was clearly the origin of
his p r o s e l y t i z i n g
rhetoric
along
with the esoteric traditions a b o u t
E n o c h a n d ' B a b y l o n ' . A s a r e s u l t , it is a p p r o p r i a t e t o b e g i n t o l o o k f o r t h e f o u n d a t i o n s b e n e a t h his h e r m e n e u t i c in c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h life a n d its relevant institutions.
1 8 0 T o m a i n t a i n G e n t i l e i d e n t i t y a l m o s t necessitates viewing the a u t h o r as a f o r m e r p r o s e l y t e ( c p . A c t s 6 . 5 , o r p o s s i b l y the a u t h o r o f A c t s h i m s e l f ) , because it p r e s u p p o s e s p r o l o n g e d a n d in t i m a t e e x p o s u r e t o the cultural p a t t e r n s a n d speech o f J u d a i s m . B u t in t h a t case the q u e s t i o n of
his i d e n t i t y
no
longer p o s e s a p r o b l e m , since the p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t o n his
hermeneutic
w o u l d have b e e n basically the s a m e as if h e h a d b e e n b o r n a n d raised a J e w . It is y e t a n o t h e r sign o f the letter's neglect that t h e q u e s t i o n o f its a u t h o r ' s true i d e n t i t y those w h o affirm it is p s e u d o n y m o u s .
is rarely raised b y
Chapter Four
T h e H e r m e n e u t i c o f I Peter
1. I Peter 1.13-2.10 and Homiletic Midrash I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e m e t h o d o l o g y s t a t e d i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n it is i n c u m b e n t u p o n a n i n d u c t i v e a p p r o a c h t o t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e au t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c t o start w i t h t h o s e p a r t s o f t h e l e t t e r i n w h i c h t h e u s e o f t h e O T has b e e n t h e m o s t f o r m a t i v e . T h e l i t e r a r y analysis s h o w e d t h a t n o n e is b e t t e r q u a l i f i e d in this r e g a r d t h a n t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g . A g r e a t d e a l o f t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g , 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 , d e r i y e s t h e m a i n t h e m e a r o u n d w h i c h it has b e e n o r g a n i z e d f r o m terms drawn from
the
S c r i p t u r e s a n d is e l a b o r a t e d p r i m a r i l y i n
t h e m as w e l l ( s e e a b o v e p p . 5 2 — 5 9 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e
b o d y - o p e n i n g w a s s e e n t o c o n t a i n e x a m p l e s o f all s i x o f t h e m o r e c o m p l e x f o r m s o f O T c i t a t i o n in t h e l e t t e r ( p . 4 3 f . ) . A l s o n o t e w o r t h y is t h e p r e s e n c e w i t h i n it o f t h e
three strongest
introductory formulae (p. 36f.).
N o w h e r e else in the letter d o e s the a u t h o r rely s o heavily a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y o n the Scriptures a n d m a k e such a p o i n t o f i n v o k i n g their a u t h o r i t y . T h u s t h e r e are g o o d r e a s o n s t o s u s p e c t t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c m a y h a v e m a n i fested
itself in i m p o r t a n t
object
for a preliminary
w a y s i n t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g , a n d is t h e
proper
test o f his h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s a n d
practices. From
the
previous
e v i d e n t , s u c h t h a t its
chapter
the
author's
debt to Jewish
culture
is
c o n v e n t i o n s o f O T usage r e c o m m e n d themselves
first a n d f o r e m o s t f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h e s e a r c h f o r c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l s is n o t n e a r l y s o d a u n t i n g a t a s k as m i g h t s e e m i n i t i a l l y , h o w e v e r . S i n c e 1 . 1 3 — 2 . 1 0 is n o t a p s a l m ( c p . 1 . 3 — 1 2 ) , a p r a y e r , a t a r g u m , a r e c i t a l , a g e n e o l o g y , a liturgy, a narrative, alypse, a testament,
a p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c treatise,
an
apoc
a c o m m e n t a r y , an essay, an oracle, a sayings c o l l e c
t i o n , a w i s d o m d i s c o u r s e , o r a n y o n e o f a n u m b e r o f p o s s i b l e legal f o r m u l a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e , vast q u a n t i t i e s o f J e w i s h l i t u r a t u r e m a y b e set a s i d e 1
as n o t i m m e d i a t e l y g e r m a n e . T h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t e v i d e n c e f r o m s u c h s o u r c e s is n e c e s s a r i l y i r r e l e v a n t , far f r o m it. R a t h e r , it is t o s a y t h a t g e n eric affinities and d i f f e r e n c e s m u s t take p r e c e d e n c e over o t h e r kinds o f literary
data, b e c a u s e genre d e t e r m i n e s m o r e than a n y t h i n g else the pre-
1 F o r surveys o f t h e b r o a d range o f J e w i s h literature relevant t o the q u e s t i o n see, for e x a m p l e , J.
Bowker,
Targums,
passim,
G . V e r m e s / F . Millar, History,
passim, G . W . E . N i c k e l s b u r g , Literature, w o r t h , Pseudepigrapha,
passim, D . Patte,
passim, G . S t e m b e r g e r , Einleitung,
p a s s i m , a n d M . E . S t o n e , Writings,
passim.
Hermeneutic,
passim, J . H . Charles-
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
86
cise l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t in w h i c h a p a r t i c u l a r h e r m e n e u t i c h a s c o m e t o e x p r e s s i o n . O n c e t h e n e a r e s t Gattungen
have been consulted for what they m a y
c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e h e r m e n e u t i c in q u e s t i o n , t h e n t h e s e a r c h m a y b e b r o a d e n e d , if d e s i r e d , t o t a k e o t h e r s i n t o a c c o u n t . A s it
happens, n o t m a n y plausible candidates remain w h i c h m a y be
c o m p a r e d fruitfully w i t h I Peter's 1)
b o d y - o p e n i n g . T h e r e are p e r h a p s f o u r :
missionary preaching, 2) c o m m u n a l
discipline,
3) diatribe, and, 4 )
h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h . A l l share c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s , l i k e t h e d y n a m i c s o f o r a l discourse,
a
pastoral
concern,
an ethical c o m p o n e n t , a n d
commonly,
t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s , O T r e f e r e n c e s . E a c h t y p e m a y b e e x a m i n e d in t u r n . T h e m i s s i o n a r y p r o c l a m a t i o n o f J u d a i s m has a l r e a d y b e e n c o n s i d e r e d in t h e p r o s e l y t e r h e t o r i c a n d c a t e c h e t i c a l p a t t e r n s e c o n d o n l y t o t h e O T in 2
i m p a c t o n t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g ' s d e s i g n . B u t it is a great h a n d i c a p f o r c o m parative p u r p o s e s that n o r e a s o n a b l y intact e x e m p l a r s survive w h i c h have not
been
transmitted
b y the
3
e a r l y C h u r c h . T h o s e that e x i s t are
thus
likely t o have e x p e r i e n c e d a measure o f a d a p t a t i o n f o r w h i c h the p r o p e r a l l o w a n c e m u s t b e m a d e , s u c h as C h r i s t o - c e n t r i c t e n d e n c i e s . T h i s m e a n s that
t o r e c a p t u r e s o m e t h i n g o f t h e c o n j e c t u r e d J e w i s h Gattung
behind
1 . 3 — 2 . 1 0 t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o C h r i s t in 1 . 1 9 a n d 2 . 4 - 5 m u s t b e d e l e t e d , re t a i n i n g w h a t w o u l d t h e n s e e m t o b e an a l l u s i o n t o p r o s e l y t e s a c r i f i c e , o r the
4
c e l e b r a t i o n o f P a s s o v e r . A n y w a y , j u s t a f e w slight a l t e r a t i o n s are
r e q u i r e d t o r e n d e r t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g r e a d y f o r u s e in a s t r i c t l y J e w i s h m i l i e u . B u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f 1 . 1 3 — 2 . 1 0 t o the c o n j e c t u r e d Gattung not be
may
p r e s s e d all t h e w a y , b e c a u s e t h e p e r f e c t t e n s e s in 1.22—3 n e c e s
sarily i m p l y t h e a d d r e s s e e s ' i n i t i a t i o n i n t o C h r i s t i a n i t y s o m e t i m e p r i o r t o writing.
Hence
a variety o f considerations forbids
viewing 1.13—2.10
s i m p l y as m i s s i o n - p r e a c h i n g . T h e s e c o n d t y p e is c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e first, a n d is r e p r e s e n t e d p r i n c i p a l l y b y t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e , w h i c h has i m p o r t a n t parallels in t h e Community
5
Rule .
O f the
former
Vermes observes, 'The Exhortation
2 See a b o v e p p . 5 5 - 7 , and n n . 1 0 0 - 3 a n d 1 0 7 - 1 2 . 3 T h u s the evidence is very f r a g m e n t a r y a n d m u s t be d r a w n f r o m as divergent sources as J o s . a n d A s e n . o n the one h a n d , and Ps. -Phocylides o n the other. Dating p o s e s a n o t h e r severe p r o b l e m , because
even
if
the
s h o w n , and o f t e n may
have influenced J e w i s h
historical Pet.
non-Christian p r o v e n a n c e
of m u c h of this material can b e
satisfactory
it c a n n o t , there is for o n c e the very real possibility that Christian practice practice, in as m u c h as it was highly successful.
f o u n d a t i o n s for the Gattung
Such
insecure
will n o t support m u c h weight in a c o m p a r i s o n with I
1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 . For a helpful but brief recent discussion o f practices in the Diaspora see J.J.
Collins, Between,
163ff.
4 For the place of sacrifice in p r o s e l y t i s m see JE, X , 2 2 0 - 4 , esp. 2 2 2 1 . It can be traced to such passages as E x . 1 2 . 4 8 — 9 and L e v . 2 2 . 1 8 . T h e 'rebirth' language c o u l d be a d a p t e d f r o m pros elyte rhetoric, since the conversion was u n d e r s t o o d t o w i p e clean the slate o f sins, introducing the proselyte into a state of i n n o c e n c e like that o f the 'new b o r n ' ( B T Y e b . 4 8 b , 6 2 a ) . If s o , that w o u l d o n l y sharpen Jesus' retort to N i c o d e m u s in J. 3 . 3 f . , t o w h i c h see S.-B. II, 4 2 1 — 3 . 5 Sec, for e x a m p l e , G . V e r m e s , DSSE,
7 I f . and 9 5 f . He remarks that no c o m p a r a b l e f o u n d a
tional d o c u m e n t s survive in J u d a i s m , and that the nearest parallels are the D i d a c h e , the Didas( alia, and the A p o s t o l i c C o n s t i t u t i o n s .
/ Peter 1.13-2.10
and Homiletic Midrash
87
w h i c h o p e n s t h e w o r k c o r r e s p o n d s t o a l i t e r a r y genre w e l l k n o w n in b o t h J e w i s h a n d Christian
writings (e.g. Testaments o f the T w e l v e Patriarchs, 6
4 Maccabees - Hebrews, I Peter)' . Both C D and documents
with
afterwards.
The
explicit sermon
applications o n the
to
1 Q S are
initiation
and
tion o f J u d g m e n t , and
much
conduct
T w o W a y s in 1 Q S III. 1 3 f f . is e s p e c i a l l y
a p p o s i t e t o t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g , as n o t e d earlier ( p . 5 7 , lists o f v i c e s a n d v i r t u e s , t h e
foundational right
n. 1 0 9 ) , i n c l u d i n g
sanctifying r o l e o f the Spirit, the e x p e c t a
the i d e a o f p r e d e s t i n a t i o n , d a r k n e s s a n d l i g h t i m a g e r y ,
shared
vocabulary
besides, and
an
eschatological perspec
t i v e . B u t w h i l e t h e r e is t h e m a t i c u n i t y in t h e s e r m o n t h e r e is n o t h i n g c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e f a s h i o n in w h i c h t h e O T has b e e n u s e d t o p r o v i d e t h e b o d y o p e n i n g w i t h its f r a m e w o r k , r e p e a t e d l y b r i n g i n g its t h e m e t o full l i t e r a r y expression
and
making
e x p l i c i t its i n d e b t e d n e s s
7
to Scripture .
So, yet
a g a i n , t h e r e is r e a s o n t o resist a s i m p l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f 1 . 1 3 — 2 . 1 0 w i t h the p r o p o s e d Gattung.
It is a p p r o p r i a t e t o n o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t the b o d y -
o p e n i n g d o e s c o n t a i n t w o l i t e r a r y t y p e s a l s o k n o w n at Q u m r a n in w h i c h the O T figures p r o m i n e n t l y , t h e c a t e n a in 2 . 6 — 8 ( 4 Q T e s t i m o n i a ) , a n d the 8
florilegium o f 2 . 3 - 1 0 ( 4 Q F l o r i l e g i u m , 1 l Q M e l c h i z e d e k ) . W h a t t h e p r e c e d i n g c o m p a r i s o n h i g h l i g h t s is t h e s e r m o n i c n a t u r e o f t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g , Homilia
intended
for the c o m m i t t e d , a d i m e n s i o n never
d o u b t e d b y t h o s e w h o subscribe to o n e o f the versions o f the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d liturgical h y p o t h e s i s ( p . 8 2 , n. 1 7 4 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , and m o s t o f the c o m m e n t a t o r s , b u t w h i c h has b e e n r e c e n t l y c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n b y J . I . H . 9
M c D o n a l d . O f 1 Peter h e s a y s , ' A h o m i l e t i c o r s e r m o n i c s t r u c t u r e is dif ficult t o i d e n t i f y . T h e r e is n o t h e m e s t a t e m e n t , n o r is t h e r e a s y s t e m a t i c development
of
thought.
T h e epistle d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o a h o m i l y
e i t h e r as a t o t a l e n t i t y o r in m o s t o f its p a r t s ' ( 6 2 f . ) . H e t h e n p r o c e e d s t o a n a l y z e 4 . 1 2 — 5 . 1 1 , b e c a u s e that is t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r h e p e r c e i v e s as a p p r o x i m a t i n g m o s t c l o s e l y t o h o m i l e t i c . T h e l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e body-opening (pp. 5Iff.)
f o u n d i n s t e a d t h a t an i d e n t i f i a b l e t h e m e is d e
v e l o p e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y w i t h i n it, a n d that it r e a d s w e l l as a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d h o r t a t o r y p i e c e . H e n c e it is n o t p o s s i b l e t o f o l l o w M c D o n a l d h e r e , f o r it leads h i m t o o v e r l o o k
the affinities w h i c h t h e t w o r e m a i n i n g
Gattungen
h a v e w i t h I Peter in s p i t e o f his d e t a i l e d a n d v a l u a b l e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m . One
is the
1 0
diatribe .
The
tradition
o f e n g a g i n g , p o p u l a r m o r a l dis-
6 Sec his DSS,
5 0 , and the lit. cited there.
7 The
d o c s c o n t a i n a m u l t i t u d e of allusions t o
sermon
Scripture,
but not o n e o f
these even
qualifies as explicit. 8 See esp. J . A . F i t z m y c r , T e s t i m o n i a ' , 9 See his Krrygma,
5 9 - 8 9 , and G . V e r m e s , IDBSupp,
4391.
6 2 1 . , for a regrettably all t o o brief discussion.
1 0 For the diatribe see esp. R. B u l t m a n n , Stil, 6 - 6 4 , P. W e n d l a n d , Kultur, 990 39
1 0 0 9 , G . K e n n e d y , Rhetoric, 4 3 . But
7 5 f f . , RAC,
III, cols.
4 6 9 1 . , and the useful overview b y M c D o n a l d ,
Kerygma,
see A . J . M a l h c r b c , Social,
5 0 , n. 5 5 , for reservations a b o u t the nature of the dia
tribe and its alleged significance lor the NT.
88
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
course a m o n g the Cynics and Stoics was n o t lost u p o n J u d a i s m
1 1
. Not
o n l y d i d it gain e n t r a n c e t o a w i d e r a n g e o f l i t e r a t u r e , b u t it s e e m s t o h a v e 1 2
l e n t itself n a t u r a l l y t o t h e n e e d s o f S y n a g o g u e p r e a c h i n g . T h e G r e c o R o m a n diatribe typically begins w i t h a theme-statement often b y w a y o f q u o t a t i o n , w h i c h is t h e n e x p l o r e d in a d i a l o g i c a l o r a r g u m e n t a t i v e m o d e strongly reminiscent o f a n i m a t e d c o n v e r s a t i o n . R h e t o r i c a l features include vivid i m a g e s a n d figures o f s p e e c h , c o m m o n p l a c e s a n d s t o c k i d e a s , c o l l o quial
expressions and illustrations f r o m
e v e r y d a y life,
personification,
a p o s t r o p h e , antitheses, rhetorical q u e s t i o n s , abrupt o r arresting patterns o f speech, and m o r e q u o t a t i o n s
1 3
. T h e t o n e v a r i e s . A t o n e m o m e n t it is
f a m i l i a r , at a n o t h e r a m u s i n g , i r o n i c , satirical, e t c . V e r s a t i l i t y is at a p r e m i u m , b u t the aim remains the s a m e , t o drive h o m e an earnest m o r a l plea as e f f e c t i v e l y as p o s s i b l e . T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h I P e t e r as a w h o l e s u g g e s t s a case m i g h t b e m a d e for the i n f l u e n c e o f the diatribe-style o n every part, s o t h a t its s i g n i f i c a n c e is n o t d i s c e r n i b l y g r e a t e r f o r t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g t h a n 1 4
e l s e w h e r e , a n d p e r h a p s l e s s . T h e b o d y - o p e n i n g relies c o n s i s t e n t l y o n t h e O T in a w a y t h e o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e l e t t e r d o n o t , a n d t h e G r e c o - R Q m a n d i a t r i b e has n o u s e f o r t h e S c r i p t u r e s . A s it s t a n d s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e d i a t r i b e s t y l e is u n a b l e t o p r o v i d e all t h e g r o u n d s r e q u i r e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e d e s i g n o f 1 . 1 3 — 2 . 1 0 a d e q u a t e l y in its t e r m s . A d e v e l o p m e n t in w h i c h p r i o r i n f l u e n c e b y t h e d i a t r i b e s e e m s t o h a v e p l a y e d a k e y r o l e j u s t m a y , h o w e v e r . Its i m p a c t o n P h i l o has b e e n v i e w e d as p e r v a s i v e , f o r e x a m p l e , a n d in c e r t a i n o f his w o r k s t h e O T a l s o figures 1 5
prominently .
F r o m a m o n g t h e s e P. B o r g e n a s s e m b l e d a c o l l e c t i o n o f
11 See esp. H . T h y e n , Homilie, S t o w e r s , Diatribe, 1 2 See
esp. P. W e n d l a n d , Philo,
Rhetoric,
passim, a n d M . H e n g e l , Judaism,
I, 8 4 a n d n. 1 9 8 . See n o w S . K .
passim. passim,
L . Baeck,
'Preaching',
109-22,
and, G . A . Kennedy,
1 25f.
1 3 For the features of the diatribe see esp. the evidence c o l l e c t e d b y B u l t m a n n , Stil, 10ff., W e n d l a n d , Kultur,
7 7 f f . , RAC,
III, 9 9 8 , a n d the outline o f the structure typical to the C y n i c - S t o i c
diatribe b y M c D o n a l d , 41 - 3 , ( f r o m E p i c t e t u s , 1 . 1 8 ) . 1 4 See K . Berger, ' G a t t u n g e n ' , 1 1 3 1 , for I Pet. 1 . 1 3 f f . as a p p r o x i m a t i n g generally t o the diatribestyle, following H . T h y e n . 1 5 In a d d i t i o n to W e n d l a n d , Philo, sec I. H e i n e m a n n , Phtlons, R . P . C . H a n s o n , Allegory, ad l o c , J.
Pepin Mythe,
C. Siegfried, Ausleger,
esp. 62ff.,
passim, H . A . W o l f s o n , Philo,
I. Christiansen, Technik,
esp. 2 3 4 f f . , S. S a n d m e l , Philo, 1 6 8 f f . , and R . M . G r a n t , Letter,
passim, R . W . S m i t h ,
passim,
Alexandria,
esp. 1 7 — 2 8 , a n d against, for e x a m p l e , 35—7, who
emphasize
his use o f R a b
binic m e t h o d s while still recognizing the influence o n h i m o f a non-Jewish h e r m e n e u t i c . Philo refers t o the exegetical II, 215f.,
Spec.
Gottesdienst,
Leg.
discourses o f the S y n a g o g u e in de Opif.
II, 6 1 f., Prob.
8 0 f . , Legal.
1 9 5 f . P. B o r g e n , Bread,
3 1 2 , a n d Hypoth.
1 2 8 , de Somn.
II, 1 2 7 , Mos.
V I I , 1 2 1 . See also I. E l b o g e n ,
1 9 , n. 2 , n o t e s that L . Treitel, 'Ursprung', 5 4 6 , had per
ceived the affinity b e t w e e n Philo's interpretation and Palestinian m i d r a s h , to w h i c h a d d W . L . K n o x , Hellenistic,
5 3 , 'It m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d that Philo's peculiar m e t h o d of writing in w h i c h
an O . T . t e x t leads t o a rambling disquisition, in w h i c h verbal association plays at least as large a part as c o n t i n u i t y
of t h o u g h t , ending in a return to the text w h i c h f o l l o w s , is n o t
but characteristic o f J e w i s h
Philonic
haggada, as is also the habit o f repeating the s a m e passage with
little or n o change wherever it seems t o c o m e in a p p r o p r i a t e l y ' . It is precisely that sense of
/ Peter 1.13-2.10
and Homiletic Midrash
89
t e x t s t h a t share t h e s a m e p a t t e r n o f O T u s a g e , Leg. All. I I I . 6 5 — 7 5 a , 1 6 2 — 8 , 1 6 9 - 7 3 , de Sacr. 7 6 - 8 7 , de Mut. (Bread,
2 5 3 - 6 3 , a n d , de Somn.
II. 1 7 - 3 0
e s p . 4 6 — 5 8 ) . B o r g e n scarcely e x h a u s t e d the possibilities, b e c a u s e
his p r i m a r y p u r p o s e w a s t o e x a m i n e t e x t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m a n n a tradition. Thus K.
B e r g e r w o u l d a d d Immut.
1 6 — 9 , a n d has called atten
t i o n t o t h e p a t t e r n as w e l l in t h e P s e u d o - P h i l o n i c w o r k s de Iona a n d de 16
Sampsone .
M o r e e x a m p l e s o f a m o d e r a t e o r longer length m a y also b e
c i t e d a l m o s t at r a n d o m , s u c h as Leg. All. I I . 5 3 — 1 0 7 , d e Cher. 1—20, a n d de Mut. 1)
2 3 3 — 5 1 . B o r g e n s u m m a r i z e s the pattern thus
T h e r e is a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the o p e n i n g a n d closing parts o f the h o m i l y . A t the s a m e t i m e the closing s t a t e m e n t s u m s u p p o i n t s f r o m the h o m i l y . . . .
2)
In a d d i t i o n t o the m a i n q u o t a t i o n f r o m the O l d T e s t a m e n t , the t e x t , there is at least o n e s u b o r d i n a t e q u o t a t i o n , also f r o m the O l d T e s t a m e n t .
3 ) W o r d s f r o m the t e x t are paraphrased o r q u o t e d in t h e h o m i l y ( 4 7 ) .
The main differences from
t h e G r e c o - R o m a n d i a t r i b e w o u l d s e e m t o lie
in t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f q u o t a t i o n s f r o m
the O T where quotations from
p h i l o s o p h e r s o r o t h e r s o u r c e s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , e s p e c i a l l y at t h e start, a n d t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y u n i f o r m s t r u c t u r e w h i c h arises f r o m t h e r e p e a t e d u s e o f a single a u t h o r i t a t i v e s o u r c e
superfluous
repetition
that
1 7
. T h e r e is n o g o o d e v i d e n c e t o s u p -
tells o n behalf of oral discourse in w h i c h
the a u d i e n c e
benefits
f r o m b e i n g r e m i n d e d o f the t e x t f r o m t i m e to t i m e , w h e r e a s a reader w o u l d b e a b l e t o c o n s u l t it in an instant. 1 6 See his ' G a t t u n g e n ' , 1 3 6 6 f . , f o r a n a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f Borgen's c o n t r i b u t i o n , a n d for s o m e a d d i t i o n a l possibilities. His o u t l i n e o f h o m i l e t i c midrash in Philo a n d the N T differs little f r o m Borgen's:
*1. Schriftzitat, das in m e h r e r e Teile zerlegt w i r d , die der R e i h e nach
interpretiert
w e r d e n . 2 . D e r Schluss der H o m i l i e n i m m t die Hauptaussage v o m A n f a n g der H o m i l i e wieder auf. D e r Schluss ist Paraphrase einzelner Begriffe v o m A n f a n g . 3 .
Ein zusatzlicher
Schrifttcxt
dient der E r g a n z u n g . 4 . In der A u s l e g u n g finden sich haggadische E l e m e n t e ' ( 1 3 6 6 ) . H o w e v e r , it is disconcerting t o find n o reference t o Borgen's research, a n d s u b s e q u e n t discussion, in the most
c o m p r e h e n s i v e recent s t u d y o f Philo's interpretative activity, V . N i k i p r o w e t s k y ,
mentaire,
1 7 4 — 7 , n o r for that m a t t e r in S a n d m e P s Philo.
Com-
N i k i p r o w e t s k y goes so far as t o take
w h a t Philo says a b o u t the exegetical discourses of the T h e r a p u t a e (de Cont.
3 0 f . ) as n o r m a t i v e
for his o w n practice. O n this v i e w , just as their speeches d e p a r t e d f r o m t h e classicial
conven
tions o f t h e orators a n d sophists, so w o u l d those o f Philo w h o praised t h e m in this respect. A n d this leads N i k i p r o w e t s k y t o a s s u m e further that a n y d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f rhetorical skill in Philo's w o r k s m u s t b e related t o such c o n v e n t i o n s , rather than t o his oral practice, that is, that Philo's w o r k s are literary in their original c o n c e p t i o n in a w a y w h i c h w o u l d have m i n i m i z e d a n y pos sible influence u p o n t h e m of his speech-making p r o p e r . T h u s , N i k i p r o w e t s k y c o n c l u d e s that Philo's w o r k s provide little material f r o m w h i c h t o a t t e m p t to reconstruct the style o f his Syna g o g u e addresses. A p a r t f r o m the gratuitous nature o f such a s s u m p t i o n s , N i k i p r o w e t s k y fails t o consider that the p o p u l a r preaching in the diatribe-style scarcely c o n f o r m e d w i t h the clas sical standards in w h i c h c o n t e m p o r a r y orators a n d sophists were trained. Philo, like the Thera p u t a e and
others b e f o r e h i m , might
well
have a d a p t e d the diatribe-style
to suit his varied
p u r p o s e s . H e n c e , his writings m a y not b e disqualified b e f o r e the fact f r o m being used to recon struct a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t o his oral discourse in the S y n a g o g u e . See F. Siegert, Predigten, recent e d i t i o n of the p s e u d o - P h i l o n i c w o r k s , de Iona, 1 7 For the sake of c o m p a r i s o n , h o w e v e r , in de Exsecrat.
9 — 4 8 , a n d de Sampsone,
for a
49—83.
materials f r o m D e u t e r o n o m y a n d Levi
ticus are inter-woven with one a n o t h e r in a m a n n e r that represents a significant departure by Philo f r o m the sustained e l a b o r a t i o n of o n e Scriptural base. O f course, the w o r k m a y not be genuine.
90
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
pose
P h i l o is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a d a p t a t i o n , s i n c e h e o t h e r w i s e c l e a r l y
depends o n Alexandrian exegetical conventions
1
8
.
It s o h a p p e n s B o r g e n d i d n o t s t o p w i t h P h i l o b u t w e n t o n t o t h e N T a n d d e t e c t e d the same basic e x e g e t i c a l pattern in Paul, G a l . 3.6—29 a n d R o m . 4 . 1 - 2 2 , a n d , i n J o h n , 6 . 3 1 - 3 8 ( 5 1 ) . A l t h o u g h c e r t a i n o f his c o n clusions a b o u t the precise nature o f the pattern in J o h n have h a d t o b e m o d i f i e d , his results h a v e b e e n w i d e l y a c c e p t e d a n d c o r r o b o r a t e d b y t h e discovery o f additional e x a m p l e s f r o m the N T , like R o m . 9.6—29, H e b . 3 . 7 - 4 . 1 1 , 1 0 . 5 - 3 9 , Lk. 1 0 . 2 5 - 3 7 , Mt. 1 5 . 1 - 9 , Acts 2 . 1 4 - 2 6 , and 13.16 —41, to name but a f e w
1 9
. T h e r e c o v e r y o f the pattern has c o i n c i d e d w i t h
a surge o f interest regarding the significance o f J e w i s h h e r m e n e u t i c s f o r the early C h u r c h , particularly in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m i d r a s h i c and t e c h n i q u e s
2 0
1 8 In a d d i t i o n t o the first group o f w o r k s cited a b o v e in n. 1 5 , see E . Stein, Midrasch, i d e m , Exegese,
Gattungen
. W h e r e a s m u c h r e m a i n s t o b e d o n e in t h e f i e l d , B o r g e n ' s
passim, and
passim. A c c o r d i n g t o B o r g e n , 'Philo', 2 6 2 , the issue has b e e n resolved in f a v o u r
o f Philo's d e p e n d e n c e o n G r e e k allegorical m e t h o d s like those used b y certain Stoics o n H o m e r . H e had predecessors in A r i s t o b u l u s a n d Ps.-Aristeas, a n d his d e b a t e s w i t h s o m e o f his c o n t e m poraries as to s o u n d exegetical m e t h o d s h o w that h e had m a n y o f the s a m e presuppositions and used m a n y o f the s a m e devices, so that he m u s t b e seen as s i m p l y o n e m e m b e r in a c o m m u n i t y of e x e g e t e s with its traditions (see de Migr.
89—93).
1 9 I n c l u d e d a m o n g t h o s e w h o in t h e m a i n have a c c e p t e d his results are A . G . Wright, ' G e n r e ' , 432-4,
M . P . Miller, ' T a r g u m ' , 5 8 , B . Lindars, John,
D u n n , Unity,
8 7 f . , C . K . Barrett, John,
2 5 0 f f . , E . E . Ellis, Prophecy,
2 8 9 , C . F . D . M o u l e , Birth,
154, J.D.G.
83f., and M c D o n a l d ,
Keryg-
ma, 4 7 . O t h e r possibilities in the gospels are L k . 4 . 1 6 — 3 0 (see esp. I . H . Marshall, Luke, a n d lit. cited t h e r e ) , M t . 4 . 1 - 1 1 ( B . G e r h a r d s s o n , Testing, ecy,
159), Mt. 2 1 . 3 3 - 4 4
Acts 1 5 . 1 4 - 2 1 ,
{S.-B.,
177ff.,
p a s s i m ) , M t . 1 9 . 3 - 8 (Ellis, Prop/i-
I V , 1 7 3 - 8 ) ; in A c t s , 7 . 1 - 5 3 (J. B o w k e r , 'Speeches', 1 0 7 ) ,
( B o w k e r , 'Speeches',
1 0 7 - 9 ) ; in Paul, G a l . 4 . 2 1 - 5 . 1 (Ellis, Prophecy,
I C o r . 1 - 3 ( W . W u e l l n e r , 'Haggadic', 1 9 9 - 2 0 4 , esp. 1 . 1 8 - 3 1 a n d 2 . 6 - 1 6 ; see Ellis, 1 5 5 1 . , a n d 2 1 3 - 6 ) , II C o r . 3 . 7 - 1 8 ( D u n n , Unity,
156), Prophecy,
8 8 ) , a n d R o m . 9 - 1 1 (Ellis, Prophecy,
218-
2 0 ) . A c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f all these and o t h e r related passages is sorely need e d , and it is i m p o s s i b l e here to e x a m i n e t h e m a d e q u a t e l y . 2 0 In part this has b e e n fueled b y the p o s t - w a r renaissance, in J u d a i c a generally, a n d ignited parti cularly b y the discovery of the D e a d Sea Scrolls. D r a m a t i c a l l y i m p r o v e d e c u m e n i c a l
relations
have also b e e n an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r . T h e w o r k s cited a b o v e in n. 1 are representative as are the many
massive v o l u m e s appearing in ANRW.
A m o n g the m o r e influential
the w a y have b e e n J . W . D o e v e , Hermeneutics,
passim, K . S t e n d a h l , School,
Use,
passim,
B. Lindars, Apologetic,
B e t z , Offenbarung,
passim, M . M c N a m a r a , Palestinian
passim, G . V e r m e s , Scripture,
publications
along
passim, E . E . Ellis, Targum,
passim, O .
passim, W . A . M e e k s , Prophet-King,
passim,
in a d d i t i o n t o B o r g e n . Useful surveys o f the literature a n d issues can b e f o u n d in M . P . Miller, ' T a r g u m ' , 2 9 - 8 2 , D . M . S m i t h , 'Use', 3 - 6 5 , a n d E . E . Ellis, Prophecy,
1 4 7 - 7 2 . See as well the
discussions o f early Christian h e r m e n e u t i c s b y J . D . G . D u n n ,
82—102, C.F.D. Moule,
Birth,
6 8 — 1 0 6 , R . N . L o n g e n e c k e r , Exegesis,
It is perhaps a w e a k n e s s in these decades,
that
the
topic
Unity,
passim, a n d n o w A . T . H a n s o n , Utterances,
passim.
last t w o studies, the o n l y full-length critical t r e a t m e n t s in
of h o m i l e t i c
midrash is virtually neglected
(Hanson does
recognize
Borgen's c o n t r i b u t i o n o n p . 1 1 9 ) . A n a d v a n c e has b e e n m a d e in t h e clarification o f the genre of midrash b y A . G . Wright, ' G e n r e ' , 1 0 5 — 3 8 a n d 5 1 7 — 5 7 , subject to several significant
criti
cisms. R . L e De'aut, ' A p r o p o s ' , 2 5 9 — 8 2 , saw that Wright's t a x o n o m y t e n d e d to a p p r o a c h ear lier p h e n o m e n a in terms o f later d e v e l o p m e n t s , a l t h o u g h this did n o t prevent Wright f r o m ac cepting Borgen's results in Philo a n d t h e N T as b o n a fide cases of h o m i l e t i c midrash all the s a m e . F r o m a n o t h e r direction J . N e u s n e r , Midrash,
esp. 7 0 — 1 1 0 , has corrected Wright's analysis
I Peter 1.13-2.10 contribution
has
withstood
intense
and Homiletic Midrash scrutiny and
91
looks
to
be
rather
2 1
secure . B u t B o r g e n w e n t even further than the N T t o the R a b b i n i c literature for e v i d e n c e o f the pattern, w h e r e h e n o t i c e s the so-called p r o e m h o m ily
2 2
. H e o b s e r v e d t h a t it has five m a i n f e a t u r e s : 1 ) t h e s e d e r , 2 ) a f o r m u l a
of the relationship b e t w e e n q u o t a t i o n s a n d e x p o s i t i o n in R a b b i n i c midrash. F o r W r i g h t , o n l y exposition
s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a q u o t a t i o n , a n d usually for h i m that m e a n s f o l l o w i n g the q u o t a
t i o n , c o u n t s for m i d r a s h , whereas e x p o s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d b y a p r o o f - t e x t ordinarily w o u l d n o t . W i t h characteristic t h o r o u g h n e s s a n d rigour N e u s n e r s h o w s that the p o s i t i o n o f the key verse is i m m a t e r i a l in units c h o s e n at r a n d o m f r o m G e n . R . a n d the T a l m u d , a n d that w h a t c o u n t s is w h e t h e r the t e x t is directly a m p l i f i e d b y the c o n t e n t s o f the a c c o m p a n y i n g e x p o s i t i o n ( e s p . 9 3 ) . See also G . P o r t o n , 'Midrash', 1 0 3 - 3 8 . 2 1 Perhaps n o w h e r e have his results b e e n challenged m o r e t h a n in J o h n 6 , for e x a m p l e , b y K . P . D o n f r i e d , Clement,
3 2 , w h o d o e s n o t a d m i t that the e v i d e n c e d e m a n d s a n y t h i n g m o r e than an
e l e m e n t o f traditional Jewish h e r m e n e u t i c s . See the r e p l y b y M c D o n a l d , Kerygma, Weimar,
4 9 , a n d P.
' F o r m e n ' , 1 2 3 — 1 6 2 , esp. 1 4 2 — 4 a n d n. 7 4 , endorsing Borgen's v i e w o f J n . 6 , b u t
a l l o w i n g f o r r e m o u l d i n g o f the discourse f o r literary p u r p o s e s . 2 2 H e r e p r o d u c e s the outline o f the
H f l T l S given b y S. M a y b a u m , Predigt,
s t u d y o f the p r o e m h o m i l y see W . B a c h e r , Homilie,
1 5 f f . F o r a classic
p a s s i m , w h o discusses r o u g h l y f o u r t e e n
h u n d r e d e x a m p l e s . A c c o r d i n g t o G . S t e m b e r g e r , 'Die Peticha ist w o h l die haufigste Midraschliteratur' (Einleitung,
Form
der
2 3 1 ) . A l s o see S t e m b e r g e r , 2 6 7 — 8 8 , for an u p t o date discussion
o f the R a b b i n i c h o m i l e t i c literature, a n d lit. cited there. A m o n g the i m p o r t a n t c o l l e c t i o n s o f the p r o e m h o m i l y are L e v . R . , Pes. R . K a h . , a n d Pes. R a b . , a l t h o u g h n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s o c c u r e l s e w h e r e , as in G e n . R . A varied f o r m o f the p r o e m h o m i l y ,
L
1 2T0 ?i,
so-called because
it t y p i c a l l y begins w i t h a q u e s t i o n f r o m a pupil to his m a s t e r , d o m i n a t e s o t h e r
collections,
such as E x . R . , D t . R . , T a n c h u m a , e t c . It is with this latter that s o m e o f the e x a m p l e s cited j u s t previously f r o m the gospels are f r e q u e n t l y c o m p a r e d , b e c a u s e o f their setting in d i a l o g u e and d e b a t e (see esp. Ellis, Prophecy,
1 5 7 f . , f o r example, Lk. 10.25ff., Mt. 1 5 . 1 f f . , a n d
19.3ff.).
In as m u c h as the b o d y o f R a b b i n i c evidence m u s t b e d a t e d f r o m the late T a n n a i t i c p e r i o d , or later,
w h a t surprises
is n o t t h e differences f r o m t h e e x x . in Philo a n d the N T b u t t h e af
finities, a b o v e all in v i e w o f its relatively stable f o r m , suggesting that h o m i l e t i c midrash w a s entering a m a t u r e r stage b y the N T period ( f o r several p r o e m h o m i l i e s p o s s i b l y f r o m that t i m e see J . M a n n , Bible,
I , 1 0 5 f . , a n d 4 7 2 . ) . J . M a n n , Bible,
I / I I , passim, d e m o n s t r a t e d the internal
c o h e r e n c e o f the p r o e m h o m i l y b y s h o w i n g h o w a verbal tally ( a n a l o g y ) l i n k e d it w i t h the h a p h t a r a a n d that its p u r p o s e was t o a c t like a bridge b e t w e e n the seder a n d the e x p o s i t i o n . T h e inventiveness of the preacher lay in the ability t o c h o o s e a n u n l i k e l y p r o e m t e x t , a n d u l t i m a t e ly arrive at a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f h o w it related t o s o m e a s p e c t o f that d a y ' s seder. A n o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n w a s m a d e b y J . H e i n e m a n n , 'Profile', 1 4 1 — 5 0 , w h o a t t r i b u t e d the c o m p a r a t i v e l y greater logical d e v e l o p m e n t o f a t h e m e in the p r o e m h o m i l i e s o f L e v . R . t o a n originally literary p u r p o s e , as o p p o s e d t o oral. T h e typical p r o e m h o m i l y w h i c h has b e e n m o r e or less transcribed from
oral discourse is o f t e n u n e v e n , w h i c h o n l y stands t o reason f r o m its
nature (see D . Patte, Hermeneutic,
extemporaneous
4 3 , n. 6 2 ) . A c o m p l i c a t i o n in the analysis o f t h e f o r m o f the
p r o e m h o m i l y has b e e n the f r a g m e n t a r y preservation o f so m a n y o f t h e m . It is n o t unusual to find
them
reduced
t o a bare s k e l e t o n ,
p o s s i b l y to j u s t t h o s e features s o m e h o w
distinctive
e n o u g h to be retained f o r f u t u r e reference, or t o find that t h e y have e x p e r i e n c e d a n u m b e r o f i n t e r p o l a t i o n s , m a k i n g a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o b l e m a t i c . T h u s t h o s e w h i c h have survived reason a b l y intact a n d are fairly l o n g a s s u m e a special significance f o r the evidence they provide o f the Gattung's
literary t e x t u r e a n d quality (see the n o t e f o l l o w i n g ) . W h e t h e r the p r o e m h o m i l y
was a preface t o a full-length discourse, or a self-contained e n t i t y , is n o t o f crucial i m p o r t a n c e for present p u r p o s e s , a n d perhaps K . - E . G r o z i n g e r , 'Prediger' 4 2 — 6 4 , is correct t o a f f i r m that it m a y have served in a variety o f roles ( s o , a p p r o v i n g l y , G . S t e m b e r g e r , Einleitung,
2 3 2 ) . Still
a n o t h e r p r o b l e m has t o d o with the d a t e o f the l e c t i o n a r y c y c l e s , w h e r e t h e y were u s e d , e t c . ,
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
92
uniting a s e c o n d text t o the seder, 3 ) the s e c o n d t e x t ( f r o m the Prophets or Writings) w i t h e x p o s i t i o n , 4 ) a formula linking the e x p o s i t i o n t o the 2 3
c o n c l u s i o n , a n d 5 ) a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s e d e r a g a i n . I t is q u i t e c l e a r t h a t this h o m i l y is m o r e r e f i n e d a n d s t y l i z e d t h a n t h e p a t t e r n in P h i l o a n d t h e N T , b u t still t h e r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m is s t r i k i n g . B o t h m a k e u s e o f i n c l u s i o n t o b r i n g t h e m e s s a g e b a c k i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e first q u o t a t i o n , u s e c a t c h - w o r d s a n d p a r a p h r a s e f r o m it a l o n g t h e w a y , d r a w u p o n o n e o r m o r e secondary q u o t a t i o n s , and usually i n c o r p o r a t e various traditional m a t e r i a l s as w e l l , l i k e p a r a b l e s , a l l e g o r y , h a g g a d a h , e t c . W h e t h e r t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e is s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h s o m e s o r t o f f i l i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m is d i f f i c u l t t o s a y , b u t it d o e s
favour the n o t i o n o f a c o m m o n life-setting
governed primarily b y a homiletical p u r p o s e
2 4
. H e n c e there seems t o b e
justification t o a d m i t the exegetical pattern in Philo a n d the N T i n t o the category o f homiletic midrash. It t a k e s n o m o r e t h a n a c u r s o r y g l a n c e t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e Gattung
of
h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h t h u s c l a r i f i e d is b e t t e r s u i t e d f o r a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h I P e t e r ' s b o d y - o p e n i n g t h a n a n y o f t h e t h r e e Gattungen
w h i c h have already
b e e n p r o p o s e d . It h a s n o n e o f t h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s , is f l e x i b l e e n o u g h t o a c -
a n d the e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y can b e relied u p o n f o r insight i n t o t h e use o f t h e O T in t h e N T . T h a t s o m e sort o f principle o f selection e x i s t e d well b e f o r e t h e Christian p e r i o d b e h i n d the e m e r g e n c e o f p r o p h e t i c lessons b e i n g k e y e d t o Pentateuchal lessons s e e m s u n d e n i a b l e o n the strength o f the evidence a s s e m b l e d b y C . Perrot, Lecture,
1 8 2 , n. 1 1 . H e observes a close cor
r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the n o t a t i o n s in t h e margin o f 1 Q I s
a
d e m a r c a t i n g l e c t i o n s a n d the divi
sions in B . M . O r 2 1 1 a n d B . M . H a r l e y 5 7 2 0 (in t h e f o r m e r , 3 5 . 1 0 / 3 6 . 1 , 3 9 . 8 / 4 0 . 1 ,
42.12/
4 2 . 1 3 , 4 4 . 2 0 / 4 5 . 1 5 2 . 6 / 5 2 . 7 ; in t h e latter, 3 5 . 1 0 , 4 0 . 1 , 5 2 . 7 , a n d , 4 9 . 2 0 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . O n the o t h e r h a n d , R . M a r c u s finds e v i d e n c e in Philo's Ques.
Gen.
a n d Ques.
Ex.
o f a division o f the
P e n t a t e u c h m o r e easily r e c o n c i l e d w i t h a n a n n u a l c y c l e t h a n a n y o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n (see esp. the discussion b y M . D . G o u l d e r , Calendar,
4 7 f . ) . H e n c e , d e s p i t e t h e evidence against a f i x e d
triennial c y c l e during t h e p e r i o d (so e s p . L . M o r r i s , Lectionaries, ' C y c l e ' , 4 1 — 8 ; c p . A . G u i l d i n g , Worship, fixity
9 — 5 2 , and, J. Heinemann,
p a s s i m ) , it m a y still s u p p o r t t h e idea o f a. relative
o f a n a n n u a l c y c l e , a n d perhaps deserves t o b e rehabilitated. A s it stands, h o w e v e r , the
vast m a j o r i t y o f scholars reject the idea o f a n y f i x i t y w h a t e v e r during t h e p e r i o d (see G . Stembergef, Einleitung,
2 2 8 — 3 0 , a n d t h e lit. cited t h e r e ) . It n e e d n o t necessarily f o l l o w , neverthe
less, t h a t certain o f the seder/haphtara c o n n e x i o n s h a d n o t already c o m e into e x i s t e n c e a n d w e r e o n their w a y t o b e c o m i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l . Such a possibility m u s t s e e m t o b e especially likely f o r the festivals a n d special s a b b a t h s . 2 3 A n d see the
somewhat
fuller o u t l i n e b y Ellis, Prophecy,
1 5 5 : 1 ) t h e (Pentateuchal) t e x t f o r
the d a y , 2 ) a s e c o n d t e x t , t h e p r o e m o r ' o p e n i n g ' f o r t h e d i s c o u r s e , 3 ) e x p o s i t i o n
containing
additional O T citations, parables or o t h e r c o m m e n t a r y a n d l i n k e d t o t h e initial t e x t s b y catch w o r d s , a n d , 4 ) a final t e x t , usually repeating or alluding t o t h e t e x t f o r t h e d a y (similarly, S. M a y b a u m , Homiletik,
8 — 1 0 , a d d i n g t o t h e list a n eschatological c o n c l u s i o n ) . A relatively l o n g
a n d unified e x a m p l e o f a R a b b i n i c p r o e m h o m i l y has b e e n briefly a n a l y z e d f o r c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s in A p p e n d i x T w o , Pesikta R a b K a h a n a 3 a . A l s o a n a l y z e d there are t w o e x a m p l e s o f h o m i l e t i c midrash f r o m Philo a n d t h e N T . 2 4 It s e e m s that f e w w h o have w o r k e d in t h e field h a v e b e e n r e l u c t a n t t o p o s i t a m u c h m o r e direct relationship t h a n is here e s p o u s e d , b e c a u s e the evidence s i m p l y p o i n t s t o w a r d s a f a m i l y resem b l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m , o n e w h i c h m a y b e several generations r e m o v e d at that. T h e e x t r e m e c a u t i o n o f J . H e i n e m a n n , ' P r o e m ' , 1 2 1 f . , is therefore q u i t e refreshing, w h e n h e stresses that the p r o e m h o m i l y w a s in a state o f f l u x during t h e T a n n a i t i c p e r i o d t o such a degree as t o enor m o u s l y c o m p l i c a t e a n y a t t e m p t t o r e c o n s t r u c t relationships w i t h o t h e r kinds o f h o m i l y .
/ Peter 1.13-2.10
and Homiletic Midrash
93
c o m m o d a t e t h e k i n d s o f s i t u a t i o n a n d m a t e r i a l s t h e y d o , b u t h a s a n essen tial f e a t u r e t h e y d o n o t , t h e c e n t r a l p l a c e g i v e n t h e O T in its o r g a n i z a t i o n . B e a r i n g t h e p a t t e r n i n m i n d w h i c h has b e e n d e s c r i b e d . 1 . 1 3 — 2 . 1 0 m e r i t s c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n f o r t h e e x t e n t o f its c o n f o r m i t y . It m a y b e r e c a l l e d i n i t i a l l y f r o m t h e l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s t h a t 1 . 1 3 a n d 2 . 1 0 can b e left aside, b e c a u s e t h e y b e l o n g t o the epistolary f r a m e w o r k created t o r e c e i v e 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 . T h e m a i n t e x t , c i t e d at 1 . 1 6 , is f r o m the
Pentateuch,
L e v . 1 9 . 2 . E x p o s i t o n f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y in a manner c o m p a r a b l e , f o r ex a m p l e , t 6 t h a t in Leg. AIL I I I . 1 7 0 — 1, de Sacr. 7 6 , R o m . 4 . 4 — 5 , a n d H e b . 10.9—15. A subordinate
q u o t a t i o n f r o m t h e P r o p h e t s a p p e a r s n e x t , Is.
4 0 . 6 — 8 , also f o l l o w e d b y e x p o s i t i o n . B o t h texts have c o n t r i b u t e d
mat
erials t o t h e e x p o s i t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n at 1.15 introduction
the
o f the
holiness theme
via t h e L e v i t i c u s c i t a t i o n h a s b e e n
e m b e l l i s h e d , as t h e
l i t e r a r y analysis
demonstrated,
(apobpov
aoniXov,
Kai
1 . 1 9 , Kadapaq,
2 . 2 ) a n d c a t c h - w o r d s (vyvLKOTeq,
through
1 . 2 2 ? , ay&apTOV,
1 . 2 2 , ayiov,
2 . 5 , dyiov,
Kvpioq,
a n d iraq in
1.25bf.
adoXov,
2 . 9 ) . In a d d i t i o n
t o t h e i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n in 1 . 2 3 t h e Isaiah t e x t m a y a l s o b e e . g . , pqpa,
paraphrase
1.23,
seen b e h i n d ,
T h e r e are f u r t h e r O T
references
t h a t l i k e w i s e c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e e x p o s i t o n w h i c h is f i n a l l y b r o u g h t t o a p o w e r f u l c l i m a x b y m e a n s o f t h e i n c l u s i o n that r e t u r n s t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g t o t h e h o l i n e s s t h e m e ( 2 . 5 / 9 ) . T h e f o r c e o f t h e i n c l u s i o n is t o m a k e explicit that the h o l y T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y represents the indica tive p r e s u p p o s e d b y t h e i m p e r a t i v e o f 1 . 1 5 — 6 , a n d G o d ' s call t o h o l i n e s s . It is t h e r e f o r e proximates
d i f f i c u l t t o resist t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t I P e t . 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 a p
closely
t o the
pattern
o f homiletic midrash previously de
s c r i b e d , a n d t h a t it p r o b a b l y o u g h t t o b e i n c l u d e d a m o n g t h e e x a m p l e s 2
o f t h e Gattung
5
.
T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n m a y p r o c e e d n e x t t o p r e s s t h e a n a l y s i s f u r t h e r in t h e h o p e s o f f i n d i n g a d d i t i o n a l r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , it
may be
a s k e d w h e t h e r the h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m i d r a s h s e e m t o b e i m p l i e d b y a n y o f t h e p h e n o m e n a in 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 . It a l m o s t g o e s w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a e in
1.14—2.9
a t t e s t t o t h e a u t h o r ' s b e l i e f in t h e d i v i n e o r i g i n s a n d a u t h o r i t y o f S c r i p ture,
an
assumption
fundamental
to
2 6
the a u t h o r s o f m i d r a s h .
o v e r , t h e s e q u e n c e o f q u o t a t i o n s in 2 . 3 — 9 r e s e m b l e s t h e and
hence may
also explain
the presence o f the i n t r o d u c t o r y
Kai in 2 . 8 as n o t e d earlier ( p . 3 6 ,
More
Tin-method, formula
n. 6 3 ) , a p r a c t i c e that gives e l o q u e n t
t e s t i m o n y t o o n e o f t h e c o n t r o l l i n g p r i n c i p l e s in m i d r a s h i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , n a m e l y , that 'Scripture interprets Scripture' (see R o m . 3.10ff.,
2 5 T h e sole undertaking connexion
that w a s discovered
b e t w e e n I Pet.
in the course o f this investigation w h i c h finds a n y
1 . 1 3 - 2 . 1 0 a n d h o m i l e t i c midrash is b y C. Perrot, 'Lecture', 2 2 3 -
3 9 , a n ingenious b u t u n c o n v i n c i n g o f a seder/haphtarah
9.25ff.,
effort t o s h o w the influence o n I Pet. 1 . 1 7 - 8 a n d
ite allusion in I Peter to a n y o n e o f these t e x t s militates decisively against his h y p o t h e s i s . 2 6 See a b o v e
2.4-24
( E x . 2 1 . I f f . / I s . 5 6 . 1 - 9 a n d 5 7 . 1 9 ) . T h e failure t o establish a single defin
p . 7 9 a n d n. 1 7 1 , as well as J . Neusner, Midrash,
xvii.
94
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
and 1 0 . 1 8 f f . )
2 7
. A n o t h e r m a j o r p r e s u p p o s i t i o n c o n c e r n s the
contempo
r a n e i t y o f S c r i p t u r e w h i c h a l l o w e d it t o b e a p p l i e d t o c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s later o n , w h a t has b e e n d u b b e d its ' a c t u a l i z a t i o n ' , a l t h o u g h t h e c o n t e x t s are
likely to
be
very
2 8
different .
Better examples might scarcely b e
desired than can b e a d d u c e d f r o m 1.14—2.9, w h e t h e r the e q u a t i o n o f the preaching
which
converted the
( 1 . 2 5 b ) , o r t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e tout
addressees court
with
the
'word'
in Is. 4 0
o f t h e Israel e p i t h e t s a g a i n t o t h e
a d d r e s s e e s m o s t o f w h o m w e r e G e n t i l e s ( 2 . 9 f . ) . Y e t a n o t h e r l e a d i n g as s u m p t i o n is t h a t e v e r y t h i n g in S c r i p t u r e is m e a n i n g f u l , t h a t it is l a d e n w i t h m e a n i n g , a n d t h a t m u l t i p l e m e a n i n g s are p r o p e r t o its n a t u r e , i n v i t i n g that
they be 'sought o u t ' (= un 1 )
2 9
.
P e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t cases in t h e
b o d y - o p e n i n g w o u l d b e t h e m o r a l c o n n o t a t i o n s o f a d p | in t h e Is. 4 0 q u o t a t i o n e x p l o i t e d at 2 . 1 , a n d t h e w o r d - p l a y i n t h e a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 4 i n v o l v i n g xPVOToq
(=XpiOTbq)
at 2 . 3
3 0
.
T h e r e is o n e last m a i n h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o i m p o r t a n t t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 as t o d e s e r v e e x t e n d e d t r e a t m e n t in its o w n r i g h t , t h e q u e s t i o n o f o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t . O f c h i e f s i g n i f i c a n c e h e r e is n o t s o m u c h w h e t h e r respect for original c o n t e x t m a y have b e e n a n o r m for midrashic interpreters, b u t m e r e l y w h e t h e r t h e y m a y have b e e n p r o n e t o k e e p in m i n d a p o r t i o n o f t h e t e x t t o w h i c h a n y g i v e n r e f e r e n c e b e l o n g e d
3 1
.
3 2
N o w t h e r e is a m p l e e v i d e n c e t h e y c o u l d o p e r a t e o n s u c h a b a s i s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , f o r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s a l o n e it w o u l d b e p r e c a r i o u s t o g e n e r a l i z e . A t t h e v e r y least a l l o w a n c e m u s t b e m a d e f o r i d i o s y n c r a c i e s , f o r differing
situations
and aims, and for differing c o n v e n t i o n s a m o n g the
various t y p e s o f midrash. H e n c e e a c h case must b e taken individually. R e g a r d i n g I P e t e r ' s b o d y - o p e n i n g , l i t e r a r y analysis d i s c l o s e d a n u m b e r of
instances w h e r e there
is r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h e a u t h o r h a d a larger
b l o c k o f t e x t i n v i e w . A n i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n t o Is. 4 0 . 9 s e e m s t o s h o w itself in 1 . 2 5 b , as d o e s a n o t h e r t o Ps. 3 4 . 5 in 2 . 4 b o t h o f w h i c h are p l a u s i b l e
2 7 See a b o v e p .
37,
6 6 f . , a n d IDBSupp,
n. 6 4 , for the t e r m , a n d for the principle see e s p . D . Patte,
2 8 E m p h a s i z e d , f o r e x a m p l e , b y R . B l o c h , 'Midrash', 1 2 6 3 - 8 1 , D . Patte, Hermeneutic, 8 1 , e x a m i n i n g the T a r g u m i c e v i d e n c e , a n d A . T . H a n s o n , Utterances, 2 9 See W . Bacher, Terminologie, Einleitung,
I, 2 5 - 2 7 , D . Patte, Hermeneutic,
esp.
a n d D t t f 3 see R . L o n g e n e c k e r , Exegesis,
76-
25. esp. 1 1 8 - 2 2 , and Stemberger,
2 2 2 f . , a n d the lit. cited there. F o r a useful s u m m a r y of discussion o n the
t i o n b e t w e e n W11 they
Hermeneutic,
444.
distinc
2 8 f f . In the early T a n n a i t i c p e r i o d
m a y b e used s y n o n y m o u s l y , p r e s u m a b l y because n o pure c o n c e p t of 'literal' as o p p o s e d
t o 'figurative' had c o m e t o the f o r e . See also R . L o e w e , ' " P l a i n " ' , 3 0 For xpr)OTO<;=XpLOTdq
see F . W . Beare, 1 1 6 . Justin k n e w it {Apol.
140—85. I. 4 ) , a n d a c c o r d i n g to Beare,
' R e m a r k s ' , 2 6 4 , it has b e e n abbreviated as if it were a n o m e n sacrum in B o d m e r Papyrus 7 2 . Word-play
is the
t w e n t y - e i g h t h m i d d a associated
w i t h the n a m e o f R a b b i Eliezer b e n J o s e
Ha-Gelili ( S t e m b e r g e r , 3 8 ) , b u t h a d already b e e n w i d e l y D o e v e , Hermeneutics,
e m p l o y e d long b e f o r e h i m (so J . W .
64).
3 1 This d i s t i n c t i o n has n o t a l w a y s b e e n o b s e r v e d , f o r instance, C . H . D o d d . , Scriptures,
passim.
3 2 A case in p o i n t w o u l d be the e x x . in t h e p r o e m h o m i l y e x a m i n e d in A p p e n d i x T w o , a n d is reflected in t h e seventh m i d d a associated w i t h Hillel (see esp. Stemberger's discussion, 3 0 ) . See t o o J . W . D o e v e , Hermeneutics,
7Of., a n d 1 1 5 f .
I Peter 1.13-2.10
and Homiletic Midrash
95
s o l e l y b e c a u s e t h e y are p r e c e d e d i m m e d i a t e l y b y p r o n o u n c e d r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e t w o O T l o c i ( s e e a b o v e p . 3 8 f . ) . A d d i t i o n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n c l u d e Is. 5 2 - 3 at
1 . 1 8 f . , a n d Is. 4 2 - 3 at 2 . 9 as p a r t o f t h e c o n f l a t i o n o f t e x t s
f o u n d t h e r e (see a b o v e p . 3 9 ) . Y e t t h e s e are less i m p o s i n g t h a n t h e al l u s i o n s t o H o s . 1—2 at 2 . 1 0 , b u t t h e s e c o n d a r y n a t u r e o f t h e between
2.10
and
1.14—2.9
somewhat
lessens
the
relationship
significance o f
its
e v i d e n c e f o r t h a t p a r t o f t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g w h i c h is o f c e n t r a l c o n c e r n . A t all e v e n t s t h e c u m u l a t i v e w e i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e s p e a k s f o r a t e n d e n c y in this p o r t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r f o r b l o c k s o f O T t e x t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s t o a s s u m e a d e g r e e o f l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e o n their o w n . H e n c e t h e r e are b o t h l i t e r a r y a n d h e r m e n e u t i c a l r e a s o n s t o a c c e p t t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f C a r r i n g t o n a n d S e l w y n t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e topos
o n 'brotherly love'
in 1 . 2 2 is an a l l u s i o n t o L e v . 1 9 . 1 8 ( s e e a b o v e p . 5 7 ) . S i n c e t h e o r i g i n a l OT
p e r i c o p a e in t h e f o r m e r c a s e s s e e m t o r e t a i n a m e a s u r e
o f literary
s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g , t h e n it is p l a u s i b l e t o s u p p o s e t h e s a m e for that p e r i c o p e f r o m w h i c h the a u t h o r q u o t e s t o b e g i n the b o d y - o p e n i n g ( L e v . 1 9 . 2 ) , a n d w h i c h gives h i m its u n i f y i n g t h e m e . T h e question then m a y
b e a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e L e v i t i c u s t e x t has e x e r
c i s e d s o m e l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e e l s e w h e r e u p o n t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g as w e l l . Such
a possibility w o u l d certainly
be consonant
with
the
practice
of
h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h , f o r e x a m p l e , w h i c h p r i z e d i n v e n t i v e n e s s in t h e f a s h i o n 3 3
ing o f a l l u s i o n s . A n u m b e r o f s u g g e s t i o n s m a y b e l i s t e d f o r c o n s i d e r a tion: 1)
the
commands
t o 'fear father' in
1 9 . 3 a n d to
'fear G o d ' in 1 9 . 1 4 (also 1 9 . 2 3 ) m a y have
coalesced behind 1.17 2)
the p r o h i b i t i o n regarding 'idols' in 1 9 . 4 is a p p o s i t e t o 1 . 1 4 a n d 1 8 w h e r e idolatry m a y e v e n be f o r e m o s t in m i n d
3)
the directions a b o u t 'offering a sacrifice of salvation a c c e p t a b l e f r o m y o u r s e l v e s ' in m a y have o c c a s i o n e d the use o f the T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y
4)
19.5f.
tradition in 2 . 5 — 9
the b r o a d a s s o r t m e n t o f sins d e n o u n c e d in 1 9 . 1 If. m i g h t have b e e n a p t l y s u m m a r i z e d in the c a t a l o g u e o f vices at 2.1
5)
several isolated instances of significant verbal tallies are possible oKciv&a\ov a n d KaTdonepeiq
The
first
( 1 9 . 1 9 ) at
candidate
( 1 9 . 1 4 ) at 2 . 8 ,
1.23
has in its f a v o u r p r o x i m i t y t o 1 9 . 2 , s u c h t h a t it
m i g h t e a s i l y h a v e c o m e t o m i n d as a c o n v e n i e n t w a y t o facilitate t h e trans i t i o n at 1.17 t o t h e n e x t s u b - u n i t . It is as c l o s e t o h a n d in t h e O T p e r i c o p e as is t h e i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n t o Is. 4 0 . 9 at
1.25b,
a n d n e a r e r t h a n that t o
Ps. 3 4 . 5 at 2 . 4 , s o t h a t t h e r e is e v e n less d i f f i c u l t y in t a k i n g it as a n a i d t o t r a n s i t i o n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e p s a l m ' s use at 2 . 3 / 4 . T h e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e c o m m a n d t o 'fear f a t h e r ' a l s o a c c o u n t s f o r the l e a d i n g e m p h a s i s g i v e n
3 3 T h e clarification of the structure of the p r o e m h o m i l y b y J. M a n n d e p e n d s entirely u p o n this a s s u m p t i o n , a n d was c o n f i r m e d b y his ability t o e x p l a i n the relationship of the p r o e m t e x t to the haphtara (Bible,
I, esp. 1 1 — 5 ) . For s o m e o f the m o r e serious criticism o f M a n n ' s w o r k , b u t
n o t damaging t o his central thesis, see I. S o n n e , 'Preface', xxi—xxxviii. See also A p p e n d i x for t h o s e allusions to the wider c o n t e x t identified in Piska 3a.
Two
96
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter narepa
to
in
1.17
3 4
.
The
irarepa
l i k e l i h o o d that
eniKaXeiode
(1.17)
r e p r e s e n t s a b i b l i c i s m c u r r e n t in t h e C h r i s t i a n v e r n a c u l a r ( s e e a b o v e p . 4 1 ) in n o w a y s p e a k s against t h e d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f L e v . 1 9 , b e c a u s e , as j u s t n o t e d , m i d r a s h i c h e r m e n e u t i c invites the d i s c o v e r y o f multiple m e a n i n g s . T h e s e c o n d c a n d i d a t e , OVK enaKoXovdrjoeTe
eidobXoiq,
follows immed
i a t e l y o n t h e h e e l s o f t h e first i n L e v . 1 9 . I P e t . 1.17—8 s e e m s t o r e f l e c t a s i m i l a r s e q u e n c e w h e r e t h e fear o f f a t h e r / G o d is f o l l o w e d b y s t e r e o t y p ical l a n g u a g e napadoTOV
f o r i d o l a t r o u s p r a c t i c e s , paraiaq
vpoov
avaoTpoyrjc;
TTCLTPO-
( s e e a b o v e p . 5 6 a n d n . 1 0 3 , a n d I P e t . 4 . 3 ) . O n this v i e w t h e
p r o h i b i t i o n itself m i g h t have b e e n a f a c t o r b e h i n d the d e c i s i o n t o adapt t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a r a e n e s i s in 1 . 1 4 w h i c h i n a u g u r a t e s t h e a d d r e s s ( s e e a b o v e The LXX
third
dvorire. of
candidate
t o 1 9 . 5 r e a d s Kai
also benefits eav
from
dvorjTe
dvoiav
proximity t o Lev. 19.2. The ocorpiov
. . . deKrrjv
vpcjv
It is j u s t p o s s i b l e t o v i e w this as a f a c t o r b e h i n d t h e c u l t i c i m a g e r y
1.18—9, particularly
self-sacrifice.
Thus the
as ooiTripiov
c o u l d b e easily c o n s t r u e d o f Christ's
s e q u e n c e in L e v . 1 9 . 2 — 5 m a y c o n t i n u e t o b e re
f l e c t e d in I P e t e r . In a n y e v e n t t h e a u t h o r d o e s f i n a l l y t u r n t o t h e s u b j e c t of
o f f e r i n g s a c r i f i c e t o G o d in r e s p o n s e t o s a l v a t i o n in C h r i s t
Unlike the d r e s s e e s are
Leviticus text, h o w e v e r , the 'to offer non-material
there
is further
s u p p o r t for
2.5ff.
s a c r i f i c e s w e l l - p l e a s i n g t o G o d ' in t h e
f o r m o f a c o m m u n i t y w h i c h r e c i t e s t h e magnalia
3 4 Hence
at
d i r e c t i o n s s t i p u l a t e t h a t t h e ad
Selwyn's
interpretation
(2.9)
of
3 5
. The decision to
Kai el
ixarepa
eniKaXeiode
against H o r t ( 1 4 2 ) . T h e sense is n o t ' " i f the Father y o u i n v o k e is the impartial J u d g e o f every m a n ' s w o r k " ', b u t ' "if y o u i n v o k e the impartial J u d g e as F a t h e r " ' (as o f course all f o l l o w e r s of Jesus d o ) , t h e n in fear c o n d u c t . . . . 35
See esp. D . L . B a l c h , Wives,
1 3 2 — 4 , and D . Hill, 'Spiritual', 4 5 — 6 3 , f o r c o n v i n c i n g a r g u m e n t s
that the primary o r i e n t a t i o n o f 2 . 5 / 9 is w o r s h i p t o G o d , w h e t h e r strictly liturgical or including the moral life, a n d against J . H . E l l i o t t , Elect,
esp. 1 6 1 f f . , w h o argues strenuously f o r a mission-
o r i e n t e d witness instead. Hill has taken the novel a p p r o a c h o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g w h a t kind o f wor ship w a s in t h e a u t h o r ' s m i n d b y e x a m i n i n g certain o f the liturgical f r a g m e n t s w h i c h s e e m t o b e in I Peter. Elliott argues at least as a r d e n t l y against attaching a n y n u a n c e o f 'non-material' t o TtveviMLTiKaq dvoias of
( I 7 4 f . ) . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n t e x t d e m a n d s , as h e a d m i t s , that b o t h instances
t h e a d j . in 2 . 5 bear a m e t a p h o r i c a l , transferred sense, a n d t o a largely G e n t i l e a u d i e n c e
a c u t e l y aware t h e y are n o longer participating in the pagan cults ( 1 . 1 8 , 4 . 2 f . , see a b o v e p p . 811.)
a n d being ostracized f o r that f a c t , it w o u l d b e difficult t o imagine t h e y w o u l d n o t invest
the a d j . with such a f o r c e , a n d that the a u t h o r was n o t intending s a m e . T h e fact that, as Elliott n o t e s , I Pet. 2 . 5 is the o n l y place in the N T w h e r e the a d j . m o d i f i e s OIKO<;
or dvoia,
ought to
suggest that the i m m e d i a t e situation a n d c o n t e x t envisaged b y the letter's a u t h o r b e a l l o w e d t o govern its primary m e a n i n g . S o , in a d d i t i o n to the evidence already given, the f o r c e o f the rad ical antithesis b e t w e e n 'perishable silver or g o l d ' a n d 'the precious b l o o d ' in 1 . 1 8 f . , an o p p o s i tion revived at 1 . 2 3 f . , is s o m e t h i n g with w h i c h t o r e c k o n , a n d is rather unlikely t o have dissipated in j u s t a f e w verses. T h u s , t o the e x t e n t Elliott's criticism ( 1 5 8 a n d n. 3 ) o f C . F . D . M o u l e ('Sanc tuary', 2 9 — 4 1 ) m a y b e justified, finding n o evidence in the letter o f anti-Jewish p o l e m i c against the T e m p l e , it is n o t the case that M o u l e ' s m a i n p o i n t has b e e n turned aside. M o u l e was arguing for
the e m e r g i n g c o n c e p t i o n a m o n g early Christians o f a cultus every bit as valid as those t h e y
e n c o u n t e r e d in e v e r y d a y life, m o r e s o o f c o u r s e , a n d certainly n o t deficient in a n y respect t o t h e m despite the attacks o f their detractors o n that score. T h e c o n t e x t o f I Peter surely s u p p o r t s
I Peter 1.13-2.10
and Homiletic Midrash
97
d e l a y t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f this s u b j e c t m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d i n p a r t t o r h e t o r i c a l r e a s o n s , s i n c e it p r o v i d e s a c o m p e l l i n g c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g . H o w e v e r , an a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r m a y a l s o n e e d t o b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a tion w h i c h involves the fourth candidate. A l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y after L e v . 19 d r o p s the t o p i c o f sacrifice (v. 8 ) a w h o l e series o f p r o h i b i t i o n s against e v e r y d a y m o r a l w e a k n e s s o c c u r s ( v v . 11—8)
3 6
.
These include
t h e f t , i n j u r y , false w i t n e s s , m u r d e r , h a t e , e t c . ,
a m o n g w h i c h are t w o p o s i t i v e c o m m a n d s , t o fear G o d , a l r e a d y f o u n d in the b o d y - o p e n i n g , and t o love n e i g h b o u r , the very n e x t injunction appear
to
in t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g . It is t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e t o p e r c e i v e a c o n
s i s t e n c y in t h e w a y t h e a u t h o r o n this v i e w
w o u l d have p r o c e e d e d from
o n e p o s i t i v e c o m m a n d t o t h e n e x t , u s e d b o t h as t h e c e n t r a l m o r a l i m p e r a tives o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s u b - u n i t s , a n d p u t b o t h at t h e h e a d o f t h o s e s u b u n i t s . O n c e h e has e x h a u s t e d t h e p o s i t i v e e l e m e n t , t h e n h e turns t o t h e n e g a t i v e l y f o r m u l a t e d p a r a e n e s i s in t h e L e v i t i c u s t e x t t o b e g i n y e t a n o t h e r sub-unit of
(2.1).
W h a t is m o r e , at least t h r e e o f t h e i t e m s o n t h e list
vices have a legitimate f o u n d a t i o n
i n L e v i t i c u s , boXov (ov
SdXco ev TcJb e&vei oov, 1 9 . 1 6 ) , vnonploeic; Try diavoia
oov,
1 9 . 1 7 ) , a n d , KaraXaXtdq
(ov pnor)oeiq
nopevori
TOV abeXyov
(ov Kandjq epeiq,
19.14)
3 7
oov
. The
t w o r e m a i n i n g i t e m s o n t h e list are s o g e n e r a l as t o e n c o m p a s s n i c e l y t h e rest o f t h e p r o h i b i t i o n s in L e v i t i c u s . T h u s it b e c o m e s c l e a r w h y t h e a u t h o r reserves t h e d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t s a c r i f i c e s f o r l a t e r . H e m u s t first set f o r t h t h e ethical
imperatives fundamental t o the c o m m u n i t y ' s health,
precisely
b e c a u s e m o r a l integrity has always b e e n w h a t m a k e s w o r s h i p a c c e p t a b l e to G o d ( A m o s 5 . 2 1 L , M i c . 6.6f., Jer. 7.8f., M t . 5 . 2 3 f . )
3 8
.
M o u l e ' s p o s i t i o n . Still, the sense preferred b y E l l i o t t , 'spiritual', as in the reality s h a p e d b y the H o l y Spirit ( c p . 1 . 1 2 a n d 4 . 1 4 ) , is clearly inescapable as well, a n d it w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e w r o n g t o try t o play o n e o f f against the o t h e r , f o l l o w i n g t h e general advice o f B r o x here ( 9 8 ) . F o r o t h e r e v i d e n c e p a t i e n t o f a similar a p p r o a c h see TDNT,
6 , n. 7 0 6 , including B a r n . 1 6 . 1 0 a n d
Did. 1 0 . 3 . 3 6 T h e intervening s e g m e n t , L e v . 1 8 . 9 — 1 0 , m a y n o t play a n y role in the e x p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e it is directed t o a peculiarly agrarian situation that w o u l d o f f e r little instruction to a largely urban a u d i e n c e (see a b o v e p p . 8 f f . ) . 3 7 T h i s last m a y b e a bit strained, because in the c o n t e x t it refers t o a n o p e n assault o n the deaf whereas in I Peter the reference is p r o b a b l y first a n d f o r e m o s t to m a l i c i o u s g o s s i p . But the p o i n t o f t h e p r o h i b i t i o n in Leviticus seems precisely t o seek t o p r o t e c t the deaf w h o , like the victims o f m a l i c i o u s gossip, c a n n o t hear w h a t is being said a b o u t t h e m a n d so c a n n o t d e f e n d themselves. 3 8 P a r a d o x i c a l l y , such an interpretation p u t s even further distance b e t w e e n the m o r a l c o n n o t a tions possible in the c o n t e x t o f I Pet. 2.5ff. a n d the narrower liturgical activities that a l m o s t certainly are to b e f o u n d there (see a b o v e n. 3 5 ) . A n o t h e r e l e m e n t f r o m the Leviticus t e x t to be b r o u g h t o u t here is the k i n d o f sacrifice involved ( 1 9 . 5 — 8 ) , a c o m m u n i o n sacrifice t o be specific, t o w h i c h a n allusion m i g h t just b e discernible via a n association with Ps. 3 4 . 8 at 2 . 3 (cp. H e b . 6.4f.). The hypothesis does
m u c h t o i m p r o v e the c o g e n c y o f the t r a n s i t i o n a l
2.3/4,
and gives a basis in the exegetical m e t h o d o f the a u t h o r for the Eucharistic c o n n o t a t i o n long associated w i t h the p s a l m ( f o r the c o n n o t a t i o n see K e l l y , 8 7 , for e x a m p l e , b u t against, G o p p e h , 1 3 8 a n d n. 5 8 ) . Nevertheless, such an interpretation m a y l o o k t o b e t o o fanciful as n o weight has b e e n a t t a c h e d t o the significant verbal tallies b e t w e e n Leviticus a n d I Peter m e n t i o n e d ear-
The Herm eneu tic of I Pe ter
98
T h e case f o r the f o u r p r o p o s e d links b e t w e e n L e v . 1 9 a n d the b o d y o p e n i n g a c q u i r e s s o m e f u r t h e r s u p p o r t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y fall w i t h i n 3 9
the standard length for a seder o f t w e n t y - o n e v e r s e s . A n d , the l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e a d d r e s s e e s w e r e m o s t l y f a m i l i a r w i t h this p o r t i o n o f L e v i t i c u s might have e n c o u r a g e d the a u t h o r t o m a k e allusions he w o u l d n o t other w i s e h a v e a t t e m p t e d . I f it s h o u l d c o u n t against t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h t o fail t o s p o t p l a u s i b l e a l l u s i o n s in t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g t o t h e primary
O T pericope,
then
surely
it m u s t
c o u n t as m u c h o n
behalf
o f that h y p o t h e s i s w h e n s u c h e v i d e n c e is a d d u c e d . H e n c e a v a r i e t y o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p o i n t t o a s o m e w h a t larger r o l e o f L e v . 1 9 in I P e t e r ' s b o d y o p e n i n g t h a n has b e e n p r o p o s e d h e r e t o f o r e , o n e e x p l i c a b l e in t e r m s o f h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s characteristic o f midrash in general, and h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h in p a r t i c u l a r . It m a y b e that t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g a l s o r e f l e c t s o n e o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e rules e s s e n t i a l t o m i d r a s h i c p r o c e d u r e , a n a l o g y
4 0
. A conspicuous example
is t h e c a t e n a in 2 . 6 — 8 b a s e d o n t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f ' s t o n e ' in e a c h o f t h e 4 1
t h r e e c i t a t i o n s . A m o r e e l a b o r a t e c a s e a p p e a r s i n 2 . 9 f . , b u t is i m p l i c i t rather than e x p l i c i t . Literary analysis f o u n d that e l e m e n t s f r o m E x . 1 9 . 5 —6 a n d
Is. 4 3 . 2 0 — 1 w e r e c o n f l a t e d t h e r e o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f a s h a r e d
w o r d , ' p e o p l e ' ( X a d c ) , t o g e t h e r w i t h a n a s s o r t m e n t o f h o n o r i f i c titles ( s e e a b o v e p . 3 9 ) . O n t h e basis o f o t h e r t e r m s i n c o m m o n , p o r t i o n s o f t h e Is. 4 3 a l l u s i o n w e r e a s s i m i l a t e d t o M a i . 3 . 1 7 , ' p o s s e s s i o n ' , a n d t o Is. 4 2 . 1 2 , e s p . ' m i g h t y a c t s ' , It f u r t h e r m o r e w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e c o n f l a t i o n has been
correlated with the
catena through a shared k e y - w o r d ,
'chosen'.
L a s t l y , t h e a l l u s i o n t o H o s . 1—2 i n 2 . 1 0 has b e e n a p p e n d e d t o 2 . 9 t h r o u g h the l i n k - w o r d t h e y share, ' p e o p l e ' . T h e fact that the t e c h n i q u e here c o n f o r m s c o m p l e t e l y w i t h t h e a u t h o r ' s c o m p o s i t i o n a l m e t h o d e l s e w h e r e in t h e l e t t e r m a k e s it p o i n t l e s s t o d e n y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a n a l o g y as a m a j o r o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e at a n y p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e w h e r e t h e r e is e v i d e n c e f o r it
4 2
.
Her o n p .
95.
It m a y already b e asking t o o m u c h for a consistent a p p l i c a t i o n o f the Leviticus
p e r i c o p e t o the addressees' moral life, or even t o press for a n y influence f r o m its reference t o the cultus, let a l o n e t o insist o n r e m o t e r possibilities. 3 9 F o r a masterful description a n d clarification
o f the central features pertaining t o early R a b
binic h o m i l e t i c see J . B o w k e r , 'Speeches', esp. 9 7 - 1 0 1 . In greater detail see D . Patte, eutic,
Hermen
esp. 31 — 4 7 .
4 0 T h e principle o f a n a l o g y , 71 1 1 # (see S t e m b e r g e r , Einleitung, immediate context
H 1
, is the s e c o n d m i d d a a t t r i b u t e d traditionally t o Hillel
2 8 f . ) , a l t h o u g h it certainly pre-dates h i m . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e in the
of I Peter is the verbal tally involving 'lord' in 1 . 2 5 a a n d 2 . 3 , b o t h occur
rences of w h i c h b e l o n g to O T references. T w o other m i d d o t h also appear in the same c o n t e x t in I Peter, allegory
in 1 . 2 5 b ( n o . 2 6 , see S t e m b e r g e r , 3 8 ) , a n d w o r d - p l a y in 2 . 3 ( n o . 2 8 , see
Stemberger, 3 8 ) . 4 1 See b e l o w p p . 1 3 I f . f o r a r g u m e n t s o n behalf of the significance
of
' s t o n e ' as the
key-term
a r o u n d w h i c h the t e s t i m o n i a have b e e n g r o u p e d in I Peter. 4 2 It is a serious charge, b u t Elliott seems t o b e rather arbitrary, for e x a m p l e , in the w a y he re sists the idea that Xaoq provides the verbal tally b e h i n d the c o n f l a t i o n o f E x . 1 9 . 5 — 6 and Is. 4 3 . 2 0 — 1 , a l t h o u g h h e is eager to prove that the a u t h o r o f I Peter is responsible for the confla-
/ Peter 1.13-2.10
and Homiletic Midrash
99
F i n a l l y , o n e a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e in I P e t e r ' s b o d y - o p e n i n g is d e s e r v i n g o f e x a m i n a t i o n b e c a u s e it is p a t i e n t o f a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p a r i s o n w i t h h o m i l e t i c a l m i d r a s h . L o n g a g o E . S t e i n d e m o n s t r a t e d that r a b b i n i c h o m i l ies r e g u l a r l y e n d e d
'with words
of comfort'
(manj
nm^)
4
3
.
He
a r g u e d t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e m a y a n t e d a t e t h e l a t e r p r o e m h o m i l i e s w h e r e it is most
p r e v a l e n t ( P e s i k t a , T a n c h u m a ) , s i n c e t h e t r a c t a t e s in M i s h n a a n d
Tosephta
conclude
4 4
s i m i l a r l y . T h e literary f u n c t i o n
o f the p e r o r a t i o n
in t h e p r o e m h o m i l y is t o l e a d t h e d i s c o u r s e b a c k t o t h e s e d e r , u s u a l l y e i t h e r t o its first o r last v e r s e , w h i l e t h e f u n c t i o n o f its c o n t e n t s is t o offer
encouragement
of
an
eschatological
nature,
such
a d v e n t , t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f Israel, t h e w o r l d t o c o m e , e t c
4 5
as M e s s i a h ' s
. A n d Stein w e n t
s o far as t o s u g g e s t that t h e p r a c t i c e m i g h t e v e n b e d a t e d t o t h e e a r l y Tannaitic tractates
period, appealing t o Philo's decision with what were
de Ebr. a n d de Conf.
to close
several o f his
for him extraordinary eschatological periods,
( 3 6 8 ) . F o l l o w i n g S t e i n , H . T h y e n c i t e d still a n o t h e r
e x a m p l e f r o m P h i l o at t h e e n d o f de Praem.
f
ence, albeit o f uneven w o r t h , from 1 8 . 1 7 , a n d H e b . 1 0 . 3 7 - 9 (Homilie,
and p r e s e n t e d further evid
T . T w e l v e Pa., D i d . 1 6 , I V M a c e .
1 0 6 f f . ) . T h o u g h the e v i d e n c e will n o t
s u p p o r t t h e c l a i m that t h e p r a c t i c e w a s r o u t i n e b y t h e t i m e o f First P e t e r , it n o n e t h e l e s s a t t e s t s t o t h e p r a c t i c e as a n i d e a l w i t h s o m e f o u n d a t i o n i n c o n v e n t i o n w h e n e x a m p l e s d o o c c u r . T h a t I Pet. 2.9 a p p r o x i m a t e s t o such a p e r o r a t i o n must b y n o w be o b v i o u s alluding to the holiness t h e m e o f L e v . 1 9 . 2 (via E x . 1 9 . 5 f . ) a n d affirming the fulfilment o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l salvation. M o r e o v e r , 2 . 1 0 o n l y p r o l o n g s the h e i g h t e n e d rhetorical m o m e n t with
its
emphasis on
the
traditional h o p e
o f restoration and
mercy,
making for strong consolation indeed. B e t h a t as it m a y , f r o m all o f t h e a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n it a p p e a r s I P e t e r ' s b o d y - o p e n i n g adheres m o r e closely t o the pattern o f h o m i l e t i c midrash t h a n t o t h e o t h e r t h r e e Gattungen
w h i c h h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d . In f o r m ,
h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , m e t h o d s , a n d p r a c t i c e s , it h a s as m u c h
t i o n (Elect,
138ff.).
See a b o v e p . 3 9 f o r t h e t e x t s i n v o l v e d . H e m a y b e suspected o f special
pleading, b e c a u s e his thesis c o u l d b e seriously hurt if there w e r e as m u c h reason to believe the c o n f l a t i o n h a d b e e n in previous oral circulation as there is t o believe similarly for the S t o n e catena. evidence
T h e literary analysis to
p e r f o r m e d earlier in t h e present investigation f o u n d a d e q u a t e
s u p p o s e , h o w e v e r , that t h e use o f l i n k - w o r d s , c a t c h - w o r d s , a n d k e y - w o r d s was
f u n d a m e n t a l to t h e a u t h o r ' s a p p r o a c h t o the task o f c o m p o s i t i o n . H e n c e the e v i d e n c e h e w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o n f l a t i o n m a y fall short o f conclusive p r o o f , b u t it is a r e a s o n a b l e infer e n c e t o d r a w , a n d t o entertain as m u c h for the verbal tally w h i c h c o n n e c t s the allusion t o H o s . 1 —2 in 2 . 1 0 w i t h the c o n f l a t i o n , \ a d c again. 4 3 See his 'Peroratio', 3 5 3 - 7 1 , a n d 3 5 3 , n. 2 f o r the q u o t a t i o n f r o m Pes. R . K a h . Piska 1 3 n ,
m»ru
nma
i a n m mnmn n r n n inns D ^ K ^ n
. s e e also sifre D t .
3 4 2 f o r a similar description o f M o s e s ' style. A n d see S t e m b e r g e r , 2 3 2 . 4 4 Stein cites M . M o e d K . a n d T o s . B a b . B . , 'Peroratio', 3 5 4 . H a d these b e e n a d d e d later t o the tractates o u t o f respect f o r the c o n v e n t i o n t h e n o n e w o u l d have e x p e c t e d m o r e o f the trac tates t o e n d similarly. 4 5 See e s p . A . G o l d b e r g , 'Peroratio' 1 — 2 2 , f o r a clarification o f the u n d e r l y i n g t y p o l o g y present.
often
100
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
c l a i m t o b e l o n g t o t h e g e n r e o f m i d r a s h as m a n y o t h e r e x a m p l e s w h i c h have b e e n cited
from the N T . T h e provisional conclusions m a y therefore
b e d r a w n that 1.14—2.9 has b e e n decisively s h a p e d b y h o m i l e t i c midrash. P r e s u m a b l y its i n f l u e n c e o n t h e a u t h o r m a y b e a s c r i b e d t o his e x p e r i e n c e o f S y n a g o g u e p r e a c h i n g , a t r a d i t i o n p r e s e r v e d in t h e e a r l y C h u r c h a m o n g its J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n
l e a d e r s . S i n c e his l e t t e r w a s p r o b a b l y i n t e n d e d t o b e
r e a d as p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s w o r s h i p , t o c o m m e n c e w i t h s u c h a v e hicle w o u l d n o t b e inappropriate. O f course, allowance must b e m a d e for i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g ' s d e s i g n f r o m o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s as w e l l , most importantly
from
t h e e p i s t o l a r y f r a m e w o r k i n t o w h i c h it has b e e n
inserted, b u t also f r o m
o t h e r t y p e s o f a d d r e s s , s u c h as m i s s i o n a r y p r o
c l a m a t i o n , c o m m u n a l d i s c i p l i n e , a n d t h e d i a t r i b e . T h e n t o o , it is n e c e s s a r y t o recall that o n e has t o d o here w i t h a w r i t t e n f o r m w h i c h m a y w e l l have v a r i e d in s o m e p a r t i c u l a r s f r o m l i v e p r e a c h i n g . H e n c e c o n s i d e r a b l e c a u t i o n 4 6
m u s t b e e x e r c i s e d in a p p r o a c h i n g t h e r e s u l t s . W h a t is i n s t a n t l y c l e a r is t h a t n o o t h e r p o r t i o n o f I P e t e r f u l l y m a t c h e s u p t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 , s o t h a t t h e r e is n o f i r m g e n e r i c basis f o r e x t e n d i n g t h e s e a r c h f o r h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h t o t h e rest o f t h e l e t t e r . T h i s is n o t t o say t h a t o t h e r p o r t i o n s m u s t b e v o i d o f m i d r a s h i c p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s a n d t e c h n i q u e s , q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y , a c a s e f o r t h e i r u s a g e in o n e p a r t o f t h e l e t t e r l e a d s o n e t o e x p e c t t h e y m i g h t b e r e - u s e d . T h e r e are m a n y t y p e s o f m i d r a s h . H o w e v e r , t h e i n d u c t i v e m e t h o d is b e t t e r s e r v e d if s o m e e x p l i cit s t a t e m e n t
b y the
author
o n t h e m a t t e r o f his h e r m e n e u t i c c a n b e
f o u n d , a n d t h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h e v i d e n c e w h i c h has b e e n p r e s e n t e d f o r his u s e o f m i d r a s h . I f t h e r e is a g r e e m e n t , t h e n it m a y b e l e g i t i m a t e
to
i n s p e c t t h e rest o f t h e l e t t e r f o r o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f J e w i s h h e r m e n e u t i c .
2.
I Peter 1.10-2: a H e r m e n e u t i c a l K e y
In all o f First P e t e r t h e r e is b u t o n e p a s s a g e w h e r e e x p l i c i t i n f o r m a t i o n exists c o n c e r n i n g the
author's
h e r m e n e u t i c , at t h e e n d o f t h e b l e s s i n g
p e r i o d , 1 . 1 0 — 2 . Its s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e t h e b o d y - o p e n ing is e n o u g h t o s u g g e s t h o w s i g n i f i c a n t it is in t h e a u t h o r ' s e y e s b o t h f o r h i m s e l f a n d f o r t h e m e s s a g e t h a t f o l l o w s it. T h e p r o p h e t s w h o p r o p h e s i e d o f the grace that was to b e y o u r s searched a n d inquired a b o u t this salvation; t h e y inquired w h a t p e r s o n or t i m e was indicated b y the Spirit of Christ w i t h i n t h e m w h e n predicting the sufferings o f Christ a n d the s u b s e q u e n t g l o r y . It w a s revealed t o t h e m that t h e y w e r e serving n o t t h e m s e l v e s b u t y o u , in the things w h i c h have n o w b e e n a n n o u n c e d to y o u b y t h o s e w h o p r e a c h e d the g o o d n e w s t o y o u t h r o u g h the H o l y Spirit sent f r o m h e a v e n , things i n t o w h i c h angels l o n g to l o o k . ( R S V ) .
4 6 M u c h o f the p r e c e d i n g material in this c h a p t e r was p r e s e n t e d t o the S B L S e m i n a r o n Midrash, N o v . 1 7 , 1 9 7 9 . See W . L . S c h u t t e r , ' E l e m e n t s ' , 5 8 f .
I Peter 1.10-2: Few
NT
texts
statement
4 7
compare
a Hermeneutical Key
101
f a v o u r a b l y w i t h t h e b r e a d t h a n d w e i g h t o f this
. T h e w h o l e c o u r s e o f salvation history and the progress o f
r e v e l a t i o n s e e m t o b e s u m m e d u p in a skilful m a n o e u v r e t h a t d r a w s
the
a d d r e s s e e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t o its p e r s p e c t i v e . S o it s t a n d s t o r e a s o n t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s f o r m u l a t i o n is l i k e l y t o b e f a i r l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f his h e r m e n e u t i c a l s t a n c e a n d is t h e f i t t i n g o b j e c t o f c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n f o r w h a t e v e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i v e a p p r o a c h it m a y o f f e r . T h e t e x t t r u l y b r i s t l e s w i t h d i f f i c u l t i e s . It m a y t h e r e f o r e b e b e t t e r
to
b e g i n w i t h a r e v i e w o f f e a t u r e s a b o u t w h i c h t h e r e is w i d e a g r e e m e n t , a n d then p r o c e e d to knottier problems. The
passage
is p a c k e d w i t h
terms relating
to interpretative
activities
a n d m e c h a n i s m s , a n d t h e s e m a y b e d e s c r i b e d m o r e o r less i n t h e i r o r d e r of
appearance.
ences
to
having the fully
E s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , f o r e x a m p l e , are t h e o p e n i n g refer
e%e$T)Tr)oav
(1.10)
and
i^rjpavvrjoav/epavvtbvTeq
(1.10/11),
o r d i n a r y m e a n i n g o f 'search for s o m e t h i n g ' a n d 'inquire care
concerning
something'
( s e e BAGD,
s.v.). W h e n used
for
gaining
k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d i v i n e w i l l as in t h e O T p r o p h e t s , o r o f t h e d i v i n e w i l l r e c o r d e d in t h e S c r i p t u r e s , h o w e v e r , t h e t e r m s a c q u i r e t r a n s f e r r e d 4 8
t h a t stress t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e , d e l i b e r a t i v e , a n d m e d i t a t i v e . p a r a l l e l t o h a v e b e e n a d d u c e d s o far s e e m s t o b e 1 Q S V , l l
4
9
senses
T h e nearest .
For t h e y are n o t r e c k o n e d in His C o v e n a n t . T h e y have neither inquired n o r s o u g h t after him
c o n c e r n i n g his laws (
might
1 H "» p 1 n 2
m i l
b 1
I I P j? 2
K1 b
N " O ) that
they
k n o w the h i d d e n things in w h i c h t h e y have sinfully erred; a n d m a t t e r s revealed t h e y
have treated with i n s o l e n c e .
According to A . R . C . -)W 11 the
L e a n e y (Rule, 1
Nb") m m - r i K
iwpn-K ?
1 7 2 ) , t h e a l l u s i o n is t o Z e p h . 1 . 6 b , 1 w N I . T h e L X X varies e n o u g h f o r
p o s s i b l e a l l u s i o n t o h a v e e s c a p e d d e t e c t i o n in I P e t e r , nai
$r)Tr\oavTac; several status
TOV
nai Tovq p.rj avTexopevovq
KVPLOV
s c h o l a r s see as
referring
that to
the
the
terms
in
unveiling
I Peter
of
almost possess
5 0
t h e s a m e c a t e g o r y in p a r t o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f J a s . TeXeiov
TOV
Tovq
fir}
In a n y c a s e technical
eschatological 'mysteries'
' s e c r e t s ' . It m a y b e a t t r a c t i v e t o p l a c e napaKv^at etc. vo\iov
Kvpiov.
TOV
and
f r o m I Pet. 1.12 i n t o 1.25, 6 5e
irapaKv^aq
51
Trjq
eXvdepiaq .
4 7 S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h o s e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , p . 5 1 , n. 8 7 . 4 8 G o o d O T e x a m p l e s include J d g . 1 8 . 5 , I S a m . 9 . 9 , 2 8 . 7 , I K . 1 4 . 5 , 2 2 . 5 , 7 , II K . 1.2ff., 3 . 1 1 , II C h r o n . , passim, Is. 6 . 1 1 , 8 . 1 9 , D n . 7 . 1 6 , 9 . 3 f f . , a n d 1 2 . 6 . F o r W\? 2 see K.-B., TDOT,
II, 2 2 9 — 4 1 . It s e e m s ttf 1 1
the early T a n n a i t i c p e r i o d , for w h i c h , see W . Bacher, Terminologie, e n t r y in his w o r k f o r Wp2. tic,
s.v., a n d ,
w a s b y far the m o r e i m p o r t a n t t e r m , a n d w a s d o m i n a n t b y I, 2 5 f f . In f a c t , there is n o
F o r the literary d i m e n s i o n s o f W 1 1 see esp. D . Patte,
Hermeneu
118ff.
4 9 See G o p p e l t , 1 0 8 , n. 8 1 , w h o d o e s n o t n o t i c e the allusion t o Z e p h . 1 . 6 b , whereas L e a n e y d o e s n o t n o t i c e the possible allusion t o I Pet. 1 . 1 0 . It m a y b e seen that
e^pavvqaav/epavvCjvrcq
correlates with V) 1 1 . 5 0 See F . F . B r u c e , Exegesis,
6 6 f . , C . F . D . M o u l e , Birth,
8 2 , C . R o w l a n d , Heaven,
1 0 7 f . , a n d B r o x , 6 9 f . , a n d perhaps A . T . H a n s o n , Utterances,
4 5 , Goppelt,
140f.
5 1 C o u l d this be related t o the esoteric discipline o f the M e r k a b a h ? See I. G r u e n w a l d , 'Mirror', 95-7.
102
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
A n o t h e r g r o u p o f t e r m s in 1 . 1 0 — 2 refers t o t h e o r i g i n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f s u c h k n o w l e d g e , edrjXov the
former
from
( 1 . 1 1 ) a n d aneKaXvy&'q
the N T include the
(1.12). Examples of
o r d i n a r y transfer o f i n f o r m a t i o n
(I C o r . 1 . 1 1 , C o l . 1 . 8 ) , as w e l l as e x t r a o r d i n a r y p r o c e s s e s s t r o n g l y r e s e m b l i n g t h o s e in I P e t e r (I C o r . 3 . 1 3 , H e b . 9 . 8 , 1 2 . 2 7 , a n d c p . II P e t . 1 . 1 4 ) The
5 2
.
l a t t e r l i k e w i s e e x t e n d s f r o m t h e o r d i n a r y t o t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y dis
c l o s u r e , b u t t h e o t h e r w i s e u n i f o r m u s a g e o f t h e a u t h o r s u g g e s t s that in his d i s c o u r s e , a n y w a y , it is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h an a c t o f G o d ( 1 . 5 , 7 , 1 3 , 4.13, 5.1). A t h i r d g r o u p o f t e r m s relates t o t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f t h a t k n o w l e d g e , either b y the
o r i g i n a l r e c i p i e n t s , o r t h o s e w h o c a m e after t h e m . T h u s
t h o s e d e s i g n a t e d as -npo^rirai in 1 . 1 0 are said t o ' p r o p h e s y ' re<:,
1.10),
' w i t n e s s b e f o r e h a n d ' (itpopaprvpopevov,
(5IT\Kouovu, 1 . 1 2 )
5 3
(npoyriTevoav-
1.11), and
'serve'
. T h i s last is e s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o r t h y b e c a u s e o f t h e in
s t r u c t i v e p a r a l l e l at I P e t . 4 . 1 Of., w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s t h e d i v i n e i n t e n t t h a t s u c h activity b e f o r the sake o f the c o m m u n i t y (see G o p p e l t , 1 0 9 ) . N e x t are t h e i n t e r m e d i a r i e s w h o s e t a s k it is t o ' a n n o u n c e ' (avr\yye\r\, 'tell t h e g o o d n e w s ' (evayye\ioapevoov,
1.12), to
1 . 1 2 ) , c o n c e r n i n g w h a t has b e e n
5 4
i m p a r t e d . T h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r thus s e e m s t o c o n c e i v e o f t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s m i s s i o n via several stages ( c p . Magn. 8 . 2 ) . W h a t is c l e a r f r o m e v e n s o b r i e f a d i s c u s s i o n is t h a t e a c h i n s t a n c e o f s u c h t e r m i n o l o g y is c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e v e l a t o r y m e d i a in s e r v i c e t o t h e un f o l d i n g o f G o d ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p l a n o f s a l v a t i o n in w h i c h k n o w l e d g e p l a y s a d e c i s i v e r o l e . It is a k n o w l e d g e that o n c e w a s h i d d e n , b u t n o w has b e e n disclosed just b e f o r e the E n d ( 4 . 7 a ) . A c c o r d i n g t o C. R o w l a n d , 'the pre s u p p o s i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c is its i n t e r e s t in t h a t w h i c h is s e c r e t '
(Heaven,
4 4 5 ) . T h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r a p p e a r s t o share s u c h a p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , an impression n o t easily shaken d e s p i t e the a b s e n c e o f certain leading terms 5 5
f r o m the author's v o c a b u l a r y , like ' m y s t e r y ' and ' s e c r e t ' . B u t if this m u c h is r e a s o n a b l y l i k e l y t h e r e are still n u m e r o u s q u e s t i o n s raised b y 1.10—2 w h i c h r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n . O n e c o n c e r n s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e ' g r a c e ' in v i e w at 1 . 1 0 . A n o t h e r c o n c e r n s h o w e k Kaipov
in 1.11 is t o b e c o n s t r u e d , a n d w h e t h e r naipov
riva
77 noiov
h a s a s p e c i a l signif-
5 2 T h e last instance is especially n o t e w o r t h y , because it virtually d e m a n d s b o t h meanings simul t a n e o u s l y . P r e s u m a b l y , the reference is t o the tradition b e h i n d J n . 2 1 . 1 8 , w h e r e Jesus is presen ted as predicting Peter's d e a t h . 5 3 Perhaps the s e c o n d t e r m , u n a t t e s t e d elsewhere until A . D . 7 0 9 , is the author's c o i n a g e , a l t h o u g h its derivation is u n a m b i g u o u s . See BAGD,
7 0 8 . F o r the predictive e l e m e n t in early Christian
p r o p h e c y , see esp. C . F . D . M o u l e , ' F u l f i l m e n t ' ,
293-320.
5 4 G o p p e l t , 1 0 9 , p o i n t s to Is. 5 2 . 7 a n d N a h . 1 . 1 5 as i m p o r t a n t O T loci for the t e r m , b u t there is one m u c h nearer to h a n d in the allusion t o Is. 4 0 . 9 at I Pet. 1 . 2 5 b . 5 5 A l s o missing f r o m his v o c a b u l a r y is nXrtpooo, etc. It is n o t really clear w h e t h e r m u c h can or s h o u l d be m a d e of such facts one w a y or the o t h e r . S o m e flexibility in usage m u s t b e a l l o w e d for in principle. T h e terms are missing as well f r o m H e b r e w s , for instance. T h e use o f
Kpvnroq
in I Pet. 3 . 4 , while p o s s i b l y n o t u n r e l a t e d , d o e s n o t have the quasi-technical status of
T*l or
no.
I Peter 1.10-2: a Hermeneutical Key
103
i c a n c e . Y e t a n o t h e r c o n c e r n s t h e m e a n i n g o f r d etc. Xpiorov Kai
rdc, perd
ravra
itadripara
6 d £ a c . H o w e v e r , m o s t o f the q u e s t i o n s involve the
identity o f the various agents, h u m a n or o t h e r w i s e , w h i c h seem t o have h a d a h a n d in t h e p r o c e s s , that is, a p a r t f r o m t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d i n t e r m e d i a r i e s w h o are u s u a l l y r e g a r d e d as C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n aries. A n d s o it is t o t h e i d e n t i t y o f the a g e n t s i n v o l v e d t h a t t h e d i s c u s s i o n m a y n e x t turn. Until the p u b l i c a t i o n o f S e l w y n ' s c o m m e n t a r y ( w h o f o l l o w s W o h l e n berg)
the
identification o f the
' p r o p h e t s ' in
1.10 w i t h O T personages
s e e m s r a r e l y t o h a v e b e e n d o u b t e d . T h e N T e v i d e n c e e l s e w h e r e is v i r t u a l l y u n a n i m o u s o n the centrality o f their p r e a c h i n g w h e n e v e r the fulfilmentt h e m e enters the p i c t u r e
5 6
. Furthermore,
1.10—2 has a f f i n i t i e s w i t h a
n u m b e r o f texts w h i c h m e n t i o n persons o f distinction f r o m the O T p e r i o d p r e c i s e l y in o r d e r t o c o n t r a s t t h e c o m p a r a t i v e a d v a n t a g e w h i c h e n l i g h t e n e d Christians n o w e n j o y
5 7
. B u t S e l w y n ' s c l a i m that 1 . 1 0 refers t o e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n p r o p h e t s has s o m e t h i n g t o b e said f o r itself as w e l l , a l t h o u g h 5 8
m a n y o f t h e a r g u m e n t s h e a d v a n c e d in s u p p o r t h a v e p r o v e n v u l n e r a b l e . H e r e it m a y s u f f i c e t o o b s e r v e that t o a c c e p t his v i e w d o e s little t o c o m plicate the q u e s t i o n o f the relationship w h i c h the a u t h o r o f I Peter h a d w i t h the Scriptures. W h e t h e r h e himself w o u l d have b e e n c o u n t e d a m o n g t h e c i r c l e o f C h r i s t i a n p r o p h e t s , at least h e m a y b e s e e n t o h o l d t h e m in h i g h a u t h o r i t y a n d m a y b e p r e s u m e d t o share their b a s i c h e r m e n e u t i c . S i n c e that h e r m e n e u t i c itself p r e s u p p o s e s t h e . c e n t r a l i t y o f the p r e a c h i n g o f t h e O T p r o p h e t s in t h e f u l f i l m e n t
p a t t e r n , as S e l w y n c l e a r l y u n d e r
s t a n d s , it is r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e
the a u t h o r o f I Peter w o u l d have 5 9
a c c o r d e d their writings a similar s t a t u s . M o r e h o t l y d i s p u t e d still is t h e i d e n t i t y o f ' t h e S p i r i t o f C h r i s t ' said t o b e t h e e f f e c t i v e a g e n t o f r e v e l a t i o n t o t h e s e p r o p h e t s in 1 . 1 1 . I f t h e p r o p h e t s are C h r i s t i a n s , t h e n t h e r e are o n l y ( ! ) t h r e e p l a u s i b l e c h o i c e s , t h e
5 6 A n e x c e p t i o n m a y b e E p h . 2 . 2 0 / 3 . 5 , b u t see the references cited a b o v e o n p . 5 1 , n. 8 7 . A d d R o m . 1 5 . 4 and I Cor. 1 0 . 1 1 . 5 7 See M t . 1 3 . 1 6 - 7 / / L k . 1 0 . 2 3 - 4 a n d the previous n o t e . 5 8 F o r his full a r g u m e n t see 2 5 9 - 6 8 . C p . the criticisms b y K e l l y , 5 8 - 9 , a n d , Best, 8 3 - 4 . O n e of S e l w y n ' s strongest p o i n t s was to q u e r y w h e t h e r 'seeking' a n d 'inquiring' were m o r e likely designate
O T prophets
or early Christian 'apocalypticists'.
H e did n o t inspect
the
to
evidence
closely e n o u g h , h o w e v e r , t o realize h o w c o m m o n the seer-prophet t y p e is in the O T , as in n. 4 8 a b o v e , leading h i m t o a one-sided e m p h a s i s u p o n the m o d e l o f the 'writing' p r o p h e t s . H e is fol l o w e d n o w b y a l m o s t n o o n e . J . D . G . D u n n is quite the e x c e p t i o n in a l l o w i n g the idea s o m e plausibility, Unity, does
tolerate
the
1 1 6 . E v e n if it is the weaker o f the t w o p o s i t i o n s , the fact is that 1 . 1 0 — 2 construction.
O n early
Prophecy,
2 3 — 7 1 , U . B . M u l l e r , Prophetie,
Prophecy,
passim, E . C o t h e n e t , Prophetisme,
all n o w D . E . A u n e , Prophecy, e d . , Prophetic.
Christian p r o p h e c y
in general see esp. E . E . Ellis,
passim, G . D a u t z e n b e r g , Prophetic, passim, W . G r u d e m , Prophecy,
passim,
D . Hill,
passim, and a b o v e
passim. See t o o the c o l l e c t i o n of fine articles in J. P a n a g o p o u l o s ,
F o r the relationship b e t w e e n early Christian p r o p h e c y and O T interpretation see
esp. J . L i n d b l o m , Gesichte,
1 8 0 f f . , Ellis, Prophecy,
129ff., 182ff., and 221ff., E. Cothenet,
'Prophetes', 7 7 f . , D . Hill, 'Prophets', 1 0 8 f f . , a n d D . E . A u n e , Prophecy, 5 9 Similarly, D u n n , Unity,
116.
339ff.
104
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
e x a l t e d L o r d in his spiritual b e i n g , t h e H o l y S p i r i t , o r s o m e spirit o r o t h e r whose
t a s k is t o t e s t i f y t o C h r i s t ( c p . R e v . 1 9 . 1 0 ) . B u t i f t h e p r o p h e t s
b e l o n g t o Israel o f o l d , t h e n t o t h e list m a y b e a d d e d a f o u r t h : t h e p r e e x i s t e n t Christ i n his spiritual b e i n g
6 0
. T h e p r o b l e m is f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d
b y e v i d e n c e f r o m w i t h i n I P e t e r p o s s i b l y i n v o l v i n g all o f t h e first t h r e e . T h e risen J e s u s in his spiritual b e i n g s e e m s t o b e d e m a n d e d b y t h e s e n s e o f 3 . 1 9 n o m a t t e r h o w ev co is t o b e c o n s t r u e d
6 1
. T h e H o l y S p i r i t is m e n
t i o n e d at 1.2 a n d 1 2 , s o t h a t ' S p i r i t o f C h r i s t ' m a y s i m p l y b e a v a r i a t i o n . T h e s o m e w h a t u n c e r t a i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e S p i r i t o f G o d in 4 . 1 4 , r e f l e c t i n g a m e s s i a n i c a p p l i c a t i o n in a c o n t e x t o f p o t e n t i a l m a r t y r d o m m i g h t c o n ceivably reflect the third o p t i o n (see A c t s 7 . 5 5 )
6 2
. It w o u l d s e e m t h a t o n
a n y v i e w t h e r e are at least t w o g o o d a l t e r n a t i v e s , w h i c h m e a n s a l l o w a n c e p r o b a b l y o u g h t t o b e m a d e in t h e o r y f o r t w o d i f f e r e n t a g e n t s at 1.11 a n d 1.12 w i t h i n a tentative outline o f the author's h e r m e n e u t i c Even
less c l a r i t y m a y
' a n g e l s ' w h o are d e n i e d according to 1 . 1 2 of
6 4
be full
expected knowledge
6 3
.
c o n c e r n i n g the identity o f the o f G o d ' s plan o f redemption,
. A r e t h e y ' t h e spirits in p r i s o n ' o f 3 . 1 9 , s o m e o r all
those beings w h o m
C h r i s t h a s ' s u b j e c t e d ' c i t e d at 3 . 2 2 , j u s t
'good'
a n g e l s , o r all a n g e l s o f w h a t e v e r k i n d ( s e e M k . 1 3 . 3 2 ) ? T h e P a l e s t i n i a n
6 0 A r d e n t l y d e f e n d e d , for e x a m p l e , b y A . T . H a n s o n , Jesus, to
Utterances,
1 4 1 , see
his
Technique,
1 3 3 — 6 , a n d o f t e n since. In a d d i t i o n
1 7 6 , a n d his Interpretation,
1 6 3 , along with
much
valuable discussion o f Pauline a n d J o h a n n i n e use o f Scripture. His fullest discussion o f I Pet. 1 . 1 0 — 2 is in Pastoral, Making,
4 7 f . His p o s i t i o n has b e e n just as a r d e n t l y o p p o s e d b y J . D . G . D u n n ,
e s p . 1 5 9 f f . , and he prefers s o m e t h i n g m o r e akin t o R e v . 1 9 . 1 0 . See a variation o f this
view b y B e a r e , 9 1 — 2 , w h o prefers to see here a reference t o the Spirit that c a m e o n Jesus at his b a p t i s m . M a n y prefer the pre-existent
Christ, h o w e v e r , such as K n o p f , H u t h e r , M o f f a t t ,
Bigg, S p i c q , Windisch-Preisker, S c h e l k l e , K e l l y , G o p p e l t , a n d B r o x . See E . S c h w e i z e r , VI,
4 4 7 , w h o identifies
'the Spirit o f Christ' as the/a
' H o l y Spirit' o f
TDNT,
1 . 1 2 , meaning God's
Spirit ( c p . 1 . 2 ) . 6 1 S o , D u n n , Making,
3 2 0 , n. 7 6 , w h o m a k e s a n u m b e r of careful d i s t i n c t i o n s , a l t h o u g h it is un
clear h o w the early C h u r c h m i g h t have regarded J e s u s as literally raised f r o m the dead were he t o m a k e his 'Harrowing of H e l l ' in n o t h i n g m o r e than his personal spirit w h i c h was a l w a y s his b y virtue o f being h u m a n , o r so the p s y c h o l o g y o f the day might have h a d may not yet be
it. T h e Jesus of 3 . 1 9
the e x a l t e d L o r d o f 3 . 2 2 , as it w e r e , b u t o n e m a y w o n d e r w h e t h e r the early
C h u r c h , a n d the t r a d i t i o n a l l y - m i n d e d a u t h o r of I Peter after it, was u p to m a k i n g or appreciat ing such subtleties ( b u t c p . J n . 2 0 . 1 7 ) . 6 2 S o , for e x a m p l e , G o p p e l t , 3 0 6 , n. 3 1 , to I Pet. 4 . 1 4 , a n d the lit. cited there, t h o u g h he himself d o e s n o t d r a w this particular inference f r o m the evidence. 6 3 It is regrettable that greater precision is n o t possible apart f r o m m u c h m o r e detailed analysis of the issues, so this p o s i t i o n is a d o p t e d o u t of c o n c e r n for going b e y o n d the evidence and as s u m i n g t o o m u c h a b o u t the author's h e r m e n e u t i c in this respect. 6 4 B o t h Beare, 9 4 , and Best, 8 3 , n o t e
the possibility
of a relationship b e t w e e n 1 . 1 2 a n d 3 . 2 2 ,
b u t decline t o limit the interpretation o f 1 . 1 2 in terms of 3 . 2 2 . F o r evil angels a l o n e , see per haps I C o r . 2 . 8 , a l t h o u g h W . Carr, Angels, o n o t h e r g r o u n d s . A . T . H a n s o n , Jesus,
passim, has argued strongly against such a possibility
1 1 6 , suggests all angels s h o u l d b e included because they
have n o mediatorial f u n c t i o n in the n e w age ( A s c . Is. 9 . 1 5 ? ) . F o r discussion a n d evidence angels
see
esp. J . M i c h l , RAC,
V , cols. 5 3 — 1 9 9 .
see, for instance, D . S . Russell, Method, Jewish,
11 7 - 4 6 and 1 8 1 - 7 .
F o r pre-Christian angelologies
on
in J u d a i s m
2 3 5 — 6 2 , a n d for later d e v e l o p m e n t s see J. Danie'lou,
/ Peter 1.10—2: a Hermeneutical Key T a r g u m tradition
105
to G e n . 2 8 . 1 2 might b e discernible here, and that c o u l d
f a v o u r a r e s t r i c t i o n t o g o o d a n g e l s a l o n e , b e c a u s e this w o u l d b e t h e o n l y flattering
c o m p a r i s o n possible (see a b o v e p . 4 1 , n . 7 5 ) .
N o o t h e r angels
m a y entertain realistic h o p e t o b e granted a c c e s s t o s u c h c l o s e l y - g u a r d e d s e c r e t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , l i t t l e c o n f i d e n c e is p o s s i b l e u n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . W h a t c a n b e said w i t h s o m e c o n f i d e n c e is t h a t 1.10—2 o f f e r s a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f s p i r i t - b e i n g s w h o m a y f i g u r e in t h e m e d i a t i o n o f h e a v e n l y w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e . T h u s a r a t h e r e l a b o r a t e p n e u m a t o l o g y s t a n d s at t h e heart o f the author's h e r m e n e u t i c .
In a d d i t i o n , if t h e p r o p h e t s o f 1 . 1 0
are O T f i g u r e s , t h e n t h e a u t h o r p r o b a b l y d o e s n o t
attribute the Christo-
l o g i c a l i m p o r t o f their m e s s a g e t o a n e x e g e s i s c u r r e n t in t h e e a r l y C h u r c h inspired p r e s u m a b l y b y the H o l y Spirit o f 1.12, b u t t o the p r e v i o u s activ ity o f Christ himself, o r s o m e o t h e r h e a v e n l y b e i n g . M o v i n g o n t o a n o t h e r issue, the referent
o f ' g r a c e ' in 1 . 1 0 is p r o b l e m
a t i c . H o r t s u g g e s t e d it m e a n t t h e a d m i s s i o n o f G e n t i l e s , c i t i n g A c t s 1 1 . 2 3 ( 4 9 ) . M o r e o v e r , b e c a u s e the
c o n t e x t emphasizes the disclosure o f divine
secrets a b o u t G o d ' s plan o f r e d e m p t i o n , duced from Eph. 2 . 1 1 — 3 . 6 way
6 5
a p l a u s i b l e p a r a l l e l m a y b e ad
. A t t h e s a m e t i m e it m a y b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e
the a u t h o r has u s e d the d e v i c e o f the p s e u d o n y m 'Peter' w o u l d p u t
it w e l l w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f t h e p o s s i b l e f o r h i m t o b e e x p l o i t i n g h e r e t h e p e r c e i v e d difference b e t w e e n Peter's heritage
a n d t h a t o f his a d d r e s s e e s
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a n c i e n t p r o m i s e s o f G o d . B u t B e s t c l a i m s ' g r a c e ' in 1.10
ought
n o t be confined to such a meaning and
t a k e s it i n s t e a d
as
' a l m o s t e q u i v a l e n t t o s a l v a t i o n ' ( 8 1 ) . C e r t a i n l y his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is h e l p e d e n o r m o u s l y b y t h e u n a b m i g u o u s u s e o f t h e w o r d in t h a t s e n s e i m m e d iately
afterwards
at
1.13,
referring
to
an
imminent
End
6 6
.
The
major
d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h a t v i e w is t h e w o r d ' s f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e e l s e w h e r e i n t h e letter t o realized e s c h a t o l o g y far, a n d n o t j u s t in t h e
6 7
. A l l o f G o d ' s s a v i n g a c t i o n in C h r i s t s o
future,
c a n b e s u m m e d u p b y t h e w o r d u s e d in
t h e l e t t e r ' s c l o s i n g f o r m u l a , eiupapTvpcJjv &eov
e t c r)v orrJTe,
ravrriv
eivai
e\r)$r)
xdpiv
rov
5 . 1 2 . H e n c e if t h e s e n s e o f 1 . 1 0 b e a r s a s t r o n g n o t e
o f realized e s c h a t o l o g y a l o n g w i t h a future
o n e , then the d o o r m a y b e
o p e n t o a n u a n c e i n v o l v i n g t h e a d m i s s i o n o f t h e G e n t i l e s as w e l l . W h a t is c l e a r o n a n y v i e w , h o w e v e r , is t h a t t h e b r u n t o f t h e m e s s a g e o f t h e p r o p h ets c o n c e r n s t h e a d d r e s s e e s a n d t h e i r i m m e d i a t e c i r c u m s t a n c e in w h i c h G o d is e f f e c t i v e l y a c t i v e ( 2 . 3 ) . T h e y are t h e o b j e c t o f his c o n c e r n f r o m o f o l d ( K a r a npoyvoooiv
deov
irarpoq,
1.2).
Still a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n p e r t a i n s t o t h e m e a n i n g o f etc, riva pov
in 1 . 1 1 . It is a p u z z l e t o k n o w w h e t h e r
r) Tioiov
nat-
a g e n u i n e d i s t i n c t i o n is in
t e n d e d b e t w e e n t h e p r o n o u n s , f o r e x a m p l e , o r , w h e t h e r it is a ' m e a n i n g l e s s tautology',
an e m b e l l i s h m e n t
' f o r t h e s a k e o f e m p h a s i s ' in t h e w o r d s o f
6 5 A n d c p . G a l . 1 . 1 5 f . F o l l o w i n g H o r t are M o f f a t t , S e l w y n , a n d W a l l s - S t i b b s , f o r e x a m p l e , w h o d o n o t c o n f i n e the reference t o the G e n t i l e m i s s i o n . 6 6 F o r the c o n c r e t e sense in I Peter as 'a gift', see also Bigg, 1 0 7 , a n d Beare, 9 1 . 6 7 See esp. G o p p e l t , 1 9 7 f . , stressing its nature as an 'event'.
106
The Herm eneu tic of I Pe ter
N. Turner
(Style,
1 2 9 ) . I f a d i s t i n c t i o n is i n t e n d e d , t h e n a n o t h e r set o f
q u e s t i o n s arises. T h e r e f e r e n t s m a y b e c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t , jiva c o n s t r u e d o f a ' p e r s o n ' ( s o R S V ) , a n d noiov
could be
r a t h e r w i t h aaipov.
On
the
o t h e r h a n d , b o t h p r o n o u n s m a y b e c o n s t r u e d w i t h ' t i m e ' , t h e first d e s i g nating o n e specific
moment
measured
c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , and the s e c o n d 6 8
d e s i g n a t i n g t h e a t t e n d a n t c o n d i t i o n s a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s . B u t all o f t h e a b o v e p r o p o s a l s p r e s u p p o s e t h a t r) is d i s j u n c t i v e , w h e r e a s it m i g h t b e c o n j u n c t i v e , such that the s e c o n d p r o n o u n w o u l d be i n t e n d e d t o soften definiteness ment cise
7 0
o f the
the
6 9
f i r s t . A n d s o m e t h i n g m a y b e said f o r an e m b e l l i s h
w h i c h , through a studied a m b i g u i t y , w o u l d a v o i d being overly pre . O n any reading, h o w e v e r , s o m e time referent
enough
for immediate
( s e e e s p . Is. 4 9 . 8 , J e r . Zeph.
3.17, 6.15, 10.15, 28.18, 50.27, 3 1 , Ezek.
3 . 1 6 - 2 0 , Dn. 7.22, 8.26, 9 . 1 - 2 ,
I V Ezra 9.Iff.,
is p r e s e n t , w h i c h is
purposes. Assorted texts r e c o m m e n d themselves 12.-13,
1 3 . 1 3 f f . , a n d II B a r . 2 6 . I f f . ) .
and
c p . I En.
The time when
12.27, l.lff.,
the vision
o r o r a c l e w o u l d b e f u l f i l l e d is p r o m i n e n t in t h e s e t e x t s , as in m a n y o t h e r s , a n d t h e p o i n t o f 1.1 I f . is t o assert t h a t t h e t i m e o f f u l f i l m e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r d etc, Xptorov
nadrjpaTa
Kai rdc. perd 7 1
urated a n d includes the a d d r e s s e e s . 'which
person', g o o d
sense
may
be
ravra
So^aq has b e e n inaug
L a s t l y , i f riva made from
is t o b e
construed
the author's
insistence
that these p r o p h e t s w e r e serving n o t themselves b u t the addressees. E a c h o n e o f t h e m is p i c t u r e d as h a v i n g a s k e d w h e t h e r M e s s i a h w o u l d c o m e in t h e i r l i f e t i m e a n d h a v i n g l e a r n e d , as it w e r e , t h a t h e w o u l d arise at a l a t e r d a y w h i c h w o u l d i n c l u d e the addressees ( c p . A c t s . 8 . 3 4 )
7 2
.
A final m a t t e r o f e x e g e t i c a l d e t a i l t o b e c o n s i d e r e d r e g a r d i n g I P e t . —2 r e l a t e s t o t h e v e r y c o r e o f t h e p r o p h e t s ' m e s s a g e , as n o t e d , ' t h e ferings d e s t i n e d
f o r C h r i s t a n d t h e g l o r i e s after t h e s e ' . T h e vast
1.10 suf
majority
o f c o m m e n t a t o r s s i m p l y a s s u m e t h e p h r a s e refers t o t h e P a s s i o n a n d E x a l -
6 8 A s w i t h m o s t o f the c o m m e n t a t o r s : v o n S o d e n , 1 2 8 , H u t h e r , 7 1 , H o r t , 5 1 , K n o p f , 5 6 , Schweizer, 2 3 , S e l w y n , 1 3 5 , Cranfield, 4 3 , R e i c k e , 8 0 , Bigg, 1 0 7 , M o f f a t t , 1 0 1 , S p i c q , 5 5 , G o p p e l t , 1 0 7 , S c h e l k l e , 3 9 , Schrage, 7 1 , a n d M i c h l , 1 0 9 . K e l l y a c c e p t s it as a possibility b u t d e f e n d s R S V , a translation c o r r e c t e d b y B e s t , 8 1 , w h o prefers the m a j o r i t y view. 6 9 Presumably w h a t Beare has in m i n d , 9 1 , f o l l o w i n g the fifth e d i t i o n o f B D F , § 2 9 8 , 2 . 7 0 So s e e m s t o b e the v i e w o f BDF, 71 See esp. D u n n , Making,
§ 2 9 8 , 2 , tenth e d i t i o n .
1 5 9 , for the inclusive f r a m e o f reference, c o m p a r i n g II C o r . 1 . 2 1 . A s
to the p e r i o d i z a t i o n o f G o d ' s plan o f salvation, see I V Ezra 4 . 3 5 — 7 , 'Did n o t the souls o f the righteous in their c h a m b e r s ask a b o u t these m a t t e r s , saying, " H o w l o n g are w e t o r e m a i n h e r e ? A n d w h e n will c o m e the harvest o f our r e w a r d ? " A n d J e r e m i e l the archangel answered t h e m and said, " W h e n the n u m b e r o f those like yourselves is c o m p l e t e d ; f o r he has w e i g h e d the age in the b a l a n c e , a n d m e a s u r e d the t i m e s b y m e a s u r e , a n d n u m b e r e d the times b y n u m b e r ; a n d he will n o t m o v e or arouse t h e m until that measure is f u l f i l l e d " (TOTP,
I, 5 3 1 ) ' . H o w e v e r ,
against an over-emphasis u p o n the significance o f t i m e - p r e d i c t i o n in a p o c a l y p t i c literature see L. H a r t m a n , ' T i m e t a b l e s ' , 1 — 1 4 . 7 2 O n this v i e w the singular, riva,
w o u l d be explicable as each p r o p h e t asking a b o u t
himself,
w h e t h e r h e w o u l d live to see the d a y , a n d learning o t h e r w i s e . T h u s vfj.lv in 1 . 1 2 w o u l d answer t o it, a n d vvv Xpiorov
t o noiov
Kaipov,
Ttadr\i±a.Ta Kai r d c
nerd
c o m p l e m e n t i n g the w a y avrd ravra
6d£ac.
in 1 . 1 2 answers t o 1 . 1 1 , rd etc
/ Peter 1.10-2: a Hermeneutical Key
107
tation o f J e s u s . T h e y see that b o t h ideas c a n b e d o c u m e n t e d f r o m
the
l e t t e r , s u c h as 1 . 1 9 , 2 . 2 1 - 5 , a n d 3 . 1 8 f o r t h e f o r m e r , a n d 1 . 2 1 , 3 . 2 2 , a n d 7 3
4 . 1 3 for the l a t t e r . But such a position w o u l d b e difficult to maintain, if XpioTdvbe
c o n s t r u e d n o t as w h a t b y t h e n h a d b e c o m e a p r o p e r n a m e f o r
J e s u s , b u t as t h e e q u i v a l e n t f o r r p w t t n in t h e m a n n e r o f O T e s c h a t o l ogy
7 4
. A f e w c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e r e g a r d e d it in p r e c i s e l y this f a s h i o n a n d
u n d e r s t o o d t h e e n t i r e p h r a s e r d elq Xpiarov
Tradripara t o r e f e r t o t h e 7 5
'Messianic W o e s ' , a p o p u l a r t h e m e in e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e . A l t h o u g h B e s t a c c e p t s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s t a t e m e n t s in 1.6f., 4 . 1 2 f . , a n d 5.1 in t h o s e terms, he does n o t accept to d o so for 1.11, because, unlike 4 . 1 3 and 5 . 1 , Xpiorbv
is a n a r t h r o u s ( 1 6 3 ) . Y e t t h a t is a v e r y g r e a t d e a l o f w e i g h t
to
attach t o the absence o f a m e r e definite article, and m a y seem u n c o n v i n c ing t o a n y o n e w h o is fairly i m p r e s s e d b y t h e p a r a l l e l f o r m u l a t i o n s o f all t h r e e m a i n t e x t s , 1 . 1 1 , 4 . 1 3 , a n d 5.1 ( a n d c p . 1 . 6 f w i t h 1 . 1 1 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it w o u l d b e s c a r c e l y c r e d i b l e t o s u p p o s e t h e s e t e x t s m i g h t a c t u a l l y e x c l u d e all r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d e s t i n y o f J e s u s , g i v e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e e x a m p l e o f C h r i s t in t h e l e t t e r ' s b o d y . H e n c e a p a l p a b l e d i l e m m a e m e r g e s w h i c h m a k e s it p r e f e r a b l e t o see w h e t h e r t h e s e p o s i t i o n s m a y b e reconciled. Perhaps
the
m i s t a k e is
to
assume that the personal and
collective
f r a m e s o f r e f e r e n c e are s o m e h o w f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h e a c h other. Given a c o n t e x t d o m i n a t e d b y a radically eschatological o u t l o o k , f o r e x a m p l e , it w o u l d s e e m p l a u s i b l e t h a t a n y m e n t i o n o f ' t h e s u f f e r i n g s
7 3 U s u a l l y the g l o r i f i c a t i o n / e x a l t a t i o n is seen as a u n i t y c o m p r e h e n d i n g successive stages — resur r e c t i o n , a s c e n s i o n , h e a v e n l y session, parousia, s o K n o p f , 5 7 , B e a r e , 9 3 , S p i c q , 5 6 , S c h e l k l e , 4 0 , Best, 8 1 f., a n d K e l l y , f o r e x a m p l e . T h e s e stages are h a b i t u a l l y c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as l i m i t e d in significance t o the p e r s o n o f J e s u s despite t h e parallel w i t h 'sufferings'. A n d w h e r e a s m o s t sup p o s e the a u t h o r has various p r o p h e c i e s in m i n d w h e n he refers t o Christ's 'sufferings', it seems Knopf
a n d Best are a m o n g the f e w w h o realize that the f o r c e o f the parallel requires that
p r o p h e t i c t e s t i m o n i e s a b o u t the 'glories' are also in m i n d , ' G r a d e diese S a c h e n , das L e i d e n des Christus u n d seine E r h o h u n g d a r n a c h , lesen die Christen aus d e n heiligen B u c h e r n der Propheten heraus' ( 5 7 ) . 7 4 F o r Xpiard
IX,
e s p . 5 0 9 f f . F o r the suggested interpretation see H o r t , 5 4 f . 7 5 A s d o e s H o r t , a n d M o f f a t t , 1 0 1 , S e l w y n , 1 3 6 , a n d R e i c k e , 8 1 , f o l l o w h i m . F o r t h e ' W o e s ' see e s p . D n . 1 2 . 1 f . , J u b . 2 3 . 1 3 - 2 5 , I E n . 8 0 . 2 - 7 , e t c . , Sib. O r . III. 5 3 8 f . , e t c . , V . 5 1 2 f . , A s s . M o s . 8 . 1 f . , I V Ezra 5.1ff. T h e y are a n ever-recurring m o t i f at Q u m r a n . C p . 1 Q H I I I . 7 - 1 0 w i t h R e v . 1 2 . 1 f. f o r the 'birth-pangs' o f M e s s i a h . T h e s e include natural disasters a n d social disorders, such as e a r t h q u a k e s , v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s , a s t r o n o m i c a l p h e n o m e n a , d i s r u p t i o n s o f the n o r m a l b i o l o g ical c y c l e s , o n the o n e h a n d , a n d , ization, o n
the
other.
R u s s e l l , Method,
f a m i n e , disease, warfare, a p o s t a s y , a n d the collapse o f civil
F o r detailed
271-80,
discussions
see
e s p . P. V o l z , Eschatologie,
147ff., D.S.
P. V i e l h a u e r , ' A p o c a l y p t i c ' , 5 8 9 , C . R o w l a n d , Heaven,
416f., and
J.J. C o l l i n s , Daniel,
1 2 f . W h a t has largely e s c a p e d n o t i c e , h o w e v e r , is that the t h e m e s o f rever
sal a n d restoration
m a y also b e l o n g to the s a m e basic c o m p l e x o f ideas. F o r instance,
' W o e s ' recited
the
in J u b . 2 3 . 1 3 — 2 5 are q u i c k l y f o l l o w e d b y the 'Glories' w h i c h the
righteous
m a y e x p e c t in vv. 3 0 f f . See also I E n . 1 0 3 . 2 f f . , a n d the analysis b y H e n g e l , Judaism,
I, 1 9 6 —
202.
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
108
d e s t i n e d f o r C h r i s t ' is l i k e l y t o p o s s e s s a c o l l e c t i v e f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e t h a t m i g h t c o n c e i v a b l y t a k e m a n y p o s s i b l e f o r m s . Y e t this is n o t t o s a y t h e p e r s o n a l f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e is n e c e s s a r i l y a b s e n t , o r w h e n t h e p e r s o n a l f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e is u n m i s t a k a b l y p r e s e n t , as in 1 . 1 1 , t o s a y t h a t t h e c o l lective
r e f e r e n c e is n e c e s s a r i l y a b s e n t . W h a t h a p p e n e d t o J e s u s
might
n a t u r a l l y h a v e a l l o w e d itself t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o r d e a l f a c i n g all ( c p . I T h e s s . 1 . 1 0 ) . T h e h o r r o r o f a c r u c i f i e d M e s s i a h m i g h t e v e n a d d n e w a n d m o r e sinister o v e r t o n e s t o t h e l a n g u a g e o f c o l l e c t i v e i m p e n d i n g disaster w h i c h m i g h t n e v e r b e t o t a l l y dissipated despite
the r o u t i n e use o f the p h r a s e o l o g y reflected 7 6
nature .
b y its
formulaic
O n this v i e w , a c c o r d i n g l y , t h e parallel ' a n d t h e g l o r i e s after
these things' m a y b y w a y
o f a n a l o g y retain
b o t h the personal and col
lective dimensions. W h a t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l y c e r t a i n n e v e r t h e l e s s is that t h e c o n t r a s t o f 'suf f e r i n g s ' a n d ' g l o r i e s ' f u n c t i o n s as a k i n d o f s c h e m a w h i c h h e l p s t h e a u t h o r to
organize the Scriptural f o u n d a t i o n s i m p l i e d b y the reference t o the
p r o p h e t s , w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e O T o r N T p e r s o n s . In this r e s p e c t h e is q u i t e t r a d i t i o n a l , as t h e N T parallels s h o w
7 7
. T h e message o f the Scriptures
seems t o include a variety o f 'secrets' applicable t o the E n d - t i m e genera tion. T h e disclosures pertain b o t h t o tribulation and c o n s u m m a t i o n , b o t h t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t o t h e c o r p o r a t e . T h e r e s u l t is a p a t t e r n w h i c h m a y b e u s e d f o r c o m p a r i s i o n w i t h t h e w a y t h e a u t h o r a c t u a l l y u s e s t h e O T in his l e t t e r t o test f o r a n y s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m .
7 6 See a b o v e all the careful study of the n u a n c e s associated with the Cross b y H e n g e l ,
Crucifixion,
passim. T h a t the u n t h i n k a b l e had h a p p e n e d t o G o d ' s A n o i n t e d might have c o m p e l l e d m a n y to interpret it in terms o f the ' W o e s ' , w h i c h was surely the category closest at h a n d f r o m a n escha tological perspective. T h u s it m i g h t c o m e t o b e v i e w e d as a disclosure o f just precisely
the
e x t r e m i t y o f the horrors t o c o m e . A n d if such a fate c o u l d befall the M e s s i a h , t h e n , or so the reasoning m i g h t have g o n e , where w o u l d that leave his f o l l o w e r s ? H e n c e it is reasonable t o sup p o s e that there was a basis t o m o v e directly f r o m a personal f r a m e of reference in early Chris tian
thinking
a b o u t the Messianic ' W o e s ' t o a c o r p o r a t e o n e . O n this view, the
Crucifixion
w o u l d q u i c k l y c o m e t o represent a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d , c o n c r e t e definition o f the nature a n d scale of
the ' W o e s ' a t t e n d i n g the E n d that w o u l d necessarily i m p l y a collective f r a m e of reference
wherever o n e was n o t explicit. 7 7 See a b o v e n. 5 6 , a n d also I C o r . 1 5 . 3 — 4 , w h e r e the antithesis o f d e a t h and resurrection are e x p o u n d e d 'according to t h e Scriptures', w h i c h is the p o s i t i o n , for e x a m p l e , o f M o f f a t t ( 1 0 1 ) , Beare ( 9 2 — 3 ) , and Schrage ( 7 1 ) . See also A . T . H a n s o n , Technique,
1 3 f f . , for the reproach a n d
vindication of the Messiah in relationship to early Christian exegesis of the Scriptures. A n d y e t perhaps the m o s t e x o t i c N T instance o f the first m e m b e r o f the antithesis is in M k . 1 0 . 3 3 — 4 with perhaps seven separate i t e m s c o n n e c t e d with the Passion. T h e e n d - t e r m of the process o f s c h e m a t i z a t i o n m a y b e g l i m p s e d in a t e x t f r o m the K e r y g m a P e t r o u : But
w e o p e n e d the b o o k s o f the p r o p h e t s w h i c h w e h a d , w h i c h partly in parables, partly in
e n i g m a s , partly with certainty a n d in clear w o r d s n a m e Christ J e s u s , a n d f o u n d his c o m i n g , his d e a t h , his crucifixion and all the rest o f the tortures w h i c h the J e w s inflicted o n h i m , his resurrection a n d his a s s u m p t i o n t o h e a v e n b e f o r e the f o u n d a t i o n of J e r u s a l e m , h o w all was written that he had to suffer a n d w h a t w o u l d b e after h i m . R e c o g n i z i n g this, w e be lieved G o d in c o n s e q u e n c e of w h a t is w r i t t e n o f h i m . ( C l e m , of A l e x . , Strom. the E n g . trans, is f r o m E . H e n n e c k e , II, l O l f . )
VI. 15. 128;
The Historical Context of I Peter 1.10-2 T o sum up gathered
the a n a l y s i s o f 1 . 1 0 — 2 , c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n
c o n c e r n i n g the
terminology,
109
radical
author's
basic hermeneutical
eschatological
orientation.
viewpoint, concept
His
o f revelation,
elaborate p e n u m a t o l o g y , c o n c e r n for the time o f fulfilment, awareness o f the
dimensions o f the
Christ-event,
and
reliance u p o n
the
Scriptures,
have b e e n repeatedly illuminated b y appeal to a peculiarly Jewish hermen eutical tradition
w h i c h b e c a m e a m a j o r f o r c e in t h e e a r l y C h u r c h . T h u s
i n d e p e n d e n t c o r r o b o r a t i o n has b e e n a c h i e v e d o f t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h in t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g , a n o t h e r p e c u l i a r l y J e w i s h h e r m e n e u t i c a l t r a d i t i o n l i k e w i s e t o b e s e e n in t h e e a r l y C h u r c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e ' s u f f e r i n g s ' / ' g l o r i e s ' s c h e m a in 1.11 p r o v i d e s a m e a n s f o r e x a m i n i n g O T references outside o f the b o d y - o p e n i n g for points o f c o n t a c t author's
hermeneutic
without
requiring
that a literary
with
the
foundation
first
b e p r o v i d e d in the f o r m o f o n e Gattung ox a n o t h e r . S o , in m o r e t h a n o n e w a y it m a y b e l e g i t i m a t e t o call I P e t . 1.10—2 a h e r m e n e u t i c a l k e y , s i n c e it n o t o n l y g i v e s u n m a t c h e d insight i n t o w h a t b y all a p p e a r a n c e s is at least a m a j o r aspect o f the a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c a l stance, b u t also a l l o w s f o r c o n v e n i e n t a c c e s s t o his u s e o f t h e O T e l s e w h e r e in t h e l e t t e r . It w o u l d t h e r e f o r e c o u n t c o n s i d e r a b l y against t h e thesis w e r e n o s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s d i s c o v e r e d b e t w e e n t h e h e r m e n e u t i c t h a t m a y b e g l i m p s e d at 1.10— 2 a n d t h e u s e t o w h i c h t h e O T w a s p u t in t h e rest o f t h e l e t t e r . B u t b e f o r e t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n m a y p r o c e e d t o p e r f o r m s u c h a n analysis it m a y p r o v e i n s t r u c t i v e t o i n s p e c t m o r e c l o s e l y t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h and Christian h e r m e n e u t i c a l traditions f o r a n y additional light t h e y m i g h t s h e d o n t h e k i n d o f h e r m e n e u t i c t h a t 1 . 1 0 — 1 2 e x h i b i t s . A s earlier,
first
the J e w i s h b a c k g r o u n d m a y b e e x a m i n e d , a n d t h e n t h e C h r i s t i a n .
3. The Historical Context o f l Peter 1.10-2 A s far as t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e is c o n c e r n e d , n o m o r e r e l e v a n t o r a b u n d a n t m a t e r i a l is a v a i l a b l e f o r c o m p a r i s o n t h a n that f r o m Q u m r a n valuable t h o u g h little
fresh
it m a y
7 8
.
In
b e , the t e s t i m o n y o f the a p o c a l y p s e s p r o v i d e s
e v i d e n c e as t o h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , m e t h o d s , a n d
d e v i c e s , w h i c h has n o t a l r e a d y b e e n t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , w h e r e a s t h e r e are s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s p e r t i n e n t t o t h e i r t e s t i m o n y w h i c h are n o t as s e v e r e in the case o f Q u m r a n
7 8 For a b i b l i o g r a p h y G a s t e r , Scriptures,
7 9
. F r o m a very rich d e p o s i t o f materials spanning cen-
see J . A . F i t z m y e r , Tools, passim, a n d DSSE,
esp.
passim. F o r i n t r o d u c t i o n s see, for e x a m p l e , T . H . 1 6 — 6 8 , DSS,
passim, a n d , D . D i m a n t , ' Q u m r a n ' ,
4 8 3 - 5 5 0 , esp. 5 0 4 - 2 2 for O T interpretation. 7 9 T h e s e are readily
acknowledged
t o include q u e s t i o n s o f p r o v e n a n c e a n d i n t e n d e d
readership.
For i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the literature a n d a discussion o f the p r o b l e m s see esp. G . W . E . burg, 'Rewritten',
8 9 f f . , J.J.
Collins, ' T e s t a m e n t s ' ,
325ff.,
idem,
Nickles-
'Oracles', 3 5 7 f f . , a n d , M . E .
Stone,
' A p o c a l y p t i c ' , 3 8 3 f f . See as well the invaluable articles in D . H e l l h o l m , e d . ,
ticism,
passim. A m o n g fairly r e c e n t , important
Apocalyp
studies d e v o t e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f the
venticles responsible for m u c h o f this literature m a y b e m e n t i o n e d , O . Ploger,
Theocracy,
con pas-
110
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
turies t h e s e t t i n g a n d p e r s p e c t i v e o p e r a t i v e in t h e Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y has b e e n clarified t o an e x t e n t that m a y never b e equalled f o r t h o s e c o m m u n i ties r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a p o c a l y p s e s a n d r e l a t e d w o r k s . A p i c t u r e o f Q u m ran's h e r m e n e u t i c h a s e m e r g e d w h i c h r e s e m b l e s t h a t o f t h e e a r l y C h u r c h m o r e n e a r l y t h a n a n y o t h e r w h e t h e r in c o n t e n t o r f o r m and
8 0
. Fairly stable
consistent hermeneutical presuppositions, methods, and techniques
e n d u r e d within the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y seemingly t h r o u g h o u t the p e r i o d in q u e s t i o n
8 1
. T h e C o n v e n a n t e r s live o u t o f a r a d i c a l l y e s c h a t o l o g i c a l
v i s i o n , b e l i e v e t h e y are t h e E n d - t i m e p e o p l e o f G o d , b e l i e v e t h e i r e x e g e s i s a l o n e is t h e r e f o r e i n s p i r e d , b e l i e v e t h e y a n d t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s are t h e objects
o f Scriptural p r o p h e c y ,
sim, a n d P . D . H a n s o n , Dawn,
passim. A useful review o f the history o f research in a p o c a l y p t i c
is J . M . S c h m i d t , Apokalyptik, Hart m a n , Asking,
cultivate a k n o w l e d g e o f the heavenly
p a s s i m . M a j o r studies c o n t i n u e t o a c c u m u l a t e , f o r e x a m p l e , L .
p a s s i m , a n d , J . C . V a n d e r K a m , Enoch,
passim.
8 0 T h a t is to say, b o t h Q u m r a n a n d the early C h u r c h p r e s u p p o s e a very b r o a d h e r m e n e u t i c w i t h a conspicuous Jewish
character, b u t b o t h also have in c o m m o n a n eschatological
dimension
w h i c h has b e e n refined to a n e x t e n t that distinguishes t h e m t o g e t h e r against their e n v i r o n m e n t . T h u s the significance o f the t a r g u m i m , m i d r a s h i m , a n d so o n is n o t b e i n g d e v a l u e d in its useful ness f o r literary c o m p a r i s o n , f o r instance, or in the definition o f genres, etc. I n d e e d , such a c o n v e r g e n c e o f Q u m r a n a n d the early C h u r c h vis-a-vis
their J e w i s h milieu m a y b e in terms o f
degree, n o t q u a l i t y . See the review b y M . P . Miller, ' T a r g u m ' , 2 9 — 8 2 . O n the other h a n d , t h e simi larities b e t w e e n Q u m r a n ' s h e r m e n e u t i c a n d that o f t h e early C h u r c h o u g h t n o t t o be exaggera ted t o the d e t r i m e n t o f the differences. J . M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , Paul,
See in this regard e s p . K . S t e n d a h l , Scrolls,
p a s s i m , M . B l a c k , Scrolls,
passim,
passim, and, J . H . Charlesworth,
John,
passim, f o r c o l l e c t i o n s o f articles pertaining t o the s u b j e c t . F o r a c o m p a r a t i v e assessment see H . B r a u n , Qumran
I/II,
passim.
8 1 In a d d i t i o n t o the literature cited a b o v e in n n . 7 8 a n d 8 0 , see e s p . E . S l o m o v i c , 'Exegesis', 3ff., G . V e r m e s , 'Setting', 3 7 f f . , C . R o t h , 'Exegesis', 5 I f f . , a n d for its affinities w i t h m i d r a s h , see I . L . S e e l i g m a n n , ' V o r a u s s e t z u n g e n ' , 1 7 1 , n. 1 , a n d A . G . W r i g h t , ' G e n r e ' , 4 1 8 f f . , whereas others resist a n y such indentifications, such as M . B u r r o w s , Scrolls, 7 6 , a n d A . D u p o n t - S o m m e r , Essene,
2 1 1 , J . L . T e i c h e r , 'Scrolls',
2 8 0 f . T h e q u e s t i o n has b e e n c o m p l i c a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y
b y slippery t e r m s , a n d b y the use o f later t y p e s o f midrash t o d e f i n e earlier. In r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r o b l e m D . Patte, Hermeneutic,
315-24,
tried t o n o r m a l i z e the t e r m s , b u t t o little e f f e c t it
s e e m s . Q u m r a n c o u l d describe its pesher h e r m e n e u t i c as m i d r a s h , as in 4 Q F l o r I. 1 4 , ttf1"T?3
bv "mn
TOD
o ^ w n nsyn-j^n i o n i u m
UPKH
•nwwa. M a n y
accept
such a relationship as l o n g as it is n o t c o n f u s e d w i t h the q u e s t i o n o f genre, like J . T . Milik, F r a g m e n t s ' , 4 1 3 , n. 4 , J . M . A l l e g r o , ' F r a g m e n t s ' , 3 5 0 , J . van der Ploeg, ' R o u l e a u ' , 2 , W . R . L a n e , 'Florilegium', 3 4 6 ; c p . G . B r o o k e , ' R e d e f i n i t i o n ' , 4 8 3 f f . It is perhaps b e t t e r t o speak o f a certain eclecticism in m e t h o d s a n d practices e x h i b i t e d b y the p e r f o r m e r s o f pesher, p o s s i b l y including an e l e m e n t o f syncretism. Such a distinction w o u l d h e l p guard against a n a c h r o n i s m o n the o n e h a n d , b u t a v o i d a n y i m p l i c a t i o n that Q u m r a n e x e g e t e s s u p p o s e d t h e y w e r e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g in e x p o u n d i n g legal p r e c e p t s , say, crucially different f r o m w h a t t h e y d i d w h e n ex p o u n d i n g the p r o p h e t s . T h e d o c t r i n e o f relevation t h e y h a d is clearly t o o well-defined integrated t o s u p p o r t such a n o t i o n . See the still unsurpassed s t u d y b y O . B e t z ,
and
Offenbarung,
passim. A break-through in the s t u d y o f Q u m r a n ' s h e r m e n e u t i c c a m e w h e n L . H . S i l b e r m a n , 'Unriddling', 3 2 3 — 6 4 , t o o k u p a n o b s e r v a t i o n b y K . Elliger, Habakkuk,
1 6 3 f . , a n d traced the
primary h e r m e n e u t i c b e h i n d pesher t o the practice o f d r e a m - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , having p r o m i n e n t associations with the J o s e p h c y c l e in G e n e s i s , a n d Daniel. O t h e r s have a d d e d t o a n d refined his position,
such as A . Finkel,
H o r g a n , Pesharim,
'Pesher' 3 5 7 - 7 0 ,
I. R a b i n o w i t z , 'Pittaron', 2 2 3 - 3 2 , a n d M . P .
until it s e e m s t o b e quite the a c c e p t e d v i e w . O f c o u r s e , the r o o t s o f the tech
n i q u e are essentially allegorical.
The Historical Context of I Peter 1.10-2 world and
111
secrets, converse with heavenly bearers o f w i s d o m , a n d dev
e l o p their o w n system o f discipline, g o v e r n m e n t , w o r s h i p , and ance.
In
mainten
s h o r t , t h e y are s e c t a r i a n , a n d , l i k e t h e e a r l y C h u r c h , o f f e r
alternative w a y o f life t o the
an
mainstream.
W h a t is t r u e w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f a p o c a l y p t i c a n d
related
l i t e r a t u r e s vis-a-vis t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f Q u m r a n is all t h e m o r e t r u e o f t h e little r e m a i n i n g
evidence for various kinds
p r o p h e c y in c o n t e m p o r a r y J u d a i s m
8 2
o f eschatologically-oriented
. T h u s the fact that space d o e s n o t
p e r m i t the sort o f attention t o the a c c u m u l a t e d e v i d e n c e w h i c h w o u l d b e m o s t b e n e f i c i a l is p e r h a p s n o t s o s e r i o u s a d i s a b i l i t y , w h e n at l e a s t e n o u g h e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n c a n b e presented t o establish the basic h e r m e n e u tical affinities w i t h I Pet. 1 . 1 0 - 2 . Perhaps
n o s i n g l e p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n is m o r e a p p o s i t e t o
I Pet. 1 . 1 0 - 2 than l Q p H a b V I I . 1 - 5 : A n d G o d t o l d H a b a k k u k t o write d o w n that w h i c h w o u l d h a p p e n t o the final g e n e r a t i o n , but
H e did n o t
1V7
in
make
known
to h i m w h e n
the t i m e w o u l d c o m e t o a n e n d ( 1 ?2A
nttl
K l ^ f p n ) . A n d as for that w h i c h H e said, That he who reads may read it
speed
interpreted ( 1 1 V ) 5 ) this c o n c e r n s the T e a c h e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s , to w h o m G o d m a d e
ily,
k n o w n all the m y s t e r i e s o f the w o r d s ( D ^ l J i n ants the P r o p h e t s . ( E n g . tr. f r o m DSSE,
V T 3 y
,,
"")2"r
"»]")
b 1D ) o f His serv
239)
M a n y o f t h e c o m m e n t a t o r s n o t e t h e a f f i n i t y in p a s s i n g , b u t o n l y a f e w s c h o l a r s h a v e c o m p a r e d t h e t e x t s in a n y d e t a i l , s o t h a t t h e r e is all m o r e reason t o d o so h e r e
8 3
the
.
T h e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e m is u p o n c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n l i t t l e less t h a n b r e a t h - t a k i n g : b o t h ( 1 ) f o c u s o n c e r t a i n p r o p h e t s w h o ( 2 ) G o d inspired ( 3 ) t o predict, a m o n g o t h e r things, ( 4 ) the events associa ted
with
( 5 ) the
End-time,
(6) though
the
precise m o m e n t m a y
have
e l u d e d t h e m , ( 7 ) and w h o s e w o r d s ( 8 ) require inspired interpretations ( 9 ) by
divinely appointed
persons,
( 1 0 ) in
o r d e r t h a t the final
generation
m i g h t u n d e r s t a n d c o r r e c t l y , a n d , it is i m p l i e d , ( 1 1 ) r e s p o n d a p p r o p r i a t e l y . The
force
whether
of
the
comparison
varies
only
somewhat depending
8 2 See the e x h a u s t i v e s t u d y o f the material f r o m J o s e p h u s , a n d elsewhere b y D . E . A u n e , ecy,
on
t h e p r o p h e t s in 1 . 1 0 are t a k e n t o b e O T o r N T f i g u r e s . I f t h e
Proph
esp. 1 2 1 — 4 7 .
8 3 It s e e m s F . F . B r u c e , Exegesis,
6 6 f . , was the first t o n o t e the affinities in a b r o a d m a n n e r . S o m e
o f the c o m m e n t a t o r s have o b s e r v e d the parallel, b u t w i t h o u t seeing the i m p l i c a t i o n s for the a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c as Bruce d o e s , like S c h e l k l e , 4 0 , R e i c k e , 8 0 , K e l l y , 6 0 , Schrage, 7 1 , G o p p e l t , 1 0 7 - 9 , a n d B r o x , 6 9 . K . Stendahl suspected s o m e t h i n g o f the sort b y his r e m a r k s in School, Wort,
1 1 7 a n d 1 1 9 , n. 4 , a n d after the p u b l i c a t i o n o f his c o m m e n t a r y so also did S c h e l k l e , 4 0 and n. 2 1 . W h a t distinguishes Q u m r a n sharply here f r o m its e n v i r o n m e n t , a p p a r e n t l y ,
is its sustained sense o f living in a p e r i o d o f eschatological realization that brings its history t o the fore in G o d ' s dealing with his p e o p l e . T h e a n a l o g y with the early C h u r c h , a n d here in I Pet. 1 . 1 0 - 2 is therefore c o m p e l l i n g . C p . l Q p H a b II. 6 - 1 0 : T h e y , the m e n o f v i o l e n c e a n d the breakers o f the C o v e n a n t , will n o t believe w h e n they hear all that . . . the final generation f r o m the Priest . . . G o d set . . . that h e m i g h t interpret all the w o r d s o f His Servants the Prophets, through w h o m H e f o r e t o l d all that w o u l d h a p p e n t o His p e o p l e . {DSSE,
236)
112
The Herm en cu tic of I Peter
former,
then the
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e is v i r t u a l l y
point for point, and
'those
w h o e v a n g e l i z e d t h r o u g h t h e H o l y S p i r i t s e n t f r o m h e a v e n ' in 1 . 1 2 pare with
com
t h e T e a c h e r a n d his s u c c e s s o r s . I f t h e l a t t e r , t h e n t h e T e a c h e r
m a y be likened
t o t h e C h r i s t i a n p r o p h e t s a n d t h e e v a n g e l i s t s t o his s u c
cessors. O n e particular c o r r e s p o n d e n c e bears further study. T h e c o n c e p t i o n o f ' t i m e w h e n ' a n d h o w it p e r t a i n s t o t h e last g e n e r a t i o n
continues to be
e l u c i d a t e d in t h e verses w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w in c o l . V I I . T h e r e
the
a u t h o r takes the ' d e l a y ' o f H a b . 2.3 t o refer t o the u n e x p e c t e d p o s t p o n e m e n t o f the E n d , and c o n s o l e s the Covenanters t o wait patiently
'because
all G o d ' s t i m e s w i l l c o m e in t h e i r m e a s u r e d s e q u e n c e , j u s t as H e d e c r e e d f o r t h e m in t h e m y s t e r i e s o f H i s p r o v i d e n c e '
8 4
. T h e p e r i o d i z a t i o n o f his
t o r y , a c o n c e p t Q u m r a n s h a r e s w i t h a p o c a l y p t i c , h e r e s t a n d s at t h e c e n t r e of
their h e r m e n e u t i c
Katpov
8 5
.
The
position
o f epavvuvTeq
e t c riva
77
iroiov
i n I P e t . 1.11 s u g g e s t s t h e s a m e f o r t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r ( s e e a l s o
1 . 2 0 , e7r' eox&Tov
VLOV
xpovtov,
and 4 . 1 7 ,
naipoq).
•Differences m a y also b e o b s e r v e d , t h o u g h t h e y m i g h t b e m o r e a p p a r e n t t h a n real.
For instance,
I P e t e r d o e s not
say that the p r o p h e t s ,
whether
O T o r N T , w e r e l e f t in a s t a t e o f i g n o r a n c e o n a n y m a t t e r , b u t t h a t even
learned
Habakkuk prophet
when
their p r o p h e c i e s w e r e
going to
be
they
8 6
fulfilled .
The
c o m m e n t a r y m a y b e slightly m o r e reserved, a l l o w i n g that
the
w a s t o l d e v e r y t h i n g e x c e p t w h e n t h e E n d w o u l d c o m e . T h e au
t h o r o f I P e t e r is c o n v i n c e d t h e E n d h a s c o m e ( 4 . 7 a ) . S o m e g o s o far as t o say
that
Habakkuk
wrote
what
were
for him
unintelligible
w h i c h awaited a divinely inspired interpreter t o b e d e c o d e d
8 7
mysteries
. But
another
v i e w is at least as p l a u s i b l e , t h a t t h e p r o p h e t w a s w e l l i n f o r m e d b u t
that
w h a t h e w r o t e a n d t h e w a y h e w r o t e it w a s d e l i b e r a t e l y d e s i g n e d t o c o n ceal
the
truth until the a p p o i n t e d interpreter c a m e . S u c h a t h e o r y
has
o n its b e h a l f t h e w i d e s p r e a d u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d t h a t oracles w e r e o f t e n vague n o t because the g o d s necessarily w a n t e d
them
that w a y , b u t b e c a u s e their h u m a n intermediaries d i d for a variety o f per 8 8
sonal r e a s o n s .
8 4 T h e trans, is b y W . H . B r o w n l e e , Habakkuk,
118.
8 5 See a b o v e n. 7 1 , a n d also H e n g e l , Judaism,
I, 1 7 5 - 2 4 7 , esp. 2 1 8 f f . , D . D i m a n t , ' Q u m r a n ' ,
5 3 6 f . F o r the classic e x a m p l e o f a n inquiry into the ' t i m e ' indicated b y a p r o p h e t see the inter p r e t a t i o n o f J e r e m i a h ' s 'seventy y e a r s ' ( 2 5 . 1 1 , 2 9 . 1 0 ) in D n . 9 . 1 f f . , arising f r o m the apparent n o n - f u l f i l m e n t o f II C h r o n . 3 6 . 2 1 . 8 6 T h e basis for C . F . D . M o u l e ' s assertion t o the contrary is unclear, Birth, in 1 . 1 2 , f o r e x a m p l e , lies
8 2 , since the e m p h a s i s
in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , a n d that is the only firm indication the
a u t h o r o f I Peter seems to give o n e w a y o r the o t h e r . 8 7 S o , for e x a m p l e , B r o w n l e e , Habakkuk,
3 0 , ' l Q p H a b declares that the p r o p h e t H a b a k k u k did
not understand the full i m p o r t o f his o w n inspired w o r d s , a n d so it was necessary to await the c o m i n g o f a charismatic e x e g e t e " t o w h o m G o d m a d e k n o w n all the m y s t e r i e s o f the w o r d s o f His servants the p r o p h e t s " ' . B r o w n l e e m a y b e drawing a reasonable inference f r o m the H a b a k kuk c o m m e n t a r y , b u t it is n o t a necessary o n e . A l l that is said directly o n the
matter is that
he w a s n o t t o l d w h e n the E n d w o u l d c o m e . 8 8 See esp. t h e a c c u m u l a t e d evidence in D . E . A u n e , Prophecy,
2 3 - 7 9 , particularly 5 I f . T h e pre-
The Historical Context of I Peter 1.10-2
113
A n o t h e r a p p a r e n t d i v e r g e n c e c o n s i s t s in t h e a b s e n c e f r o m t h e H a b a k k u k c o m m e n t a r y o f a n y heavenly agents o f revelation w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f G o d h i m s e l f , o f c o u r s e . A s far as t h e h e r m e n e u t i c at Q u m r a n is c o n c e r n e d , h o w e v e r , the difference m a y b e n o m o r e than an a c c i d e n t , b e c a u s e t h e C o n v e n a n t e r s ' a n g e l o l o g y a n d p n e u m a t o l o g y is h i g h l y
developed
8 9
.
Still it is r e a s s u r i n g t o f i n d several e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t s t h a t c o n n e c t t h e revelational activity o f the
Holy
Spirit
w i t h t h e T e a c h e r ' s o f f i c e in a
f a s h i o n t h a t l e a v e s n o r o o m f o r r e a s o n a b l e d o u b t as t o its i m p o r t a n c e f o r his h e r m e n e u t i c : I, the M a s t e r k n o w T h e e O m y G o d , b y the spirit w h i c h T h o u has given t o m e , and b y T h y H o l y Spirit I have faithfully h e a r k e n e d t o T h y marvellous c o u n s e l . In the m y s t e r y o f T h y w i s d o m T h o u has o p e n e d k n o w l e d g e t o m e . ( 1 Q H X I I . \ \-3,DSSE
189)
f
A n d I K n o w t h r o u g h the understanding which comes from T h e e , that in T h y g o o d w i l l t o w a r d s . . . . . . T h y H o l y Spirit . . . a n d thus d r a w n m e near t o understanding T h e e . (1QH X I V . 1 2 - 1 3 , D 5 5 £ , 193)
I thank T h e e , O Lord, f o r T h o u has u p h e l d m e b y T h y strength. T h o u hast shed T h y H o l y Spirit u p o n m e that I m a y n o t s t u m b l e . ( 1 Q H V I I . 6f., DSSE,
173)
O . B e t z h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e H o l y S p i r i t is p r e s u p p o s e d in a p l e t h o r a o f p a s s a g e s in t h e H y m n s u n d e r t h e i m a g e s o f ' l i g h t ' a n d ' w a t e r ' w h i c h r e f e r 9 0
to biblically-oriented r e v e l a t i o n . T h a t t e x t s s u c h as 1 Q H X I I . l l f . a n d V I I . I f . r e p r e s e n t w e l l t h e her m e n e u t i c o f t h e p e s h a r i m in w h i c h t h e y are f o u n d , a n d s o are n o t i s o l a t e d s t a t e m e n t s , has b e e n m a d e a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r i n an e x h a u s t i v e s t u d y o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s p e s h a r i m b y M . P . H o r g a n . I n s u m m a t i o n she f i n d s t h a t ' t h e picture that emerges f r o m
t h e t e x t s t h e m s e l v e s is t h a t t h e p e s h e r is a n
interpretation m a d e k n o w n b y G o d t o a selected interpreter o f a m y s t e r y
vailing e x p e c t a t i o n s
that oracles were a m b i g u o u s o p e n e d the d o o r t o relentless e x p l o i t a t i o n b y
t h o s e w h o s t o o d s o m e t h i n g t o gain personally. In the case o f G o d ' s p r o p h e t , o f c o u r s e , there is n o personal a d v a n t a g e , b u t that need n o t necessarily m e a n it was a n y less calculated. Consider also the instructions given t o a p o c a l y p t i c seers in D n . 8 . 2 6 , R e v . 1 0 . 4 a n d 2 2 . 1 0 , a n d I V Ezra 14.45f. 8 9 A s m a y b e readily seen f r o m d o c u m e n t s like the A n g e l i c Liturgy 1 Q M X I I . I f f . , a n d H Q M e l c h . See e s p . the valuable t r e a t m e n t b y G . W . E . Nickelsburg, Resurrection, 9 0 Offenbarung,
156ff.
1 1 1 — 9 ; f o r the relationship o f p n e u m a t o l o g y t o h e r m e n e u t i c s , 1 1 9 — 4 2 ; a n d for
the relationship
of
the
'Hermeneutik', 2 4 3 - 5 6 .
T e a c h e r ( s ) t o the p r o p h e t i c tradition, 8 8 - 9 9 .
See also E . O s s w a l d ,
114
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
revealed b y G o d t o the biblical p r o p h e t s c o n c e r n i n g h i s t o r y '
(Pesharim,
2 2 9 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e is w a r r a n t t o r e v i e w t h e m a i n f e a t u r e s distin g u i s h i n g p e s h e r e x e g e s i s at Q u m r a n f o r a n y e v i d e n c e w h i c h m a y b e u s e d t o m a k e o t h e r i n s t r u c t i v e c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n its h e r m e n e u t i c a n d I P e t . 1.10-2. W.H. Brownlee
f o r m u l a t e d v e r y e a r l y o n t h i r t e e n p r i n c i p l e s o r rules
w h i c h h e f o u n d o p e r a t i v e in t h e H a b a k k u k c o m m e n t a r y
.
1.
E v e r y t h i n g the ancient p r o p h e t w r o t e has a veiled,
2.
Since the ancient p r o p h e t w r o t e c r y p t i c a l l y , his m e a n i n g is o f t e n t o be ascertained t h r o u g h a forced,
3.
or abnormal
construction
eschatological
9 1
of the Biblical
meaning.
text.
T h e p r o p h e t ' s m e a n i n g m a y b e d e t e c t e d t h r o u g h the s t u d y o f the textual peculiarities
in the
transmitted text.
or
orthographic
T h u s the interpretation f r e q u e n t l y turns u p o n the
special reading o f the t e x t c i t e d . 4.
A textual
5.
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f the features o f a verse m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d b y analogous
variant,
i.e., a different reading f r o m the o n e c i t e d , m a y also assist interpretation. circumstance,
or
by 6 A
liego rical proprie
ty.
7.
F o r the full m e a n i n g o f the p r o p h e t , more
8.
In s o m e cases the original p r o p h e t so c o m p l e t e l y veiled his m e a n i n g that h e can be under s t o o d o n l y b y a n equation
of synonyms,
than one meaning
m a y be a t t a c h e d t o his w o r d s .
attaching t o the original w o r d a s e c o n d a r y m e a n i n g
of o n e o f its s y n o n y m s . 9.
S o m e t i m e s the p r o p h e t veiled his message b y writing o n e w o r d instead o f a n o t h e r , the inter preter b e i n g able t o recover the p r o p h e t ' s m e a n i n g b y a rearrangement word,
10.
of the letters
in a
or b y
The substitution
of similar
letters
f o r o n e or m o r e of the letters in the w o r d o f the Biblical
text. 11.
S o m e t i m e s the p r o p h e t ' s m e a n i n g is t o b e derived b y the division
of one word
into two
or
more parts, a n d b y e x p o u n d i n g the parts. 12.
A t times
the
original p r o p h e t c o n c e a l e d
his message b e n e a t h a b b r e v i a t i o n s , so that
c r y p t i c m e a n i n g o f a w o r d is t o be evolved t h r o u g h interpretation as 13.
of words,or
the
words,
abbreviations.
Other passages
of scripture
m a y illumine the m e a n i n g o f the original p r o p h e t .
N o w it s o h a p p e n s B r o w n l e e w i t h d r e w n o . 1 2 , notarikon, a
parts of
comparison
o f the text with T g . J o n
9 2
.
subsequent to
However, good
cases h a v e
n e v e r t h e l e s s b e e n m a d e f o r its u s e at C D V I I . 1 3 - V I I I . 1., l Q p H a b I. 5 f . , and X I . 4 — 1 3
9 3
possibly o t h e r s
. A l s o t o B r o w n l e e ' s list m a y b e a d d e d p a r o n o m a s i a , a n d 9 4
. His f i n d i n g s h a v e b e e n r e p e a t e d l y c o n f i r m e d , as s t u d y
o f t h e Q u m r a n p e s h a r i m has b r o a d e n e d o u t b e y o n d t h e H a b a k k u k c o m -
9 1 See
his
'Interpretation', 5 4 — 7 6 , a n d esp. 6 0 — 2 for these
'rules', A c t u a l l y , the first t w o are
better u n d e r s t o o d as p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , whereas m o s t o f the r e m a i n d e r have affinities w i t h the Rabbinic m i d d o t h proper. 9 2 A c c o r d i n g to K . S t a n d a h l , School,
1 9 2 , n. 2 . F o r this stenographic p h e n o m e n o n
acrostics a n d abbreviations see W . Bacher, Terminologie, tung,
involving
I, 1 2 5 f . , a n d G . S t e m b e r g e r ,
Einlei
3 9 , for this the thirtieth m i d d a o f R . Eliezer.
9 3 A c c o r d i n g t o D . D i m a n t , ' Q u m r a n ' , 5 0 6 , n. 1 0 4 . 9 4 See esp. G . J. B r o o k e , ' R e d e f i n i t i o n ' , 4 9 5 a n d 4 9 7 , as well as D . D i m a n t in the previous n o t e . T h e use o f verbal tally ( = a n a l o g y , or 71"I W
T\ 1
) is prevalent t h r o u g h o u t C D , for e x a m p l e
(Hillel's first m i d d a ) . Instances o f d o u b l e - m e a n i n g are also a d d u c e d b y B r o o k e , and D . Patte, Hermeneutic;
229ff.
The Historical Context of I Peter 1.10-2 mentary
9 5
115
. H o r g a n , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s i d e n t i f i e d all o f t h e first t e n i n o t h e r
examples o f continuous
peshar
commentary
9 6
. T h e o n l y serious chal
lenges have c o m e f r o m K . Elliger. Against n o . 1 1 , w o r d - d i v i s i o n ( l Q p H a b III. 9 ) , h e a r g u e s f o r a s c r i b a l e r r o r , a n d t h e r e is a p r o b l e m b e c a u s e it o c c u r s in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a w o r d o f u n c e r t a i n m e a n i n g
9 7
. But the p h o t o
g r a p h o f t h e t e x t c o u l d n o t b e c l e a r e r , s h o w i n g as m u c h s p a c e b e t w e e n 'faces' ( u s , between
or,
ns),
a n d t h e s u f f i x , ' t J i e m ' / ' t h e i r ' ( • n ) , as t h e r e is
any o t h e r w o r d s in the c o l u m n
9 8
. This w o u l d seem t o argue
a g a i n s t e r r o r , b u t w h a t k i n d o f e x e g e t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e it m a y h a v e r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n . H o r g a n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t a k e s issue w i t h n o . 1 3 . Y e t in t h e very
same passage, l Q p H a b
D'K'nsn,' persons referred 11.30
9 9
I I I . 9 , f o r i n s t a n c e , m e n t i o n is m a d e o f to
suggestively
at
N u m . 24.24 and Dn.
. These ' K i t t i m ' appear t o have b e e n substituted for the 'Chald
e a n s ' in t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t j u s t p r i o r t o I I I . 9 at I I . 1 1 — 2 , in s e e m i n g l y g o o d allegorical fashion. In Q u m r a n parlance the ' K i t t i m ' have b e c o m e a k i n d of
s y n o n y m . Hence even
from
the c o n t i n u o u s pesharim w h i c h d o n o t
i n v i t e b y t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e m u c h in t h e w a y o f b i b l i c a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g t h e r e still is e v i d e n c e o f ' S c r i p t u r e i n t e r p r e t e d b y S c r i p t u r e ' . O u t s i d e o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s p e s h a r i m t h e r e is n o s h o r t a g e o f e x a m p l e s o f this f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e o f J e w i s h h e r m e n e u t i c s . S o m e o c c u r s e q u e n tially at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ' s s i x t h c o l u m n ,
9 5 See the i m m e d i a t e l y preceding n o t e s , a n d K . S t e n d a h l , School, 8 0 , F . F . B r u c e , Second mary of
Thoughts,
1 9 0 f f . , B e t z , Offenbarung,
the rules d e m o n s t r a b l e f r o m the pesharim based o n H o r g a n ' s findings,
s y n o n y m s , cognates
77 —
7 7 ; a n d D i m a n t , ' Q u m r a n ' , 5 0 5 , n. 1 0 3 , f o r a n o t h e r sum including
w i t h g r a m m a t i c a l changes, w o r d - p l a y , m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e , changing
the
order o f letters or w o r d s in the l e m m a , allusion t o the p r e c e d i n g or succeding c o n t e x t of the lemma. 9 6 See Pesharim,
2 5 0 , n. 8 4 . She has distinguished, m o r e o v e r , f o u r m a i n t y p e s o f p r o c e d u r e w i t h
w h i c h the pesharim are c o n d u c t e d , ' ( 1 ) T h e pesher m a y f o l l o w the a c t i o n s , ideas, ideas, a n d w o r d s o f the l e m m a c l o s e l y , developing a similar description in a different c o n t e x t . ( 2 ) T h e pesher m a y g r o w o u t o f o n e o r m o r e k e y w o r d s , r o o t s , or ideas, d e v e l o p i n g the interpretation f r o m these isolated e l e m e n t s apart f r o m the action or d e s c r i p t i o n o f the l e m m a . ( 3 ) T h e pesher m a y consist o f m e t a p h o r i c a l identifications or figures or things n a m e d in the l e m m a , w i t h or w i t h o u t a d e s c r i p t i o n o r e l a b o r a t i o n o f a c t i o n . ( 4 ) T h e r e are instances in w h i c h the pesher s e e m s t o b e o n l y l o o s e l y related t o t h e l e m m a ' ( 2 4 4 f . ) . She also observes that t h e p r o c e d u r e s are b y n o m e a n s discrete, a n d that m i x e d f o r m s exist. 9 7 See his discussion in Habakkuk,
161.
9 8 T h e p h o t o g r a p h m a y be c o n v e n i e n t l y c o n s u l t e d in B r o w n l e e , 'Interpretation', 6 1 , fig. 3 . 9 9 See also Is. 2 3 . 1 , 1 2 , a n d Jer. 2 . 1 0 , for e x a m p l e . T h e oracle o f Balaam in particular had attrac t e d m u c h interest a m o n g s t the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y - m i n d e d b y the N T era ( G . V e r m e s ,
Scripture,
1 6 8 - 9 , w h o cites C D V I I . 1 9 f . , M t . 2 . 1 - 1 2 , a n d R e v . 2 2 . 1 6 ) . This oracle is likely t o b e the basis for J o s e p h u s ' p r e d i c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g Vespasian's accession t o the throne (see D . E . A u n e , Prophecy,
1 4 1 f. a n d n. 2 5 0 ) , a n d it m i g h t b e reflected b y Virgil's F o u r t h E c l o g u e . T h e signific
a n c e o f N u m . 2 4 . 1 5 — 2 4 w a s clearly n o t lost u p o n the a u t h o r o f D n . 1 1 . 3 0 , in a n y e v e n t . T h e s e ' K i t t i m ' are generally regarded as a sectarian designation for R o m e , a l t h o u g h s o m e still prefer t o see t h e m as Seleucids. Its presence in the H a b a k k u k Pesher m u s t o n either v i e w p r e s u p p o s e a n exegetical basis o f an eschatological nature associated w i t h o n e or m o r e o f the O T l o c i w h i c h have b e e n m e n t i o n e d .
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
116
B u t the G o d r e m e m b e r e d the C o v e n a n t with the forefathers, a n d H e raised f r o m A a r o n m e n of d i s c e r n m e n t a n d f r o m Israel m e n o f w i s d o m , a n d H e caused t h e m to hear. A n d t h e y d u g the W e l l : the
well
which
the
princes
dug,
which
the
nobles
of
the
people
delved
with
the
stave
(Num. 21.18). T h e Well is the L a w , a n d those w h o d u g it were the c o n v e r t s o f Israel w h o w e n t o u t o f the land o f J u d a h t o s o j o u r n in the land of D a m a s c u s . G o d called t h e m all princes sought H i m , a n d their r e n o w n was d i s p u t e d b y n o m a n . T h e Stave of w h o m Isaiah said, He makes
a tool for
His work
(Is. 5 4 . 1 6 ) ; a n d the nobles
are those w h o c o m e t o dig the Well w i t h the staves w i t h w h i c h the Stave s h o u l d w a l k in all the ages o f w i c k e d n e s s . . . , e t c . (DSSE,
because
they
is the Interpreter o f the L a w of the
people
o r d a i n e d that t h e y
102—3)
H e r e is p r o o f t h a t a p e s h e r e x e g e s i s c o u l d a c c o m m o d a t e o t h e r O T t e x t s t o aid in t h e e x p o s i t i o n w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o f o c u s o n o n e p r i m a r y t e x t ( s e e also C D V I . 1 4 - 2 1 ) . But
more
s p e c t a c u l a r e x a m p l a r s o f this r e l a t i v e l y c o m p l e x
kind o f
pesher interpretation also c o m e t o m i n d , like 1 l Q M e l c h i z e d e k or 4 Q F l o rilegium
1 0 0
. I n t h e l a t t e r , p o r t i o n s o f II S a m . 7 . 1 0 — 4 are q u o t e d s e r i a t i m ,
a n d s p l i c e d i n t o t h e i r e x p o s i t o n are q u o t a t i o n s f r o m
E x . 15.17—8 and
A m . 9 . 1 1 , a l o n g w i t h a l l u s i o n s t o D t . 2 3 . 2 f . a n d J e r . 2 3 . 5 f . II S a m u e l is p r i m a r i l y i n t e r p r e t e d as p r e d i c t i n g t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p u r g e o f t h e h e a t h e n f r o m the H o l y L a n d , C i t y , and Place. T h u s the e x p o s i t i o n m a y e c h o quite a r a n g e o f t e x t s , f o r e x a m p l e , Is. 4 . 2 f . , 5 2 . 1 , 6 2 . 8 f . , J o e l 3 . 1 7 , O b a d . 1 6 f . , a n d t h e m a n y ' b r a n c h ' t e x t s , e t c . ( c p . Ps. S o l . 1 7 . 2 5 — 3 1 a n d 3 3 ) . II S a m uel then
gives w a y t o v e r s e s f r o m Pss. 1 a n d 2 , a n d s p l i c e d i n t o t h e i r
e x p o s i t i o n are q u o t a t i o n s f r o m I s . 8 . 1 1 a n d E z e k . 4 4 . 1 0 . It m a y b e n o t e d in p a s s i n g t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t d i s p l a y s m a n y o f t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r e s u p positions, m e t h o d s , and devices w h i c h were observed previously. There c a n b e little c a u s e t o q u e r y t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e p e s h e r e x e g e s i s o n t h e m a t t e r o f e x p o s i t i o n via s u b o r d i n a t e q u o t a t i o n s a n d allusions. A m o r e d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m is p o s e d b y 4 Q T e s t i m o n i a w h i c h c i t e s D t . 5.18-9/18.18-9 and Josh. 6 . 2 6
1 0 1
(combined
quotation), Num. 2 4 . 1 5 - 7 ,
Dt.
. It has n o n e o f t h e t e c h n i c a l t e r m s , s u c h as
33.8-11, nws,
or
t h e 'this is t h a t ' u s a g e . M o r e o v e r , it has n o c o m m e n t a r y w h a t e v e r o n t h e first f o u r c i t a t i o n s . T h e i m p r e s s i o n is u n a v o i d a b l e n o n e t h e l e s s t h a t t h e s e a p p l y t o e s c h a t o l o g i c a l figures, suggesting that 4 Q T e s t m a y b e the endp r o d u c t o f an exegesis basically similar t o p e s h e r
1 0 2
. T h e f a c t t h a t t h e last
q u o t a t i o n d o e s call f o r t h c o m m e n t a r y w i t h a n e x p l i c i t a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s u p p o r t s this v i e w , s i n c e it is i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e
1 0 0 F o r H Q M e l c h see esp. F . L . H o r t o n , Melchizedek,
6 4 f f . , and f o r 4 Q F l o r see W . R . L a n e , 'Flori-
l e g i u m ' , 3 4 3 — 6 , a n d n o w esp. see G . J . B r o o k e , Exegesis,
passim, an exhaustive study of the
d o c u m e n t in its milieu. A c c o r d i n g t o D i m a n t , ' Q u m r a n ' , 5 0 4 , this t y p e o f d o c u m e n t has b e e n labelled ' t h e m a t i c ' pesher t o distinguish it f r o m the ' c o n t i n u o u s ' c o m m e n t a r y t y p e represented, for instance, b y l Q p H a b . See also Y . Y a d i n , 'Midrash', 9 5 f . 1 0 1 See J . A . F i t z m y e r , ' T e s t i m o n i a ' , 5 9 f f . , a n d , J . A s m u s i n , ' T e s t i m o n i a ' , 3 5 7 - 6 1 . F i t z m y e r cau tions agasinst reading an eschatological significance i n t o the d o c u m e n t it m a y n o t warrant. 1 0 2 See G . V e r m e s , IDBSupp,
4 3 9 . See esp. the discussion b y D . Patte, Hermeneutic,
295f.
The Historical Con text of I Peter 1.10—2 sect's
eschatological o u t l o o k and
self-understanding
117
1 0 3
.
H o w e v e r , it is
p e r h a p s b e t t e r t o s t o p s h o r t o f c l a s s i f y i n g 4 Q T e s t as p e s h e r t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n , a n d t o b e c o n t e n t w i t h it as y e t a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f t h e e x e g e t i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t o n e has c o m e t o e x p e c t t o f i n d at
Qumran
b e c a u s e o f its p e c u l i a r h e r m e n e u t i c . L e s t it s e e m t h a t t e c h n i c a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e p e s h e r h e r m e n e u t i c are allimportant,
s o m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n m a y b e g i v e n t o its r o l e in t h e c o m m u n
i t y ' s l i f e . O n e o f t h e p o i n t s I P e t . 1.10—2 has i n c o m m o n w i t h
lQpHab
II. I f . a n d V I I . If. is t h e c o n v i c t i o n that w h a t t h e p r o p h e t s p r e a c h e d p o s sesses s p e c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e
last g e n e r a t i o n . A t Q u m r a n
pesher
s e r v e d q u i t e a v a r i e t y o f p u r p o s e s , as B r o w n l e e has c o n c l u d e d . 1)
T o vindicate the R i g h t e o u s T e a c h e r against his e n e m i e s .
2)
T o vindicate the f o l l o w e r s o f the T e a c h e r against their o p p o n e n t s .
3)
T o strengthen the faith a n d e n d u r a n c e o f the Teacher's a d h e r e n t s .
4)
T o warn the wavering o f the dangers o f a p o s t a s y .
5)
T h r o u g h learning a n d o b e d i e n c e t o prepare the w a y o f Y a h w e h in the Wilderness o f J u d e a . [Habakkuk,
The
35-6)
apologetic and
pastoral
t h r u s t o f t h e p e s h a r i m is u n c e a s i n g , n e v e r
a v e r t i n g its e y e f r o m t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s w i t h i n w h i c h t h e c o m m u n i t y is l i v i n g . T h r o u g h it t h e c o m m u n i t y is m a d e t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w G o d is a c t i v e in t h e w o r l d , s o t h a t t h e y m a y b e r e a s s u r e d a n d f i n d t h e d i r e c t i o n t h e y n e e d to act faithfully. S o m e equivalent sense o f the value o f the p r o p h e t s ' message m a y b e seen in I Pet. 1.10, w h e r e the reference t o 'grace' m a y r e f l e c t in p a r t a r e a l i z e d e s c h a t o l o g y w h i c h regards t h e p r e s e n t life o f t h e c o m m u n i t y t o b e e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e b e n e f i c e n t c a r e g i v e n b y G o d o n its b e h a l f . H e n c e t h e r e f e r e n c e in 1 . 1 2 t o t h e r o l e o f t h e p r o p h e t s as o n e o f 'service'
(bi-qnovovv)
may
4 . 1 Of., w h e r e ' s e r v i c e ' t o
be susceptible the
to a comparison with
c o m m u n i t y is c o n c e i v e d
I
Pet.
o f in t e r m s o f
divinely-governed edification. S o m u c h f o r a c o m p a r i s o n o f I P e t . 1.10—2 w i t h t h e h e r m e n e u t i c o f the C o v e n a n t e r s . B o t h share t o an e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e g r e e a r a d i c a l e s c h a t o l o g i c a l v i s i o n w i t h an a c c e n t o n f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e p r o p h e t i c interpreted
through
divine
inspiration
and
brought
to
testimonies
bear
on
respective c o m m u n i t i e s ' difficult circumstances. A review o f the
their distin
g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p e s h e r e x e g e s i s at Q u m r a n h a s a l s o p r o v i d e d a wealth texts,
of
technical
paraphernalia
c o n c e r n i n g the
handling
o f biblical
s o m e o f w h i c h has a l r e a d y p r o v e d u s e f u l in e l u c i d a t i n g
1.10—2.
H e n c e , it is n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e m o r e o f this m a y p r o v e s i m i l a r l y useful w h e n the discussion turns to c o n s i d e r the handling o f biblical texts in I P e t e r . T h e greatest d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n I P e t . 1 . 1 0 — 2 a n d t h e p e s h e r h e r m e n e u t i c c o n s i s t s t h e r e f o r e n o t s o m u c h in t h e i r m e t h o d s a n d d e v i c e s as in
1 0 3 T h e affinities b e t w e e n this p o r t i o n o f 4 Q T e s t and the pesharim are p r o n o u n c e d , t e r m s o f the eschatological a p p l i c a t i o n t o the sect's history w h i c h it contains.
especially in
118
The Herm eneu tic of I Pe ter
the
o n e k e y a s s u m p t i o n w h i c h is a l l - d e c i s i v e s o far as c o n t e n t is c o n
c e r n e d . W h a t e v e r t h e p r e c i s e n a t u r e o f its m e s s i a n i c s p e c u l a t i o n s , Q u m r a n ' s largest
h o p e h a d still n o t b e e n f u l f i l l e d . T h e b e s t t h e T e a c h e r o f
R i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d his f o l l o w e r s c o u l d h o p e f o r w a s t o f i g h i a h o l d i n g action
during
(lQpHab
the
interval
b e f o r e G o d sent his A n o i n t e d t o t h e
rescue
V I I I . I f . ) . I P e t . 1.11 e s p o u s e s a d i f f e r e n t v i e w . M e s s i a h has
come. I n this c o n v i c t i o n t h e a u t h o r
o f I P e t e r is at o n e w i t h t h e rest o f t h e
e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l e a d e r s h i p w h o s e m i n i s t r i e s are r e f l e c t e d b y t h e N T d o c u m e n t s . H e n c e it is n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m i n e t h e s e w r i t i n g s b o t h b e c a u s e o f a n y affinities
they
might have
because their interpretation for
understanding
with the
o f the
pesher
Christ-event
hermeneutic,
but
also
is l i k e l y t o b e c r u c i a l
c e r t a i n o f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e s in t h e h e r m e n e u t i c o f t h e
author o f I Peter. A g a i n f o r r e a s o n s o f s p a c e it is n o t p o s s i b l e t o p r o v i d e a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n a s k e t c h o f t h e r e s e a r c h w h i c h has b e e n u n d e r t a k e n r e g a r d i n g b o t h o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . It s e e m s safe t o s a y t h e r e r e m a i n a v e r y great m a n y c o m p l e x issues y e t The
t o b e r e s o l v e d s o far as e i t h e r q u e s t i o n is c o n c e r n e d .
d i s c u s s i o n m a y , a c c o r d i n g l y , c o n f i n e itself t o j u s t t h o s e basic ele
ments over w h i c h there d o e s seem to be something close t o a consensus of opinion. H a p p i l y , t h e r e has b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s o n b o t h q u e s t i o n s . A s pertains t o the handling o f the biblical t e x t , the e p o c h a l investigation b y K . S t e n d a h l w h e n Q u m r a n r e s e a r c h w a s still i n its i n f a n c y s p u r r e d o t h e r s o n t o l o o k f o r affinities e l s e w h e r e in early
Christian l i t e r a t u r e
1 0 4
. Sten-
d a h l ' s m a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n l a y in e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a m o r e t h a n superficial similarity b e t w e e n the pesher h e r m e n e u t i c o f Q u m r a n and the exegesis o f M a t t h e w ' s
c o m m u n i t y . His c o n c l u s i o n s rest u p o n a n
acute
analysis o f t h e q u o t a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d b y a f u l f i l m e n t - f o r m u l a (Lva pu>#V
KTX., M t . 1.23, 2 . 6 , 1 5 , 1 8 , 2 3 , 4 . 1 5 - 6 , 8 . 1 7 , 1 2 . 1 8 - 2 1 ,
77X77-
13.35,
2 1 . 2 5 , and 2 7 . 9 b — 1 0 ) . T h r o u g h a c o m p a r i s o n 0 $ these with a variety o f textual
p h e n o m e n a in t h e
hermeneutical
principles
Habakkuk
c o m m e n t a r y he s h o w e d that
Brownlee described account
In
particular,
Stendahl
the
well for
the
f o u n d it n e c e s s a r y t o p o s i t f o r M t . , as
for
p e c u l i a r u s e a n d t e x t - t y p e o f t h e s e q u o t a t i o n s in M t
1 0 5
as
.
l Q p H a b , b o t h the d e l i b e r a t e s e l e c t i o n o f t y p e s o f O T t e x t in s u p p o r t o f the
desired application and deliberate alteration
absence o f such alternatives
1 0 4 School,
1 0 6
o f t h e O T t e x t in
the
. T h e resulting m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o the q u o t a -
passim, and c p . his c o n c l u s i o n s o n l Q p H a b ( 1 9 0 ) w i t h t h o s e o n M a t t h e w ' s handling
of the f o r m u l a - q u o t a t i o n s
(201).
1 0 5 See esp. 1 9 1 , n. 3 , f o r his c o n c l u s i o n . 1 0 6 In l Q p H a b to H a b 1 . 8 , 1 1 , 1 5 , a n d 2 . 1 6 , m o r e than o n e t e x t u a l tradition is discernible. F o r instance, in III, 6f. ( H a b . 1 . 8 ) the l e m m a d o e s n o t include 'they shall c o m e ' ( "1KIP ) , b u t the verb d o e s appear in the e x p o s i t i o n at III. 1 1 ,
1 K T 3 ' . S o m e , like H . B r a u n , Qumran,
give m o r e r o o m t o the possibility o f deliberate alteration than o t h e r s ( c p . R . Exegesis,
39f.).
II, 3 0 5 ,
Longenecker,
The Historical Context of I Peter 1.10-2
119
t i o n ' r e p r e s e n t a s e l e c t i v e t a r g u m i z i n g p r o c e d u r e in w h i c h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is w o v e n i n t o t h e t e x t itself' ( s o , Ellis, Prophecy, c o n c l u s i o n was challenged b y B. Gartner,
1 7 5 ) . This latter
w h o called attention
to
the
p l u r i f o r m state o f b o t h t h e H e b r e w a n d G r e e k t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n s , b e c a u s e s o m e o f t h e variants m a y h a v e c o m e f r o m s u c h s o u r c e s a n d are n o l o n g e r independently attested
1 0 7
. Still it m a y b e said o f s u c h e x a m p l e s t h a t in t h e
a b s e n c e o f e v i d e n t m o t i v e s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e earlier e d i t o r s a n d t h e trans l a t o r s , o r o f s c r i b a l e r r o r , it
is at least as a c c e p t a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e
alterations arose f r o m a desire t o a p p l y the q u o t a t i o n s t o their i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t s . S u c h a p o s s i b i l i t y is all t h e g r e a t e r w h e n e v e r a m o d i f i c a t i o n is p i v o t a l f o r an a p p l i c a t i o n . E . E . Ellis f o l l o w e d S t e n d a h l in a p p l y i n g t h e s a m e m e t h o d t o t h e Paul i n e c o r p u s , a n d a r r i v e d at similar c o n c l u s i o n s
1 0 8
. H e lists s o m e t w e n t y
c a s e s h a v i n g c o m p a r a b l e m o d i f i c a t o n s e x p l i c a b l e in t e r m s o f c o m p a r a b l e m e t h o d s ( 1 4 3 f . ) . H e s a y s , ' I n a l m o s t all t h e s e t h e v a r i a t i o n s e e m s t o b e a d e l i b e r a t e a d a p t i o n t o t h e N T c o n t e x t ; in s o m e c a s e s t h e a l t e r a t i o n h a s a ' d e f i n i t e b e a r i n g o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p a s s a g e . C h a n g e s in p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r are especially p r e v a l e n t ' attribute
1 0 9
. However, should one decline to
s u c h cases t o d e l i b e r a t e m o d i f i c a t i o n ,
t h e e v i d e n c e is still in
favour o f deliberate selection. Since Matthew and
the Pauline c o r p u s i n v o l v e s u c h a w i d e
section
o f t h e e a r l y C h u r c h , it is p e r h a p s d i f f i c u l t t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f these findings. T h e y cross-confirm each o t h e r , and t h e y b o t h c o r r o b o r ate i n d e p e n d e n t l y t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p e s h e r h e r m e n e u t i c at
Qumran.
M o r e o v e r , S t e n d a h l a n d Ellis w e r e q u i c k t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e u s e o f p e s h e r l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c i n Paul a n d M a t t h e w w a s a l s o t h e l i k e l i e s t e x p l a n a t i o n behind
the
application o f m a n y other O T texts w h e r e n o significant
textual variants
could
be cited but where a p r o n o u n c e d
eschatological
o u t l o o k was operative.
1 0 7 See his ' M a t t h e w ' , 1 — 2 4 , f o r a l e n g t h y critical review of Stendahl's w o r k . F o r a d d i t i o n a l evid e n c e o n behalf o f Gartner's p o s i t i o n see, for e x a m p l e , D . B a r t h e l e m y , Devanciers, F . M . C r o s s , J r . , ' H i s t o r y ' , 1 7 8 — 9 5 , in approval o f B a r t h e l e m y ' s
passim, a n d
d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f the
naiye
r e c e n s i o n o f the M i n o r P r o p h e t s . H e c o m m e n t s , ' W e see, t h e n , a series o f a t t e m p t s t o bring the G r e e k Bible into c o n f o r m i t y
with a changing
H e b r e w t e x t u a l tradition . . . these data f i r m l y
s u p p o r t the e v i d e n c e , already o v e r w h e l m i n g l y clear, t h a n an Urtext
exists b e h i n d the Christian
recensions o f the S e p t u a g i n t ' ( 1 7 9 - 8 0 ) . See further i d e m , ' C o n t r i b u t i o n ' , 2 7 8 f f . 1 0 8 See his Use,
esp.
1 4 4 — 5 2 . H e finds e n o u g h evidence o f variation f r o m b o t h L X X a n d M T t o
m a k e a strong case f o r at least s o m e deliberate alterations. T h e y are f o u n d right across the Paul ine c o r p u s , m o r e o v e r , in R o m . , I a n d II C o r . , G a l . a n d E p h . Regarding his findings, B . Lindars r e m a r k s , 'He s h o w s that the chief influence in St Paul's handling o f the Scriptures is n o t rab b i n i c exegesis,
w h e t h e r Palestinian, Hellenistic, or A l e x a n d r i a n , b u t the Church's o w n version
o f t h e midrash
pesher.
creatively pression
It is s o m e t h i n g he can take for granted in e x p o u n d i n g the faith, a n d use
for his o w n p u r p o s e s ' [Apologetic, 'midrash
pesher'
1 6 ) . T h e infelicitous use o f 'midrash'
in the ex
has n o w b e e n w i d e l y a b a n d o n e d b y scholars thanks t o M . B l a c k ,
'Christological', 1 . 1 0 9 Use,
1 4 4 , b u t c p . A . T . H a n s o n , Technique,
liberty o n this score.
1 4 6 f f . , w h o is n o t inclined
to grant Paul m u c h
120
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n e x p a n d e d i n t o m u c h o f t h e rest o f early Christian literature. F o r instance, the r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n Mat thew's formula-quotations and John's practice ( 1 2 . 3 8 , 4 0 , 19.24, 3 6 , 3 7 ; c p . 2 . 1 7 , 1 2 . 1 4 — 6 , 1 3 . 1 8 , a n d 1 5 . 2 5 ) , o b s e r v e d b y S t e n d a h l , w a s inves tigated b y E . D . F r e e d , w h o c a m e t o the same basic c o n c l u s i o n s
1 1 0
. Argu
i n g i n p a r t against S t e n d a h l , A . S u h l r e j e c t e d a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c in M a r k , b u t h e h a s b e e n c o n v i n c i n g l y a n s w e r e d b y H . C . K e e
1 1 1
. In a
similar v e i n M . R e s e m i n i m i z e d t h e p l a c e o f a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c i n L u k e , b u t as T . H o l t z h a s s h o w n , m u c h o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e w o r k h a d already taken place in L u k e ' s sources, and in a n y case L u k e implicitly accepts the exegesis w h e n h e redacts t h e m and
E . E . Ellis o b s e r v e d
the
phenomenon
1 1 2
. T h e n again, J. D e Waard
in A c t s
1 1 3
.
A n d lastly, the
e x a m i n a t i o n o f H e b r e w s b y F. S c h r o g e r has t u r n e d u p e v i d e n c e o f the h e r m e n e u t i c there that m a y b e o f great significance f o r d e v e l o p m e n t s in the only
'higher' C h r i s t o l o g y o f the early C h u r c h ( 1 0 . 5 f f . )
1 1 4
. W h i l e it is
t o b e e x p e c t e d that m a n y p o i n t s o f detail s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o b e
d e b a t e d , e n o u g h e v i d e n c e has b e e n amassed t o s u p p o r t a great deal o f w e i g h t as t o t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e w h i c h a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c g a v e t o the emerging C h u r c h
1 1 5
.
P e r h a p s n o single c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n h a s d r a m a t i z e d m o r e t h e p l a c e o f a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c in t h e n a s c e n t C h u r c h t h a n t h a t b y B. L i n d a r s
1 1 6
. T a k i n g his p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f r o m S t e n d a h l a n d E l l i s , h e
integrated their results i n t o b o t h a b r o a d e r a n d m o r e p e n e t r a t i n g f o r m c r i t i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t o n o f t h e earlier stages in its u s e o f t h e O T . H e p a i d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o c i t a t i o n s w i t h m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e s , b e c a u s e t h e var iants w i t h i n t h e m c o u l d o f t e n b e s h o w n t o l e a v e t r a c e s o f t h e shifts i n
1 1 0 See his John,
p a s s i m , esp. x . In c o n t r a s t w i t h Freed's positive v a l u a t i o n o f Lindars* a p p r o a c h
was that b y R . H . G u n d r y in r e p l y t o Standard (Use, passim, b u t see the devastating criticism o f G r u n d y b y M . P . Miller, ' T a r g u m ' , 7 0 - 1 ) . 1 1 1 See his Funktion,
p a s s i m , b u t c p . H . C . K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 1 6 5 — 8 8 , N . Perrin, 'Pesher',
a n d L . H a r t m a n , Interpreted, 1 1 2 See his Motive,
p a s s i m , b u t c p . T . H o l t z , Lukas,
1 1 3 See his Comparative,
150—5,
passim. passim, a n d i d e m , 'Interpretation', cols. 1 9 — 3 2 .
p a s s i m , esp. his c o n c l u s i o n s a n d review o f o t h e r t e x t u a l affinities
between
Q u m r a n a n d t h e N T , 7 8 — 8 4 . A n u n e x p e c t e d degree o f c o n v e r g e n c e is plain t o see. M a n y similar conclusions 'Features', 1 1 4 See
are d r a w n i n d e p e n d e n t l y
b y M . W i l c o x , Semitisms,
passim. See also E . E . Ellis,
201-5.
his Schriftausleger,
esp.
2 7 8 — 8 2 , and idem, 'Instrumentarium', 3 1 3 — 2 9 . C p . M . Barth,
'Hebrews', 5 3 - 7 8 . 1 1 5 See esp. the r e v i e w of the q u e s t i o n b y H . B r a u n , Qumran,
I I , 3 0 1 ff. See also J . A . F i t z m y e r ,
' Q u o t a t i o n s ' , 3ff. O f n o t e is the e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n B . Lindars, 'Place', 5 9 — 6 6 , a n d P. B o r g e n , ' R e s p o n s e ' , 6 7 — 7 5 , w h o , despite a n u m b e r o f sharp disagreements, d o n o t q u e s t i o n the progress that has b e e n m a d e in the w h o l e field o f the h e r m e n e u t i c s of Q u m r a n a n d t h e N T . T h e fruitfulness of t h e r e c o v e r y o f the early Church's pesher-like exegesis c o n t i n u e s t o b e e n j o y e d in such w o r k s as R . E . B r o w n , Birth,
e s p . 9 6 — 1 2 1 , a very close e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e f o r m u l a - q u o t a
tions in M a t t h e w ' s i n f a n c y narrative, a n d see lit. cited there. 1 1 6 Apologetic, work, 13ff
p a s s i m , a n d see esp. his review o f the progress that h a d b e e n m a d e prior t o his
The Historical Context of I Peter 1.10-2
121
a p p l i c a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e t e x t d u r i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b y early Christians ( e s p . 1 7 f f . ) . H e w a s t h e r e b y e n a b l e d t o refine c o n s i d e r a b l y the criteria f o r distinguishing a m o n g deliberate alterations, deliberate s e l e c t i o n o f alternative
t e x t - f o r m s , a n d variants p o s s i b l y o w i n g t o a c c i
d e n t s in q u o t a t i o n f r o m m e m o r y ( 2 7 — 8 ) . H e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e p r e s sures o n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s t o b a c k u p t h e i r c l a i m a b o u t J e s u s a n d his m o v e ment
p l a y e d an instrumental
r o l e in h o w Scripture w a s h a n d l e d . T h e
result is a p i c t u r e o f c o m m u n i t i e s l o c k e d i n t h e s t r u g g l e t o d e f i n e t h e m selves, and from
maintain
discipline, defend
w i n c o n v e r t s , that is, the
Qumran
themselves, strengthen
themselves,
a p i c t u r e m u c h l i k e t h a t w h i c h has e m e r g e d
c o m m u n i t y . Central t o that p i c t u r e was their
belief
that G o d h a d raised Jesus f r o m the d e a d , snatching v i c t o r y f r o m the j a w s o f d e f e a t , a n d essential t o their p r o c l a m a t i o n w a s the radically e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s w h i c h m a d e it p o s s i b l e t o see t h e h a n d o f G o d in those events crucial f o r Jesus and those w h o f o l l o w e d h i m
1 1 7
.
O t h e r s t u d i e s o f t h e p e s h e r - l i k e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e e a r l y C h u r c h h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e a f f i n i t i e s w i t h t h e p e s h e r h e r m e n e u t i c are n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o presuppositions, m e t h o d s , and motives, but include technical terminology as w e l l . R . E . B r o w n , f o r e x a m p l e , f o u n d t h a t nvorrjpiov
in the N T c o u l d
b e c l a r i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e w a y it h a d b e e n u s e d i n J e w i s h e s c h a t o l o g y , n a m e l y , in the O T a p o c r y p h a , pseudepigraphs, and Q u m r a n a l o n g w i t h o t h e r t e r m s , s u c h as upwards a n d c o g n a t e s , s i m i l a r l y
literatures, 1 1 8
. Almost
always these o c c u r in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a disclosure o f h e a v e n l y w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i m p o r t , a n d l a t e r s t u d y h a s c o n f i r m e d his conclusions
1 1 9
.
I n a d d i t i o n , N T d i s c o u r s e t e n d s t o f o r m u l a t e c e r t a i n o f its c o n s t r u c t i o n s in a m a n n e r
s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f p e s h e r h e r m e n e u t i c . Ellis r e m a r k s
t h a t o u r o c is u s e d l i k e K i n i n t h e p e s h a r i m at R o m . 9 . 9 , E p h . 5 . 3 2 , A c t s 2.16, and
4.11
1 2 0
. A t Q u m r a n t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e f r e q u e n t l y is u s e d t o
s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e f o r m u l a , "> w s
1 2 1
. T y p i c a l l y its d e i c t i c f o r c e d r a w s o u t
1 1 7 See e s p . 3 3 — 7 4 , a n d his c o n c l u s i o n s 2 5 1 — 8 6 . 1 1 8 See his Background, for his
1 — 3 0 , f o r pre-Christian usage, 3 6 — 6 8 f o r Q u m r a n a n d N T usage, a n d 6 9
conclusions.
1 1 9 See e s p . the lit. cited a b o v e in n n . 7 9 — 8 1 a n d 8 3 . See also P. v o n der O s t e n - S a c k e n , tik,
passim, J . B a u m g a r t e n , Paulus,
Heaven,
p a s s i m , I. G r u e n w a l d , Apocalyptic,
Apokalyp-
passim, a n d C . R o w l a n d ,
passim. A m o n g the m o r e i m p o r t a n t N T passages are I C o r . 2 . 6 f . , 4 . 1 , 1 3 . 2 ( c p . 1 4 . 2 ) ,
1 5 . 5 1 f . , II C o r . 1 2 . 4 , R o m . 1 1 . 2 5 , 1 6 . 2 5 , II T h e s s . 2 . 6 f . , C o l . 1 . 2 6 f . , 2 . 2 , 4 . 3 , E p h . , p a s s i m , I T i m . 3 . 1 6 ( ? ) , Rev. 1.19f., 10.6f., and 17.5f. \20Prophecy,
1 6 0 f . , and others might be added, A c t s 1 3 . 3 3 , 3 7 ( ? ) , 1 5 . 1 5 , and 2 8 . 2 8 ( ? ) . For O T
e x x . he cites, E z e k . 5 . 5 , Z e c h . 1 . 1 0 , 5 . 6 , D n . 4 . 2 4 , 5 . 2 5 . e t c . , a n d c p . 4 Q F l o r I. 2f., l l f . , l Q p H a b III, I f f . , 4 Q p I s a 1 2 1 T h e equivalency
b
I I . 6f. See also D . Patte, Hermeneutic,
o f the d e m o n s t . f o r
14f.,
211ff.
T I P S m a y b e inferred f r o m the w a y the latter is used at
4 Q F l o r I. 1 4 in a m a n n e r strictly parallel w i t h the far m o r e prevalent use o f the d e m o n s t . that d o c u m e n t .
See also C . F . D . M o u l e , 'Fulfilment',
7 — 1 6 , a n d Ellis, Prophecy, see H o r g a n , Pesharim,
304ff., J . A . Fitzmyer, 'Quotations',
in
esp.
2 0 1 ff. F o r a c o m p l e t e catalogue o f all t h e f o r m u l a e in t h e pesharim
2 3 9 — 4 3 . A g a i n s t Ellis, Prophecy,
1 6 1 , w h o takes the use o f the d e m o n s t .
in R o m . 1 0 . 6 — 8 as a n indication o f pesher, see R . L o n g e n e c k e r , Exegesis,
1 2 3 , n. 5 3 , w h o
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
122
the c o n n e x t i o n b e t w e e n t e x t a n d e n s u i n g e x p o s i t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , l Q p H a b X I I . 3.f.,
in "» n
K i n pn^n
nsy
K *> D
1 2 2
. O f t e n the c o r r e s p o n
d e n c e consists o f a link b e t w e e n the text and s o m e historical event o r c o n temporary
c o n c e r n , or vice v e r s a
1 2 3
. Y e t it m a y a l s o b e u s e d in a p u r e l y
a l l e g o r i c a l f a s h i o n as in G a l . 4 . 2 4 . T h i s suggests t h a t b o t h k i n d s o f u s e arise as t h e n a t u r a l c o n c o m i t a n t o f a n a l l e g o r i z i n g t e c h n i q u e , b e c a u s e it is s i m p l e a n d e f f i c i e n t t o e x e c u t e s u c h a p r o c e d u r e b y m e a n s o f d e m o n stratives
1 2 4
. O n t h e basis o f t h e p r e c e d i n g e v i d e n c e it m a y b e c o n c l u d e d
t h a t t h e f o r m u l a e in Q u m r a n a n d t h e N T m a k e e x p l i c i t w h a t r a t h e r m a y often
be
implicit
and
assumed,
namely,
that a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
exists
b e t w e e n t e x t a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e w h i c h has b e e n d i v u l g e d t o t h e c o m m u n i t y at o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r . T h e p o i n t has a r r i v e d again in t h e d i s c u s s i o n t o s u m m a r i z e . It s e e m s clear that the early C h u r c h relied i m p o r t a n t l y closely
resembling
similarity
the
extends
fundamental
pesher
across
the
hermeneutic
o n a kind o f hermeneutic
e m p l o y e d at
presuppositions,
t o the application o f Scripture
Qumran.
approaches,
and
The
devices
to perceived eschatological
e v e n t s . It e x t e n d s a l s o t o t h e m o t i v e s w h i c h o c c a s i o n e d t h e s e a r c h i n g o f Scripture
f o r h i n t s w h i c h m i g h t i n d i c a t e h o w t h e i r salient h i s t o r i e s
re
f l e c t e d G o d ' s saving a c t i v i t i e s . It m a y r e a c h e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f a r o u g h a n a l o g y b e t w e e n their t w o f o u n d i n g figures, f o r the w a y o f the c o v e n a n t that e a c h h a d established c o n t i n u e d t o b e d e f i n e d l o n g afterv/ards b y the i m p a c t o f t h e i r w o r d s a n d d e e d s . T h i s is n o t t o m i n i m i z e f o r a m o m e n t their s e c t a r i a n d i f f e r e n c e s , b u t t o a f f i r m t h a t a f a m i l y - r e s e m b l a n c e e x i s t s between b o t h hermeneutical deal
of whatever
around
t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a great
distinguished
t h e m . T h e analysis
their
respective
sects
from
the
world
o f the pesher h e r m e n e u t i c d r e w a t t e n t i o n t o
its affinities w i t h I P e t . 1 . 1 0 — 2 , a n d n o w t h e s t u d y o f t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n context provides independent uine, and mass
of
integral t o supporting
c o r r o b o r a t i o n t h a t s u c h affinities are g e n
the early Christian interpretation o f Scripture. e v i d e n c e has
b e e n c o l l e c t e d in i l l u s t r a t i o n o f
A the
p e s h e r - l i k e e x e g e s i s w h i c h I P e t . 1.10—2 a s s u m e s .
prefers a simple midrashic p r o c e s s . But see J . D . G . D u n n , Unity,
8 8 , w h o a c c e p t s the presence
o f pesher, m a d e clearer b y the tradition associated w i t h D t . 3 0 . 1 2 — 4 w h i c h has c o m e t o light in T . N e o f . 1 2 2 T h e d e m o n s t . vividly reinforces the sense o f an e x a c t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n ' L e b a n o n ' a n d 'the c o u n c i l of the 1 2 3 The formulae
community'.
in A c t s cited a b o v e in n. 1 2 0 are esp. close t o C D I. 1 3 , X . 1 6 , l Q p H a b III. 2 ,
1 3 , V . 6 , and 4 Q p I s a
c
I. 2 in m o v i n g f r o m event t o Scripture (the d o m i n a n t direction in the
N T , see esp. the f o r m u l a - q u o t a t i o n s in M t . a n d J n . ) , whereas for the m o v e m e n t f r o m Scripture t o event (far m o r e c o m m o n
at Q u m r a n ) the e x x .
c o m p a r e d w i t h 4 Q F l o r I. 2 , 1 1 , a n d 4 Q p I s a
b
in R o m .
1 0 . 6 — 8 and
1 2 4 For this a n d o t h e r possible e x x . see the discussion b y D u n n , Unity, to
draw
a t t e n t i o n here t o
the
E p h . 5 . 3 1 f. m a y
be
II. 1 0 .
a t o m i z i n g process w h i c h
h e r m e n e u t i c d e m a n d s , as F . F . Bruce says, Second
Thoughts,
the
esp. 9 0 f . It is a p p r o p r i a t e
allegorical t e n d e n c y in pesher
7 7 , ' T h e biblical t e x t is a t o m i z e d
so as to bring o u t its relevance t o the situation o f the c o m m e n t a t o r ' s d a y ; it is in this situation, a n d n o t in the natural s e q u e n c e o f the t e x t , that logical c o h e s i o n is t o be l o o k e d for'.
The Case for I Peter
1.13-2.10
123
W h a t r e m a i n s is t o r e t u r n t o I P e t e r a n d test its p r i n c i p a l u s e s o f t h e O T f o r a n y p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c w h i c h has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d in 1 . 1 0 — 2 . T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n m a y p r o c e e d c o n v e n i e n t l y b y t a k i n g u p e a c h o f t h e m a i n s e c t i o n s in t h e l e t t e r w h e r e p r e v i o u s literarycritical analysis u n c o v e r e d the O T ' s f o r m a t i v e i n f l u e n c e u p o n the
com
position.
4. The Case for I Peter 1.13-2.10 T h e p r e c e d i n g discussion o f the hermeneutical c o n v e n t i o n s reflected b y I Pet. 1.10—2, Q u m r a n , a n d the early C h u r c h p r o v i d e s the w h e r e w i t h a l t o f o r m u l a t e a p r o c e d u r e b y m e a n s o f w h i c h t h e analysis m a y b e c o n d u c t e d e f f i c i e n t l y . I f I P e t . 1.10—2 is a k e y t o t h e a u t h o r ' s
hermeneutic,
t h e n s o m e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n it a n d s i g n i f i c a n t u s e s o f t h e O T m a y b e e x p e c t e d . In as m u c h as a w i t n e s s t o C h r i s t is a c e n t r a l d y n a m i c in t h e e a r l y C h u r c h ' s p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c , it s t a n d s t o r e a s o n that a g o o d p o r t i o n o f these references s h o u l d likewise f o c u s o n h i m . M o r e o v e r , the emphasis
in I P e t .
1.11
on
'the sufferings destined f o r Christ a n d
the
g l o r i e s after t h e s e t h i n g s ' suggests t h a t s u c h r e f e r e n c e s s h o u l d g i v e a p r o m i n e n t place either t o the personal suffering and h o n o u r s he e x p e r i e n c e d , according to
the
tradition
o f the
early C h u r c h , o r , t o c o r p o r a t e , a n d
p e r h a p s c o l l e c t i v e , a p p l i c a t i o n s t o the s u f f e r i n g s a n d h o n o u r s o f his f o l l o w e r s . T h i s is n o t t o say t h a t t h e ' s u f f e r i n g s ' / ' g l o r i e s ' s c h e m a
(hereafter
S / G ) m u s t always appear, n o r that b o t h m e m b e r s o f the antithesis must a l w a y s a p p e a r in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r , n o r t h a t w h e n e v e r t h e y d o appear
they
would
certainly
m u s t b e i n t h e s e r v i c e o f s o m e m a j o r a p p l i c a t i o n . N o w it c o u n t against t h e h y p o t h e s i s s h o u l d t h e r e p r o v e t o b e
v e r y little s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n o n this o r d e r , b u t j u s t as a p e s h e r h e r m e n e u t i c is n o t t h e be-all a n d e n d - a l l o f Q u m r a n ' s u s e o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s , o r t h e e a r l y C h u r c h ' s l i k e w i s e , n e i t h e r m u s t it b e f o r I P e t e r . W h a t is i n t e n d e d b y t h e i d e a o f a key
is t h a t the S / G has o p e r a t e d as an o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i
p l e in t h e w a y t h e a u t h o r has r e a d the S c r i p t u r e s , a n d t h a t o v e r t i m e h e m a y thus have a c c u m u l a t e d a repertoire o f O T references w h i c h h e takes t o b e disclosures o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l truths o f t e n w i t h a r e f e r e n c e t o Christ o r t o t h e u p h e a v a l s t h a t are t o m a r k t h e E n d . T h e p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l c o n v e n t i o n s in t h e Q u m ran a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s has i d e n t i f i e d at t h e s a m e t i m e a rela t i v e l y o b j e c t i v e basis b y w h i c h t o test f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p e s h e r , o r p e s h e r - l i k e , e x e g e s i s . T h e u s e o f t e x t s in w h i c h s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a n t s are f o u n d t h a t are i m m e d i a t e l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n at h a n d m a y b e suspect, p r o v i d e d they otherwise c o n f o r m with the major presuppositions, m e t h o d s , a n d t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h a t e x e g e s i s . H e n c e , primary
attention
m a y b e given t o a n y s u c h instances, a n d if t h e y
are
f o u n d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e S / G , t h e n t h e i d e a t h a t I P e t . 1.10—2 o p e n s a w i n d o w o n the author's h e r m e n e u t i c w o u l d b e c o n f i r m e d .
124
The Hermeneu tic of I Pe ter
A s far as I P e t e r ' s b o d y - o p e n i n g is c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e f o r e , a start m a y b e m a d e w i t h t h e first q u o t a t i o n c o n t a i n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a n t s , Is. 4 0 . 6 — 8 . Is. 4 0 . 6 - 8 ( L X X )
Is. 4 0 . 6 - 8 (I Pet. 1 . 2 4 f . )
Is. 4 0 . 6 - 8 ( M T )
i n n n t w m r p r m
' D r ^
^ a j
v
It m a y b e s e e n at a g l a n c e t h a t I P e t e r f o l l o w s exceptions, and from
M T in r e a d i n g 6 6 £ a f o r
avrfiq,
avdpdj-nov,
the
n
w
r
L X X with a few
t h a t b o t h are c l o s e t o t h e M T . M T ' s v . 7 h a s f a l l e n
t h r o u g h h a p l o g r a p h y , as t h e l a c u n a in l Q I s adding
x
whereas
n o n ,
a
shows
the
L X X agrees w i t h M T , reading
first
TOV
out
. B o t h texts depart
and the L X X g o e s even further b y
I Peter reflects
I P e t e r a d d e d cbc in
1 2 5
the
suffix
c l a u s e a n d Kvpiov
deov
r\ptiv
for
of
n o n
in
the
i r n ^ K ,
last
with (the
as T . P . O s
borne notes, 'Citations', 6 7 ) . R e g a r d i n g t h e r e m a i n i n g w i t n e s s e s , t h e r e is o n l y t h e b a r e s t s u p p o r t f o r co? as t h e o r i g i n a l r e a d i n g o f t h e t e x t u s e d b y t h e a u t h o r 121
l y b e t t e r e v i d e n c e f o r avrr)<: . still
1 2 8
.
T h e e v i d e n c e f o r Kvpiov
1 2 6
. T h e r e is slight
is s l i g h t l y b e t t e r
N o text, apart f r o m I Peter or q u o t a t i o n s o f I Peter, appears t o
c o n t a i n all o f t h e v a r i a n t s , s o t h a t it is less l i k e l y t h a t t h e y h a v e c o m e t o I Peter f r o m a single s o u r c e t h a n f r o m m u l t i p l e s o u r c e s . I n d e e d , I Peter m a y b e the s o u r c e w h i c h c o r r u p t e d
the later
w i t n e s s e s , b u t it is in
the
n a t u r e o f t h e c a s e t h a t t h e issue c a n n o t b e d e c i d e d c o n c l u s i v e l y o n t e x t u a l critical g r o u n d s . It d o e s s e e m safe t o s a y , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f avTr]q w i t h t h e o m i s s i o n o f avtipdoitov
together
favour the use o f a G r e e k text closer t o
1 2 5 See the p h o t o g r a p h o f Is. 4 0 . 2 f f . b y J . C . Trever, Scrolls,
8 1 , f o r the scribal a d d i t i o n o f the miss
ing verse a b o v e the line a n d see the discussion b y E . Y . K u t s c h e r , Isaiah Scroll,
556.
1 2 6 N o t since H o r t , 9 3 f . , has there b e e n a detailed discussion o f the textual evidence pertaining to Is. 4 0 . 6 — 8
in I Peter. In s u p p o r t o f t J c i s a c o l l e c t i o n o f late m s s . o f the Lucianic r e c e n s i o n ,
n o . ' s 3 6 , 9 3 , 9 6 , a n d 4 6 , a catena s u b - g r o u p , no.'s 4 9 a n d 7 6 4 , the B o h a r i c , a n d several S y r o palestinian lectionaries, a c c o r d i n g t o the G o t t i n g e n L X X . 1 2 7 See the G o t t i n g e n L X X ad l o c . for the s u p p o r t o f the p r o n o u n in several m s s . o f O r i g e n , as well as C y p r i a n . 1 2 8 See the G o t t i n g e n L X X for s u p p o r t o f Kvpiov
f r o m the Lucianic recension in nearly all of its
m s s . , the C o p t i c , o n e o f the Syropalestinian lectionaries T h e o d o r e t , C y p r i a n , a n d m o s t o f the Latin Fathers.
(a), Justin, Clement of Alexandria,
The Case for I Peter 1.13-2.10 MT,
125
a l t h o u g h it is c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t h e k n e w t h e H e b r e w a n d b r o u g h t the
G r e e k i n t o c o n f o r m i t y w i t h it. H e d o e s f o l l o w t h e M T a g a i n s t t h e L X X one
o t h e r t i m e w h e r e t h e G r e e k w o u l d c l e a r l y h a v e b e e n c o n t r a r y t o his
d e s i r e d a p p l i c a t i o n ( s e e Prv. 1 0 . 1 2 in 4 . 8 )
1 2 9
.
F o r w h a t it is w o r t h , t h e
parallel u s e o f Prv. 1 0 . 1 2 in J a s . 5 . 2 0 suggests a c o m m o n t e x t b e h i n d I Peter a n d J a m e s rather than d e p e n d e n c e o f either o n e o n the o t h e r , or independent
c o r r e c t i o n s o f the G r e e k b y b o t h authors
t o b r i n g it i n t o
line w i t h the H e b r e w . H e n c e , s o m e small g r o u n d s m a y exist t o s u p p o s e that t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r is a l s o f o l l o w i n g a G r e e k t e x t c l o s e r t o t h e H e b r e w in
1.24—5a r a t h e r t h a n a c c o m m o d a t i n g t h e
f o r m e r t o t h e l a t t e r . It is
i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y f o r sure w h e t h e r h e d e l i b e r a t e l y c h o s e this t e x t
from
a m o n g several p o s s i b i l i t i e s , o r w h e t h e r h e k n e w n o o t h e r t e x t , w h i c h is t h e s a m e f o r t h e t e x t o f Prv. 1 0 . 1 2 in 4 . 8 . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g m o r e t o b e said f o r t h e first a l t e r n a t i v e , avdpcoTTov
because the presence o f
in his t e x t w o u l d h a v e i m p e d e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n h e m a k e s
from
a n a p p l i c a t i o n t o h u m a n e x i s t e n c e t o an a p p l i c a t i o n t o e t h i c s b y e m p h a sizing t h e f o r m e r . H o w e v e r , it
is n o t as e a s y t o r e c o n c i l e t h e p r e s e n c e o f toe, a n d
Kvpiov
in his t e x t w i t h a n y o f t h e s e o p t i o n s . R e g a r d i n g co<;, t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g a l o n e h a s f o u r o t h e r i n s t a n c e s w h e r e it is u s e d b y w a y o f s i m i l e ( 1 . 1 4 , 1 9 , 2.2,
5 ) , s u c h as t o i n d i c a t e a s t y l i s t i c p e n c h a n t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a u t h o r .
Its first a p p e a r a n c e in 1 . 2 4 m a y t h u s b e e x p l a i n e d b y w a y o f a s s i m i l a t i o n to
its s e c o n d a p p e a r a n c e t h e r e , cbq
parallelismus
be
membrorum.
\6prov,
avdoq
under the pressure o f
m o s t kinds o f scribal error
can
r u l e d o u t , as c a n p i o u s m o t i v e s , b e c a u s e t h e M T d o e s n o t h a v e
the
Tetragrammaton reads
A s f o r Kvpiov,
h e r e , t h o u g h it d o e s in Is. 4 0 . 3 a n d 5 , w h e r e t h e L X X
' L o r d ' . M i l i t a t i n g against
author's
a l o o s e q u o t a t i o n f r o m m e m o r y is t h e
a w a r e n e s s o f h o w t h e t e x t o r i g i n a l l y r e a d , w h i c h is r e f l e c t e d b y
t h e i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o 1 . 2 5 a t h a t h e uses t i o n at
1.23,
6 id
Xoyov
fco^roc
&eov
Kai
t o i n t r o d u c e the entire q u o t a
pe'vovroq,
KTX. It m a y
in t h e c a s e o f t h e r e d u p l i c a t e d c o c , h e s w i t c h e d t o Kvpiov for
deov
40.5
b e t h a t , as
as a s y n o n y m
u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f his t e x t , b e c a u s e ' L o r d ' a p p e a r s t w i c e i n
w h i c h introduces the oracle o f 4 0 . 6 f f . With such adequate
explana
t i o n s i m m e d i a t e l y at h a n d it s e e m s , a c c o r d i n g l y , s o m e w h a t less p l a u s i b l e to
s u p p o s e that the author h a d h a p p e n e d u p o n a text c o n t a i n i n g precisely
t h e s e v a r i a n t s , o n e , m o r e o v e r , that is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f o r its f a i t h f u l n e s s
to
t h e M T , r a t h e r t h a n t o s u p p o s e that h e h i m s e l f w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e changes. If t h e
alterations
are p r o b a b l y n o t t o b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a c c i d e n t o n t h e
a u t h o r ' s p a r t , this is still n o t t o say t h a t t h e y n e c e s s a r i l y p o s s e s s s p e c i a l e x e g e t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r h i m . C l e a r l y , cbq d o e s n o t . W i t h r e s p e c t
1 2 9 T.P. Osborne,
to
'Citations', 6 4 f f . , neglects to a n a l y z e Prv. 1 0 . 1 2 , a n d so misses its significance
for w h a t s e e m s to b e the a u t h o r ' s p o t e n t i a l f r e e d o m in selecting a p p r o p r i a t e t e x t - t y p e s ( c p . Jas. 5 . 2 0 ) .
126
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
Kvpiovy
o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , K e l l y a n d B e s t are a m o n g t h e f e w s c h o l a r s
who
s u s p e c t t h a t it m i g h t r e f l e c t a C h r i s t i a n i z i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i m p o r t a n t
for
his e x p o s i t i o n . T h e y s u g g e s t t h a t it m a k e s t h e e q u a t i o n easier f r o m
r e t r o s p e c t o f Isaiah's prjua or
t h a t it a n t i c i p a t e s
(Best, 9 6 )
1 3 0
(121)
w i t h t h e ' G o s p e l ' in 1 . 1 2 ( K e l l y , 8 1 ) ,
t h e o p e n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f C h r i s t as ' L o r d ' in
2.3
. S u c h s u g g e s t i o n s are a t t r a c t i v e f o r t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n
w h i c h w o u l d take t h e m t o be consistent with the place .of m o d i f i e d textt y p e s in a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c , b u t m o r e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e m in the c o n t e x t is n e e d e d t h a n K e l l y o r B e s t give b e f o r e t h e y c a n b e a c c e p t e d . For
e x a m p l e , a d i f f i c u l t y is p o s e d b y t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l u s a g e o f Isaiah's
p h r a s e as a s u b j e c t i v e g e n i t i v e , w h e t h e r M T ' s T J *> n 8e
TO
prjua
TOV
17/icoy, s i n c e in S c r i p t u r e
&eov
the
~l i l l
, or L X X ' s
' w o r d ' is o r d i n a r i l y
' f r o m G o d ' ( s u b . g e n . ) , n o t ' a b o u t G o d ' ( o b j e c t , g e n . ) . M o r e o v e r , the sub s t i t u t i o n o f Kvpiov
f o r &eov
in 1 . 2 5 a w o u l d still c o n f o r m w i t h t h e p r e v a i l
ing usage in Scripture, m e a n i n g 'the message f r o m the L o r d ( G o d ) ' , unless s o m e j u s t i f i c a t i o n in t h e c o n t e x t e x i s t s t o t a k e it o t h e r w i s e . I n d e e d , t h e a u t h o r ' s u s a g e t o t h a t p o i n t is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c o n v e n tional o n e , since b o t h
1.12 a n d
1 . 2 3 d e s c r i b e t h e m e s s a g e as h a v i n g its
o r i g i n f r o m G o d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e a u t h o r is j u s t as c o n s i s t e n t in his close association o f references t o the ' L o r d ' w i t h Jesus. T h e sole m e n t i o n o f ' L o r d ' b e f o r e 1 . 2 5 a is at 1 . 3 , w h e r e it is a title f o r J e s u s . T h e n e x t m e n t i o n o f ' L o r d ' after
1 . 2 5 a is at 2 . 3 , w h e r e it is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h
'Christ/
k i n d n e s s ' , d e s p i t e its l o c u s in a n e x p l i c i t a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 4 . 8 w h i c h refers t o G o d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f ' L o r d ' in t h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m Isaiah at
1.25a
m a y s u p p o r t a n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h J e s u s , if n o t in t h e first in
stance, then in the s e c o n d . On Kvpiov
this v i e w t h e a u t h o r
is e x p l o i t i n g a d o u b l e - m e a n i n g l a t e n t in t h e
o f 1.25a w h i c h p r o d u c e s a satisfactory sense w h e t h e r the c o n s t r u c
t i o n is a s u b j . g e n . , ' t h e m e s s a g e f r o m t h e L o r d ( J e s u s ) ' , o r a n o b j , g e n . , 'the
message
about
the
Lord
(Jesus)'. B u t , since 1.12 and 1.23
have
already firmly fixed the idea o f a message ' f r o m G o d ' w i t h the subj. gen., an a s s o c i a t i o n o f Jesus i n v o l v i n g the c o n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d b e m o r e
likely
t o h a v e g o n e far b e y o n d t h e o r i g i n a l f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e o f t h e t e x t f r o m Isaiah. It n o l o n g e r c o n c e r n s m e r e l y a v i v i d p i c t u r e o f t h e vital, e n d u r i n g n a t u r e o f G o d ' s w o r d . R a t h e r , i n his h a n d s it h a s b e e n m a d e t o a p p l y particularly
t o the C h r i s t i a n
e x p e r i e n c e , because 'the message f r o m
the
L o r d ( G o d ) ' o f I s a i a h ' s p r o p h e c y is n o n e o t h e r t h a n ' t h e m e s s a g e a b o u t the
L o r d (Jesus)' w h i c h imparted
Thus the relationship
t o the addressees a n e w e x p e r i e n c e .
o f the Isaianic q u o t a t i o n
t o 1.22—3 is m o r e t h a n
s i m p l y that o f a p r o o f - t e x t w h i c h ascribes the e n d u r i n g nature o f Christian
130
Others w h o have indicated the presence o f a Christianizing a p p l i c a t i o n c o n n e c t e d w i t h include, for
example,
Knopf
( 8 3 ) , Moffatt
( 1 1 2 ) , Bigg ( 1 2 4 ) , Windisch-Preisker
avpiov
(58),
and
Schelkle ( 5 3 — 4 ) . B u t t h e y d o n o t s e e m t o grasp the p r o b l e m as well as K e l l y and Best, nor d o they offer clear e x p l a n a t i o n s in j u s t i f i c a t i o n . A g a i n s t a Christianizing i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , for e x a m ple, are H o r t ( 9 6 ) a n d B r o x ( 8 9 ) , again w i t h little a t t e m p t t o argue the case.
The Case for I Peter 1.13-2.10 existence
127
t o p r o p e r t i e s i n h e r e n t in G o d ' s w o r d , b e c a u s e it s p e c i a l l y i d e n
tifies t h a t w o r d w i t h t h e m e s s a g e a b o u t t h e L o r d J e s u s . W h a t s e e m s t o b e i n v o l v e d is a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d i s c l o s u r e o f a n o r a c l e ' s h i d d e n m e a n i n g o n the o r d e r o f I Pet. 1.10—2, the 'unriddling o f a r i d d l e ' characteristic o f a pesher-like h e r m e n e u t i c
1 3 1
.
It t h e r e f o r e s e e m s t o b e t h e p e c u l i a r w a y in
w h i c h t h e p r o p h e c y c a n b e m a d e t o a p p l y t o Christians a l o n e w h i c h sug g e s t e d its s u i t a b i l i t y as a p r o o f - t e x t t o t h e The
argument
is v i r t u a l l y
clinrhed
author.
b y R. Longenecker's observation
t h a t 1 . 2 5 b is f o r m u l a t e d after t h e f a s h i o n o f d e m o n s t r a t i v e p e s h e r i n t e r pretation ify
(TOVTO
. . . eoTiv),
a l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t u s e this i n s i g h t t o clar
t h e a u t h o r ' s e x p o s i t i o n (Exegesis,
2 0 1 f . ) . His p o i n t in 1 . 2 5 b
s t r e n g t h e n the q u o t a t i o n ' s c o n n e x i o n w i t h be
is n o t t o
1 . 2 2 — 3 , w h i c h is w h a t
should
t h e c a s e i f all it r e p r e s e n t s f o r h i m is a p r o o f - t e x t a b o u t t h e a b i d i n g
n a t u r e o f G o d ' s w o r d . I n s t e a d , 1 . 2 5 b serves t o c o n n e c t t h e q u o t a t i o n w i t h 1 . 1 2 . Its TOVTO
8e
eoTiv
1 . 2 5 a , TO de prjua avplov, evayyeXiodev
elq
\ioai±evwv between
viidq.
TO prjpa r e f e r s in t h e first i n s t a n c e , a n y w a y , t o a n d n o t t o 1 . 2 3 , Xoyov
By
this m e a n s
w h e r e its rd
the
author
evayye-
asserts a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
Is. 4 0 a n d t h e salient h i s t o r y o f his a d d r e s s e e s in a w a y t h a t
e x p l i c i t l y l i n k s his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n —2.
. . . deov,
vjjtdq is a n iterative d e v i c e r e c a l l i n g 1 . 1 2 , TU)V
t o his h e r m e n e u t i c a l s t a t e m e n t in 1 . 1 0
H e gives e v e r y i n d i c a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g l y , t h a t Isaiah's u t t e r a n c e q u a l i
fies in his m i n d as o n e o f t h o s e ' p r e d i c t i o n s ' t o w h i c h h e r e f e r s at 1 . 1 1 , o n e c o n c e a l e d f r o m v i e w p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it r e l a t e d
t o those w h o hear the
m e s s a g e a b o u t C h r i s t a f t e r his c o m i n g . H e n c e , e v e n if t h e d o u b l e - m e a n i n g o f Kvpiov in 1 . 2 5 a m i g h t h a v e e l u d e d c e r t a i n d e t e c t i o n b y t h e a d d r e s s e e s , o b s c u r i n g the C h r i s t o l o g i c a l i m p o r t o f the q u o t a t i o n , the bearing o f 1 . 2 5 b is s u c h as t o m a k e t h a t i m p o r t
nearly inescapable. T h e n , w h e n the author
p r o c e e d s in 2.3 t o a p l a y o n w o r d s that p r e s u p p o s e s a d o u b l e - m e a n i n g f o r t h e KVPLOS
o f the psalm, h e r e m o v e s any possible d o u b t that might remain
a b o u t w h e t h e r his a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Isaiah q u o t a t i o n rests l i k e w i s e u p o n a double-meaning. S o m e f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e x i s t s f o r t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e a u t h o r is e x p l o i t i n g a p e r c e i v e d d o u b l e - m e a n i n g o f Kvpiov in 1 . 2 5 a . I n t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e pas s a g e ' s l i t e r a r y d e s i g n ( s e e a b o v e p p . 5 7 — 5 9 ) a n d its i n d e b t e d n e s s t o h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h ( s e e a b o v e p p . 9 3 f f . ) v a r i o u s c a t c h - w o r d s a n d k i n d s o f para phrases tion
w e r e i d e n t i f i e d in 2 . 1 — 3 t h a t a p p e a r t o b u i l d u p o n t h e a p p l i c a
o f the
preceding quotation
from
Isaiah.
Several o f these
involve
m u l t i p l e - m e a n i n g s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Isaiah t e x t : 1 ) t h e m o r a l c o n n o t a tions o f a d p £ off
baptismal Xoyov,
131
1 3 2
anticipates
are a m p l i f i e d b y t h e list o f v i c e s , 2 ) t h e f l o w e r t h a t falls t h e deponentes
(dnodenevoi),
perhaps extending to
rite i n w h i c h o l d c l o t h e s are j e t t i s o n e d , a n d , 3 ) prjua,
the (cp.
1 . 2 3 ) w h i c h s e e m s t o lie at t h e r o o t o f t h e w o r d - p l a y e x p r e s s e d
See a b o v e n. 8 1 , and esp. L . H . S i l b e r m a n , 'Unriddling', passim.
132InfacttheTargumtoIs. 40.6, T»Xn
-1^371"
reads KEJJD K ^ J P W l
b D.
128
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
in Xoywov
. . . ydXa.
I n a similar v e i n t h e i m a g e o f a n i n f a n t ' s i r r e p r e s s i b l e
u r g e t o g r o w has b e e n a d r o i t l y j u x t a p o s e d w i t h t h e q u o t a t i o n ' s i m a g e r y o f t r a n s c i e n c e . T h u s t h e d o u b l e - m e a n i n g o f Kuptoq o u t at 2 . 3 , r e c a l l i n g t h e Kvpiov one
more
instance
w h i c h the author draws
i n t h e c i t a t i o n f r o m Isaiah, c o n s t i t u t e s b u t
i n his c r e a t i v e e l a b o r a t i o n
o f the
text's
figurative
d i m e n s i o n s , e v i d e n c i n g a c o n s i s t e n t a p p r o a c h o n his p a r t t o t h e task o f c o m p o s i t i o n in 2 . 1 — 3 . It m a y e v e n b e t h e c a s e t h a t his u s e o f t h e a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 4 . 8 a c t u a l l y p r o v i d e s h i m w i t h t h e e x e g e t i c a l w a r r a n t f o r c o n s t r u i n g t h e Isaiah Kvpiov
with
XPIOTOS)
a t w o - f o l d meaning. T h e allusion's paranomasia
d o e s in f a c t s e r v e t o i d e n t i f y t h e Kvpioq
text's
(\pr}OT6q=
o f the psalm w i t h Jesus,
s u c h t h a t a S c r i p t u r a l f o u n d a t i o n is g i v e n f o r a s s o c i a t i n g J e s u s w i t h t h a t title i n a d d i t i o n t o G o d . O n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t ' S c r i p t u r e i n t e r p r e t s S c r i p t u r e ' , t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p s a l m ' s Kvpiov f r o m r e t r o s p e c t t o t h e o r a c l e ' s nvpiov is n o t
the
main
w i t h Christ m a y reach b a c k
b y w a y o f a n a l o g y . O f c o u r s e , this
p u r p o s e b e h i n d the author's
d e c i s i o n t o allude t o
the
p s a l m , w h i c h is t o i m p r e s s u p o n his a d d r e s s e e s t h a t t h e y are t h e r e c i p i e n t s o f G o d ' s m e r c y . H o w e v e r , t h e S c r i p t u r a l p r o o f is still i m p o r t a n t
t o his
p u r p o s e , b e c a u s e o f t h e w a y in w h i c h it r e i n f o r c e s t h e train o f t h o u g h t e x h i b i t e d b y his e x p o s i t i o n . T h e prjpa
o f 1 . 2 5 a a n d 1 . 2 5 b , that is i d e n t i
f i e d w i t h t h e m i s s i o n - p r e a c h i n g o f 1 . 1 0 — 2 , is p i c k e d u p in t u r n b y Xo7tKOV
ddoXou
reference
to
ydXa
(2.2),
a
'tasting' the
metaphor
e x t e n d e d further
b y the
psalm's
k i n d n e s s o f t h e L o r d ( G o d ) , the c o n t e n t s o f
w h i c h are k n o w n b y t h e a d d r e s s e e s t o b e e m b o d i e d in t h e L o r d J e s u s . T h e author
m a y therefore b e seen t o have r e i n f o r c e d the Christological ap
plication
o f t h e Isaiah q u o t a t i o n in 1 . 2 5 b w i t h a s e c o n d C h r i s t o l o g i c a l
a p p l i c a t i o n o f a t e x t f r o m Scripture, o n e that likewise d e p e n d s u p o n the recognition
o f a c o n c e a l e d m e a n i n g in t h e
form
o f the
paranomasia,
'kindness'='Christ'. C o n s e q u e n t l y , it s e e m s t h a t t h e insights o f K e l l y a n d B e s t r e g a r d i n g C h r i s t i a n i z i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e o r a c l e a n d t h e p s a l m are w e l l - f o u n d e d , o n t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c is p r e s e n t . P e r h a p s
the
explanation presented a b o v e m a y appear t o o contrived t o b e plausible, b u t it r e a l l y is r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d examples
from
interpretation
Qumran
1 3 3
.
in c o m p a r i s o n t o s o m e o f t h e
It a l s o n e e d s t o b e said t h a t t h e
author's
o f t h e t e x t s has b e e n b r o u g h t a b o u t b y m e a n s o f t h e k i n d
o f e l e m e n t a r y c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t his l e t t e r , a n d so may
be assumed
t o h a v e p o s e d t h e a d d r e s s e e s little d i f f i c u l t y . N o t
m u c h m o r e is a s k e d o f t h e m t h a n t h a t t h e y grasp t h e b a s i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e h e r m e n e u t i c h e o u t l i n e d f o r t h e m at 1 . 1 0 — 2 . In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e m e t h o d o l o g y s t i p u l a t e d earlier, t h e n e x t q u e s t i o n t o b e raised m u s t c o n c e r n a n y c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e s e t w o O T t e x t s w i t h
1 3 3 See, for instance, the t o r t u o u s a n d y e t basically c o g e n t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the pesher interpreta tion in l Q p H a b V I I . 3f. b y W . H . B r o w n l e e , Habakkuk, 'Redefinition',
483ff.
1 0 8 - 1 3 , a n d , similarly, G . J . B r o o k e ,
The Case for I Peter 1.13-2.10
129
t h e S / G c o n t a i n e d in 1 . 1 1 . T w o p o s s i b i l i t i e s i m m e d i a t e l y s u g g e s t t h e m selves w h i c h i n v o l v e t e r m s p r o m i n e n t in t h e o p e n i n g c l a u s e s o f t h e o r a c l e , a d p £ a n d 5 6 £ a , t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h tallies v e r b a l l y w i t h t h e S / G . T h e t w o t e r m s are c o m b i n e d in a c o l l e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n t o h u m a n
existence
g e n e r a l l y , in o r d e r t o set u p a c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e g r a c i o u s a c t i o n o f G o d w h o , t h r o u g h his m e s s a g e a b o u t the L o r d J e s u s , has r e s c u e d t h e a d d r e s sees f r o m t h e c y c l e o f d e c a y a n d sin. I n this r e s p e c t t h e y h a v e b e e n e l e v a ted
a b o v e the
ordinary
human
situation,
so that the
hope of
sharing
C h r i s t ' s v i c t o r y o v e r d e a t h a n d his u l t i m a t e g l o r y j u s t m e n t i o n e d in
1.21
m i g h t b e c o m e a t a n g i b l e r e a l i t y f o r t h e m . It m a y s u f f i c e h e r e t o r e c a l l t h a t in 1 . 2 1 , as w e l l as in t h e o p e n i n g p o r t i o n o f 1.17—21 ( w . 1 8 — 9 ) , a n as s o r t m e n t o f a l l u s i o n s m o s t l y t o Is. 5 2 — 3 w a s d e t e c t e d w h i c h b e a r s t r a c e s of
the
S / G , a r g u i n g f o r its i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e a u t h o r ' s t h o u g h t
in
the
i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t . A n d s o t h e rest o f his m e s s a g e is a l o n g t h e lines o f a traditional
piety
that enjoins
the
addressees
t o shun
the
fleeting w a y
w h i c h e n d s in d e a t h f o r t h e w a y t h a t l e a d s t o life e t e r n a l w i t h C h r i s t , t h a t is, a C h r i s t i a n
application
o f the
T w o Ways. Hence, s o m e correlation
b e t w e e n t h e Isaiah t e x t a n d t h e S / G d o e s s e e m t o e x i s t in the a u t h o r ' s m i n d w h i c h is o f v a l u e in r e l a t i n g t h e d e a t h a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n o f C h r i s t t o his a d d r e s s e e s ' d i f f i c u l t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . A n y c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 4 . 8 w i t h t h e S / G is r a t h e r m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c , h o w e v e r . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e are n o o b v i o u s v e r b a l with
the
S/G
which might
help
one to
tallies
discern a possible correlation.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , it m a y b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h e e x p l i c i t a l l u s i o n c o m e s f r o m a p s a l m that was o n e o f the classic O T texts a p p l i c a b l e t o the righteous s u f f e r e r ( I V M a c e . 1 8 . 1 5 , a n d see a b o v e p . 6 7 f . ) . I n a d d i t i o n , as p r e v i o u s l y o b s e r v e d , the a l l u s i o n r e i n f o r c e s a train o f t h o u g h t w h i c h i d e n t i f i e s C h r i s t with
the message f r o m G o d w h i c h the addressees h a d e m b r a c e d
(1.12,
2 5 b , 2 . 2 ) , a n d s o p r e s e r v e s a C h r i s t o - c e n t r i c f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e . B u t it is precisely in the allusion's c o n n e x i o n
w i t h this ' m e s s a g e ' t h a t an
under
lying c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the S / G b e c o m e s plain t o see. T h e v e r y fact that the addressees have 'tasted' ( = r e c e i v e d ) the message, o r s h o u l d have ( c p . 2 . 3 ) , confers
upon
them
a b o u n t y o f privileges a n d h o n o u r s c o m p r i s i n g the
q u i n t e s s e n c e o f G o d ' s ' k i n d n e s s ' t o w a r d s t h e m in C h r i s t . T h e s e i n c l u d e the h o p e o f majestic i m m o r t a l i t y ( 1 . 3 f . , e t c . ) , an u n p r e c e d e n t e d p o s i t i o n in t h e e c o n o m y o f s a l v a t i o n ( 1 . 1 O f . ) , a n d i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d ( 1 . 1 7 ) , k n o w l e d g e o f t h e t r u t h ( 1 . 2 2 ) , n e w life ( 2 . 2 ) , p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a s a c r e d o r d e r w h i c h e n j o y s full c o m m u n i o n w i t h G o d ( 2 . 4 f . ) , t h e e s t e e m w h i c h a t t a c h e s t o b e l i e v i n g ( 2 . 7 ) , a n d a n e x a l t e d status ( 2 . 9 ) . XPrjoToq
Indeed,
m a y r e p r e s e n t a v a r i a t i o n o n the refrain t h a t t h e y h a v e r e c e i v e d
' m e r c y ' ( 1 . 3 / 2 . 1 0 ) , w h i c h p r o v i d e s an i n c l u s i o n f o r t h e l e t t e r ' s o p e n i n g p o r t i o n . A l l o f this is c o n s o n a n t w i t h a sharing in t h e ' g l o r i e s ' o f C h r i s t a d u m b r a t e d b y t h e S / G in 1 . 1 1 , a p t l y e p i t o m i z e d in t h e w o r d s o f Ps. 3 4 . 8 as ' k i n d n e s s ' , a n d s m a c k i n g o f a r h e t o r i c a l f l o u r i s h b y w a y o f l i t o t e s . O n this v i e w Ps. 3 4 . 8 is m a d e t o a p p l y t o t h e c o n s o l a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o right e o u s s u f f e r e r s in a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e l e n g t h i e r t r e a t m e n t o f t h a t t h e m e in t h e b o d y - m i d d l e ( a n d see e s p . 3 . 7 f f . , f o r t h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 in this r e g a r d ) .
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
130
At
last
it is a p p r o p r i a t e , t o s u m m a r i z e
the m e t h o d s and
techniques
bearing affinities w i t h a pesher-like h e r m e n e u t i c w h i c h have b e e n used b y t h e a u t h o r t o a p p l y Is. 4 0 . 6 — 8 a n d Ps. 3 4 . 8 . S o far t h e s e m a y b e s e e n t o i n c l u d e : 1 ) t h e variant r e a d i n g o f ' L o r d ' as a s y n o n y m f o r ' G o d ' in 1 . 2 5 a , which
supports
2 ) a s e c o n d m e a n i n g , t h e L o r d J e s u s , w h i c h is c a r r i e d
f o r w a r d b y 3 ) t h e d e i c t i c f o r m u l a o f 1 . 2 5 b , a n d is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e development
o f m o r e 4 ) m u l t i p l e m e a n i n g s in 2 . 1 — 3 d e r i v e d f r o m
the
q u o t a t i o n , l e a d i n g t o 5 ) a s u b o r d i n a t e O T r e f e r e n c e ( P s . 3 4 . 8 ) w h i c h has 6 ) a k e y - w o r d tally ( ' L o r d ' ) w i t h t h e variant r e a d i n g in Is. 4 0 . 8 , t h a t is also c o n s t r u e d w i t h 7 ) a s e c o n d m e a n i n g , the L o r d Jesus, b r o u g h t o u t b y 8) the device o f paranomasia
('kindness'='Christ'). In a d d i t i o n , m e n t i o n
m a y b e m a d e o f t h e i m p l i c i t a l l u s i o n t o Is. 4 0 . 9 at 1 . 2 5 b , TO &ev ( c p . 6 evayyeX^dfievoq
evayyeXio-
b i s ) . M . P . H o r g a n cites e v i d e n c e f r o m l Q p H a b
X . 5 , 4 Q p N a h I I . 9 , a n d I I I , 1, f o r e x a m p l e , w h e r e p o r t i o n s o f t h e g i v e n b i b l i c a l l e m m a are a d u m b r a t e d t h r o u g h b o r r o w e d v o c a b u l a r y , e t c . (Pesha rim,
2 4 6 , n.
7 0 ) . B e c a u s e these
p h e n o m e n a m a y b e satisfactorily
ex
p l a i n e d in t e r m s o f t h e p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c s t a t e d b y t h e a u t h o r in 1 . 1 0 — 2 , a n d b e c a u s e t h e y are r e l a t e d t o t h e S / G f o u n d in 1 . 1 1 , it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e that t h e y are t h e p r o d u c t o f a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n eutic. It is e s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s e x p o s i t i o n is t i g h t l y inter w o v e n w i t h an a p p l i c a t i o n o f an o r a c l e w h i c h has a m o d i f i e d Whether the author m a x i m i z e d its
text-type.
c o n s c i o u s l y c h o s e this t e x t is u n c e r t a i n , b u t that h e
u s e f u l n e s s f o r his c o m p o s i t i o n has b e c o m e q u i t e c l e a r . In
light o f t h e i m p o r t a n t
r o l e s y n o n y m s p l a y in p e s h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
fur
t h e r m o r e , little r e a s o n r e m a i n s t o resist t h e i d e a t h a t t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f Kvpiov f o r TOV deov
vficjv i n 1 . 2 5 a is t o b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a d e l i b e r a t e al
t e r a t i o n o f t h e t e x t ( s e e a b o v e p . 1 1 4 f o r B r o w n l e e ' s rule n o . 8 ) . T h r o u g h such a d e v i c e the original m e a n i n g o f the t e x t c a n b e preserved while per mitting the author t o u n l o c k a h i d d e n application t o the mission-preach i n g o f t h e e a r l y C h u r c h o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i n t i m a t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n the oracle w o u l d then b e seen t o m a k e o f G o d ' s p u r p o s e s a n d p o w e r w i t h the p e r s o n e l e c t e d t o c o n v e y these t o the E n d - t i m e g e n e r a t i o n , the L o r d Jesus. Other examples o f a modified
t e x t - t y p e c a n b e c i t e d in First P e t e r ' s
b o d y - o p e n i n g . T h e S t o n e testimonia and the c o m p o s i t i o n o f 2.4—10 built u p a r o u n d t h e m h a v e stirred u p e x t e n s i v e d e b a t e o n a v a r i e t y o f t o p i c s a b o u t w h i c h t h e r e is n o s p a c e h e r e f o r d i s c u s s i o n
1 3 4
. Much more often
1 3 4 F o r the ' T e s t i m o n y B o o k ' h y p o t h e s i s see the n o t e f o l l o w i n g . In r e p l y
to J . H . Elliott,
Elect,
esp. 1 6 — 4 9 , w h o c o n c l u d e d that 2 . 6 f f . was c o m p o s e d entirely t o provide justification for the assertions in 2 . 4 — 5 , E . Best w e n t t o the o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e a n d f o u n d instead a primarily fresh development
beyond
2 . 4 — 5 , 'Reconsideration',
2 7 8 . Elliott also d e n i e d a n y cultic c o n t e n t t o
O I K O S , e t c . , in 2 . 5 a n d 4 . 1 7 ( e s p . 1 5 6 f f . ) , b u t Best quite p r o p e r l y a d d u c e d a mass o f linguistic, and o t h e r , evidence to d e m o n s t r a t e that the imagery d e m a n d s a cultic reference, to
the
'Temple-community'
( 2 8 0 — 1 ) . See
also
RJ.
M c K e l v e y , Temple,
125ff.
q u e s t i o n associated w i t h the passage, h o w e v e r , c o n c e r n s the sense o f L3aol\eiov
that is, refers T h e leading lepareviia
in
The Case for I Peter 1.13-2.10
131
t h a n n o t t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s h a v e b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h I P e t e r n o t f o r its o w n sake b u t w i t h matters o f m o s t l y extrinsic i m p o r t a n c e . S o the n e e d to clarify
c e r t a i n d e t a i l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c still
exists. T h e main texts read:
T h e L X X f o l l o w s M T q u i t e c l o s e l y in Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , s o that t h e a g r e e m e n t o f R o m a n s a n d I P e t e r in their d i v e r g e n c e f r o m t h e m a i n t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n m a y b e s e e n t o b e p r o f o u n d . T h e y b o t h f o l l o w M T against L X X in Is. 8 . 1 4 , b e c a u s e t h e l a t t e r has r e m o v e d t h e o f f e n s e ( C . H . D o d d ,
Scriptures,
4 2 , n . 1 ) . H e n c e , against B e s t , t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r has n o t c h a n g e d t h e c a s e o f t h e f o u r n o u n s in his q u o t a t i o n o f Is. 8 . 1 4 ( t h e n o m . ' s f r o m gen., and the gen.'s f r o m
the
t h e d a t . ) , s i n c e h e has n o t f o l l o w e d t h e L X X
b u t a v e r s i o n c l o s e r t o t h e H e b r e w , as r e f l e c t e d b y R o m . 9 . 3 3 ( ' R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n ' , 2 7 6 ) . I P e t e r ' s v e r s i o n o f Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 f o l l o w s M T w e l l against L X X , reading Xt#oc instead o f the accusative. A s far as a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n R o m a n s a n d I P e t e r m a y b e c o n c e r n e d , i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e v i a o r a l c i r c u l a t i o n in t h e R o m a n
community
2 . 9 a n d h o w that m a y a p p l y t o 2 . 5 . E l l i o t t has m a d e a strong case for constructing
paoiXeuov
as a substantive ( 5 I f f . ) , a n d Best m a k e s it stronger still ( 2 8 8 f . ) . It seems n o w t o have carried the day over the protests o f m a n y . See J . H . Elliott, 'Step-Child', 2 5 0 , n. 3 8 f o r the lit. See esp. the close analysis b y E . Schiissler F i o r e n z a , Priester,
5 1 — 9 a n d 9 4 — 1 1 2 . B u t w h a t Elliott h o p e d
t o sustain b y this p o i n t failed to materialize, because as Best s h o w e d the early C h u r c h h a d already fused the various levitical a n d non-levitical cultic ideas, such that 2 . 5 applies t o t h e m all ( 2 8 6 ) .
See as well the criticisms b y D . L . B a l c h , Wives,
1 3 2 — 6 . Best's rendering, ' b o d y o f
kings' a n d ' b o d y o f priests' is thus attractive, or perhaps 'priestly b o d y o f kings'.
132
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
may
be preferred
over a n y o f the o t h e r theories (see a b o v e p p . 3 3 f . ) ,
despite the discovery o f 4 Q T e s t i m o n i a (along with fragments possibly o f o t h e r similar c o l l e c t i o n s ) a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e ' T e s t i mony Book'hypothesis Perhaps
1 3 5
.
s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Is. 2 8 . 1 6 a n d 8 . 1 4 m a y b e t r a c e d
b a c k t o a m u c h earlier a n d b r o a d e r p r e - C h r i s t i a n J e w i s h e x e g e t i c a l tradi t i o n . K . R . S n o d g r a s s has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o J . Z i e g l e r ' s c l a i m o f an a w a r e n e s s o n t h e L X X t r a n s l a t o r ' s p a r t in this r e g a r d . T h e i n s e r t i o n i n t o 8 . 1 4 o f Kai
eav en' avTcp
nenoiddoq
go. w i t h o u t a f o u n d a t i o n in t h e H e b r e w w a s
m o r e l i k e l y t o h a v e b e e n i n s p i r e d b y 2 8 . 1 6 (Kai
6 nioTevcov
en
aurco)
than f r o m any other direction, and evidently m a y n o t b e attributed casual scribal e r r o r
1 3 6
. T h e T a r g u m also seems t o witness t o the
v a r i a n t r e a d i n g in Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , en' aurcp
to
LXX's
which M T and l Q I s a
a
lack.
T h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t J e w i s h e x e g e t e s later i n t r o d u c e d a v a r i a n t s o u s e f u l for Christian a p o l o g e t i c s m u s t s e e m i m p r o b a b l e , so that the d e v e l o p m e n t is l i k e l y t o p r e - d a t e t h e e a r l y C h u r c h . Q u m r a n has l i k e w i s e p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e o f a p r e v i o u s c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e n Is. 8 . 1 4 a n d 2 8 . 1 6 . T h e r e is a c l e a r a l l u s i o n t o Is. 2 8 . 1 6 ( i n n mi?**
ni s) in 1 Q S V I I I . 4 f f . , np *> J U S f m n
pK
n a i n , j u s t after a p o s s i b l e
n *> m ) w i t h w-np T I D I ^ n t t n ^ w n p r p n i n n K ? D*>u;"np . T h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f t h e s e a l l u s i o n s in this, p e r h a p s
a l l u s i o n t o I s . 8 . 1 4 (w 7 pnb 2
the
most
137
grandiose, portrait
o f the
T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y at Q u m r a n
is
t h e r e f o r e a p p o s i t e t o I P e t e r , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o g o o d r e a s o n t o insist o n t h e parallel t h e w a y s o m e h a v e ( c p . D . F l u s s e r , ' P r e - P a u l i n e ' , e s p . 2 3 3 — 5 ) . T h e p e s h e r h e r m e n e u t i c is o b v i o u s l y a m a j o r f a c t o r in t h e c r e a t i o n o f Q u m r a n ' s T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y t r a d i t i o n essential t o its s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g d
(see also 1 Q H V I . 2 5 f . , V I I . 8f., a n d 4 Q p I s a )
1 3 8
.
It s o h a p p e n s t h a t B . L i n d a r s has d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e r o l e o f a p e s h e r l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e a r l y C h u r c h ' s S t o n e testim o n i a a n d t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y m o t i f i n e x t r i c a b l y t i e d t o this tradi tion.
According
applied etic,
1 3 5 See
t o h i m , Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2
w a s t h e d e c i s i v e t e x t , first
t o the Resurrection, then t o the Passion, and b e y o n d
1 6 9 — 7 4 ) . A d d i t i o n a l t e x t s , s u c h as Is. 8 . 1 4 a n d 2 8 . 1 6 , w e r e i n t r o -
Fitzmyer,
'Testimonia',
5 9 f f . C p . the fragmentary
d o c u m e n t s f r o m Q u m r a n consisting,
a p p a r e n t l y , of chains o f q u o t a t i o n s ( 4 Q 1 7 7 , 4 Q 1 8 2 , and 4 Q 1 8 3 ) . See a b o v e p . the
being
(Apolog
basic
discussion o f
the
hypothesis.
w o u l d have t o b e the e n d - p r o d u c t M c K e l v e y , Temple,
D o d d ' s main contention,
o f a n exegetical tradition r e m a i n s intact n o n e t h e l e s s . C p .
Lindars in s u p p o r t (sic). See also L . G a s t o n , Stone,
1 3 7 See e s p . O . B e t z , Offenbarung,
213ff. 95.
1 5 8 f f . , f o l l o w e d b y , f o r e x a m p l e , A . R . C . L e a n e y , Rule,
o f 1 Q S V I I I . 4 f f . a n d I Pet. 2 . 4 f f . t o a c o m m o n Vorlage,
Flusser, is incapable
n. 5 3 f o r
compilaton
1 3 1 — 2 , w h o s o m e w h a t uncritically a c c e p t s the h y p o t h e s i s , citing D o d d a n d
1 3 6 In 'Affinities', 9 9 . T h e reference is t o J . Ziegler, Untersuchungen,
1 3 8 The attribution
33,
that a n y such
of demonstration
('Pre-Pauline',
2 1 5 — 6 6 , esp. 2 3 3 — 5 ) .
investigation o f the tradition at Q u m r a n see B. G a r t n e r , Temple, t e x t as well, R . J . M c K e l v e y , Temple,
For a
thorough
passim, a n d for the larger con
passim, G . Klinzing, Umdeutung,
I Peter, a n d , W . H o r b u r y , ' T e m p l e ' , 3 6 f f .
215f.
as p r o p o s e d b y D .
passim, esp. 1 9 1 — 6 f o r
The Case for I Peter
1.13-2.10
133
d u c e d a l o n g t h e w a y m a i n l y o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r v e r b a l tallies (Xt#o
in o r d e r t o p r o v i d e c o m m e n t a r y o n Ps.
H e h o l d s t h a t t h e t e s t i m o n i a are s i m i l a r l y u s e d in I P e t e r , the
application
o f Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 t o C h r i s t ' s
118.22.
presupposing
Passion and R e s u r r e c t i o n
and
u s i n g Is. 2 8 . 1 6 t o c o m m e n t o n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e p s a l m ' s v e r s e . O n his v i e w the r e a s o n Is. 2 8 . 1 6 is u s e d is f o r its d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s t o n e in Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 , b e c a u s e n o t h i n g m o r e is said a b o u t it t h e r e t h a n t h a t it arrives at ' t h e h e a d o f t h e c o r n e r ' . T h e k e y p o i n t o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e m is t h e r e f o r e n o t Xttfoc. b u t anpoyuviaiov,
s i n c e t h e l a t t e r ties in w i t h
s e c o n d h a l f o f Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 ( e t c KeyaXrjv ycovias).
the
H e observes further that
t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s t o n e b e i n g s u n k 'in t h e f o u n d a t i o n s ' (etc. r d
depeXia)
stressed in t h e L X X t o Is. 2 8 . 1 6 has b e e n o m i t t e d s o t h a t t h e s t o n e c a n b e t r i p p e d o v e r , a n d t h u s b e c o m e t h e o f f e n s i v e s t u m b l i n g s t o n e o f Is. 8 . 1 4 (178ff.). T h e q u e s t i o n is, h o w e v e r , w h e t h e r L i n d a r ' s o u t l i n e f o r t h e u s e o f t h e cento
in
I
quotations author
Peter
actually
have with
presumably
corresponds to
respect
the
to one another,
gave t h e m
to guide the
literary relationship
the
a relationship
the
which
intended recipients' think
i n g . I n p o i n t o f f a c t the e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e t e s t i m o n i a b e g i n s n o t w i t h Ps. 118.22
but
Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , a n d
the
k e y - w o r d all t h r e e q u o t a t i o n s
have
in
c o m m o n is ' s t o n e ' . N o w this is n o t t o d e n y t h a t a n e x e g e s i s e x i s t s m u c h l i k e t h e o n e L i n d a r s has r e c o n s t r u c t e d b e h i n d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a , n o r t o d o u b t the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e P a s s i o n and
Resurrection
in t h e a u t h o r ' s e y e s . Y e t t h e e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e
texts
w h i c h h e d e v e l o p s in 2 . 7 f . h i n g e s u p o n a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e a n d t h o s e w h o d o n o t . It poses the
thus seems m o r e likely that the a u t h o r presup
a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e P a s s i o n a n d R e s u r r e c t i o n b e c a u s e o f w h a t it
a f f o r d s h i m , a p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r his e x e g e s i s in S c r i p t u r e a n d , at t h e v e r y l e a s t , the a p p e a r a n c e
o f l e g i t i m a c y . O n this v i e w t h e v e r s i o n o f Is.
2 8 . 1 6 he e m p l o y s already h a d o m i t t e d certain elements p r o b a b l y f o r the r e a s o n s L i n d a r s c i t e s (epfSaXd), etc, r d depeXia,
a n d noXvTeXrj,
see R o m .
9 . 3 3 ) , b u t w h a t m a k e s this v e r s i o n a t t r a c t i v e t o h i m is t h a t it e l i m i n a t e s c r u d e details w h i c h m i g h t d e t r a c t f r o m t h e spiritual n a t u r e o f t h e T e m p l e c o m m u n i t y w h i c h h e has t w i c e e m p h a s i z e d in 2 . 5 . B e c a u s e h e w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h this v e r s i o n o f t h e t e s t i m o n i u m sees), and
b e c a u s e it a f f o r d e d h i m
( a n d s o , p e r h a p s , w e r e his a d d r e s distinct
advantages,
it w o u l d
have
b e e n going o u t o f the w a y for h i m t o r e p r o d u c e a text closer t o the M T / LXX. A n o t h e r w e a k n e s s in L i n d a r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h a t it gives t h e m e a n i n g of
' p r e c i o u s ' t o Tipr) in 2 . 7 a , a l t h o u g h h e is in t h e g o o d c o m p a n y o f t h e
vast
majority
o f c o m m e n t a t o r s , the R S V , e t c . A s Lindars
to accept 'precious' makes
2.7
read
s o m e t h i n g like
'the
understands, stone
is p r e
c i o u s t o y o u w h o b e l i e v e , b u t t o t h o s e w h o d i s b e l i e v e t h e s t o n e is b e c o m e . . . a stone o f stumbling and a r o c k o f offence' ( 1 8 0 ) . O f course, just a f e w verses b e f o r e h a n d t h e a u t h o r has r e p u d i a t e d c u l t i c f o r m s o f r e d e m p tion associated with materiality,
a n d the L X X ' s noXvTeXrj w h i c h w o u l d
h a v e h e l p e d this sense has d r o p p e d o u t o f Is. 2 8 . 1 6 in 2 . 6 . M o r e o v e r , h a d
134 the
The Herm eneu tic of I Pe ter author
intended
the
meaning
'precious' he might just
as w e l l h a v e
p r e c l u d e d a n y o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y b y r e p e a t i n g eVrt/ioc. f r o m Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , as h e d o e s in 2 . 4 w h e r e t h e a n t i t h e s i s is f o u n d t h e w a y L i n d a r s w o u l d h a v e it. I n as m u c h as eVrt/xoc, a d m i t s m o r e e a s i l y o f t h e t r a n s f e r r e d s e n s e , a p p a r e n t l y , t h a n ri/xT?', h e m i g h t h a v e b e t t e r w r i t t e n viiiv K T \ . , but he did n o t
r o t e ntoTevovoiv, ferred
over other
1 3 9
ovv
ePTtpoq
6
\idoq
. C l e a r l y , ' p r e c i o u s ' is t o b e p r e
c o m m o n l y cited possibilities, like ' p r i c e ' , 'prize',
're
w a r d ' , 'privilege', or ' o f f i c e ' , b e c a u s e these involve even greater intrusions u p o n the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t
1 4 0
.
T h e m e a n i n g o f TI/XT?' w h i c h t h e c o n t e x t p o s i t i v e l y i n v i t e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is t h e e v e r y d a y o r d i n a r y s e n s e , ' h o n o u r ' , as a f e w h a v e n o t e d , ( B i g g , 1 3 0 f . , S e l w y n , 1 6 4 , E l l i o t t , Elect,
3 7 , and Kelly, 9 3 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o Kelly,
t h e a d d r e s s e e s h a v e b e e n t h e r e p e a t e d targets o f v e r b a l , a n d o t h e r ,
abuse
( 2 . 1 2 , 2 5 , 3 . 1 6 , 4 . 3 - 4 , a n d 1 4 - 6 ) . T h e y have b e e n h e l d in c o n t e m p t b y m a n y . H e n c e they can stand t o be r e m i n d e d b y the author that they e n j o y t h e h i g h e s t h o n o u r in G o d ' s e y e s , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r faith in C h r i s t . I n
the
same vein ' h o n o u r ' , a c o n f e r r e d value, s m o o t h s the w a y t o the h o n o r i f i c e p i t h e t s f o r Israel w h i c h c l i m a x t h e p e r i o d in 2 . 9 f . It is at least w o r t h w h i l e c o n s i d e r i n g as w e l l w h e t h e r t h e i m p l i c i t j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f ' h o n o u r ' w i t h t h e transient h u m a n
g l o r y o f I s a i a h ' s o r a c l e in 1 . 2 4 is n o t d e l i b e r a t e . In a n y
e v e n t t h e r e is e n o u g h t o b e said o n b e h a l f o f ' h o n o u r ' t o e x a m i n e t h e au t h o r ' s a p p l i c a t i o n o f Is. 2 8 . 1 6 f o r s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e . A s B i g g o b s e r v e d , I s a i a h ' s 6 moTevuv
eir'avrv
ov fir) aaraioxvv&x]
might
e a s i l y h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u e d b y t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r as p o s i n g a d i l e m m a . Bigg c o m p l e t e s the
c l a u s e t h u s , 'shall n o t b e a s h a m e d b u t shall c o m e
to
h o n o u r ' ( 1 3 1 ) . O n this v i e w t h e p r o p h e t is l e a v i n g u n s t a t e d t h e i d e a w h i c h must
b e g r a s p e d f o r a n y o n e t o h a v e a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f his m e s
sage. F u r t h e r m o r e ,
it m a y b e s e e n t h a t t h e
sharper, b e c a u s e the surely b e put tion
likely
c o n v e r s e reads 'the
i n h e r e n t d i l e m m a is all t h e
one w h o does not
believe will
t o s h a m e ' . It m a k e s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t s u c h a c o n s t r u c
falls
well outside
o f the
oracle's original s c o p e w h i c h , pre
s u m a b l y , w a s i n t e n d e d t o assert o n l y t h a t faith in t h e p u r p o s e s o f G o d is n o t m i s p l a c e d , b e c a u s e a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c is f r e e t o r e s p e c t o r i g i n a l meanings or n o t . I f t h e a u t h o r a p p r o a c h e d t h e p r o p h e t ' s c l a i m in a w a y t h a t m a d e ' b e lieving' the alternative t o ' b e i n g p u t
to shame', and
vice versa, t h e n he
c o u l d have p r o c e e d e d t o ask w h e t h e r the t e x t h i n t e d a b o u t a m o r e p o s itive o u t c o m e f o r t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e apart f r o m the m e r e p r o m i s e
that
t h e y w o u l d n o t b e ' d i s a p p o i n t e d ' . J u s t b e f o r e in his t e x t s t a n d s a w o r d suggestive o f a range o f m e a n i n g m u c h the o p p o s i t e o f 'shame', That
the
point
evriixov.
o f d e p a r t u r e o f his e x p o s i t i o n is Is. 2 8 . 1 6 a n d n o t
Ps.
1 1 8 . 2 2 is c l e a r f r o m the c o g n a t e t o eVrtjuoc. w h i c h a p p e a r s in 2 . 7 a , rt/ir},
3 9 S o , Apologetic, 4 0 See BAGD, Ant.
1 80.
8 1 7 — 8 , s.v. F o r the highpriestly 'office' there seems to b e a single e x a m p l e in J o s . ,
XII. 4 2 . Cp. Heb. 5 . 4 .
The Case for I Peter 1.13-2.10 a l o n g w i t h t h e p i . t o 6 TnoTevojv
135
w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s it, roiq
B o t h d e v i c e s are t y p i c a l o f a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c
1 4 1
.
niOTevovoiv.
The author o f
I P e t e r n e e d l o o k n o f u r t h e r f o r at least a p o r t i o n o f Isaiah's m e s s a g e . It ascribes h o n o u r
t o t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e in t h e s a l v a t i o n w h i c h has
been
revealed through G o d ' s A n o i n t e d . But the o r a c l e ' s a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o the situation envisaged b y the
author
o f I Peter m a y n o t s t o p here. Since ' h o n o u r ' b e l o n g s t o believers, the o p posite must b e l o n g to unbelievers, or the entire construction
crumbles.
G r a m m a r s t i p u l a t e s that Xi&oq b e t o t h e s e c o n d m e m b e r o f t h e a n t i t h e s i s w h a t TLfir} is t o t h e first, e x p l a i n i n g t h e d e v i a t i o n f r o m L X X ' s \idov the s a k e o f g r a m m a t i c a l
for
c o n s i s t e n c y . In as m u c h as t h e s e c o n d m e m b e r
o f t h e a n t i t h e s i s is c o m p o s e d l a r g e l y o f O T m a t e r i a l s l i n k e d w i t h Xidoq, is n e c e s s a r y t o i n s p e c t t h e m 'stone' may
it
f o r p o s s i b l e i n f o r m a t i o n as t o h o w s u c h a
b e f i t t i n g l y o p p o s e d t o ' h o n o u r ' , t h a t is, s o m e h o w c o n s t i
t u t e t h e ' s h a m e ' a t t a c h i n g t o t h o s e w h o d o n o t in f a c t b e l i e v e . Careful psalmist
attention describes.
must
b e paid here
For whatever
t o the
denouement
the
stone does not
reason,
a p p r o v a l o f t h e b u i l d e r s a n d is r e j e c t e d , b u t t h a t is
which
the
gain
the
n o t the e n d o f t h e
s t o r y , b e c a u s e t h e s t o n e is e v e n t u a l l y b r o u g h t t o a p l a c e o f d i s t i n c t i o n in the
edifice
a n y w a y . T h e o u t c o m e e x p o s e s t h e b u i l d e r s as u n r e l i a b l e
in
t h e i r j u d g m e n t . T h e n a t u r a l r e s p o n s e t o s u c h a c o l o s s a l m i s t a k e is s h a m e and the
c o n c o m i t a n t s h o c k and outrage w h i c h the a c c o m p a n y i n g q u o t a
t i o n f r o m Is. 8 . 1 4 serves t o m a g n i f y . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n that f o l l o w s in 2 . 8 b d o e s n o t e m p h a s i z e a n y personal awareness o n the part o f the
detractors
o f Christians as t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f h u m i l i a t i o n , o r t h e l i k e . I n s t e a d , t h e y are d e p i c t e d as u n w i t t i n g a c t o r s p e r f o r m i n g a p r e - d e s t i n e d r o l e w h i c h is c e r t a i n t o e n d i n disaster. A g a i n s t L i n d a r s , a c c o r d i n g l y , t h e a u t h o r ' s p o i n t d o e s n o t s e e m t o lie in a w a r n i n g against a p o s t a s y , b u t in an a p o l o g e t i c i n t e n d e d t o reassure t h e a d d r e s s e e s t h a t G o d is in c o n t r o l w o r k i n g o u t his p l a n in t h e i r salient h i s t o r y o f r e j e c t i o n a n d r i d i c u l e . W i t h t h e c a t c h - w o r d eTedrioav
it is c l e a r t h a t h e has r e t u r n e d t o Is. 2 8 . 1 6 e v e n f o r t h e c l o s i n g
o f his a p p l i c a t i o n ( s e e r i # r ? / a in 2 . 6 ) O n c e eredrioav word
from
1 4 2
.
is b e h i n d h i m , t h e r e r e m a i n s b u t o n e last
Is. 2 8 . 1 6 w h i c h has n o t
s o m e h o w left
important
its m a r k u p o n
the
a u t h o r ' s e x p o s i t i o n in 2 . 7 f . , e'/cXe/crd^, a n d w h i c h a p p e a r s in 2 . 9 at
the
start o f t h e h o n o r i f i c e p i t h e t s . E l l i o t t c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e s this t o b e t h e k e y t e r m t h r o u g h w h i c h 2 . 9 — 1 0 is a p p e n d e d t o 2 . 6 — 8 , b u t h e d o e s n o t g i v e t h e a u t h o r ' s j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r m a k i n g t h a t m o v e (Elect,
142f.). 'Hon
o u r ' first is said t o d e v o l v e o n b e l i e v e r s in 2 . 7 a , a n d o n l y t h e n d o e s t h e
1 4 1 For eWc/xoc see BAGD, 1 4 2 E l l i o t t , Elect, oiv
be
s.v.
3 6 f f . , calls this phrase a 'midrashic n o t e ' a n d finds t w o m o r e o f t h e m ,
dmoTov-
in 2 . 7 b « , a n d 2 . 8 b . H e m a y well be correct, as 1 . 1 4 - 2 . 9 appears t o a p p r o x i m a t e
midrashic
Gattung.
terminology,
But
to
to a
a v o i d , as m u c h as p o s s i b l e , the difficulties associated w i t h such
it is sufficient for i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s e s t o regard the p h r a s e o l o g y in q u e s t i o n as
iterative allusions to their respective O T loci as q u o t e d .
136
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
author turn t o ' c h o s e n ' t o p u t m o r e c o n t e n t into the nature o f the ' h o n o u r ' b e s t o w e d u p o n b e l i e v e r s . O n t h e s t r e n g t h o f ' c h o s e n ' t h e a u t h o r is t h e n r e m i n d e d o f Israel's e l e c t i o n - f o r m u l a , w h i c h e v e n b e g i n s in a m a n n e r r e m i n i s c e n t o f 2 . 7 a , vpiv 2.9 with
. . . ( c p . vpeiq
2 . 7 a serves t o h e i g h t e n
the
. . . ) . T h e parallel c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c o n n e x i o n between 'chosen' and
' h o n o u r ' , s o as t o p u t t h e first a n d t h e c h a i n o f e p i t h e t s t o w h i c h it b e l o n g s o n a p a r w i t h t h e s e c o n d . It m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o r e g a r d t h e m as s u b s t i t u t e s for the deictic formulae typical t o a pesher-like h e r m e n e u t i c , because they are m a k i n g e x p l i c i t a o n e - t o - o n e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n S c r i p t u r e
and
c e r t a i n p e r c e i v e d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l realities, h e r e p r e f e r r i n g t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n for h o m i l e t i c a l reasons. M o r e o v e r , the sharp contrast b e t w e e n the
future
o f u n b e l i e v e r s j u s t i n t i m a t e d at 2 . 8 b a n d t h e e x a l t e d p o s i t i o n o f b e l i e v e r s t h a t c o m e s i n t o v i e w at 2 . 9 s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d r a m a t i z e s t h e h u m i l i a t i o n o f t h e f o r m e r . T h e d i s p u t e o v e r t h e p r e c i s e sense o f (SaolXeiov ieparevpa
in
2 . 9 a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h 2 . 5 is n o t i m m e d i a t e l y g e r m a n e t o t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c , a n d n e e d n o t d e t a i n the investiga tion
1 4 3
.
Elliott
has a d e q u a t e l y
described the basic nature o f the
relationship
b e t w e e n 2 . 4 — 5 a n d 6 — 1 0 , o b s e r v i n g t h a t it p o s s e s s e s a c e r t a i n character
(similarly, S e l w y n , 1 6 4 , and
t o d i s c u s s it h e r e in d e t a i l (Elect, which
2.4—5
although mains
the
makes
is
midrashic
K e l l y , 9 3 ) , s o t h e r e is n o
need
e s p . 3 3 — 4 9 ) . In e s s e n c e t h e s t a t e m e n t
then justified
b y further
e x p o s i t i o n in
6—10,
l a t t e r g o e s b e y o n d w i t h its a p o l o g e t i c e l e m e n t . T h e r e re
o n e outstanding
item
o f i n t e r e s t in 2 . 4 , h o w e v e r , t h a t
Lindars
n o t e d in p a s s i n g b u t c o u l d n o t c o n f i d e n t l y r e s o l v e w h i c h t h e p r o p o s e d interpretation o f 2.7f. m a y clarify. Contrary t o what might be e x p e c t e d , t h e a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 in 2 . 4 d o e s
n o t e n d w i t h eiq KeyaXrjv
ycouiaq
t o e x p r e s s C h r i s t ' s v i n d i c a t i o n o v e r his e n e m i e s , b u t w i t h w o r d s f r o m Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , enXeKTOv
evripov.
Lindars
s a y s , 'It is less a p p r o p r i a t e
from
the
p o i n t o f v i e w o f the m e t a p h o r , b u t perhaps m o r e personal and appealing' ( 1 7 9 ) . R a t h e r , f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n it m a y n o w b e s u p p o s e d t h a t the a u t h o r k n e w h e w o u l d u s e t h e p h r a s e f r o m Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 at 2 . 7 b p r i m a r ily t o e v o k e the b u i l d e r s ' s h a m e o v e r their mistake a n d o n l y s e c o n d a r i l y t o refer t o C h r i s t ' s e x a l t a t i o n . T h u s t o use the p h r a s e at 2 . 4 in its s e c o n d a r y s e n s e w o u l d h a v e d e t r a c t e d f r o m its use at 2 . 7 b , a n d m i g h t p o s s i b l y h a v e c o n f u s e d his r e a d e r s . The
last c o n c e r n t o b e r a i s e d r e g a r d i n g 2 . 4 — 1 0 is its c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h
t h e S / G in 1 . 1 1 . P e r h a p s n o single i n s t a n c e in t h e e n t i r e l e t t e r is m o r e striking t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 w i t h 1 . 1 1 , w h i c h t h e au t h o r c l e a r l y a s s u m e s a p p l i e s first a n d f o r e m o s t t o t h e P a s s i o n a n d R e s u r r e c t i o n , as L i n d a r s h a s s h o w n . It m a y w e l l b e t h a t t e x t s s u c h as this o n e g u i d e d t h e a u t h o r , a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y b e f o r e h i m , t o a p p r o a c h the S c r i p -
143 According
to E l l i o t t , Elect,
3 8 , w h o s e m i n u t e analysis o f the passage's structure c o n f i r m s
earlier o b s e r v a t i o n s t o this e f f e c t b y H o r t , 1 2 3 , a n d
Selwyn, 1 6 5 .
the
The Case for I Peter 1.13-2.10
137
t u r e s a l o n g t h e lines o f its a n t i t h e s i s ( s e e A c t s 4 . 1 Of.). O n this a s s u m p t i o n it is q u i t e
consistent
t o f i n d t h a t Is. 2 8 . 1 6 is t r e a t e d in a m a n n e r w h i c h
c o n n e c t s it w i t h b o t h
sides o f t h e s c h e m a . T o b e l i e v e r s t h e
o r a c l e is a
p r o p h e c y m e a n t t o e n c o u r a g e t h e m . It asserts t h e i r w o r t h in G o d ' s e y e s , regardless o f their e x p e r i e n c e o f h u m a n ridicule a n d r e j e c t i o n , a n d offers a
basis
for
still m o r e e x a l t e d p r e d i c a t i o n s
o f them
as t h e v e r y seat o f
G l o r y , as G o d ' s T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y ( E x . 1 9 . 5 f . , Is. 4 2 . 1 2 , 4 3 . 2 0 L , a n d Mai.
3 . 1 7 ) . T h e a l l u s i o n t o H o s . 1—2 a l s o b e l o n g s h e r e as an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l
fulfilment, o f the p r o m i s e o f restoration ( 2 . 1 0 ) . A d d e d e n c o u r a g e m e n t intended defeat
f r o m the oracle's d e p i c t i o n o f the i m p e n d i n g humiliation
o f unbelievers, an e l e m e n t
is
and
m o r e in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n o f
t h e M e s s i a n i c W o e s a n d t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e d i m e n s i o n . It t h e r e f o r e s e e m s t o be
t h e c a s e t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c h a s a l l o w e d h i m t o d i s c l o s e dis
t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s f r o m o n e a n d t h e s a m e o r a c l e , Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , s o m e associated with a personal Christological application and s o m e associated with
a corporate
o r c o l l e c t i v e o n e . S u c h a s t a t e o f affairs is c o m p l e t e l y
compatible with what
has b e e n f o u n d t o b e t y p i c a l o f a pesher-like
her
meneutic. It is f i n a l l y p o s s i b l e t o s u m m a r i z e t h e m o r e d e v i c e s e m p l o y e d in t h e 1 ) a c o g n a t e t o evripov,
treatment o f the Ttprj,
significant
interpretative
S c r i p t u r e s in I P e t e r 2 . 4 — 1 0 :
is u s e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e p r i m a r y
application
o f t h e t e x t ( I s . 2 8 . 1 6 ) , a n d is a c c o m p a n i e d b y m o r e 2 ) c a t c h - w o r d s , -niorevovoLv,
and
an
antonym,
aiuorovoiv,
involving
3)
roiq
grammatical
changes (sing, t o p i . ) . N e x t , t w o 4 ) s u b o r d i n a t e q u o t a t i o n s a p p e a r , w h i c h m a y be 5) c o n f l a t e d
1 4 4
. T h e y share v a r i o u s 6 ) v e r b a l tallies w i t h t h e m a i n
t e x t , Xi'tfoc ( I s . 2 8 . 1 6 , Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 , Is. 8 . 1 4 ) a n d anpoyCOPtaiov/yoovtac
Is.
2 8 . 1 6 , Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 ) , a n d are f o l l o w e d b y a d d i t i o n a l c a t c h - w o r d s i n v o l v i n g grammatical
c h a n g e s , ol TTPOOKOITTOVOLV
( c p . Is. 8 . 1 4 , npooKopparoq),
ol
aireidovvTes
( a s y n o n y m f o r aniorovcnv,
c p . Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , 6 niOTevoov,
both
of
which
may
possibly reflect
1 1 8 . 2 2 ) , a n d ere'drjoav ted
f o r L X X ' s epPaXcj).
eaXeKTOv 7)
the
p l u r a l , ol
( c p . Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , TL^TJPL,
olKoSopovvreq,
from
Ps.
itself a s y n o n y m substitu
T h e n , a final p r o m i n e n t v e r b a l t a l l y ,
eKXenTOv/
( I s . 2 8 . 1 6 / 4 3 . 2 0 ) , is t h e c r u c i a l t h r e a d t y i n g a c o m p l e x o f o t h e r
O T a l l u s i o n s t o t h e p r e c e d i n g e x p o s i t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , 8 ) m o d i f i e d t e x t -
types were n o t e d
( e s p . Is. 2 8 . 1 6 a n d
Ps. 1 1 8 . 2 2 ; Is. 8 . 1 4 is m o r e p r o b
l e m a t i c ) . It is a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t t h e c h a n g e f r o m t h e a c c . t o Xi^oq
i n Ps.
1 1 8 . 2 2 is a d e l i b e r a t e a l t e r a t i o n b y t h e a u t h o r n e c e s s i t a t e d b y g r a m m a t i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y . Is. 2 8 . 1 6 , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a y start f r o m t h e a u t h o r ' s reminiscence formed
o f the
version
attested
in
R o m . 9 . 3 3 , but
is f r e s h l y
per
f o r his i m m e d i a t e c o m p o s i t i o n a l n e e d s in I P e t e r , a c c o u n t i n g f o r
t h e d i f f e r e n c e s . L a s t l y , a c a s e has b e e n m a d e f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s u r r o -
144
See a b o v e n. 1 3 4 . H o w e v e r , it certainly is t o t h e p o i n t t o n o t e the Jewish h e r m e n e u t i c a l tradi t i o n responsible f o r the rich handling o f E x . 1 9 . 5 f . o v e r t i m e . C p . M T with L X X , J u b . 1 6 . 1 8 and
3 3 . 2 0 , II M a c e . 2 . 1 7 , Philo [de Sobr.
well as the Palestinian T a r g u m .
66 and deAbr.
5 6 ) , and R e v . 1 . 6 , 5 . 1 0 , a n d 2 0 . 1 6 , as
138
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
gate d e i c t i c f o r m u l a in 2 . 7 (vniv
. . . ) a n d 2 . 9 (vneiq
. . . ) due, perhaps,
t o homiletics, bringing the total n u m b e r o f distinct interpretative devices to possibly nine. All o f these devices have b e e n d o c u m e n t e d for a pesher-like hermeneu t i c o u t s i d e o f I P e t e r , a n d m o s t o f t h e m h a v e parallels in I P e t e r
1.22—
2 . 3 . W h a t is m o r e , it has b e e n s h o w n t h a t t h e r e is a p a t e n t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e S / G o f 1.11 a n d t h e m a i n a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e O T t e x t s in 2 . 4 — 1 0 , o n e m o r e o b v i o u s b y c o m p a r i s o n t h a n t h a t b e t w e e n 1.11 a n d 1.22— 2 . 3 . It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t , l i k e t h e e x p o s i t i o n o f Is. 4 0 . 6 — 8 earlier,
the
e x p o s i t i o n o f 2 . 7 — 1 0 all s e e m s t o f l o w f r o m a n initial c o n s t r u c t i o n p l a c e d u p o n an O T t e x t , a l t h o u g h this is n o t t o m i n i m i z e in e i t h e r c a s e t h e p r e s ence o f other factors including a host o f presuppositions and materials
traditional
w h i c h w e r e indispensable t o the p r o c e s s o f e l u c i d a t i o n .
Con
s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e little r e a s o n t o resist t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c has b e e n f o r m a t i v e in t h e w a y I P e t . 2 . 4 — 1 0 h a s d e v e l o p e d t h e S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a j u s t as it w a s i n t h e w a y t h e y w e r e d e v e l o p e d e l s e w h e r e at Q u m r a n a n d in t h e N T
1 4 5
.
5 . T h e C a s e for I P e t e r 2 . 1 1 - 4 . 1 1 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e l i t e r a r y analysis p r e s e n t e d a b o v e ( p p . 5 9 f f . ) , t h e O T has n o t b e e n v e r y f o r m a t i v e f o r m o s t o f t h e b o d y - m i d d l e , a n d in t h o s e p l a c e s w h e r e it has b e e n a f a c t o r t h e q u a n t i t y o f t e x t is u s u a l l y i n s u f f i c ient t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r Hence,
t h e y c o n t a i n a n y significant textual variants.
t h o s e f e w passages w h i c h d o c o n t a i n a d e q u a t e
textual evidence
possess a special i m p o r t a n c e for the investigation that f o l l o w s . T h e first s u c h p e r i c o p e is 2 . 1 8 — 2 5 . It l o o k s t o b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e au t h o r ' s w o r k d e s i g n e d t o a c c o m m o d a t e a c l u t c h o f a l l u s i o n s t o Is. 5 3 in its s e c o n d s u b - u n i t , r a t h e r t h a n t o b e t h e r e d a c t i o n o f s o m e k i n d o f larger liturgical fragment (see e s p . p p . 6 3 f . ,
n . 1 2 9 ) . T h e r e is s c a r c e l y o p p o r t u n
i t y h e r e t o e x a m i n e t h e m a n y issues a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e o f Is. 5 3 in 2.21 f.
146
T o the e x t e n t t h a t s o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g a c o n s e n s u s o f o p i n
i o n m a y b e said t o e x i s t o n t h e s u b j e c t it s e e m s l i k e l y t h a t t h e r e n e v e r w a s a Servant-figure o f Messianic p r o p o r t i o n s w h i c h m i g h t have i n d u c e d either J e s u s , o r t h e e a r l y C h u r c h after h i m , t o i n t e r p r e t his m i s s i o n a n d p e r s o n
1 4 5 So in o n e sense Elliott's p o s i t i o n as indicated a b o v e in n. 1 3 4 finds a measure o f support, b u t so d o e s Best's. T h e h o n o r i f i c e p i t h e t s are predicated to the addressees o n the strength of the interpretation given to eWiM
uphold
ing Elliott's main c o n t e n t i o n , but an u n m i s t a k a b l e a p o l o g e t i c appears in 2 . 7 b — 8 b that favours Best's a p p r o a c h . 1 4 6 See
the discussion, for e x a m p l e , b y H . W . W o l f f , Jesaja,
Hooker,
Servant,
1-61,
F . H a h n , Titles,
merli a n d J . J e r e m i a s , TDNT, passim, J . J e r e m i a s , Theology, 34ff.
passim, Mdrtyrer,
5 4 - 6 3 , O . C u l l m a n , Christology,
V , 6 5 4 - 7 1 7 , L . R u p p e r t , Gerechte,
esp.
220-4,
M.D.
5 1 - 8 2 , W. Zim-
passim, E . K r a n k l ,
2 7 6 - 9 9 a n d lit. cited there, a n d M . H e n g e l , Atonement,
Knecht, esp.
The Case for I Peter
2.11-4.11
139
i n its t e r m s . A t least w h a t e v e r e v i d e n c e w h i c h m a y e x i s t is s o f r a g m e n t a r y a n d a m b i g u o u s t h a t , w h e n it h a s all b e e n a s s e m b l e d , it is i n c a p a b l e o f s u p porting the disproportionate weight w h i c h h a d b e e n traditionally placed u p o n it u n t i l a g e n e r a t i o n a g o The
1 4 7
.
e x c e p t i o n w h i c h m a y b e said t o h a v e s u c c e e d e d t o a n y d e g r e e is
L i n d a r s ' r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e x e g e s i s o f I s . 5 3 t h a t ties it f i r m l y i n t o t h e k n o t o f a p o l o g e t i c d e s i g n e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e P a s s i o n as t h e w i l l o f G o d ( e s p . 7 5 — 8 8 ) . B u t this c l e a r l y falls far s h o r t o f a S e r v a n t 14
redivivus *.
A n o u t c o m e o f h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n is t h a t w h a t e v e r c a n b e
ascertained w i t h c o n f i d e n c e a b o u t t h e early Christian exegesis o f Is. 5 3 a l m o s t assuredly involves a pesher-like h e r m e n e u t i c . The
i m p o r t f o r I P e t e r is t h u s c o n s i d e r a b l e , b e c a u s e t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y
e x t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t o f I s . 5 3 w i t h i n its b o d y , a n d e s p . i n 2 . 2 1 f . , m e a n s t h a t t h e l e t t e r is o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e earl iest C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f Is. 5 3 . M u c h c a n b e seen m e r e l y f r o m the
fashion in w h i c h t h e a u t h o r has i n t r o d u c e d materials
f r o m Is. 5 3 into
2 . 2 1 f. ( f o r t h e a l l u s i o n s t h e m s e l v e s s e e a b o v e p p . 3 8 f . , n . 6 7 ) . I Pet. 2 . 2 1 - 5
Is. 5 3
2.21
v. 1
2.22
. . . ? b<: cumpriav ovSe
evpedr)
OVK eiroirioev 6o\oq
kv r<£>
v. 2 arotxariavTOV^ v.
2.23
Xoi&opovixevos IRDOXLJV
dvreXo&opei
OVK T}7ret\et^^
ixapebiSov^^ 2.24
^ ~"~~~_
avr\veyKev
n» T<7> FU.'IXT.IIRI LAAVFRE 2.25
^ ^ ^ v . 4
s
—•
bs r d c tyuapriac r ^ a j i / I ^ - ^ C C " ^ ^^^AIRROS
3
\
v. 5
~~ ~"~ ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ -JTS^^l ^ ^ " ^
( t 7 r e ) . . . cbc irpojSara nKavcjuevoi
v. 6
^w^-.-.v. \ '
\
7
V. 8 v. 9
\
v. 1 0 \
v. 1 1 \ .
12
It is at o n c e o b v i o u s t h a t t h e a l l u s i o n s m a y b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e y c o m e b e f o r e o r after 2 . 2 3 / 2 4 . T h o s e b e f o r e h a n d d e r i v e f r o m t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f I s . 5 3 , a n d t h o s e a f t e r w a r d s f r o m its first h a l f . T h e i n t e r s e c t i o n , o r s p l i c e , o c c u r s a t t h e start o f 2 . 2 4 a n d t a k e s the f o r m o f a c a t c h - w o r d that b o t h g r o u p s o f allusions share, r d c TIAS.
147
AYTAP-
J u d g e d s t r i c t l y o n l i t e r a r y g r o u n d s , this p a t t e r n l o o k s t o b e a n y t h i n g
H o o k e r ' s d e m o l i t i o n o f the traditional figure o f the 'Servant' has resulted in virtual silence o n the s u b j e c t . S e e , f o r instance, H . C o n z e l m a n n , Outline,
1 4 8 Consider the sparing a p p r o a c h o f J e r e m i a s , Theology,
7 0 , o r G . S t a n t o n , Jesus,
passim.
2 7 7 , o r e v e n t h e m o d e r a t i o n in the m o r e
a m b i t i o u s a p p r o a c h o f P. S t u h l m a c h e r , 'Existenzstellvertretung', p a s s i m , f o r e x a m p l e .
140
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
b u t c o i n c i d e n t a l . It w o u l d s e e m , a c c o r d i n g l y , t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e m i l i t a t e s against a n y c a s u a l u s e o n t h e a u t h o r ' s p a r t o f t h e t e r m i n o l o g y f r o m Is. 5 3 . U p o n closer study o f the c o n t e n t s o f these t w o g r o u p s o f allusions a kind o f deliberate organization can b e discerned. T h e g r o u p that c o m e s first
in I P e t e r
b u t s e c o n d in Isaiah is c o n c e r n e d s o l e l y w i t h
descriptive o f the righteous sufferer's
elements
c o n d u c t , i n c l u d i n g his s i n - b e a r i n g .
T h e g r o u p t h a t c o m e s s e c o n d i n I P e t e r b u t first in Isaiah is c o n c e r n e d instead
with
elements expressive o f the o u t c o m e o f that c o n d u c t . T h e
s e q u e n c e o f t h e t w o g r o u p s as t h e y a p p e a r in Isaiah w o u l d s e e m t o h a v e b e e n r e v e r s e d w h e n t h e y w e r e r e d a c t e d in I P e t e r . A . p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n is t h a t t h e a u t h o r
o f I P e t e r v i e w e d Is. 5 3 as a c o m m e n t a r y u p o n
the
Passion and R e s u r r e c t i o n o f Christ, and that, seen f r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e C h r i s t - e v e n t , t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h s a l v a t i o n c a m e , t h a t is, t h e right e o u s sufferer's
c o n d u c t , h i s t o r i c a l l y p r e c e d e d t h e b e n e f i t s arising
from
t h a t c o n d u c t . T h e i d e a is s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f c o m m o n - s e n s e in a n y r e s p e c t . T h e r e f o r e , the rearrangement not
has b e e n t h e o l o g i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d , a n d c a n
be reconciled, for example, with any
m e r e literary b o r r o w i n g o f
v o c a b u l a r y descriptive o f the righteous sufferer ( c p . Wis. S o l . 2 . 1 2 f f . ) . J u s t e n o u g h o f t h e t e x t f r o m Is. 5 3 has b e e n r e p r o d u c e d at o n e p l a c e in I P e t e r
to permit
o f s o m e instructive
analysis
o f its t e x t - t y p e ,
the
p o r t i o n f r o m 5 3 . 9 w h i c h i n a u g u r a t e s t h e series o f a l l u s i o n s in 2 . 2 2 L , 6q apapriav slight
OVK enoirjotv
support
ov8e
for I Peter
i n s t e a d o f avopiav
evpe&r)
doXos
ev 7q3 oropari
(Eusebius, Cyr. A l e x . )
(LXX, MT)
1 4 9
T h e r e is apapriav
. T h e v a r i a n t in I P e t e r is all t h e m o r e
r e m a r k a b l e , b e c a u s e L X X n e v e r uses dpapria H.-R.,
avrov.
in r e a d i n g
t o t r a n s l a t e M T ' s Dan
(see
I, 6 2 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e is g r e a t e r s u p p o r t f o r I P e t e r ' s
evpe&r)
c
boXoq
(Sinaiticus , Aquila,
A t h a n a s i u s ) as o p p o s e d t o
simply
Quinta,
Clem. R o m . , Justin,
and
86Xov ( S i n a i t i c u s * , V a t i c a n u s , H e x a -
pla, Lucian, the Syro-palestinian, T h e o d o r e t , Cyprian, J e r o m e , and M T ) . B u t it is d i f f i c u l t t o s e e h o w this v a r i a n t m i g h t p o s s e s s a n y e x e g e t i c a l l y decisive
significance
in t h e
i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t o f I P e t e r , a l t h o u g h it is
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e d r a m a t i c s c e n e o f t h e P a s s i o n i n v i e w . It is a r a t h e r dif ferent
case w i t h
receptive
inappropriate author
the
towards
first v a r i a n t . T h e c o n t e x t in I P e t e r is s u r e l y
avopiav,
' l a w l e s s n e s s ' , as this m u s t
seem
not
manifestly
t o d e s c r i b e the m i n o r transgressions o f a slave, s o that the
might have preferred
T a r g u m t o 5 3 . 9 reads
nKun
the m o r e inclusive
apapriav.
Indeed,
the
f o r D&n, w h i c h m i g h t a r g u e f o r a c o m m o n
t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n , b u t is m o r e l i k e l y t o a r g u e f o r t h e i n d e p e n d e n t u s e o f a near-synonym
that arose f r o m c o m p a r a b l e m o t i v e s . T h e change m a y
h a v e s u g g e s t e d i t s e l f t o t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r in p a r t t h r o u g h t h e p r o m i n e n c e w h i c h dpapria
a l r e a d y h a s in Is. 5 3 , a n d in p a r t t h r o u g h his d e c i s i o n
t o u s e t h e w o r d t o u n i t e b o t h b l o c k s o f m a t e r i a l t a k e n f r o m Is. 5 3 at 2.24a.
1 4 9 See the apparatus in the G o t t i n g e n L X X , ad l o c . for the e v i d e n c e p e r t i n e n t t o the t e x t o f I Pet. 2.22f.
The Case for I Peter 2.11-4.11
141
B e s i d e s t h e variants f o r w h i c h t h e r e is at least s o m e e x t e r n a l a t t e s t a t i o n are t h o s e f o r w h i c h t h e r e s e e m s t o b e n o n e
1 5 0
textual
. O n e is t h e a p
p e a r a n c e o f idtfrjre i n s t e a d o f Ld^rjuev in 2 . 2 4 ( I s . 5 3 . 5 ) , p r e s u m a b l y f o r homiletical reasons (see a b o v e p p . 63f.,
n . 1 2 9 ) . A n o t h e r is t h e p e r i p h r a s
t i c i m p e r f e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n in 2 . 2 5 ( I s . 5 3 . 6 ) , 17 r e . . . O K 7 r p 6 j 3 a r a nXavdbpevoi,
i n s t e a d o f L X X ' s £ir\aprj$r)iJiev
9
a p p a r e n t l y t o m a i n t a i n t h e parallel
i s m o f t h e p e r i c o p e ' s p a r t i c i p i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s . It is d i s t i n c t l y m o r e dif f i c u l t t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e s e t w o variants s t o o d in t h e a u t h o r ' s t e x t o f Is. 5 3 t h a n t o r e g a r d t h e m as a c c o m m o d a t i o n s t o t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t o f I Peter. T h e y clearly c a n n o t b e attributed t o o r d i n a r y scribal error, f o r e x a m p l e . It m a y t h u s b e s o m e w h a t easier o n b a l a n c e t o s u p p o s e h e t o o w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o t h e r m i n o r v a r i a n t s n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , in as m u c h as t h e e x t e r n a l e v i d e n c e is h a r d l y d e c i s i v e w h e r e a s I P e t e r m a y w e l l h a v e c o r r u p t e d t h e l a t e r w i t n e s s e s , a n d in as m u c h as t h e c h a n g e s m a y again b e a c c o m m o d a t i o n s t o t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t in I P e t e r . A t t h e v e r y least the e v i d e n c e argues f o r t h e d e l i b e r a t e s e l e c t i o n o f a m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e . It s e e m s o n c e m o r e t h a t t h e single m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r m a l c r i t e r i o n f o r a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c has b e e n m e t b y I P e t e r , t h e u s e o f a m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e o f Is. 5 3 . I n light o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c in t h e e a r l y C h u r c h w i t h its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Is. 5 3 , a n d o f t h e a u t h o r ' s redaction
o f materials
f r o m Is. 5 3 a p p r o a c h e d in t e r m s o f t h e
Christ-
event, the presence o f a m o d i f i e d text-type justifies investigation o f 2.21 — 5 f o r features w h i c h m i g h t b e related t o a pesher-like h e r m e n e u t i c . Several aspects o f the p e r i c o p e require s o m e a t t e n t i o n , a l t h o u g h relevance
for
the
question
of a
pesher-like
hermeneutic
their
may not
be
o b v i o u s : 1 ) t h e f u n c t i o n o f s e c o n d p e r s o n a d d r e s s in t h e p e r i c o p e ' s d e s i g n , 2) the c o n n o t a t i o n s o f
/ic6Xco7ri,
and, 3 ) the significance o f the allusion
t o the C r u c i f i x i o n . Regarding the place o f s e c o n d p e r s o n address in the p e r i c o p e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , it m a y b e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e a u t h o r
continues the s e c o n d person
a d d r e s s f r o m 2 . 1 8 — 2 0 i n t o 2 . 2 1 . H e is s p e a k i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y t o slaves. T h e p u r p o s e o f 2 . 2 1 is t o d e c l a r e at t h e o u t s e t t h a t t h e c o m p l e x r e c i t a l f r o m Is. 5 3 w h i c h f o l l o w s
applies
t o slaves first a n d f o r e m o s t , a n
u n d e r s c o r e d b y t h e u s e o f t h e rare vnoypapfiop
emphasis
(so, Windisch, 65f., and
S c h r a g e , 9 1 ) . It is r a t h e r c u r i o u s , a c c o r d i n g l y , t h a t the a u t h o r l e a v e s t h e s e c o n d person address
b e h i n d w h e n h e passes o n i n t o 2 . 2 2 , a n d t h a t h e
says n o t h i n g in 2 . 2 2 — 2 4 b w h i c h d o e s n o t a p p l y e q u a l l y t o all t h e l e t t e r ' s i n t e n d e d r e c i p i e n t s a n d n o t j u s t t o slaves, c o n t r a r y t o w h a t m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d given the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f 2 . 2 1 . H o w e v e r , he abruptly
reverts
to
s e c o n d p e r s o n a d d r e s s in 2 . 2 4 c . It is r e a s o n a b l e t o i n f e r f r o m t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f s e c o n d p e r s o n a d d r e s s t h a t t h e a u t h o r i n t e n d s t o signal t h a t h e has finally a r r i v e d at t h e d e t a i l w h i c h m a k e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n t o slaves c o m p l e t e . N o w the v e r b i t s e l f (tdtfrjre) p r o b a b l y d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e s u c h a
1 5 0 A t least n o n e seems t o have b e e n cited in the apparatus o f the G o t t i n g e n e d i t i o n .
142
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
detail,
despite
the
letter's intended
fact
t h a t it is a t e x t u a l v a r i a n t , b e c a u s e all o f
r e c i p i e n t s h a v e b e e n ' h e a l e d ' b y w h a t C h r i s t has
the
done
( s e e 2 . 2 4 a a n d b ) , that is, t h e y are r e c e i v i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o f his s a l v a t i o n . H e n c e t h e d e t a i l w h i c h n a r r o w s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n ' s s c o p e t o slaves m u s t b e t h e i n s t r u m e n t o r m e a n s m e n t i o n e d b y Isaiah, rep /XOJACOTU, s i n c e it is t h e s o l e r e m a i n i n g w o r d in t h e c l a u s e . How
the
use o f the
noun
c o u l d f o c u s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f Is. 5 3 o n
slaves is c l e a r f r o m o n e o f t h e c o n n o t a t i o n s it b e a r s . A s t h e
commenta
tors agree, f e w o f the letter's i n t e n d e d recipients w e r e likely t o b e m o r e familiar
with
t h e lash o f a w h i p o r t h e b r u i s e o f a c u d g e l t h a n slaves,
b e c a u s e slaves w e r e r o u t i n e l y p u n i s h e d w i t h b e a t i n g s . T h e a u t h o r ' s p o i n t s e e m s t o b e t o insist u p o n a n a n a l o g y w h i c h is e s p c i a l l y c l o s e b e t w e e n t h e harsh t r e a t m e n t Jesus e n d u r e d
a n d t h e h a r s h t r e a t m e n t a n y slave m i g h t
a n t i c i p a t e . It is p r e c i s e l y this a n a l o g y w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e a u t h o r w i t h t h e f o u n d a t i o n h e r e q u i r e s f o r his e x h o r t a t i o n t o slaves in 2 . 1 8 f . S i n c e J e s u s d i d n o t a l l o w his e x p e r i e n c e o f u n w a r r a n t e d i l l - t r e a t m e n t c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f a slave t o c o m p r o m i s e his c o n d u c t , s o n e i t h e r are t h e r e m i t i g a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , s u c h as w i c k e d m a s t e r s ( 2 . 1 8 ) , w h i c h m i g h t j u s t i f y slaves in relaxing the
standards o f Christian c o n d u c t t o w h i c h t h e y
have
been
c a l l e d . T h u s t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r is a b l e t o f i n d in Is. 5 3 a d e t a i l w h i c h l e n d s a s p e c i a l n u a n c e t o t h e imitatio
Christi as it a p p l i e s t o slaves.
Nevertheless, the analogy b e t w e e n Jesus' e x p e r i e n c e o f cruel treatment and
that typical
f o r a slave m a y n o t b e a n a l t o g e t h e r
compelling one,
b e c a u s e Jesus was n o t p u n i s h e d f o r a m i n o r transgression b u t f o r a capital o f f e n c e . W h a t d o e s m a k e t h e a n a l o g y a c u t e is still a n o t h e r f e a t u r e in 2 . 2 2 —5 i n v o l v i n g e s p e c i a l l y t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e C r u c i f i x i o n in 2 . 2 4 a , 4 m TO %v\ov.
T h e r e f e r e n c e is m a d e via a r e m i n i s c e n c e o f D t . 2 1 . 2 3 , eirl
(cp. A c t s 5.30, 1 0 . 3 9 , 1 3 . 2 9 , and Gal. 3 . 1 3 )
1 5 1
. T h e addressees did
%v\ov not
have t o s p o t the allusion t o take the p o i n t , h o w e v e r , since the accusative has a f o r c e t h e g e n i t i v e d o e s n o t , e m p h a s i z i n g t h e a c t i v i t y o f c r u c i f i x i o n rather than
simply the e v e n t
1 5 2
. A n y w a y , the t o p i c o f c r u c i f i x i o n gen
erally, although repugnant t o a n y civilized a u d i e n c e , was certain t o b e a d i f f i c u l t o n e f o r slaves, in as m u c h as M . H e n g e l h a s s h o w n t h a t it w a s n o t m e r e l y t h e summum
supplicium,
but quintessentially
iurriy w h a t w a s c o m m o n l y c a l l e d ' t h e slaves' d e a t h '
1 5 3
t h e servile
supplic-
. I t is t h e r e f o r e j u s t
this s u b j e c t o f c r u c i f i x i o n , i m p o r t e d , as it has b e e n , i n t o t h e r e c i t a l o f e l e m e n t s f r o m Is. 5 3 , w h i c h is c h i e f l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a n a l o g y b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d slaves, b e c a u s e h e d i e d ' t h e s l a v e s ' d e a t h ' .
1 5 1 See M . W i l c o x , 'Tree', 8 5 - 9 9 , esp. 9 3 - 4 , a l t h o u g h it m a y be g o i n g t o o far to see a n y allusion t o the A q e d a h here in I Peter. F o r a recent review o f the A q e d a h and the N T see R J . D a l y , 'Isaac', 4 5 — 7 5 . 1 5 2 S o , Lindars, Apologetic, m e a n i n g 'be
2 3 4 , n. 2 , f o l l o w s S e l w y n in c o m p a r i n g Barn. 5 . 1 3 , em
crucified'.
1 5 3 See the c o p i o u s , vivid detail in Crucifixion,
e s p . 51 ff.
ZvXov
nddri,
The Case for I Peter 2 .11-4.11
143
T h u s t h e a u t h o r m a y b e s e e n t o h a v e set t h e stage f o r his r e f e r e n c e t o ' s t r i p e s ' , f o l l o w i n g o n t h e h e e l s , at it d o e s , o f his m e n t i o n o f t h e C r u c i f i x i o n ( 2 . 2 4 a ) a n d o f t h e f i g u r a t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f all b e l i e v e r s in it ( 2 . 2 4 b ) . W h e r e a s pcbXwm in a n a d d r e s s t o slaves w o u l d o r d i n a r i l y b e l i k e l y t o e v o k e associations with routine
punishment,
w h e n u t t e r e d in t h e s a m e b r e a t h
w i t h c r u c i f i x i o n , it m u s t c o n n o t e p r i m a r i l y o n e a n d o n e t h i n g a l o n e , t h e h o r r i f i c p r e l i m i n a r y t o c r u c i f i x i o n c u s t o m a r y at t h e t i m e , s c o u r g i n g it s e e m s t h e a u t h o r Isaiah's pcbXcorn,
1 5 4
. So
o f I P e t e r has f o u n d a d o u b l e - m e a n i n g c o n c e a l e d in
o n e t h a t is p e r f e c t l y s u i t e d f o r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f slaves
b e c a u s e it a p p l i e s t o t h e e n t i r e r a n g e o f
punishment
which they, more
t h a n a n y o n e e l s e , h a d g o o d r e a s o n t o fear. H e u s e s pcbXcom
in c o n j u n c t i o n
w i t h his b r u s q u e r e t u r n t o a s e c o n d p e r s o n a d d r e s s o f slaves t o r e m i n d t h e m f o r c i b l y t h a t J e s u s ' i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e m in their s u f f e r i n g c o u l d n o t have b e e n m o r e c o n c r e t e and c o m p l e t e , short o f literally b e i n g s o l d i n t o s l a v e r y , s o t h a t his e x a m p l e is b i n d i n g e v e n u p o n t h e m . T h e b r u n t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n a b o v e suggests t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r d e p e n d e d i m p o r t a n t l y o n an early Christian
p e s h e r - l i k e e x e g e s i s o f Is. 5 3
f o r his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . H e a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y d i d f o r t h e c o n n e x i o n w i t h t h e C r u c i f i x i o n , w i t n e s s t h e a l l u s i o n t o D t . 2 1 . 2 3 . H e p r o b a b l y d i d as w e l l f o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f I s a i a h ' s ' s t r i p e s ' w i t h t h e p r a c t i c e o f s c o u r g i n g ( s e e M k . 1 0 . 3 3 — 4 f o r paoriycboovoiv
in a list o f S c r i p t u r a l ' p r e d i c t i o n s ' o f t h e
P a s s i o n ) . Y e t h e a l s o s e e m s t o have, a d v a n c e d b e y o n d t h e a p o l o g e t i c o r c a t e c h e t i c a l uses o f Is. 5 3 w i t h w h i c h h e m i g h t h a v e b e e n f a m i l i a r , deriv i n g a c o r p o r a t e a p p l i c a t i o n t o a g r o u p o r p e r s o n s w h o s e class e x p o s e d t h e m to e x t r e m e peril. That the author m a y b e p r e s u m e d to be largely r e s p o n s i b l e f o r this d e v e l o p m e n t is c l e a r f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t I P e t . 2 . 2 1 — 5 represents
t h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o r r e w r i t i n g o f Is. 5 3 , as it
w e r e , t h a t survives f r o m t h e e a r l y C h u r c h . A v a r i e t y o f e l e m e n t s w h i c h a p p e a r in his h a n d l i n g o f Is. 5 3 i n d i c a t e the p r e s e n c e o f a pesher-like h e r m e n e u t i c :
1) a modified text-type
(Is.
5 3 . 9 ) p r o v i d e s t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r an e x p o s i t i o n arising f r o m t h e substitution
o f a 2 ) s y n o n y m {apapriav
f o r avopiav)
and consisting o f a
tissue m o s t l y o f O T a l l u s i o n s t h a t is t a n t a m o u n t t o a 3 ) c o n f l a t i o n , o n e o f w h i c h is a 4 ) s u b o r d i n a t e t e x t ( D t . 2 1 . 2 3 ) f r o m a n o t h e r O T l o c u s . I n a d d i t i o n , Is. 5 3 has s u p p l i e d a vital 5 ) c a t c h - w o r d (dpapria), enced 6) grammatical
has e x p e r i
a l t e r a t i o n s ( e s p . 1st p e r s . t o 2 n d in 2 . 2 4 , a n d
the
p e r i p h r . i m p f . in 2 . 2 5 ) , has g i v e n rise t o 7 ) p a r a p h r a s e ( e s p . 2 . 2 3 ) , a n d , has b e e n e x p l o i t e d f o r at least o n e c o n c e a l e d 8 ) d o u b l e - m e a n i n g
1 5 4 Crucifixion,
3If.
F o r the evocative p o w e r latent in the reference to jJuJjXcjma. passage f r o m
Seneca m a y b e q u o t e d . Invenitur, pravus crucem
et in foedum fuerant,
(pcbXco-
scapularum
trahere
animam
qui
velit
ac pectoris tot
adactus tuber
tormenta
ad
elisus,
Mud
infelix
cui multae
tracturam?
lignum,
moriendi
(in H e n g e l ,
debilis,
iam
causae etiam
iam
citra
Crucifixion,
31,
from
Epist. 1 0 1 t o Lucilius). If the list o f violent o f f e n c e s u p o n the p e r s o n o f Jesus in M k . 1 0 . 3 3 - 4 has a basis in Scriptural
'predictions', t h e n p o s s i b l y pa or ty CJOOVOW
arises f r o m ^ u > A u m i i n
5 3 . 5 , b y a n a l o g y t o the w a y details f r o m the psalms appear in the Passion narratives.
Is.
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
144
in).
I n v i e w o f this e v i d e n c e , r e m a r k s earlier, a n d t h e affinities
between
t h e w a y t h e a u t h o r h a n d l e s I s . 5 3 a n d p r e v i o u s O T t e x t s l i k e Is. 4 0 , P s . 34,
o r t h e S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e little r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t
a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c is p r e s e n t in I P e t . 2 . 2 1 — 5 as w e l l . As
t o a p o s s i b l e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n 2 . 2 1 — 5 a n d t h e S / G i n 1 . 1 0 — 2 , it
m a y s u f f i c e t o q u o t e M . D . H o o k e r w h o says o f 1 . 1 0 — 2 , ' H e r e o n c e m o r e t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is o f a g e n e r a l n a t u r e , a n d " t h e p r o p h ets' ' implies the w h o l e p r o p h e t i c tradition rather than a n y o n e particular p a s s a g e . I n v i e w o f t h e p a s s a g e i n c h a p t e r 2 , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t Is. 5 3 w a s t o t h e a u t h o r a n o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e o f t h e p r e f i g u r i n g o f C h r i s t ' s s u f f e r i n g a n d g l o r y ' (Servant,
1 9 8 ) . A l t h o u g h it is b e y o n d q u e s
tion that the a u t h o r o f I Peter presupposes such a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , the p r e c e d i n g discussion has f o u n d that t h e b u r d e n o f his actual e x p o s i t i o n o f Is. 5 3 lies e l s e w h e r e , n a m e l y ,
in a n o v e l a p p r o a c h
t o the text
which
stresses a n a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e e t h i c a l o b l i g a t i o n s o f C h r i s t i a n slaves. T h e investigation o f I Peter's b o d y - m i d d l e f o r e v i d e n c e o f a pesher-like hermeneutic
m a y proceed to the next
p o r t i o n w h i c h previous literary
analysis f o u n d t o h a v e b e e n s h a p e d f o r m a t i v e l y b y O T u s a g e . T h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 w a s s h o w n t o h a v e b e e n a m a j o r f a c t o r b o t h in t h e w a y 2 . 1 3 — 3 . 1 2 is b r o u g h t t o a c l o s e a n d in t h e w a y 3 . 1 3 f f . is b e g u n ( f o r t h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 at
3.7/3.12 and 3 . 1 3 - 7
see a b o v e p p . 3 7 , 4 4 - 4 9 , a n d 6 4 f f . ) .
t e x t - t y p e h a s b e e n a n a l y z e d , t h e s e t w o uses m a y b e e x a m i n e d
O n c e its
separately.
Ps. 3 4 . 1 2 - 1 6 ( 3 3 . 1 3 - 7 , L X X ) dvdpojiroq
TIC eoTiv dyanCov navoov Kal
rifiepac
6 OeXwv
ideiv
oov and
rr\v yXCboodv
KCLKOV
x^t^ ? oov TOV n-q XaXrjoac 1
eKKkwov
and
KCLKOV
£r)Tr)oov eiprfwriv
KCLI Cora CLVTOV
eni
e£oXedpevoai
dyadov,
avrqv.
8LU>£OV
SIKCU'OUC,
etc Se'rjotv
npootJTTOv 8e Kvpiov
8oXov.
noir^oov
KCLI
KCLI
6
TOV
£LJTIV
dyadds;
avTibv.
eirl
TTOIOVVTCLS
717c
TO
CK
KaKa
iivr\p.dovvov
OLVTCOV.
Ps. 3 4 . 1 2 - 1 6 a (I Pet. 3 . 1 0 - 2 ) 6 yap de'Xtov KCLI iSeiv
ayanav
f OJTIV
rj/uepac ay
adds
ixavoaTLO TT\V yXCbooav Kal
eKKXivaTLO
Kal
dydaXiJioi Lora avTov
npootJTov
KCLKOV
8 6Xov
y
be dno KaKOV Kal itoir\oaTuj
$r\Tr\oaTLO eipt\vr\v STI
and
x^lXr) TOV /UI? XaXrjoai
Kai 8 i c j ^ d r c j
Kvpiov
4-nt
e t c 84T\OLV
8e Kvpiov
dyadov,
avrriv
8tKaiovq avTtov,
inl iroiovvTaq
KaKa.
T h e L X X f o l l o w s t h e M T v e r y c l o s e l y , a n d t h e y f u l l y a g r e e as far as t h o s e d e t a i l s are
c o n c e r n e d w h i c h are t o b e s t u d i e d h e r e . A n u m b e r o f
d i f f e r e n c e s are t o b e o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n t h e v e r s i o n in I P e t e r a n d t h e L X X /MT
w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e apparatus in the G o t t i n g e n
L X X , have n o
The Case for I Peter
2.11-4.11
145
i n d e p e n d e n t attestation o u t s i d e o f I Peter (in fact the apparatus d o e s n o t e v e n c i t e I P e t e r ' s e v i d e n c e ) . A m o n g t h e s e are 1 ) t h e i n s e r t i o n o f yap t h e first l i n e , 2 ) t h e
d e l e t i o n o f n'c. eortv
in
avftpojiroq f r o m t h e first l i n e ,
3 ) t h e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n t h e first t w o lines t h r o u g h t h e c h a n g e o f t h e p t c , dyanuv,
t o t h e i n f . , ayandv,
4 ) t h e c h a n g e o f all
t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n i m p e r a t i v e s in t h e q u o t a t i o n t o t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , a n d , 5 ) t h e i n s e r t i o n o f c o n j u n c t i o n s at t h e start o f 3 . 1 1 ( 5 e ) a n d 3 . 1 2 ( o n ) . I n v i e w o f t h e s i l e n c e o f e x t e r n a l w i t n e s s e s r e g a r d i n g t h e s e v a r i a n t s it is m u c h easier t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e a u t h o r is t h a t s o u r c e t h a n s o m e r e c e n s i o n w h i c h has l e f t s o slight an i m p r i n t o n t h e t e x t ' s
transmission-history.
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , it is n o t t h e least b i t d i f f i c u l t t o c i t e e v i d e n c e f r o m the letter t o the effect
t h a t t h e variants c o n s t i t u t e a c c o m m o d a t i o n s t o
t h e c o n t e x t s , y e t a g a i n . T h e i n s e r t i o n o f yap w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g p e r i o d ( c p . yap
h e l p s to. m e r g e t h e q u o t a t i o n
in H e b . 1 0 . 3 7 ) . S e v e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s
are p o s s i b l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d e l e t i o n o f n'c, eortv dvdpwnos
and the
c h a n g e o f t h e p t c . t o t h e inf. B e a r e suggests t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s p u r p o s e w a s t o eliminate barbarisms
( 1 6 1 ) , whereas Selwyn
facilitate an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l reinterpretation
suggests t h a t it w a s
to
o f t h e p s a l m ( 1 9 0 ) . B u t o n e is
n o t d r i v e n t o v i e w t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e s as rivals, a n d it m a y b e p r e f e r a b l e t o c o m b i n e t h e m i n s t e a d . B e a r e l i k e w i s e p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e c h a n g e in t h e p e r s o n o f t h e i m p e r a t i v e s is t h e result o f s t y l i s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w h i c h s t e m f r o m the i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e o p e n i n g l i n e s . A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y m a y b e suggested, h o w e v e r . B y shifting the f o r c e o f the imperatives a w a y f r o m the bluntness o f a c o m m a n d t o the earnest invitation o f a p l e a , the a u t h o r m a y b e bringing the m o r a l t e n o r o f the q u o t a t i o n i n t o c l o s e r c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the s o m e w h a t indirect a p p r o a c h t o e x h o r t a t i o n he had already a d o p t e d in 3 . 8 — 9 b y m e a n s o f a string o f i m p e r a t i v a l p a r t i c i p l e s a n d a d j e c t i v e s . Of course, the author's
c o n c e r n for style m a y also have b e e n a factor.
With regard t o the insertion o f 5e
( 3 . 1 1 ) a n d o n ( 3 . 1 2 ) it is c l e a r t h a t t h e
f l o w o f t h e t e x t is i m p r o v e d b y t h e w a y t h e y e n h a n c e its i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h variants o u g h t n o t t o b e surprising in l i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e e l s e w h e r e in I P e t e r s i m i l a r l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o c o m p a r a b l e a c c o m m o d a t i o n s t o t h e c o n t e x t . I n d e e d , in t h e l e t t e r ' s o t h e r l o n g e r q u o t a t i o n ( I s . 4 0 . 6 — 8 ) t h e first o c c u r r e n c e o f c o c i n 1 . 2 4 w a s a s c r i b e d earlier t o t h e author's
stylistic p e n c h a n t
c l a r i t y w h i c h it m i g h t h a v e
f o r that w o r d as m u c h as
to any
increased
p r o v i d e d . Perhaps longer q u o t a t i o n s left h i m
w i t h an o p e n i n v i t a t i o n t o r e f i n e t h e m , a k i n d o f t a r g u m i z i n g p r o c e d u r e ( s e e E . E . Ellis, Prophecy,
esp. 1 8 8 f f . ) , w h e t h e r f o r purely stylistic reasons
or for reasons o f greater w e i g h t . In a n y c a s e , t h e a l t e r a t i o n s t o his l e n g t h y c i t a t i o n o f Ps. 3 4 all s e e m t o serve t h e s a m e p u r p o s e , t o u n i t e it w i t h 3 . 8 — 9 . T h e i m p r o v e m e n t s t e n d t o clarify
the relevance o f the text f o r the situation
o f s o c i a l c o n f l i c t en
v i s a g e d in 3.8—9 a n d t o a m p l i f y t h e m o r a l d i r e c t i v e s w h i c h t h e issues t h e r e
1 5 5
.
author
C e r t a i n l y , n o n e o f t h e s e c h a n g e s is essential f o r the ap-
1 5 5 See n o w the detailed treatment in this respect b y J . Piper, Love,
esp.
126ff.
146
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
plication w h i c h the
author
makes
o f the psalm, b u t
neither
are
they
u n i m p o r t a n t . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n is a l s o a n n o u n c e d b y w h a t p r e c e d e s it. T h e iterative a l l u s i o n s t o t h e p s a l m t h a t w e r e i d e n t i f i e d earlier f o r 3 . 7 KXripovopoiq
\apiToq
? c o r ? c ) a n d 3 . 9 (iVa evXoyiav
(avy-
KXripopoprjarjTe)
are
serving n o t i c e t h a t t h e p s a l m is t o b e a p p r o a c h e d f r o m an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e y p r e d i s p o s e the reader t o regard the p s a l m ' s o p e n i n g l i n e s i n p a r t i c u l a r as e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n s o l a t i o n , o r e v e n w a r n i n g , m a k i n g salvation c o n t i n g e n t u p o n a d h e r e n c e t o the ethics o f non-retaliation. A l t h o u g h this a p p l i c a t i o n m a y b e n e w f o r t h e i n t e n d e d r e c i p i e n t s o f I P e t e r , it is e v i d e n t l y n o t o r i g i n a l t o t h e a u t h o r , b e c a u s e o f its r e c o g n i z e d u s e f u l ness in situations o f c o n f l i c t a n d m a r t y r d o m ( I V M a c e . 1 8 . 1 5 ) . T h e fact, n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t t h e a u t h o r w a s i n d e b t e d t o J e w i s h c o n v e n t i o n in n o w a y d i m i n i s h e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f still a n o t h e r e x a m p l e in his l e t t e r o f t h e c o n junction o f
m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e and an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n t o the
a d d r e s s e e s ' c i r c u m s t a n c e s . It m e a n s t h a t t h e r e are g r o u n d s t o s u s p e c t t h a t at least o n e o f t h e t w o p r i n c i p a l u s e s o f Ps. 3 4 i n I P e t e r ' s b o d y - m i d d l e m a y b e r e l a t e d t o t h e p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c f a m i l i a r t o its a u t h o r . B u t this l e a v e s t h e s e c o n d u s e o f Ps. 3 4 ( 3 . 1 3 f f . ) y e t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d b e f o r e it m a y b e l e g i t i m a t e t o d r a w s o m e t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s . S i n c e t h e r e d a c t i o n a l a c t i v i t y e m b e d d e d in t h e devoted
to
psalm's quotation
appears
to be
c r e a t i n g a l i n k w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g p o r t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r , it
w o u l d b e m i s p l a c e d t o h o p e that there c o u l d b e m u c h light f r o m
this
d i r e c t i o n w h i c h m i g h t illuminate the relationship o f the citation t o the e x p o s i t i o n that f o l l o w s . M o s t o f the i n f o r m a t i o n o f a redactional nature w h i c h m i g h t p r o v e u s e f u l in this r e s p e c t is t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y t o c o m e f r o m 3.13ff. T h e first p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e h a s b e e n n o t e d b y a n u m b e r o f s c h o l a r s , n a m e l y , t h a t KaKcoacov the q u o t a t i o n
1 5 6
( 3 . 1 3 ) p i c k s u p o n noLOvvTaq
Ka/cd at t h e e n d o f
. A t t h e s a m e t i m e K e l l y o b s e r v e s t h a t Kai in 3 . 1 3 p r e s u p
poses s o m e sort w h i c h makes the
o f s e q u e n c e in t h o u g h t w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g q u o t a t i o n q u e s t i o n it i n t r o d u c e s c o g e n t ( 1 3 9 f . ) .
H e renders
it
'then', in the sense o f ' s o then . . . ' , drawing a logical c o n c l u s i o n . T h u s there must
b e s o m e f e a t u r e in t h e p s a l m - q u o t a t i o n w h i c h p r o p e r l y
per
m i t s t h e a u t h o r t o d r a w the c o n c l u s i o n , ' S o w h o is t h e r e t o h a r m y o u i f you
are z e a l o u s f o r t h e
KaKcbacov
g o o d ? ' T h e l i n k b e t w e e n itoiovvTaq
KaKa
and
p o i n t s t o t h e last l i n e i n t h e p s a l m - q u o t a t i o n as t h e l i k e l i e s t
place t o find the premise w h i c h a l l o w s the author t o c o m e t o the h o p e f u l c o n c l u s i o n h e d o e s . Presumably the premise consists o f the psalmist's bald d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t t h e L o r d is against t h o s e w h o d o w i c k e d t h i n g s . O n t h e
1 5 6 A m o n g those w h o
see
the
c o n n e x i o n are
Beare, S e l w y n , B e s t , K e l l y , G o p p e l t ,
Elliott,
and
M o u n c e . S p i c q , 1 3 0 , c o n n e c t s 3 . 1 3 rather w i t h 3 . 1 0 , such that o n e m a y h o p e to see the ' g o o d d a y s ' m e n t i o n e d in 3 . 1 0 t a k i n g the f o r m o f safety f r o m o n e ' s e n e m i e s , as stated in 3 . 1 3 , p r o v i d e d that one's b e h a v i o u r c o n f o r m s w i t h the c o n d u c t stipulated b y the p s a l m . A m o n g t h o s e who
see,
apparently, no
close l i n k o f the p s a l m w i t h 3 . 1 3 f . are Windisch-Preisker, R e i c k e ,
S c h e l k l e , Schrage, a n d B r o x .
The Case for I Peter 2.11-4.11
147
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t G o d o p p o s e s e v i l - d o e r s , a n d t h o s e w h o w o u l d h a r m Chris tians c l e a r l y fall i n t o t h a t c a t e g o r y , t h e n it is r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t God
w i l l o p p o s e t h o s e w h o w o u l d h a r m C h r i s t i a n s , t h a t is, t h e a u t h o r is
t e l l i n g t h e a d d r e s s e e s t h a t G o d has t a k e n sides w i t h t h e m t o p r o t e c t t h e m against t h e i r e n e m i e s . Of
c o u r s e , the transition
from
3 . 1 2 t o 3 . 1 3 is l i k e l y t o a p p e a r s o m e
w h a t f o r c e d o n this v i e w , i n as m u c h as notovvraq
nana
probably involves
a frame o f r e f e r e n c e in the c o n t e x t w h i c h w o u l d b e inherently u n l i k e l y to
o c c a s i o n t h e s e n s e t h a t KaKcbouv
b e a r s . U p u n t i l t h e last l i n e o f t h e
p s a l m - q u o t a t i o n t h e e x h o r t a t i o n is c o n s i s t e n t l y a d d r e s s e d t o ' t h e o n e w h o l o n g s t o see g o o d d a y s ' , that is, t o t h o s e w h o aspire t o salvation a n d there f o r e c o n d u c t themselves in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the c o n d u c t o u t l i n e d b y the p s a l m i s t . It is s u c h as t h e s e w h o m t h e p s a l m i s t calls ' r i g h t e o u s ' , a n d w h o s e p r a y e r s G o d is said t o h e e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e n h e arrives at KCLK&,
t h e r e is e v e r y r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e h e
-noiovvraq
is r e f e r r i n g n o t t o t h e g e n e r a l
c a t e g o r y o f evil-doers b u t t o those w h o have failed t o abide b y the ethic h e e s p o u s e s . In the c o n t e x t o f I Peter these m u s t b e the addressees w h o l i k e w i s e d o n o t f o l l o w t h e p a r a e n e s i s o f 3 . 8 f . T h u s t h e r e is q u i t e a d i f f e r ence
b e t w e e n t h e d o m i n a n t a s s o c i a t i o n ' e v i l - d o e r s ' b e a r s in 3 . 1 2 , dis
o b e d i e n t C h r i s t i a n s , a n d , t h a t w h i c h it b e a r s i n 3 . 1 3 , t h e adversaries o f C h r i s t i a n s . It is f r o m r e t r o s p e c t , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e u s e o f KCLKCOOCOV be
s e e n t o d e p e n d o n a c o n s t r u c t i o n o f irotovvTaq
its s c o p e
nana
can
which broadens
t o w a r d s the m o r e general c a t e g o r y o f evil-doers consistent w i t h
the psalm's ethical dualism. Here, then, seems t o b e a n o t h e r case o f a c o g nate used in I Peter t o d r a w o u t s o m e t h i n g akin t o a d o u b l e - m e a n i n g f r o m s o m e e l e m e n t in an O T r e f e r e n c e . B u t this is n o t t h e o n l y e x a m p l e i n 3 . 1 3 f . o f a s e c o n d m e a n i n g b e i n g i m p a r t e d f r o m r e t r o s p e c t t o a t e r m in t h e p s a l m - q u o t a t i o n . T h e c i t a t i o n ' s c l o s i n g lines t w i c e r e f e r t o a c e r t a i n nvpiov,
presenting the reader w i t h a
d i l e m m a s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e a t t a c h i n g t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f nvplov
in
the
q u o t a t i o n f r o m Is. 4 0 at I P e t . 1 . 2 5 a . E i t h e r t h e L o r d G o d o r t h e L o r d C h r i s t c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d , a l t h o u g h at 1 . 2 5 a t h e f o r m e r is i n t e n d e d i n t h e first i n s t a n c e , a n y w a y , a n d it is u p t o t h e f u r t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P s . 3 4 at 2 . 3 t o b r i n g o u t t h e l a t t e r o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e v e r b a l t a l l y ,
Kvpioq.
R e m a r k a b l y e n o u g h , t h e s u b o r d i n a t e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 8 . 1 2 f . at 3 . 1 4 f . c o n tains t h e s a m e v e r b a l tally w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g l e n g t h y q u o t a t i o n f r o m Ps. 34,
Kvpiov,
creating the
virtually
irresistible i m p r e s s i o n o f a d e l i b e r a t e
l i t e r a r y p a r a l l e l t o t h e w a y Ps. 3 4 . 8 is u s e d at 2 . 3 . A c t u a l l y , t h e p a r a l l e l e x t e n d s e v e n t o t h e w a y b o t h s u b o r d i n a t e q u o t a t i o n s are m i n e d f o r m a t e r ials w h i c h m a k e t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h C h r i s t e x p l i c i t ( c p . T6q//XpioT6q
w i t h Kvpiov
. . . TOV Xpiorov).
r
a
KvpLoq=xP 1 -
Perhaps the greatest d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e r e s p e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t s o f t h e q u o t a t i o n s is t h a t ' L o r d ' is a var i a n t i n t h e t e x t o f Isaiah b u t is o r i g i n a l i n t h a t o f t h e p s a l m , w h i c h is s c a r c e l y g r o u n d s t o r e j e c t t h e p a r a l l e l , b e c a u s e w h a t is at issue is s i m p l y t h e l e n g t h s t o w h i c h t h e a u t h o r is w i l l i n g t o g o t o d e r i v e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n he
d e s i r e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , it is r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n s t r u e t h e r e f e r e n c e s
' L o r d ' at 3 . 1 2 o f God
to
in t h e first i n s t a n c e , j u s t as in 1 . 2 5 a , a n d t h e n , at
148
The Herm eneu tic of I Pe ter
3 . 1 5 o f Christ,
t h r o u g h t h e e x p o s i t i o n o f a s u b o r d i n a t e O T a l l u s i o n , again
j u s t as i n 2 . 3 . F r o m h i s h a n d l i n g o f t h e p s a l m - q u o t a t i o n ' s notovvTaq
KaKa
and
Kvpiov
in 3 . 1 3 f . a r e d a c t i o n a l t e n d e n c y o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a u t h o r t h u s b e c o m e s p l a i n t o s e e . H e is m o r e t h a n p r e p a r e d t o e x p l o i t t h e t e x t f o r l a t e n t m e a n ings o r a s s o c i a t i o n s w h i c h serve h i s p a r a e n e t i c a l a i m s . T h e r e m a y a c t u a l l y be
a t h i r d i n s t a n c e i n t h e p a s s a g e , biKaioovvr\v
p s a l m ' s biKalovq,
(3.14), a cognate t o the
b u t c l e a r l y i n v e s t e d w i t h a C h r i s t i a n c o n t e n t it d i d n o t
h a v e i n t h e p s a l m , e x c e p t i n d i r e c t l y . W i t h a X X ' et Kai ndoxoiTe oovvqv
(see
{iaK
dp tot t h e r e
8id
is a r e m i n i s c e n c e o f t h e ' j o y i n s u f f e r i n g '
biKaitopos
above p p . 3 3 and 6 7 ) , introducing a palpably Christo-centric dimen
sion w h i c h goes b e y o n d an O T p i e t y in tension w i t h
Covenant-breakers
a n d p a g a n s t o s i t u a t i o n s o f c o n f l i c t t h a t h a v e as t h e i r s o u r c e t h e E n d - t i m e role o f Christ. At
the same time, h o w e v e r , h e does n o t always have t o t o y with the
t e x t t o m a k e it suit h i s p u r p o s e . F o r e x a m p l e , h e m a y r e p r o d u c e its p h r a s ing w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g i n t a c t , as i n ayado-noiovvraq 3.11,
raq
noirioaToj
KaKa).
seem
aya&ov),
or
KaKO-notovvraq
T h e n a g a i n , TOV dya&ov
a l s o at
frjXcorcu
Kal S t o o g d r c o avTtjv
(cp. 3.12,
ye'vqo&e
t o b e an e f f e c t i v e paraphrase o f the psalm's
fTjrr/adrco eiprjvriv
at 3 . 1 7 ( c p .
3.17
noiovv-
in 3 . 1 3 w o u l d
iroixioaTU
dyadov,
( 3 . 1 1 ) . It s o h a p p e n s t h a t e x a m
p l e s i n this v e i n m i g h t b e m u l t i p l i e d , a s s u m i n g t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f t h e m a s s o f c a t c h - w o r d s a n d p a r a p h r a s e t h a t t h e l i t e r a r y analysis i d e n t i f i e d earlier i n 3 . 1 3 — 7 ( s e e a b o v e e s p . p . 6 7 ) . S u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l h a s b e e n a c c u m u l a t e d , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t o s h o w t h a t t h e p s a l m is b e i n g a p p l i e d t o o n e f o r m of
s o c i a l c o n f l i c t in p a r t i c u l a r
in 3 . 1 3 f . , t h e i n t e r r o g a t i o n
o f Christians
( 3 . 1 5 ) , w h i c h i n v o l v e s a c e r t a i n n a r r o w i n g i n t h e s c o p e o f its a p p l i c a t i o n f r o m t h a t w h i c h i t h a d i n i t i a l l y i n 3 . 8 f . , w h e r e all p o t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n s o f social c o n f l i c t are in v i e w . Yet
this is n o t t h e o n l y c h a n g e t o b e o b s e r v e d i n t h e w a y t h e p s a l m -
q u o t a t i o n h a s b e e n a p p l i e d at 3 . 1 3 f . T h e f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d
eschatological
h o r i z o n that w a s e m p h a s i z e d in 3 . 7 a n d 9 g i v e s w a y i n 3 . 1 3 f . t o a p e r s p e c tive c o n s i s t i n g m o s t l y o f a r e a l i z e d e s c h a t o l o g y ( b u t s e e 3 . 1 5 , The
eXniboq).
shift i n e m p h a s i s is c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e first c l a u s e i n 3 . 1 3
w h i c h asserts t h a t t h e L o r d G o d o f t h e p s a l m is a l r e a d y s u p p o r t i n g Chris tians against t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s , as l o n g as their c o n d u c t c o n f o r m s w i t h t h e p s a l m ' s e t h i c w h i c h h a s b e e n r e c o n s t i t u t e d in t h e f o r m o f C h r i s t i a n eousness' (3.14,
biKaioovvrw
a n d t h e ' j o y in s u f f e r i n g ' topos).
'right
But what
t r u l y m a k e s t h e r e a l i z e d e s c h a t o l o g y e x p l i c i t is t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e ' L o r d ' o f t h e p s a l m w i t h C h r i s t in 3 . 1 5 , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r t h e a u t h o r ' s a i m is t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e imitio Christi
157
Best ( 1 3 4 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , passage.
here
1 5 7
.
prefers t o s p e a k o f n o m o r e than a f e l l o w s h i p w i t h Christ in the
The Case for I Peter Now
149
2.11-4.11
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e a u t h o r is b r i n g i n g C h r i s t ' s e x a m p l e t o t h e
fore does
n o t e n t i r e l y d e p e n d o n c o n s t r u i n g TOP XptoTOP
predicatively t o
r e a d ' C h r i s t as L o r d ' t h e w a y t h e R S V d o e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , a l t h o u g h this w o u l d c l e a r l y h e l p . H o w e v e r , i t is nvpiop
t h a t is t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t o f
OCLT€ i n t h e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 8 . 1 2 f . a n d n o t TOV XPIOTOP. recalled, has been interpolated for
the
pronoun
in
the
ayta-
T h e latter, it m a y b e
into the allusion b y w a y o f substitution
original,
nvpiop
CLVTOP
ay idoaTe
(Best,
133).
H e n c e t h e r e a r e g r o u n d s t o f a v o u r s l i g h t l y t a k i n g TOP X PLOT OP i n a p p o s i t i o n t o ftvpiop,
r e s u l t i n g i n ' t h e L o r d w h o is C h r i s t '
1 5 8
. Moreover, such a
r e n d e r i n g is i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e l i t e r a r y p a r a l l e l a t 2 . 3 , w h e r e t h e O T allu s i o n is u s e d as m u c h f o r t h e e q u a t i o n i t c a n e s t a b l i s h b e t w e e n t h e L o r d o f t h e o r a c l e a n d C h r i s t , as f o r a n y o t h e r p u r p o s e . I t m a y t h u s b e s o m e w h a t safer t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e imitatio
Christi h a s n o t b e e n a s s i g n e d a d o m i n a n t
r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f 3 . 1 3 L , b u t m a k e s its p r e s e n c e f e l t t h e r e n o n e theless. The
t h r u s t o f t h e a u t h o r ' s m e s s a g e , a c c o r d i n g l y , s e e m s t o fall e l s e w h e r e .
It is i n t r i n s i c a l l y p r o b a b l e t h a t h i s p o i n t h a s t o d o w i t h his d e c i s i o n t o s u b s t i t u t e ' t h e C h r i s t ' f o r ' h i m ' i n t h e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 8 . 1 2 f . T h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e n e a r l y u n i v e r s a l a g r e e m e n t a m o n g s c h o l a r s t h a t h i s p u r p o s e is t o e m p h a s i z e t h e d e v o t i o n o f t h e believer t o Christ, w h e t h e r
this c o n s i s t s
c h i e f l y o f his e x a m p l e , o r o f s o m e m y s t i c a l p e r s o n a l b o n d , o r b o t h . S o , a firm, unwavering
c o m m i t m e n t is t h e surest m e a n s
the believer has t o
c o u n t e r w h a t e v e r it is t h a t t h e y m i g h t h a v e t o fear ( 3 . 1 4 b ) . H o w e v e r , it is p o s s i b l e t o g r a n t t h a t s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s m u c h l i g h t t o s h e d o n t h e p a s s a g e a n d still d e n y t h a t it a c c o u n t s a d e q u a t e l y f o r t h e u s e t o w h i c h Kvpiop
has b e e n p u t , b e c a u s e n o e x p l a n a t i o n c a n b e entirely
satisfactory
t h a t fails t o c o n s i d e r t h e s t r o n g r e a s o n s p r e s e n t e d a b o v e f o r s e e i n g t h e r o l e o f Kvptop
as c o n d i t i o n a l t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e Kvpiov
o f the preceding
psalm-quotation. T h e r e it was maintained that t h e author s o c o n s t r u c t e d the allusion t o Is. 8 . 1 2 f . as t o p r o v i d e a s e c o n d , p e r h a p s p r i m a r y , r e f e r e n t f o r t h e
Kvpiov
o f t h e p s a l m - q u o t a t i o n , t h e L o r d Christ. H e n c e the a u t h o r seems t o invite his a d d r e s s e e s t o l o o k u p o n t h e p s a l m f r o m r e t r o s p e c t as d e p i c t i n g C h r i s t ' s h e a v e n l y a g e n c y i n h i s c a p a c i t y as L o r d . H e i m p u t e s t o C h r i s t w h a t t h e p s a l m says o f t h e L o r d G o d . S o it
is a l t o g e t h e r f i t t i n g t h a t t h e a u t h o r
s h o u l d e n j o i n his a d d r e s s e e s t o d e v o t e t h e m s e l v e s t o s u c h a L o r d , s i n c e h e too
h a s h i s e y e s u p o n t h e r i g h t e o u s f r o m his e x a l t e d p o s i t i o n , h e a r s t h e i r
cry,
a n d m a y b e s u p p o s e d t o r e s p o n d , as i t w e r e , b y o p p o s i n g t h e i r
e n e m i e s . I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y after
3.13—7 the author pro
c e e d s t o recite t h e events w h i c h b r o u g h t Christ t o t h e p i n n a c l e o f p o w e r in t h e c o s m o s ( e s p . 3 . 2 2 ) . O n this v i e w t h e a u t h o r is a f f i r m i n g n o t m e r e l y t h e e t h i c a l e x a m p l e C h r i s t o f f e r s t h e m , n o r e v e n his c o m p a n i o n s h i p i n t h e
158
W i t h K e l l y , 1 4 2 , f o r instance, a n d against S e l w y n , 1 9 2 , w h o favours t h e predicative sense, 'as Lord'.
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
150
w a y o f discipline, b u t also the resources o f a transcendent agent w h o can bring the p o w e r o f G o d to bear u p o n the p r o b l e m s w h i c h beset t h e m . S u c h an o u t l o o k is c l e a r l y t h e p r o d u c t o f r e a l i z e d e s c h a t o l o g y . It is p o s s i b l e , m o r e o v e r , t h a t a r e a l i z e d e s c h a t o l o g y a l s o c o m e s t o e x pression in the
guarded
o p t i m i s m w h i c h l e a d s t h e a u t h o r t o raise
e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t his a d d r e s s e e s m a y t u r n s i t u a t i o n s
o f interrogation
the to
their o w n advantage. Surely the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f settings w h i c h threat e n e d t o bring t h e m further h u m i l i a t i o n i n t o o c c a s i o n s w h i c h o f f e r e d t h e m v i n d i c a t i o n w o u l d h a v e t o b e v i e w e d as a sign o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b l e s s i n g a n d a reason f o r h o p e . I n d e e d , such an o u t c o m e w o u l d o n l y b e c o n s i s t e n t , after all, w i t h t h e k i n d o f L o r d w h o m t h e a u t h o r h a d j u s t i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the
psalmist's
G o d , and
w h o c o u l d b e relied u p o n t o demonstrate
his
p o w e r b y e f f e c t i n g t h e s o r t o f reversal f o r w h i c h t h e r i g h t e o u s l o n g . O n e n e e d l o o k n o f u r t h e r t h a n t h e r e f e r e n c e t o ' s h a m e ' itself in 3 . 1 6 f o r s u p p o r t . T h e a u t h o r last r a i s e d this s u b j e c t at 2 . 6 f . ( I s . 2 8 . 1 6 , Karatoxvv&Tl),
where
he
was
using
the
Stone testimonia
apologetically to
a f f i r m t h e e x a l t e d p o s i t o n o f C h r i s t a n d his f o l l o w e r s , a p p e a r a n c e s t o t h e c o n t r a r y n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . But the impression the a u t h o r left the addres sees t h e n w a s t h a t u n b e l i e v e r s m i g h t w e l l n o t r e a l i z e t h e i r m i s t a k e p r e s u m a b l y , the Last J u d g m e n t . W i t h the a p p e a r a n c e o f
until,
KaTaioxw&tboiv
in 3 . 1 6 , o n the o t h e r h a n d , a n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y e m e r g e s , n a m e l y , that o f a d e l i b e r a t e a l l u s i o n ( i t e r a t i v e ) t o Is. 2 8 . 1 6 at I P e t . 2 . 6 f . , w h e r e b y t h e a u t h o r i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r o m i s e d reversal is w i t h i n r e a c h , b o t h s o o n e r and in a f o r m w h i c h f e w m i g h t have anticipated. W h a t strengthens
the
g r o u n d s f o r a p o s s i b l e a l l u s i o n t o I s . 2 8 . 1 6 is t h e f a c t t h a t a n o t h e r o n e o f t h e S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a ( I s . 8 . 1 2 f . ) h a d j u s t b e e n a d d u c e d at 3 . 1 4 f . a s e c o n d time in o r d e r t o inject the Christo-centric e l e m e n t essential t o the p s a l m quotation's tion,
application to the scenes o f interrogation
precisely that
d e t a i l has b e e n e l i m i n a t e d
from
in v i e w . I n a d d i the
psalm-quota
t i o n w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a n a p p l i c a t i o n in t e r m s o f a realized e s c h a t o l o g y . T h e q u o t a t i o n ends in mid-sentence, omitting TOV e%o\e&pevoai
4K yfjq pvrmoovvov
CLVTOOV, w h i c h c o u l d e a s i l y c o n j u r e
u p t h e G r e a t A s s i z e g i v e n t h e s c o p e a n d f i n a l i t y o f t h e j u d g m e n t it d e picts
1 5 9
. T h u s t h e r e is g o o d e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e a u t h o r h a d r e t u r n e d t o t h e
a p o l o g e t i c a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a in o r d e r t o d i s c l o s e t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a certain k i n d o f conflict-situation t o give o c c a s i o n t o the p r o l e p t i c manifestation o f the Last J u d g m e n t , n a m e l y , interrogation. H e u r g e d his a d d r e s s e e s t o a c c e p t t h a t t h e y h e l d t h e k e y t o t h e i r o w n v i n d i c a t i o n . P r o v i d e d that their c o n d u c t r e m a i n e d consistent w i t h that espoused b y the
psalm
( a n d Christ), t h e y m i g h t h o p e t o deprive their
1 5 9 Best ( 1 3 1 ) observes that the q u o t a t i o n o f Ps. 3 4 here breaks o f f at v. 1 6 a (see the t e x t s a b o v e o n p . 1 4 4 ) . H e surmises that the spectre o f e x t r e m e j u d g m e n t raised b y v. 1 6 b m i g h t go 'farther than o u r writer w o u l d wish in its rejection o f evil-doers'. If he is c o r r e c t , t h e n w h a t is present is an a t o m i z i n g use o f the O T , a n i m p o r t a n t feature in a pesher-like h e r m e n e u t i c , as n o t e d ear lier.
The Case for 1Peter 2.11-4.11
151
e n e m i e s o f t h e e v i d e n c e r e q u i r e d f o r various anti-Christian causes, a n d s o c o m p e l t h e m against t h e i r w i l l t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i r e r r o r t o t h e i r e m b a r r a s s m e n t . T h e a u t h o r a l r e a d y a n t i c i p a t e d this p o i n t i n t h e w a y h e e m b r a c e d t h e l e g a l s y s t e m a t 2 . 1 5 a s a n a l l y i n t h e e f f o r t s o f Christians t o c o u n t e r c a l u m n y ( s e e a b o v e e s p . p p . 1 3 f f . ) . H e n c e h e h a s i n m i n d a t least s o m e sit uations
o f interrogation w h e r e constraints are present w h i c h m a y c o e r c e
antagonists
t o a c c e p t a n u n f a v o u r a b l e o u t c o m e , s u c h as t o o f f e r h i s a d
d r e s s e e s a r e a l i s t i c basis f o r h o p e . It s e e m s t h a t o n c e a g a i n t h e a u t h o r h a s a p p r o a c h e d a n O T t e x t i n a w a y w h i c h d i s c l o s e s a p e c u l i a r r e l e v a n c e t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f his a d d r e s s e e s . A l t h o u g h P s . 3 4 h a d a h i s t o r y o f u s e i n settings o f p e r s e c u t i o n a n d m a r t y r dom,
i n t h e a u t h o r ' s h a n d s i t s e t h i c o f aggressive c o n c i l i a t i o n w a s r e v e a l e d
t o b e t h e t h e surest m e a n s b y w h i c h t h e L o r d o f t h e Christians w o u l d b e l i k e l y t o give t h e m a s p e e d y v i n d i c a t i o n a t t h e i r e n e m i e s ' e x p e n s e . B u t i f t h e i r v i n d i c a t i o n h a p p e n s t o b e d e l a y e d s l i g h t l y ( 4 . 5 f . ) , t h e n t h e y at least have t h e k n o w l e d g e that t h e y have b e e n faithful. The
f o r m a l e v i d e n c e f o r w h a t appears t o b e a pesher-like
hermeneutic
in t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e u s e o f P s . 3 4 i n I P e t e r ' s b o d y - m i d d l e m a y n o w b e summarized:
1 ) a m o d i f i e d text-type has b e e n used containing 2 ) gram
matical alterations p r o b a b l y d u e t o the author ( e m e n d a t i o n s o f style f o r the
sake
o f clarity, the a d d i t i o n o f c o n j u n c t i o n s , changes f r o m s e c o n d
person t o third), and supporting 3 ) an elaborate eschatological application t o conflict-situations. T h e d o m i n a n t a p p l i c a t i o n takes its p o i n t o f depar t u r e f r o m 4 ) a d o u b l e - m e a n i n g t o b e p l a c e d u p o n TTOLOVPTCLS nana retrospect through
from
t h e u s e o f 5 ) a c o g n a t e , 6 Ka/cooacoy, w h i c h itself is
derived f r o m 6 ) a subordinate allusion (Is. 5 0 . 9 , p o s s i b l y inspired in part by
the r k
7)
aptipojiroc; w h i c h t h e a u t h o r
eoriv
quotation's
cognates, c a t c h - w o r d s , a n d interpretative
dya&ov,
by
o m i t t e d f r o m the psalm-
v e r y b e g i n n i n g ) . T h e c i t a t i o n gives o c c a s i o n t o m a n y
fi?Xcorcu
K T X . , dyadonoiovpTaq,
paraphrase
KaKonoiovPTaq),
other
(5 LK a to ov PTJP, accompanied
a n o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e a l l u s i o n ( I s . 8 . 1 2 f . ) w h i c h is l i n k e d t o t h e p s a l m -
quotation
through
8 ) a v e r b a l tally (KVPLOP),
itself i n v o l v i n g a d o u b l e -
meaning m a d e explicit t h r o u g h the u s e o f 9 ) a surrogate deictic f o r m u l a (TOP
Xpiorop).
T h e r e a r e f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s as w e l l t h a t t h e p s a l m - q u o t a
tion has b e e n a p p r o a c h e d
i n 1 0 ) a t o m i z i n g f a s h i o n , w i t n e s s its a b r u p t
termination. As
far as a n y c o r r e l a t i v e s b e t w e e n t h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 i n t h e b o d y - m i d d l e
a n d t h e S / G o f 1 . 1 1 m a y b e c o n c e r n e d , it is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e e n t i r e s w e e p of
t h e e x p o s i t i o n is f o c u s s e d u p o n t h e distress o f Christians w h o l i v e i n
solidarity w i t h their L o r d . T h e requisite k e y - t e r m o c c u r s in t h e e x p o s i t i o n , rrdoxoLTe/ndoxeiv
( 3 . 1 4 / 1 7 ) , b u t n o t i n t h e c i t a t i o n itself,
though
t h e t h e m e is e v e r y w h e r e i n e v i d e n c e w i t h i n i t , n o t least i n t h e r e f e r e n c e to the righteous here
consists
oppressed at 3 . 1 2 . H e n c e the correlation with the S / G
o f a corporate application
t o Christians
facing
conflict-
situations. A s t o a n y c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e 'glories' side o f the s c h e m a , o n e m a y b e d i s c e r n e d i n t h e c i t a t i o n ' s l o o k t o t h e f u t u r e ( f c o r } ^ . . . ibelp
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
152 rnxepaq aya&aq),
w h e t h e r t h a t t a k e t h e f o r m o f a f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d salva
t i o n , as p e r 3 . 7 a n d 9 , o r , t h e i m p e n d i n g ' h u m i l i a t i o n ' o f a n t a g o n i s t s w h o are p r o v e d t o b e m i s t a k e n ( 3 . 1 5 f . )
1 6 0
. This correlation m a y also b e seen t o
i n c l u d e a c o l l e c t i v e f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e . T h e t h e m e is t h e t r a d i t i o n a l o n e associated w i t h the Messianic W o e s a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h the e m e r g e n c e o f the p e o p l e
o f G o d is m a r k e d b y s o c i a l d i s o r d e r , i n c l u d i n g a l i e n a t i o n ,
persecution, and m a r t y r d o m . W i t h t h e analysis o f t h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 i n I P e t . 3 . 7 f f . t h e d i s c u s s i o n d r a w s t o a n e n d o f t h o s e p a s s a g e s in its b o d y - m i d d l e w h e r e t h e O T ' s r e d a c t i o n i n f l u e n c e d the letter's shape m o s t decisively. In spite o f o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t u s e s o f t h e O T in 2 . 1 1 — 4 . 1 1 , e s p e c i a l l y i n 3 . 1 8 — 4 . 1 1 , t h e liter a r y a n a l y s i s c o n d u c t e d earlier s h o w e d t h a t t h e y d o n o t a p p r o a c h t h o s e j u s t c o n s i d e r e d in size o r c o m p l e x i t y , a n d t h a t t h e y are t i e d s o c l o s e l y i n s t e a d t o o t h e r k i n d s o f s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l as t o c o m p l i c a t e s e v e r e l y t h e task of
e v a l u a t i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c . S o in all
e v e n t s it w o u l d
b e h i g h l y u n l i k e l y that a n y t h i n g o f a strictly literary-
critical nature m i g h t b e learned f r o m such further s t u d y here w h i c h m i g h t s e r i o u s l y u n d e r m i n e t h e c o r e o f t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d s o far. I n f a c t , c o m p a r a t i v e l y little e v i d e n c e o f a n y s o r t r e m a i n s
1 6 1
. The immediate purpose
is a d e q u a t e l y s e r v e d , t h e r e f o r e , i f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o c e e d s t o t h e n e x t ,
1 6 0 T h u s there is n o r e a s o n t o c o n s t r u e 3 . 1 7 t h e w a y J . R . M i c h a e l s , ' E s c h a t o l o g y ' , 3 9 4 f f . , a n d Best ( 1 3 5 ) , a m o n g o t h e r s , have d o n e , n a m e l y , that it is better t o suffer now
f o r d o i n g g o o d rather
t h a n later f o r d o i n g evil. T h e p o i n t o f the e x h o r t a t i o n d e v e l o p e d in t e r m s o f Ps. 3 4 is clearly t o ensure that n o o n e will c o n d u c t t h e m s e l v e s in a w a y that w o u l d invite o t h e r s t o h a r m t h e m ( 3 . 1 3 f . ) . T h e h a r m envisaged is therefore n o t reserved f o r s o m e future J u d g m e n t . It m a y n o t b e o u t r u n n i n g t h e evidence t o suggest, m o r e o v e r , that just as c a l u m n i a t o r s o f Christians m a y e x p e r i e n c e p r o l e p t i c J u d g m e n t n o w in their e m b a r r a s s m e n t , so m a y Christians guilty o f true w r o n g - d o i n g e x p e c t t o e x p e r i e n c e p r o l e p t i c J u d g m e n t n o w at the h a n d s o f their e n e m i e s , or those
w h o are responsible
f o r m a i n t a i n i n g m a j o r social institutions,
such as the provincial
governors, masters o f slaves, h u s b a n d s , e t c . 1 6 1 See the discussion a b o v e , p p . 6 8 f f . A n d f o r the isolated instance o f a t y p o l o g i c a l interpreta t i o n in 3 . 2 0 f . see e s p . C . T . Fritsch, ' A N T I T T n O N ' , 1 0 0 - 1 0 7 . See again the persuasive treat m e n t b y J . D . G . D u n n , Baptism, see L . G o p p e l t , Typos,
2 1 5 f f . F o r a classic s t u d y o f the t y p o l o g i c a l m e t h o d in the N T
p a s s i m , f o r I Pet. e s p . , 1 5 2 — 8 , a n d f o r a discussion o f the relationship
b e t w e e n t y p o l o g y a n d a p o c a l y p t i c in Paul see 2 0 9 — 3 7 . See a l s o , f o r e x a m p l e , G . W . H . L a m p e and K J . W o o l l c o m b e , Typology,
p a s s i m . A f e w further correlatives b e t w e e n the S / G a n d O T
references in the b o d y - m i d d l e m a y b e cited h e r e : 1 ) the collective 'day o f visitation' in 2 . 1 2 (Is. 1 0 . 3 ) , w h e n m a n y non-Christians m a y j o i n the ranks o f t h o s e w h o 'glorify G o d ' , because o f t h e witness Christians have given, 2 ) the possible r e m i n i s c e n c e s o f Is. 5 3 in the w a y the au t h o r h a n d l e s the Sterbensformel
in 3 . 1 8 a n d 4 . 1 , 3 ) the s t o r y o f the F l o o d a n d the Fall o f the
H e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s as a presage o f collective J u d g m e n t , a n d , 4 ) the allusions t o Pss. 8 . 6 f . a n d 1 1 0 . 1 h a v e long-since b e e n associated w i t h Christ's personal h i s t o r y o f e x a l t a t i o n , a t t e s t e d b y the fact t h e y m a y c o m e t o I Peter via a liturgical f r a g m e n t ( f o r their p l a c e in a p o l o g e t i c see Lindars, Apologetic,
e s p . 4 5 — 5 1 a n d 1 6 7 — 9 ; see also D . M . H a y , Glory,
passim, and, W . R . G .
L o a d e r , 'Christ', 1 9 9 — 2 1 7 ) . H e n c e , b u t o n e q u o t a t i o n r e m a i n s , Prv. 1 0 . 1 2 at 4 . 8 , a n d that m a y have c o m e t o the a u t h o r via a paraenetical u n i t ( p p . 7 2 f . ) . A l l u s i o n s t o Prv. 2 4 . 2 1 at 2 . 1 7 , t o G e n . 1 8 . 1 2 a t 3 . 6 , a n d t o Prv. 3 . 2 5 also a t 3 . 6 w e r e n o t e x a m i n e d either. W i t h the possible e x c e p t i o n o f the q u o t a t i o n , these s e e m t o b e o n t h e order o f 'plain' m e a n i n g . See N . B r o x , 'Sara', 4 8 4 - 9 3 , a n d , A . T . H a n s o n , Utterances,
144.
The Case for I Peter
153
4.12-5.11
a n d last, m a j o r c o m p l e x o f O T m a t e r i a l s i d e n t i f i e d a b o v e t h r o u g h a d e tailed literary analysis.
6. The Case for I Peter 4.12-5.11 A c c o r d i n g t o l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s , t h e r e are several s i g n i f i c a n t O T e n c e s in t b e particularly #eoi) eV
b o d y - c l o s i n g ( 4 . 1 2 — 9 , see a b o v e p p . noteworthy
-nvevpa iy' the
TOV &eov).
refer
T h e first is
b e c a u s e o f its m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e : Kai
^vfiaq avanaveTon, ( 4 . 1 4 ,
avTdv nvevfia
from
74ff.).
c p . Is. 1 1 . 2 , Kai
TO TOV
availavoerai
T h e nature o f the application b e c o m e s clear
grammatical alterations w h i c h the author
has p r o b a b l y
intro
d u c e d i n t o t h e a l l u s i o n . T h e t e n s e is c h a n g e d t o m a k e t h e p r o p h e c y a p p l y t o the present,
o r near-future,
and seems t o imply a
kind o f fulfilment.
T h e p r o n o u n is c h a n g e d t o t h e plural s o t h a t t h e p r o p h e c y m a y b e m a d e to
apply
t o the
addressees
rather than the
Anointed One. Moreover,
t h e f o r c e o f t h e a c c u s a t i v e ( e ^ ' ^vpaq) w i t h t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e v e r b e m p h a sizes t h e m o t i o n o f t h e S p i r i t in a c t u a l l y c o m i n g t o rest o n t h o s e a m o n g the addressees w h o suffer o n Christ's b e h a l f
1 6 2
. It t h e r e f o r e s e e m s b e y o n d
r e a s o n a b l e d o u b t t h a t t h e a u t h o r has m o u l d e d his t e x t in o r d e r t o assert a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the p r o p h e c y and a p e r c e i v e d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l reality
1 6 3
.
It m a y b e j u s t i f i e d in this c o n t e x t t o r e c a l l t h e p e r s e c u t i o n
traditions
r e f l e c t e d in t h e g o s p e l s . A c c o r d i n g t o M k . 1 3 . 9 f . , a n d p a r s . , t h e
Spirit's
a d v e n t is p r o m i s e d f o r t h o s e f a c i n g s o c i a l c o n f l i c t f o r t h e s a k e o f C h r i s t , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e c o u r t s , w h e t h e r e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r o t h e r w i s e
1 6 4
. If so, then
t h e d i f f i c u l t rr?c Sd£r?? in 4 . 1 4 m a y b e i n t e n d e d t o h e i g h t e n t h e s e n s e o f divine intervention
b y i n t r o d u c i n g t h e P r e s e n c e (Shekina)
into the
trou
b l e s o f Christians as a t o k e n o f G o d ' s p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t a n d i d e n t i f i c a tion
with
them
(cp. 5.7)
1 6 5
.
The
Transfiguration
tradition
might
be
a p p o s i t e h e r e ( s e e M k . 9 . 2 f f . , a n d p a r s . , a n d II P e t . 1 . 1 7 f . ) , as w e l l as t h e martyrdom
o f S t e p h e n w i t h its t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n
and beatific vision (Acts
6 . 1 5 / 7 . 5 6 ) . S o at the v e r y least ' g l o r y ' s e e m s t o b e c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h t h e expectation
that the righteous will witness, a n d perhaps participate
the divine g l o r y t o b e
m a n i f e s t e d at t h e E s c h a t o n
1 6 6
in,
. H e n c e the correla-
1 6 2 S o , S e l w y n , 2 2 4 . G o p p e l t , 3 0 6 , g o e s further t o say that the entire sense o f the clause is n o t to predicate an e n d u r i n g state o f the
Spirit's presence, 'sondern ein je aktuelles K o m m e n
des
Geistes zu d e m A u g e g r i f f e n e n zusagt: D e r Geist lasst sich auf i h m nieder'. Similarly, B r o x . 1 6 3 It is perhaps remarkable
that the c o m m e n t a t o r s
s e e m t o pass over the ramifications of. the al
terations t o Is. 1 1 . 2 , p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e the t e x t u a l difficulties in the verse are a p o w e r f u l distrac t i o n (see, for e x a m p l e , B e s t , Beare, K e l l y , Schrage, G o p p e l t , a n d B r o x ) . 1 6 4 A n d , f o r the persecution-tradition in the N T as a w h o l e , see esp. S e l w y n , 2 9 9 f f . 1 6 5 See e s p . R o m . 9 . 4 for 'the G l o r y ' equals 'the Presence', a n d also S e l w y n , 2 2 2 , a n d
256f.
1 6 6 See, for instance, Is. 9 . 1 - 2 , 6 0 . 1 f f . , 6 6 . 1 8 f . , H a g . 2 . 9 , Pss. Sol. 1 7 . 3 2 f . , a n d H Q T e m p l e 2 9 . 8 1 0 , and perhaps 4 Q F l o r 1.5 ( f o r w h i c h see G . J . B r o o k e , Exegesis,
92ff.).
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
154
t i o n b e t w e e n Is. 1 1 . 2 a n d t h e S / G in I P e t . 1.11 is a p a t e n t o n e o n a n y view. T h e r e is p r o b a b l y s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e a l r e a d y t o w a r r a n t c l a s s i f y i n g t h e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 1 1 . 2 as a n i n s t a n c e o f a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c . H o w e v e r , several details in t h e b o d y - c l o s i n g b e a r f u r t h e r s c r u t i n y b e f o r e it m a y b e appropriate to draw such a conclusion. One
m a t t e r c o n c e r n s t h e a u t h o r ' s m o t i v e t o alter t h e a l l u s i o n in t h e
first p l a c e . It is c l e a r t h a t Is. 1 1 . 2 h a d b e e n r e a d m e s s i a n i c a l l y n o t o n l y in the
early
Christian
Church
(Eph.
1.17, M t . 3 . 1 6 , Jn.
1 . 3 2 ) , b u t in c e r t a i n
pre-
a
c i r c l e s a l s o ( 4 Q p I s , Pss. S o l . 1 7 . 3 9 — 4 4 ) . T h u s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
presents itself that h e was deliberately g o i n g b e y o n d the m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l m e s s i a n i c a p p l i c a t i o n t o a c o r p o r a t e o n e . It w o u l d t h e r e f o r e s t a n d to reason
to
s u p p o s e that the author
w a s d r a w n o r i g i n a l l y t o Is. 1 1 . 2
b e c a u s e o f its p r i o r e x e g e s i s in t h e a p o c a l y p t i c e n v i r o n m e n t f a m i l i a r t o him,
and that h e h a d e v e r y i n d u c e m e n t t o stay w i t h a pesher-like h e r m e n
eutic
through w h i c h another related, but distinct, application c o u l d b e
disclosed. A n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t TO rr/c Sdi-rjc, • • • -nvev[ia in 4 . 1 4 m a y itself b e a n O T a l l u s i o n o r i g i n a l l y s e p a r a t e f r o m t h a t t o Is. 1 1 . 2 b u t n o w c o n f l a t e d w i t h i t
1 6 7
. Still t h e m e a n s s e e m t o b e l a c k
i n g f o r i s o l a t i n g a single O T l o c u s b e h i n d it, u n l e s s o n e a c c e p t s t h e l o n g e r r e a d i n g , TO rrjc. Sdi-r/c, KGU dvvanecoc; TOV deov ouojjLa K T X
1 6 8
. Only then can
a series o f t e x t s b e a d d u c e d w h e r e ' t h e n a m e o f t h e g l o r y ( o f G o d ) ' is f o u n d , s u c h as Pss. 7 2 . 1 9 , 7 9 . 9 , N e h , 9 . 5 , D n . 3 . 5 2 , J u d i t h 9 . 8 , I M a c e . 1 4 . 1 0 , a n d III M a c e . 2 . 9 . A t b e s t , t h e r e f o r e , o n e m a y s p e a k o f a b i b l i c i s m . In fact the quality and n u m b e r
o f w i t n e s s e s m i l i t a t e against
the l o n g e r
r e a d i n g , as d o e s its o c c u r r e n c e in w h a t is a classic e x a m p l e o f a ' g r o w i n g ' text be
1 6 9
. H e n c e t h e s h o r t e r t e x t is t o b e p r e f e r r e d , a n d ' t h e P r e s e n c e ' m a y
understood
t o have b e e n interpolated
i n t o t h e a l l u s i o n t o Is. 1 1 . 2 ,
s e e i n g t h a t it w a s a s t o c k - t e r m b y t h e N T p e r i o d ( c p . R o m . 9 . 4 , rj 5 d £ a ) . If it t u r n s o u t t o b e a n a l l u s i o n t o a s p e c i f i c O T t e x t , t h e n this w i l l h a v e t o be d e m o n s t r a t e d t h r o u g h o t h e r means (see b e l o w p p . 1 6 2 f f . ) . To
pass o n t o t h e n e x t O T r e f e r e n c e in t h e b o d y - c l o s i n g b r i n g s o n e
f r o m its s e c o n d s u b - u n i t , 4 . 1 4 — 6 , t o t h e start o f its t h i r d , 4 . 1 7 — 9 , w h e r e t h e a l l u s i o n t o E z e k . 9 . 6 o c c u r s ( d r t Kaipoq K T X . , ) . P r i o r l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s f o u n d n o t o n l y t h a t t h e a l l u s i o n p r o v i d e s t h e s u b - u n i t w i t h its p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e b u t a l s o sets t h e p e r i o d in a d i r e c t i o n w h i c h it m a i n t a i n s u n t i l the e n d (see a b o v e e s p . p p . 7 5 f . ) .
167 168
G r o u n d s w e r e g i v e n at t h e s a m e t i m e t o
I a m i n d e b t e d to D r . William H o r b u r y for bringing this possibility t o m y a t t e n t i o n . See esp. the discussion b y K e l l y , 1 8 6 f f .
See also the plea entered r e c e n t l y for the a d d i t i o n o f
an entire s e n t e n c e t o 4 . 1 4 b y P . R . R o d g e r s , 'Longer', 9 3 — 5 , a l t h o u g h it is a reading w h i c h has b e e n virtually a b a n d o n e d
by
the
commentators.
The
verse's t e x t u a l history
is
remarkably
corrupt. 169
See B . M . M e t z g e r , Commentary,
6 9 5 , w h o c o n d e m n s the readings w h i c h have Stwdjueujc 'as a
h o m i l e t i c s u p p l e m e n t to the original t e x t ' .
The Case for I Peter
4.12-5.11
155
e n t e r t a i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t 5.1 f. is c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d t o this a l l u s i o n as well, so that s o m e attention must b e paid t o the wider c o n t e x t . T h e g e n e r a l b e a r i n g o f t h e s t a t e m e n t in 4 . 1 7 a u p o n t h e a u t h o r ' s m e s sage n o w s e e m s fairly c l e a r . A c c o r d i n g t o G o p p e l t , ' D e r Kaipoq
ist fur
den
I Petr d e m n a c h nicht die Z e i t der W e h e n , die n a c h der A p o k a l y p t i k d e m Endgericht
vorhergeht
(Mk 13.8—13
par)
und
auch
Verfolgung
der
G e m e i n d e bringt ( M k 1 3 . 9 p a r ) , sondern die v o n der Prophetie angekiindigte " b e s t i m m t e Z e i t " , n a m l i c h d i e E n d z e i t , in d e r d a s E n d g e r i c h t s e l b s t b e r e i t s e i n s e t z t ' ( 3 1 I f . ) . G o p p e l t p r e s s e s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e c a u s e all t o o o f t e n t h e a u t h o r ' s r a d i c a l n e w p e r c e p t i o n has b e e n m i s s e d as t o t h e signifi c a n c e o f C h r i s t i a n s u f f e r i n g f r o m t h a t m o m e n t o n w a r d s . It is n o t s i m p l y a h e r a l d o f t h e E n d , b u t a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e E n d in s o far as t h e Chris tian e x p e r i e n c e is c o n c e r n e d . B e a r e n o t e s f u r t h e r r e g a r d i n g t h e f o r c e o f ap%ao$ai,
' T h e a o r i s t is n o t u s e d l i g h t l y ; it signifies a d e f i n i t e e v e n t in
G o d ' s dealing w i t h the w o r l d , sustaining the t h o u g h t that the o u t b r e a k o f o r g a n i z e d p e r s e c u t i o n is n o t a m e r e i n t e n s i f y i n g o f t h e n o r m a l d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h b e s e t t h e l i f e o f C h r i s t i a n s in a p a g a n e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t is t h e first a c t in t h e great d r a m a o f t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t ' ( 1 9 4 ) . H e n c e , it s e e m s , t h e a u t h o r has a d v a n c e d b e y o n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e M e s s i a n i c W o e s c u r r e n t in his d a y t o c l a i m a m o r e p r e c i s e k n o w l e d g e a b o u t at least o n e c o m p o n e n t o f t h e u p h e a v e a l s e x p e c t e d t o m a r k t h e E n d ' s ar rival
1 7 0
.
T h e p r e c e d i n g sub-unit ( 4 . 1 4 — 6 ) p r o b a b l y offers the readiest explana tion for the author's altered p e r c e p t i o n o f the significance o f Christian suffering.
Its a p p a r e n t r e f e r e n c e
t o the i n v o l v e m e n t o f Christians w i t h
t h e s y s t e m o f c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e suggests t h a t t h e y h a d b e g u n t o s u f f e r , o r t o b e e x p o s e d t o the possibility o f suffering, t o an u n p r e c e d e n t e d degree a n d i n t h e s a m e f a s h i o n as C h r i s t h i m s e l f ( s e e a b o v e p p . 1 2 f f . ) . W h e n e v e r t h e y w e r e being unjustly tried a n d c o n d e m n e d b y hearers o f the through
cognitio
imitatio
Christi
extra
ordinem,
imperium
they w e r e making the analogy t o the
c o m p l e t e . F r o m such heightened conflict the collective
d i m e n s i o n s o f the struggle o f the p e o p l e o f G o d w o u l d b e likely t o e m e r g e
1 7 0 O f c o u r s e , Beare's v i e w as a w h o l e is precisely w h a t G o p p e l t is criticizing, b u t w h a t is i m p o r t ant is t o grasp his a p p r e c i a t i o n for c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r . O n e m a y a c c e p t his insight, a n d even the l i k e l i h o o d that the verb tense reflects a c o n c e p t i o n o f time-periods typical to a p o c a l y p t i c , a n d y e t still agree w i t h G o p p e l t that an u n p r e c e d e n t e d d e v e l o p m e n t is envisaged as having just occurred.
Perhaps an instructive
parallel t o
such a n eschatological
pronouncement may be
f o u n d in I T h e s s . 2 . 1 6 , regardless o f w h e t h e r it m a y b e an i n t e r p o l a t i o n ( c p . M k . 1 3 . 1 4 ) . E . B a m m e l has p r o p o s e d that a specific, historical event triggered Paul's d e c l a r a t i o n , C l a u d i u s ' B a n o f the J e w s f r o m R o m e in A . D . 4 9 ('Judenverfolgung', 2 9 4 - 3 1 5 ) . M a n y a t t e m p t s to iden tify w h a t seems t o be a n o t h e r such p r o n o u n c e m e n t in M k . 1 3 . 1 4 have b e e n m a d e similarly, ranging f r o m Caligula's threat to i n t r o d u c e his effigy into the T e m p l e to the Z e a l o t atrocities during the
First R e v o l t . O n e is scarcely c o m p e l l e d t o c h o o s e a m o n g t h e m b e f o r e it can b e
a p p r e c i a t e d that the a u t h o r s e e m e d t o k n o w w h a t he w a s talking a b o u t a n d that he had c o n f i d e n c e that his typical reader w o u l d k n o w t o o . In every case, f u r t h e r m o r e , it is q u i t e clear that the p r o n o u n c e m e n t d e p e n d s o n the p e r c e p t i o n o f an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y - n u a n c e d reality.
156
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
m o r e sharply than ever t o the author's m i n d , clearly calling f o r s o m e kind o f c o m m e n t o n his p a r t as t o t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d ' s p l a n . It is p l a i n t h a t E z e k . 9 . 6 w a s i n s t r u m e n t a l came
t o his c o n c l u s i o n
that the
to the process b y w h i c h he
o r d e a l o f Christians h a d a s s u m e d
the
p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t , a l t h o u g h it is i n t r i n s i c a l l y i m p r o b a b l e t h a t h e m i g h t h a v e a p p r o a c h e d t h e a l l u s i o n in i s o l a t i o n f r o m t h e b i b l i c a l a n d p o s t - b i b l i c a l m a t e r i a l s r e l a t e d t o it. W h a t is m o r e , t h e a l l u s i o n is p r e c e d e d b y t h e w o r d Kcupck, w h i c h last a p p e a r e d in I P e t e r , s i g n i f i c a n t l y e n o u g h , at 1 . 1 1 , eiq rlva r) nolov
naipov,
in c o n n e x i o n w i t h t h e S / G . I n
v i e w o f t h e n o u n ' s status as a v i r t u a l t e c h n i c a l t e r m w i t h i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c d i s c o u r s e t o w h i c h t h e a u t h o r is i n d e b t e d t h e r e , it is d i f f i c u l t t o resist the
conclusion
that the
n o u n has
the
s a m e status in 4 . 1 7 a , w h e r e
it
i n d i c a t e s t h a t y e t a n o t h e r d i s c r e t e p e r i o d has a p p e a r e d in t h e s e q u e n c e of
G o d ' s End-time p r o g r a m m e , n a m e l y , the E n d itself
1 7 1
. T h i s is a n u n
m i s t a k a b l e c a s e o f t h e ' p e r i o d i z a t i o n ' o f h i s t o r y , an i d e a f a m i l i a r t o t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r ( 1 . 2 0 , en'
e OXCLTOV
TCOV
xpoviov).
It w o u l d
therefore
s e e m t o b e u n d e n i a b l e t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s d e c l a r e d h e r m e n e u t i c in 1.10—2 is i m m e d i a t e l y r e l e v a n t t o his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f E z e k . 9 . 6 in 4 . 1 7 a . Central
to
the
allusion's interpretation
is its m e n t i o n o f a j u d g m e n t
that 'begins w i t h the h o u s e o f G o d ' . B y the c l o s e o f O T times the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t G o d calls his p e o p l e t o a c c o u n t first w a s w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d , e s p e c i ally in e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s t r a t a
1 7 2
. It is a t h e m e that r e a p p e a r s in v a r i o u s o t h e r
s o u r c e s t o o . A c c o r d i n g t o T e s t . B e n . 1 0 . 8 f . , ' T h e L o r d first j u d g e s Israel for
t h e w r o n g she has c o m m i t t e d , a n d t h e n h e shall d o t h e s a m e f o r all
the n a t i o n s ' (TOTP
I, 6 2 8 ) . N o r w e r e later a u t h o r s s l o w t o r e c o g n i z e t h e
p r i n c i p l e w h e n e v e n t s , s u c h as t h e d i s a s t r o u s J e w i s h R e v o l t s , m i g h t sug gest its r e l e v a n c e : ' T h e r e f o r e , h e d i d n o t spare his o w n s o n s first, b u t h e a f f l i c t e d t h e m as his e n e m i e s b e c a u s e t h e y s i n n e d ' ( I I B a r . 1 3 . 9 i n
TOTP
I, 6 2 5 , a n d c p . 3 2 . 2 f . ) . R a b b i n i c s o u r c e s r e f l e c t similar i d e a s , l i k e M i d r . Qoh. Ex.
4 5 a , B a b . Q a m . 6 0 a , R o s h H a s h . 8 b , M i d r . Pss. 1 7 a , 4 4 b , 2 1 2 a , a n d R . 8 8 d ( s e e S.-B. III. 7 6 7 ) . T h e e v i d e n c e in t h e M i d r a s h o n P s a l m s is
particularly (T»W
7p?373
n o t a b l e , b e c a u s e its e x p l i c i t m e n t i o n o f G o d ' s ' h o l y
lels it is safe t o s a y t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r on
place'
) tallies v e r b a l l y w i t h E z e k . 9 . 6 ( "umpaa). F r o m s u c h paral was relying t o s o m e extent
t r a d i t i o n w h e n h e d e c i d e d t o a l l u d e t o E z e k . 9 . 6 in t h e c o n t e x t h e d i d . T h i s is n o t t o s a y , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e m o t i v e is e n t i r e l y c l e a r b e h i n d his
decision to cite E z e k . 9.6 rather than Jer. 2 5 . 2 9 o r Mai. 3 . 1 , for e x a m p l e .
1 71 See the previous n o t e , as well as the discussion a b o v e o n p p . 1 OOff. T h e a u t h o r o f I Peter clearly c o m m i t s himself o n this v i e w t o a t i m e - f r a m e that w o u l d o f necessity have raised a b o u t his credibility w h e n years passed a n d n o further m a n i f e s t a t i o n s
questions
o f the E n d a p p e a r e d .
It is conceivable that, as in m a n y o t h e r a p o c a l y p t i c w o r k s , his decision t o write u n d e r a pseud o n y m was n o t unrelated t o time-speculations regarding the E n d , and that his p r o n o u n c e m e n t in 4.17
w a s a central part of his message as he saw it. A t least it is possible t o a d d u c e II Peter in
s u p p o r t , as a kind o f corrective t o false h o p e s e n g e n d e r e d b y I Peter, a m o n g others, a n d ac c o u n t for the decision t o use that p s e u d o n y m a n d n o t s o m e o t h e r o n e , a c c o r d i n g l y . 172
O f t e n cited are A m o s 3 . 2 , Jer. 7 . 8 f f . , 2 5 . 2 9 f f . , Z e p h . 1 - 2 , Z e c h . 1 3 . 7 - 9 a n d M a i . 3.1f.
The Case for I Peter
4.12-5.11
157
L i k e E z e k . 9 . 6 , t h e y refer t o the T e m p l e , t h e y describe the e n a c t m e n t o f divine j u d g m e n t ,
and
t h e y are a w a r e o f a similar
W h e r e a s it is c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t e i t h e r o n e o r t h e allusions strated
might
h a v e s e r v e d his p u r p o s e s
exegetical
sophistication
c h r o n o l o g y o f events. other
or b o t h o f these
e q u a l l y w e l l , g i v e n his d e m o n
elsewhere
in
the letter, the
possibility
m u s t b e e n t e r t a i n e d at least t h a t h e t u r n e d t o E z e k . 9 . 6 b e c a u s e it o f f e r e d h i m s o m e t h i n g its rivals d i d n o t . H e n c e it is n e c e s s a r y t o s t u d y t h e
allusion
further to ascertain w h e t h e r s o m e specific advantage can b e seen attaching t o it. T h e a l l u s i o n is s o b r i e f t h a t its O T l o c u s is l i k e l y t o b e d e c i s i v e . In o r d e r t o facilitate
the investigation
E z e k . 9.4—7 m a y b e q u o t e d in
e x t e n s o , f o l l o w e d b y the G r e e k f o r vv. 6 — 7
1 7 3
.
A n d he said t o h i m , ' G o t h r o u g h the m i d s t o f J e r u s a l e m , a n d set a m a r k o n the foTeheads o f the m e n that groan and that grieve f o r all the iniquities that are d o n e in the m i d s t of t h e m . ' A n d he said t o the first in m y hearing, ' G o after h i m into the c i t y , a n d s m i t e : and let n o t y o u r e y e s spare, and have n o m e r c y . Slay utterly o l d m a n a n d y o u t h , a n d virgin, a n d infants, a n d w o m e n : b u t g o y e n o t nigh a n y o n w h o m is the m a r k : begin at m y s a n c t u a r y . ' S o t h e y b e g a n with the elder m e n w h o w e r e within the h o u s e . A n d he said t o t h e m , 'Defile the h o u s e , a n d g o o u t a n d fill the w a y s w i t h d e a d b o d i e s , a n d s m i t e . ' irpeofivTepov \}JLV,
em
Kai veavioKov
Se Trdvraq, ey
Kai r\p£avTO dixo OIKOV
TUJV
thorough
eKnopevonevoL
difference between
Kai
a-noKTeLvare eiq e^dXetdyltov
TCJV
/uou
cip^aoOe.
Midvare
Kai eirre npoq avrovq
TOV
Ko-nrere.
this l o c u s a n d
the
o t h e r s is its
graphic
the T e m p l e precincts p r o p e r . A s a m a t t e r o f fact,
search u n c o v e r e d but
any mention
Kai and
TO
Kai nX-qoare rdq bdovq veKptbv
The main
Kai wqnva Kai yvvaiKaq
ormeiov, pri eyyior\TeavdpCov, ot r\oav eooj ev rC^ OIKOJ.
scene o f carnage within a
Kai napde'vov
ovq eon
one other
O T passage
where
t h e r e is
o f a c t u a l s l a u g h t e r w i t h i n t h e T e m p l e , L a m . 2 . 2 0 , a n d this is
restricted t o priests and p r o p h e t s . O f c o u r s e , L a m . 2 . 2 0 d o e s n o t c o m p a r e c l o s e l y t o E z e k . 9 . 6 , b e c a u s e it is n o t an regarded
as s u c h at t h e t i m e o f I P e t e r
1 7 4
oracle, and was n o t
generally
. Outside o f E z e k . 2 1 . 1 — 4 , the
n e a r e s t O T p a r a l l e l s s e e m t o b e in J e r e m i a h , e s p . c h a p s . 7, 1 4 , a n d 2 5 , y e t these k n o w o n l y o f an indiscriminate o r l a n d . It r e m a i n s , Peter
might
have
nevertheless,
been
moved
s l a u g h t e r c o m m e n c i n g in t h e
t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the
to
allude
to
Ezek.
9.6
city
author o f I
because
o f this
f e a t u r e w h i c h s h a r p l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s it f r o m t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s . F o r the between
sake o f c o m p l e t e n e s s , h o w e v e r , a relatively
the
allusion
and
minor
a l o n e u s e s ' h o u s e ' ( n "> n n , TCJ OIKOJ ) in its i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t t o the
Temple
t r a y e d in 2.4ff. using related t e r m i n o l o g y
1 7 3 T h e English translation is f r o m The Septuagint,
1 7 5
T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y he por
. S u c h an e x p l a n a t i o n
and n o d o u b t reflected the R a b b i n i c inter
p r e t a t i o n o f II C h r o n . 3 5 . 2 5 . B u t against R . Marcus in his e d i t i o n o f Ant. L a m e n t a t i o n s f r o m those
would
Z o n d e r v a n , 1 9 7 0 , ad l o c .
1 7 4 J o s e p h u s calls L a m e n t a t i o n s a fieXoq •dpr\vr\TiK6v,
the
9.6
designate
( c p . M a i . 3 . 1 0 ) . It m a y b e t h a t t h e a u t h o r h a d a p a r t i c u l a r
i n t e r e s t in this w o r d in l i g h t o f t h e e l a b o r a t e
tinguishes
difference
its parallels m a y a l s o b e m e n t i o n e d . E z e k .
writings
(ev
ypdp,naoi)
X . 7 8 , J o s e p h u s dis
where J e r e m i a h is said t o
predict the events of the R e v o l t (see X . 7 9 ) . See also II C h r o n . 3 6 . 1 7 . 1 7 5 E l l i o t t , in b o t h Elect
(esp. 2 0 8 f f . ) and Home
(esp. 1 6 5 f f . ) , gives a m u c h t o o one-sided e m p h a s i s
158
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
probably
have
to
suffice
should the
attempt to produce a
satisfactory
a c c o u n t i n t e r m s o f t h e m a i n d i s t i n c t i v e p r o p o s e d a b o v e fail. In
this r e g a r d
germane
to
the
it
is a p p r o p r i a t e
interpretation
t o call a t t e n t i o n t o c e r t a i n
evidence
o f Ezek. 9.6 w h i c h seems t o have
been
n e g l e c t e d i n s o far as it m a y b e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e a l l u s i o n in I P e t . 4 . 1 7 a . Part o f t h e e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m ^ 4 n £ . X . 7 9 , w h e r e J o s e p h u s s a y s o f J e r e miah,
'This prophet
upon
the c i t y , a n d left
recent
capture o f out
o n l y this p r o p h e t prophet write
behind
the
116
predicted
Josephus'
o f his
(ev
c i t y , as w e l l as t h e
that were t o
yp&nnaoi)
the
capture o f Babylon. A n d
not
multitude, but
t w o b o o k s w h i c h he was the
statement
nepl may
come
concerning
these things t o the
t h e s e m a t t e r s (6q npcoroq
KdTeXnrevy .
misfortunes
writings
Ezekiel, w h o left b e h i n d
about
search
also a n n o u n c e d
TOVTOOV thus b e
8VO (ttfiXovq seen
to
w o r k s for instances w h i c h involve applications
also
the
first
to
ypd\jjaq
authorize
a
o f oracles
f r o m either Jeremiah or Ezekiel t o the R e v o l t . A p a r t f r o m certain o f the o m e n s listed b y J o s e p h u s b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g t o h i m , t h e y w e r e fulfilled
in t h e R e v o l t , t h e r e are j u s t a f e w full
refer
ences to such 'ancient p r o p h e c i e s ' w h i c h might possibly qualify, but o f these actually names either Jeremiah or E z e k i e l
1 7 7
none
. T h e t e x t s are r e p r o
d u c e d b e l o w t o a i d in t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n . Bell. V . 1 5 - 9 For a l t h o u g h these frenzied m e n h a d s t o p p e d short o f n o i m p i e t y , t h e y nevertheless a d m i t ted those w h o wished t o o f f e r sacrifices, native J e w s suspiciously a n d w i t h p r e c a u t i o n , strangers after a t h o r o u g h search; y e t
these,
t h o u g h successful at the entrances in deprecating their
c r u e l t y , o f t e n b e c a m e v i c t i m s of t h e sedition. F o r the missiles f r o m the engines f l e w over with such f o r c e that t h e y r e a c h e d the altar a n d the sanctuary, lighting u p o n priests a n d sacrificers; and m a n y w h o h a d sped f r o m the e n d s o f the earth t o gather r o u n d this far-famed s p o t , rever e n c e d b y all m a n k i n d , fell there themselves b e f o r e their sacrifices, a n d spinkled w i t h libations o f their o w n b l o o d that altar universally venerated b y G r e e k s a n d barbarians. T h e dead b o d i e s o f natives and aliens, o f priests a n d laity, w e r e m i n g l e d in a m a s s , a n d the b l o o d o f all m a n n e r o f corpses f o r m e d p o o l s in the c o u r t s o f G o d . W h a t misery t o equal that, m o s t w r e t c h e d c i t y , hast t h o u suffered at the h a n d s o f the R o m a n s , w h o entered t o purge w i t h fire t h y internal p o l l u t i o n s ? F o r t h o u wert n o longer G o d ' s p l a c e , nor c o u l d e s t t h o u survive, after b e c o m i n g a sepulchre for the b o d i e s o f thine o w n children a n d converting the sanctuary i n t o
h o u s e o f civil war (deov nkv yap
yevofjLevr}
OLAJUCLTLAJV
Kal noXenov
TOV
oure 17c e n x&pos ovre \xkvew eSvvaoo,
vaov twvklov
a charnel-
rd^oc otKeltov
-noir\oaoa no\vdv8puov)?
o n a p u r e l y social d i m e n s i o n o f the ' h o u s e ' t e r m i n o l o g y in I Peter. In particular, he fails t o s h o w that the cultic d i m e n s i o n
would be
s o m e h o w foreign t o the use of that t e r m i n o l o g y ,
w h e n everything in the c o n t e x t suggests just the o p p o s i t e (see e s p . the S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a in 2 . 4 f f . a n d the edifice of the T e m p l e w h i c h is their seeming r e f e r e n c e ) . 1 7 6 W h a t is p r o b a b l y m e a n t b y J o s e p h u s ' reference t o 'two b o o k s ' f r o m the p r o p h e t E z e k i e l are t w o halves of the o n e canonical b o o k bearing his n a m e . See the c o m m e n t b y R . M a r c u s , ad l o c . 1 7 7 For a very useful recent discussion o f the evidence f r o m J o s e p h u s see D . E . A u n e , e s p . 1 3 8 f f . It so h a p p e n s there m a y b e a n e x c e p t i o n in Ant.
Prophecy,
X . 2 7 6 , w h e r e J o s e p h u s refers to
the fulfilment o f D n . 8 a n d 11 — 2 in the events b o t h of the M a c c a b e a n a n d the First Jewish R e v o l t s . For J o s e p h u s ' understanding of p r o p h e c y in its historical c o n t e x t see esp. U. Fischer, Eschatologie,
passim.
The
Case for I Peter
4.12-5.11
159
Bell. I V . 3 8 6 - 8 E v e r y h u m a n o r d a i n a n c e w a s t r a m p l e d under f o o t , every dictate o f religion ridiculed b y these m e n , w h o s c o f f e d at t h e oracles o f t h e p r o p h e t s as i m p o s t e r s ' fables. Y e t those predic tions o f theirs c o n t a i n e d m u c h c o n c e r n i n g vice a n d virtue, b y t h e transgression o f w h i c h t h e Z e a l o t s b r o u g h t u p o n their c o u n t r y t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e p r o p h e c i e s directed against it. F o r there w a s an ancient saying o f inspired m e n that t h e city w o u l d b e t a k e n a n d the sanctuary b u r n t t o t h e g r o u n d b y right o f w a r , w h e n s o e v e r it s h o u l d b e visited b y sedition a n d native h a n d s s h o u l d b e t h e first t o defile G o d ' s sacred precincts. T h i s saying the Z e a l o t s d i d n o t dis believe; y e t t h e y lent themselves as instruments o f its a c c o m p l i s h m e n t (f\v yap 617 rtq \6yos
avbpGjv
ev&eojv
TTokepov, oraois amoTfioavTes
TOTC
TT\V TT6\W
aXcjoeo&ai
edv naraoKrji// 13 Kai xeipes
ol £ri\ojTai
btaKovovq
olKeiat
ai)TOvq
Kai K a r a < £ \ e £ e a # e i TO ayuhrarov nponiavojot
TO TOV deov
naXatoq voncp
Te'p.evoq • ols
OVK
eirebooav).
Bell. V I . 1 0 9 - 1 0 Who
k n o w s n o t the r e c o r d s o f t h e ancient p r o p h e t s a n d that oracle w h i c h threatens this
p o o r c i t y a n d is even n o w c o m i n g true (TOV e-nippe-novTa TCJTO)?
ter his o w n c o u n t r y m e n (orav whole lepov
TTJ TXTUXOVL
noXet xpriofiov
17617
eveo-
F o r t h e y f o r e f o l d that it w o u l d t h e n b e t a k e n w h e n s o e v e r o n e s h o u l d begin t o slaugh
t e m p l e , filled
dfxo^vXov
T K d'pfctf ^povov). A n d is n o t t h e c i t y , a y e a n d t h e
w i t h y o u r s corpses (TLOV
be ndv ireirXripujTai)?
vfieTepojv
be Trrcj/udruw ovx V ir<$\ic Kai TO
G o d it is t h e n , G o d H i m s e l f , w h o w i t h t h e R o m a n s is bringing t h e
fire t o purge His t e m p l e a n d e x t e r m i n a t i n g a city so laden w i t h p o l l u t i o n s .
Beginning
with
t h e first
t e x t a b o v e , it is n o t i m m e d i a t e l y e v i d e n t
w h e t h e r a n y o r a c l e is c o n c e r n e d w h a t s o e v e r . N e v e r t h e l e s s , J o s e p h u s h a d s o m e g r o u n d s o r o t h e r f o r stating that t h e b o d y - p i l e in t h e T e m p l e h a d m a d e its survival i m p o s s i b l e (ovre peveiv
edvvaoo).
A similar c e r t i t u d e is
reflected in S i b . O r . I V . 1 1 5 — 8 , referring p r o b a b l y t o Z e a l o t massacres in t h e T e m p l e p r e c i n c t s An
1 7 8
.
evil s t o r m o f war will also c o m e u p o n Jerusalem
f r o m Italy, a n d it will sack t h e great T e m p l e o f G o d , w h e n e v e r t h e y p u t their trust in f o l l y a n d cast o f f p i e t y and
c o m m i t repulsive m u r d e r s in f r o n t o f t h e T e m p l e . (TOTP
I, 3 8 7 )
rftei Kai ZoXvuoioi KaKr\ noXefioio dveWa '\Ta\6dev, X)VIK
vr\6v be deou neyav
e^aKa-nd^ei,
dv hippoovvxiOL ne-noLdoTeq evoe(iLr\v \xev
pi\p(jjOLV OTvyepovs
be \povovs TeXeuJOl rpo vqov.
(J. G e f f c k e n , e d . )
It is c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t i n J o s e p h u s ' v i e w t h e m e r e f a c t o f h u m a n s l a u g h t e r in
t h e T e m p l e b o u n d s c o n s t i t u t e d s u c h d e f i l e m e n t as t o n e c e s s i t a t e i n
t h e d i v i n e s c h e m e o f t h i n g s its r a d i c a l p u r i f i c a t i o n . H e c e r t a i n l y e m p h a sizes
the Temple's
desecration in the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t , m e n t i o n i n g
earlier t h e d e v a s t a t i n g e f f o r t s o f t h e f o r c e s o f J o h n t o c a p t u r e t h e i n n e r c o u r t s o f t h e T e m p l e , ' T h u s t h e r e w e r e c o n t i n u a l sallie*s a n d s h o w e r s o f m i s s i l e s , a n d t h e t e m p l e o n e v e r y side w a s d e f i l e d yovoiq eixialvero
178
TTCLVTCLXOV
A g a i n s t J . J . Collins, TOTP IV.
TO
lepov,
w i t h c a r n a g e (Kai
V. 10)'.
I, 3 8 7 , n. w , t h e R o m a n s m o s t p r o b a b l y are n o t in m i n d at Sib. O r .
1 1 7 f . , because t h e y are n o t a p t l y described as having cast o f f p i e t y , nor as having p u t their
trust in f o l l y , f o r , in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e o r a c l e , the subjects o f these a c t i o n s are o n e a n d the s a m e as t h o s e w h o c o m m i t t h e m u r d e r s . R a t h e r , j u d g i n g f r o m J o s e p h u s ' a c c o u n t , it is m u c h easier t o s u p p o s e t h e S y b i l is referring t o t h e Z e a l o t s . C p . t h e w a y t h e c a m p a i g n o f V e s p a s i a n and
T i t u s is described in Sib. O r . I V . 1 2 5 f . , distinguishing it f r o m t h e preceding events.
160
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o g o o d r e a s o n t o a p p r o a c h Bell. O r . I V . 1 1 5 - 8 in i s o l a t i o n f r o m Bell.
V . 15—9 and S i b .
I V . 3 8 6 - 8 and V I . 1 0 9 - 1 0 , since
t h e y refer t o the same d e s e c r a t i o n o f the T e m p l e . In a d d i t i o n t h e y clearly a t t r i b u t e t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f its i m p e n d i n g d e s t r u c t i o n t o t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f c e r t a i n a n c i e n t o r a c l e s a b o u t J e w s k i l l i n g J e w s in t h e T e m p l e p r e c i n c t s ( s e e I V . 3 8 8 , ordoiq V.
1 9 , noXefiov
. . . yeipes
. . . ejiipvXiov).
oineiai,
a n d , V I . 1 0 9 , oiioyvXov,
and c p .
H e n c e it s e e m s safe t o a s c r i b e J o s e p h u s '
c o n v i c t i o n a b o u t t h e i n e s c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e T e m p l e ' s d o o m c i t e d at V . 1 9 likewise to the t e s t i m o n y o f revered p r o p h e c i e s . M o r e o v e r , b o t h I V . 3 8 8 a n d V I . 1 0 9 u s e c o n d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s in a m a n n e r c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t in S i b . O r . I V . 1 1 7 f . , in o r d e r t o a d d u c e t h e p r o p h e t i c a l l y - m e d i a t e d n e c e s sary
c o n d i t i o n the
judgment \elpeq
OLKeiat.
oiioyvXov liev
satisfaction
will c o m e
itpopidvojoi
riq dp^rj yovov,
pixpcooLV
o f w h i c h guarantees
t o pass ( c p . I V . 3 8 8 , ordoiq
orvyepovq
rd
rov
deov
repevoq,
and,
w i t h r\vl\C dv d\ppoo\)vr\oi 8e
yovovq
reXewoi
that the edv
predicted
Karaarjiirj
nenoLdoreq
rrpd vrjou).
Kai
VI, 109,
orav
eboepirjv
Thus there
are
g r o u n d s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t S i b . O r . I V . 1 1 5 — 8 l i k e w i s e r e f l e c t s t h e tradi tional exegesis o f specific oracles k n o w n t o J o s e p h u s . W h a t is less c l e a r is t h e a c t u a l
s o u r c e o f these o r a c l e s . In the light o f
t h e i r u n q u e s t i o n e d a u t h o r i t y , a c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s ( s e e I V . 1 0 9 , r i c OVK oldeu
rdc. riov
might
well be attributed
itaXaidov itpo$r)rdov to
certain
dvaypcupaq,
and c p . I V . 3 8 8 b ) , they
o f t h e classical p r o p h e t s
o f Israel.
I n d e e d , t h e f a c t t h a t J o s e p h u s g o e s t o s o m e l e n g t h s in t h e p a s s a g e f r o m Ant.
X . 79
c i t e d a b o v e t o explain the special c o n t r i b u t i o n s b y Jeremiah
a n d E z e k i e l i n this r e g a r d s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t this w o u l d b e the c a s e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e o r a c l e s c a m e f r o m w o r k s n o longer extant
and perhaps o f a pseudepigraphical nature. T h e difficulty
is t h a t n o parallels f r o m s u r v i v i n g w o r k s h a v e b e e n a d d u c e d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f the text f r o m Sib. Or. I V already q u o t e d , w h i c h can b e c o n f i d e n t l y d a t e d l a t e r t h a n A . D . 7 9 , w h e r e a s parallels are n o t l a c k i n g f r o m O T p r o p h e c y (see a b o v e p . 1 5 6 a n d n. 1 7 2 ) . It s h o u l d b e e v i d e n t at this p o i n t t h a t t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e o r a c l e s s u m marized b y Josephus
bear
unmistakable
affinities
with Jer.
25.29
E z e k . 9 . 6 . T h e s a m e c h r o n o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n is r e f l e c t e d in Bell.
and
VI. 109
u s i n g t h e s a m e v e r b , dp^rj ( s e e J e r . 3 2 . 2 9 , L X X , dpxoptai, a n d , E z e k . 9 . 6 , dp^ao&e),
a c o n c e r n w h i c h s e e m s t o b e r e f l e c t e d as w e l l in Bell.
3 8 8 a , itpopudvojoi.
All three texts
from Josephus
IV.
stress t h e d e g r e e o f
w a n t o n slaughter w h i c h p o l l u t e s b o t h T e m p l e a n d c i t y , the parallel b e i n g e s p e c i a l l y c l o s e h e r e w i t h E z e k i e l , b e c a u s e o n l y in it is t h e d e s e c r a t i o n o f the
T e m p l e made explicit and
pidvere
( s e e Bell.
o n l y in it d o e s t h e
I V . 3 8 8 s , nponidvtooi,
a n d c p . Bell.
same verb
appear,
V . 1 0 , e iiiaLvero).
B y w a y o f c o n t r a s t , p r e p a r a t o r y t o Bell. I V . 3 8 6 — 8 J o s e p h u s m a k e s m u c h o f the n u m b e r s o f J e w s left u n b u r i e d inside and o u t s i d e o f the c i t y , such as t o s u g g e s t J e r .
1 4 . 1 6 o r 2 5 . 3 3 ( s e e I V . 3 8 0 - 5 ) . F i n a l l y , all t h r e e t e x t s
p o i n t e d l y emphasize that the desecrating massacre c a n n o t b e b l a m e d o n t h e R o m a n s , b u t is t h e r e s u l t o f J e w p i t t e d against J e w , a n i d e a p r o b a b l y
The Case for I Peter
4.12-5.11
161
b e h i n d the r e f e r e n c e t o ' f o l l y ' in S i b . O r . I V . 1 1 7 . T h e i d e a m a y b e i l l u m i n a t e d b y a d e t a i l in t h e t e x t f r o m E z e k i e l . I n 9.1 c e r t a i n c i t y o f f i c i a l s charged with carrying o u t punishment ( n ^ y n
m ip S ) are s u m m o n e d t o
p e r f o r m t h e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e s l a u g h t e r d e s c r i b e d in t h e e n s u i n g v e r s e s . A n d t h u s t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e s e c r a t i o n are J e w s . It is p r o b a b l y n o t v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e a n a l o g y w i t h t h e Z e a l o t s is a n i m p e r f e c t o n e , f o r t h e e x e c u t i o n e r s in E z e k i e l are o b e y i n g G o d ' s o r d e r s , in as m u c h as t h e d e g r e e of
ambiguity
typical
interpretation
to
oracles invited
( c p . xPVOjJtoq aiiylfioXoq,
a measure Bell.
o f f r e e d o m in t h e i r
V I . 3 1 2 ) . O n the
strength
o f so m a n y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s w i t h the texts f r o m J e r e m i a h and Ezekiel, and, given J o s e p h u s ' a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f the precision o f their p r e d i c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e R e v o l t , it is s u r e l y m o r e j u s t i f i e d t o c l a i m t h a t t h e s e t e x t s are f o r e m o s t in his m i n d t h a n a n y o t h e r s , a n d t h e r e is c l e a r l y n o r e a s o n t o postulate d e p e n d e n c e o n w o r k s that have n o t survived. Furthermore,
t h e r e l o o k s t o b e still a n o t h e r
passage f r o m
Josephus
w h i c h refers i m p l i c i t l y t o t h e s a m e c o n t e x t in E z e k i e l , a n d l i k e w i s e ad dresses t h e T e m p l e ' s i m m i n e n t f a t e . T o w a r d s t h e e n d o f a series o f o m e n s w h i c h in his v i e w w e r e f u l f i l l e d in t h e T e m p l e ' s d e s t r u c t i o n h e w r i t e s : M o r e o v e r , at the feast w h i c h is called P e n t e c o s t , t h e priests o n entering the inner c o u r t o f the t e m p l e b y night, as their c u s t o m w a s in the discharge o f their ministrations, r e p o r t e d that t h e y were c o n s c i o u s , first o f a c o m m o t i o n a n d a din, a n d after that o f a v o i c e as o f a h o s t , ' W e are departing h e n c e ' {Bell. V I . 2 9 9 f . ) .
T h e a l l u s i o n is, o f c o u r s e , t o t h e t e r r i b l e m o m e n t w h e n G o d w i t h d r e w his p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e b y r e m o v i n g his G l o r y f r o m it a l o n g w i t h company
of
his
cherubim
(Ezek.
9.3,
10.4ff.,
and,
11.22-3).
J o s e p h u s is d e m o n s t r a b l y a w a r e o f t h e r e l e v a n c e o f at least o n e
the That
important
f e a t u r e f r o m E z e k . 9—11 t o t h e T e m p l e ' s fate d u r i n g t h e R e v o l t s t r e n g t h ens t h e g r o u n d s f o r a similar a w a r e n e s s
o n his p a r t o f t h e r e l e v a n c e o f
o t h e r d e t a i l s , a n d m i l i t a t e s against d i s c o u n t i n g s u c h e v i d e n c e as s o m u c h coincidence. T h e p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n has p r o d u c e d fairly s o l i d e v i d e n c e o f J o s e p h u s ' knowledge
o f e x e g e t i c a l t r a d i t i o n relative t o E z e k . 9—11 a n d t h e
First
J e w i s h R e v o l t . H e u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t b o t h J e r e m i a h a n d E z e k i e l , b u t parti c u l a r l y the l a t t e r , p r e d i c t e d a n u m b e r o f e v e n t s w h i c h w e r e l i t e r a l l y filled.
Chief among
these was the
defiling carnage
within
the
ful
Temple
b o u n d s w h i c h w a s t h e fruit o f civil w a r . T h u s t h e r e a p p e a r t o b e g r o u n d s f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a c o n t e m p o r a r y parallel t o t h e w a y I P e t . 4 . 1 7 a al ludes to Ezek. 9.6 w h i c h m a y p r o v e instructive. The
author
d o e s , after all, t h i n k o f h i m s e l f as a n e x i l e in ' B a b y l o n '
( 5 . 1 3 , a n d see a b o v e p p . 6 f . ) . O n c e h e a c c e p t s t o c o n c e i v e o f t h e Chris tian m o v e m e n t as t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y ( 2 . 4 f f . ) , t h e n h e is in a p o s i t i o n to
transfer
stances
s u c h a n e x e g e t i c a l t r a d i t i o n a n d t o a p p l y it t o t h e
before him.
Familiarity
o n his p a r t w i t h
circum
such tradition
might
easily p r e d i s p o s e h i m t o v i e w a c o l l e c t i v e assault o n t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y in t e r m s o f E z e k . 9—11 a n d t o s u r m i s e t h a t t h e l o n g - a w a i t e d J u d g m e n t described b y the
p r o p h e t had b e g u n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , there might well b e
162
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
r e a s o n f o r h i m , o r his a d d r e s s e e s , t o fear t h a t G o d h a d w i t h d r a w n , o r w a s about
to withdraw,
his G l o r y f r o m his T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y , s i n c e t h a t is
a crucial part o f the j u d g m e n t scenario r e c o u n t e d b y Ezekiel. H e n c e author might have anticipated
e m p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e S p i r i t o f G l o r y , t h a t is, t h e of
the
s u c h a p r o b l e m a l r e a d y at 4 . 1 4 , w h e r e h e Spirit
G o d , m u s t b e t a k e n as a sign o f d i v i n e f a v o u r a n d p r o t e c t i o n i n s t e a d .
A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , G o d h a s n o t a b a n d o n e d his T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y t o its f a t e , b u t r e m a i n s p l e d g e d t o its d e f e n s e , s e n d i n g t h e S p i r i t t o r e n d e r kind
o f a i d t h a t Is. 1 1 . 2 f . d e t a i l s , w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r t h e shift
earlier i n t h e
application
o f Is. 1 1 . 2 f r o m an i n d i v i d u a l r e f e r e n c e t o
Messiah to a c o r p o r a t e o n e Another preference
advantage
to
1 7 9
the
observed the
.
this p o s i t i o n
is t h a t it
explains
the
author's
f o r E z e k i e l o v e r J e r e m i a h . T h e p r o m i n e n c e o f t h e Skekina
in
E z e k i e l is d u e p r e c i s e l y t o t h e c e n t r a l p l a c e w h i c h is g i v e n t o t h e T e m p l e in c h a p s . 8 — 1 1 , w h e r e a s
the T e m p l e receives n o w h e r e near the same
t e n t i o n in t h e c o n t e x t o f J e r . t o chaps. 7ff. o r l 4 f f . therefore
Even the
readily available
4 . 1 7 a f o r TLOV
ayiwv,
2 5 . F o r t h a t o n e has
at
to turn, for e x a m p l e ,
t e r m otKcp a p p e a r s in E z e k . 9 . 6 , a n d is
t o the
a u t h o r o f I P e t e r t o b e s u b s t i t u t e d in
w h i c h is t h e a c t u a l o b j e c t o f t h e p r e p o s i t i o n as it
stands in E z e k . 9 . 6 . A n d again, E z e k . 9 a l o n e identifies the scene w h e r e t h e j u d g m e n t b e g i n s as t h e T e m p l e p r o p e r . It is t e m p t i n g , as w e l l , t o n o t e that the j u d g m e n t takes the f o r m o f capital p u n i s h m e n t , p o s s i b l y the main issue in I P e t . 4 . 1 4 f . ( s e e a b o v e p p . 1 2 f f . ) . I n t h e e p i s t l e ' s s e t t i n g , h o w ever, such p u n i s h m e n t n o r s in r o u t i n e 9.1
c o m e s p r i m a r i l y at t h e h a n d s o f p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r
criminal proceedings, whereas
the
original text o f E z e k .
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e are J e w s , a f e a t u r e p r o b a b l y s i g n i f i c
ant f o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n J o s e p h u s
f o l l o w e d . But the G r e e k versions read
simply
inaugurated
that
facilitating of
a judgment the
has
application
been
(rjyyiKev
r)
eK8LKT)OL<;),
m a d e in I P e t e r b y l e a v i n g o p e n t h e
c o n t e x t in I P e t e r b y f a c i l i t a t i n g a i m e d at t h e npeopvTepoi
t h e t r a n s i t i o n at 5 . 1 f . t o t h e
a n d vewrepoi.
(npeopvTepov
Kai
puv,
eooo
oi r)oav
veavioKov
KTX.,
ev r<£ OLKCO).
and,
exhortation
T h e y a p p e a r at t h e h e a d o f t h e
list o f t h o s e t o b e k i l l e d in E z e k . 9 . 6 , a n d
t h e a x e falls o n t h e m
K O I r}p%avTO and
ntiv
first
Ttpeofivre-
A t t h e v e r y least t h e i r a c c o u n t a b i l i t y f o r
t h e i r c o n d u c t as l e a d e r s e x p o s e s t h e m t o g r e a t e r r i s k o f J u d g m e n t
179
question
t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h o s e w h o p e r f o r m it. L a s t l y , E z e k i e l 9 serves w e l l t h e
1 8 0
.
It m a y also b e a p p r o p r i a t e at this j u n c t u r e to cite several o t h e r t e x t s where the m a n i f e s t a t i o n of
G o d ' s eschatological glory is identified first a n d f o r e m o s t w i t h the T e m p l e . In Pss. S o l .
1 7 . 3 2 f . a n d 1 l Q T e m p l e 2 9 . 8 f . (and perhaps 4 Q F l o r 1 . 5 ) the p r o m i s e of a p e r m a n e n t indwelling of
G o d ' s glory in the ( n e w ) T e m p l e is w h a t guarantees its existence into eternity. T h u s the
Presence is
n o t s i m p l y a sign of divine p r o t e c t i o n but the p o w e r o f G o d at w o r k establishing
the n e w T e m p l e at the centre of the p e o p l e of G o d . It is n o t difficult to s u p p o s e that a similar idea m a y b e present in I Peter. 1 8 0 T h e beginnings o f 133,
such a n interpretation are incipient
in the w a y R . J . M c K e l v e y ,
Temple,
returns t o E z e k . 9 . 6 w i t h its reference t o elders in order t o a c c o u n t better for the transi-
The Case for I Peter 4.12-5.11
163
T h e c u m u l a t i v e w e i g h t o f s o m a n y d e t a i l s m a k e s it p l a i n t o see t h a t E z e k . 9 . 6 o f f e r e d the a u t h o r o f I Peter advantages the alternatives d i d n o t . N o r d o e s t h e e x p l a n a t i o n v e n t u r e d h e r e r e q u i r e t h a t his a d d r e s s e e s p e r c e i v e t h e a l l u s i o n f o r t h e m t o grasp t h e e s s e n c e o f his
meessage. He be
l i e v e s t h a t h e has s u f f i c i e n t g r o u n d s t o b e a b s o l u t e l y c o n f i d e n t a b o u t t h e v e r a c i t y o f his d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t t h e J u d g m e n t has s t a r t e d , w h i c h , g i v e n t h e a p o s t o l i c authority o f the letter's alleged author, p r o b a b l y w o u l d b e ade quate
f o r m o s t o f the addressees quite apart f r o m the t e s t i m o n y o f the
S c r i p t u r e s . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t , r a t h e r , is t h a t it s e e m s p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y c e r t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p o n e n t s i n s t r u m e n t a l in p r o d u c i n g t h e c o n v i c t i o n in
the
author
w h i c h h e exhibits, and that these primarily i n v o l v e d the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e . Y e t , at t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w c o u l d t h e y fail t o recognize
that the p u r p o r t
o f the
m e s s a g e w a s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ? In
fact
4 . 1 7 a l o o k s t o b e an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t - f o r m u l a w i t h e v e n a s h a r p e r e d g e t o it t h a n the o n e in 4 . 7 a 9 . 6 as i n t e r p r e t e d
1 8 1
. F r o m its r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h E z e k .
b y t h e a u t h o r , h o w e v e r , it a p p r o x i m a t e s t o a s u r r o g a t e
fulfilment-formula
distinctly
reminiscent
o f a pesher-like
hermeneutic,
e m p h a s i z i n g t h e e x a c t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n a d e t a i l in S c r i p t u r e
and
the s e c t ' s salient h i s t o r y , n a m e l y , its i m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e o f an u n p r e c e d e n t e d d e v e l o p m e n t that b e g g e d for a plausible explanation with popular understandings author
consistent
o f G o d ' s End-time plan. A s t o n i s h i n g l y , the
d i s c l o s e s t h a t t h e c o l l e c t i v e assault against Christians
n o t h i n g less t h a n t h e start o f t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t
represents
itselt.
B u t his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i r struggle d o e s n o t s t o p w i t h 4 . 1 7 a . A s t h e l i t e r a r y analysis s h o w e d , t h e p r o t a s i s o f 4 . 1 7 b , el
8e
npdJTOu
Its
ay
qpcbv,
a m p l i f i e s t h e a l l u s i o n t o E z e k . 9 . 6 in t w o w a y s .
-npCoTOv p i c k s u p ap^ao&ai, &eov.
a n d its ay'
rjpojv p i c k s u p ano TOV O'LKOV TOV
T h i s l a t t e r w o u l d s e e m t o b e an a l l e g o r i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in g o o d ,
pesher-like fashion. T h e a p o d o s i s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , resumes c o n c e p t s a n d v o c a b u l a r y e s p e c i a l l y f r o m 2 . 8 , . . . rcoi> aneidovvTuv evayye\t(x)
( c p . . . . TQ3 Xoyco
airei&ovvTeq),
TCO TOV deov
but n o t b e f o r e a turn o f
p h r a s e , TO TeXoq, a m p l i f i e s f u r t h e r still t h e a l l u s i o n ' s t i m e - r e f e r e n c e . T h e s t r u c t u r e o f 4 . 1 7 b is i t s e l f p r o b a b l y i n s p i r e d b y t h a t o f t h e p r o v e r b in 4 . 1 8 , s i n c e b o t h i n v o l v e an a r g u m e n t a fortiori
a n d treat the same basic
issue. T h e protasis o f the p r o v e r b clearly amplifies the protasis o f 4 . 1 7 b , its bluaioq
s e r v i n g as a k i n d o f s y n o n y m f o r r)pcbv. It is c e r t a i n l y n o t sur
p r i s i n g t o f i n d a n a r g u m e n t a fortiori
in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e u s e o f S c r i p
t u r e , in as m u c h as t h e first i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p r i n c i p l e (midda) n a m
a l l y a s c r i b e d t o H i l l e l is
162
bp .
convention
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f Prv.
11.31,
t i o n f r o m the idea o f the T e m p l e to the idea of the p e o p l e as the T e m p l e in 4 . 1 7 — 9 , b u t he d o e s n o t see a n y link w i t h 5 . I f . 1 8 1 See a b o v e p p . 1 5 5 f f . and n n . 1 7 0 — 1 for 4 . 1 7 a , a n d for 4 . 7 a see a b o v e p p . 7 2 f . , a n d n. 1 5 4 . 1 8 2 See W . Bacher, Terminologie,
I, 1 3 — 6 , a n d G . Stemberger, Einleitung,
2 8 . Regarding this a n d
the other 'rules' o f Hillel, C . K . Barrett has rightly insisted that t h e y are n o t peculiar t o J e w i s h hermeneutics,
CHB,
3 8 5 . Y e t that is n o t to say they are less significant,
o r less vital t o J e w i s h
The Hermeneutic of I Peter
164
m o r e o v e r , d e p e n d s e n t i r e l y o n t h e L X X v a r i a n t poXtq, as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y J.
Barr, s u c h t h a t its p r e s e n c e in I P e t e r m i g h t r e p r e s e n t
selection o f an alternative t e x t - t y p e
1 8 3
the
deliberate
. T h e author o f I Peter can q u o t e
a p r o v e r b significantly nearer to the H e b r e w than t o the G r e e k versions when
needed
through deXripa 2.23
(4.8).
Lastly,
a paraphrase TOV &eov)
9
the
o f the
a u t h o r links
p r o v e r b ' s Sinaioq
4.19 with (ol
the
preceding
ndoxovreq
Kara TO
f o l l o w e d b y a n a l l u s i o n t o Ps. 3 1 . 5 t h a t e c h o e s I P e t .
(itapaTideodojoav
Taq
tyvxaq
avToov),
and then closes the
period
w i t h a r e m i n d e r w h i c h r e c a l l s , e s p e c i a l l y , his earlier a p p l i c a t i o n o f Ps. 3 4 (ev
aya&oiroua). F r o m t h e analysis a b o v e it s e e m s fairly c l e a r t h a t 4 . 1 7 — 9 u n f o l d s f r o m
t h e initial a l l u s i o n t o E z e k . 9 . 6 . E a c h s e g m e n t h a r k s b a c k e i t h e r t o
an
e x p a n s i o n u p o n the allusion's reference t o 'the h o u s e o f G o d ' , or, b y w a y o f c o n t r a s t , treats o f t h o s e w h o d o n o t b e l o n g t o t h e h o u s e . T h e a u t h o r ' s a i m is t o f a s h i o n a s u i t a b l e c l o s i n g a d m o n i t i o n r o o t e d in his i n s i g h t t h a t the J u d g m e n t
has b e e n i n a u g u r a t e d . A g a i n a variant t e x t has b e e n e x p l o i
t e d ( P r v . 1 1 . 3 1 ) , a n d again an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e is paramount.
Thus
4.17—9 appears
t o share t h e s a m e b a s i c
hermeneutic
f o u n d in 4 . 1 4 — 6 . T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m b o t h s u b - u n i t s f o r a p e s h e r - l i k e a p p r o a c h t o inter pretation m a y b e conveniently recapitualted
in o n e p l a c e : 1 ) an O T allu
s i o n ( I s . 1 1 . 2 ) w i t h a v a r i a n t t e x t - t y p e c o n t a i n i n g 2 ) g r a m m a t i c a l altera tions (the p r o n o u n and verb tense), for w h i c h the a u t h o r was p r e s u m a b l y r e s p o n s i b l e , is said t o b e 3 ) f u l f i l l e d , as it w e r e , in t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f suf f e r i n g f o r C h r i s t . T h e m e n t i o n o f ' G l o r y ' in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e a l l u s i o n m a y p o s s i b l y a l s o h a v e a s p e c i f i c O T basis ( E z e k . 9 — 1 1 ) , b u t in a n y c a s e it a n t i c i p a t e s
the reappearance
o f t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y m o t i f at 4 . 1 7 ,
the u n d e n i a b l e p r o d u c t o f pesher-exegesis (see 2 . 4 f f . ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , E z e k . 9 . 6 in 4 . 1 7 a s e e m s t o b e a 4 ) s u b o r d i n a t e a l l u s i o n c o m p o s e d a r o u n d 5 ) a k e y - t e r m o f a p o c a l y p t i c d i s c o u r s e , naipoq ( s e e 1 . 1 1 ) , a n d its n a t u r e as a n eschatological pronouncement-formula surrogate Scripture
6)
epideictic
formula
p e r m i t s it t o
expressing
a
f u n c t i o n w e l l as
correspondence
a
between
and a p e r c e i v e d eschatological reality. T h e allusion t o E z e k . 9.6
e v e n 7 ) b o r r o w s a w o r d ( o k a ; ) f r o m an a d j a c e n t p o r t i o n o f t h e l e m m a , and then b e c o m e s a p o i n t o f departure for 8) paraphrase
(npcoTOv/TeXoq),
a n d f o r 9 ) an a l l e g o r i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f ' t h e h o u s e o f G o d ' (=ay This leads o n t o y e t a n o t h e r
subordinate
l i k e w i s e has a m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e
quotation
rjpdbv).
(Prv. 1 1 . 3 1 ) w h i c h
(poXiq) t h a t w a s c l e a r l y n o t t h e a u t h o r ' s
h e r m e n e u t i c a l m e t h o d s , w h e t h e r in m i d r a s h , halakah, or pesher. W h a t is essential is that t h e y are f o u n d in service t o Scripture. F o r the role of Hellenistic p e d a g o g y a n d the d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f these basic principles of rhetoric see the classic studies b y D . D a u b e , 'Rabbinic M e t h o d s ' , 2 3 9 — 6 4 , and idem,
'Alexandrian
a r g u m e n t a fortiori
M e t h o d s ' , 2 7 — 4 4 . It is m o r e accurate technically t o speak o f a n
here in I Peter, b u t usually the m i d d a bears the o t h e r rubric.
1 8 3 See his ' M O A I E ' , 1 4 9 — 6 4 , for a m e t i c u l o u s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the origin of the L X X reading
for
yixi.
The Case for I Peter 4.12-5.11 i n v e n t i o n . T h e p a r a p h r a s e o f E z e k . 9 . 6 (npdoTov) point
o f contact
with
the
165 h a s , at t h e s a m e t i m e , a
p r o v e r b (irov yaveirai)
t h r o u g h TL TO reXoc,
( 4 . 1 7 b / 3 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the a l l e g o r i c a l d i s c l o s u r e (ay* r)p<Jjv) o f t h e a l l u s i o n ' s r e f e r e n c e t o ' t h e h o u s e o f G o d ' a l s o has a p o i n t o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p r o v e r b t h r o u g h 1 0 ) a s y n o n y m ( S I K C U O ? ) , w h i c h is itself a m p l i f i e d b y t w o f u r t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e a l l u s i o n s (Pss. 3 1 . 5 , 3 4 ) . F i n a l l y , t h e a l l u s i o n t o E z e k . 9 . 6 m a y e v e n b e felt at 5 . I f . , npeofivTepovq
. . . i>eo3repoi, c o n s t i t u
t i n g w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e a s e c o n d e x a m p l e o f d e p e n d e n c e u p o n an a d j a c e n t p o r t i o n o f the l e m m a . Thus I Pet. 4.14—9 exhibits a consistent hermeneutical s t a n c e in its c o m p o s i t i o n w h i c h c o m p a r e s w e l l w i t h t h e o t h e r p o r tions o f the letter w h i c h have b e e n studied. It
m a y be observed additionally
that the entire sub-unit
has
manifest
p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t w i t h the S / G o f 1 . 1 1 . T h e s a m e a n t i t h e s i s m a y b e f o u n d f u l l - b l o w n in 4 . 1 3 , e x p l i c i t l y r e l a t i n g t h e s u f f e r i n g s a n d g l o r y o f Christ t o t h e c o r p o r a t e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a d d r e s s e e s . It is this s t a t e m e n t w h i c h p r o vides the c o n t e x t for the further e l a b o r a t i o n o f the t h e m e o f c o r p o r a t e suffering
and
g l o r i f i c a t i o n in 4 . 1 4 f f . O f p a r t i c u l a r
i n t e r e s t , h o w e v e r , is
the n e w p e r s p e c t i v e the a u t h o r o p e n s o n the ordeals facing Christians. is p e r h a p s
n o longer accurate
to
speak
It
o f t h e s e in t e r m s o f p r o l e p t i c
J u d g m e n t , f o r in his m i n d t h e y s o m e h o w p o s s e s s the n a t u r e o f J u d g m e n t in all its f i n a l i t y punishment
( 4 . 1 7 a ) . These might c o n c e i v a b l y take the f o r m o f just
f o r Christian
i n n o c e n t Christians Hence,
the
criminals and o f p r o o f - p o s i t i v e ( c p . 1.6f.) that
w h o remain
culpable and
the
steadfast
h a v e a share in G o d ' s
future.
b l a m e l e s s s u f f e r a l i k e , j u s t as in p r e v i o u s
judgments o f G o d ' s T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y , but possibly with unprecedented ramifications. Lastly, s o m e brief attention must proper
b e p a i d t o the paraenesis
( 5 . 1 — 1 1 ) . T h e literary analysis
section
e s t a b l i s h e d its b a s i c a l l y c o n v e n
t i o n a l e p i s t o l a r y n a t u r e , a n d a c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e s t r i c t e d r o l e o f t h e O T in its c o m p o s i t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e results o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y a b o v e strongly suggest that the author was d i r e c t e d b y a pesher-like e x e g e sis o f E z e k . 9 . 6 t o start t h e s e c t i o n w i t h his e x h o r t a t i o n t o e l d e r s , s u c h t h a t t h e basis f o r his d e c i s i o n w a s n o t m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f f o r m . O n t h e as s u m p t i o n t h a t a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c is o p e r a t i v e in t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of
5.Iff.,
therefore,
consistency with
similar passages e l s e w h e r e in
the
letter should lead o n e t o e x p e c t to m e e t w i t h distinct points o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e S / G as w e l l . C l e a r l y , 5.1—11 d o e s n o t d i s a p p o i n t in this r e s p e c t . T h e a n t i t h e s i s is o n c e again e x p l i c i t in 5 . 1 , a n d r e l a t e d t e r m i n o l o g y a n d i d e a s r e a p p e a r t h r o u g h o u t ( v v . 4 , 5 b , 6 , 8—9, a n d 1 0 — 1 ) . N o t o n l y d o e s the use o f the O T seem t o b e decisive for the w a y the paraenesis
s e c t i o n b e g i n s , h o w e v e r , b u t it a l s o s e e m s t o b e d e c i s i v e f o r
its i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n the
5.1—5 a n d 5.6—11 ( s e e a b o v e e s p . p . 7 7 ) .
sub-units,
T h e q u o t a t i o n o f Prv. 3 . 3 4 in
5 . 5 b has a v a r i a n t t e x t - t y p e , m o r e o v e r . It c l o s e l y f o l l o w s t h e G r e e k ver sions MT's
with p
vnepriyavoLq
^ ' K i n
avTiTaooerai, " D N , but
a phrasing essential
for
unsupported the
by
application
the in
I
166
The Herm eneu tic of I Pe ter
Peter
1 8 4
. Y e t b o t h I P e t . 5 . 5 b a n d t h e parallel in J a s . 4 . 6 d e p a r t f r o m t h e
G r e e k v e r s i o n s w i t h deoq
i n s t e a d o f Kvptoq.
does
the
not
seem to
offer
author
B u t , in as m u c h as t h e variant
o f I Peter
any
special
advantage,
g r o u n d s are l a c k i n g t h a t m i g h t s u g g e s t a d e l i b e r a t e s e l e c t i o n b y h i m o f o n e text-type
over a n o t h e r . A n y w a y , the p r o v e r b ' s treatment o f the
theme
o f h u m i l i t y is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e m a i n s t a y o f t h e p a r a e n e s i s in 5 . 1 — 5 a , and,
the p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e
f o r t h e p a r a e n e s i s in 5 . 6 f f . A d d i t i o n a l O T
a l l u s i o n s are w o v e n i n t o t h e p a r a e n e s i s o f 5 . 6 f f . , m o s t i m p o r t a n t which appears
are
those comprising the
(5.8),
paraenesis
because
they
a p o c a l y p t i c vignette w h e r e the
reinforce
the
impression
that
the
among Satan entire
s e c t i o n is t h e p r o d u c t o f a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y - h e i g h t e n e d c o n
sciousness o n the author's p a r t
1 8 5
.
It m a y t h e r e f o r e b e said w i t h s o m e c o n f i d e n c e t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s
ap
p r o a c h t o the O T in 5 . 1 — 1 1 l o o k s t o h a v e b e e n c o n s i s t e n t . A l t h o u g h n o r a d i c a l d i s c l o s u r e is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
in t h e s e c o n d s u b -
u n i t , u n l i k e t h e first, still t h e O T is h a n d l e d in a m a n n e r t h a t i m p a r t s
to
the paraenesis a radical relevance for the addressees' c i r c u m s t a n c e s , o n e w h i c h , b e c a u s e o f its p r o n o u n c e d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l n a t u r e , m a y m o r e than a simple repristination the
represent
o f p e r e n i a l l y salient a d m o n i t i o n f r o m
sapiential tradition. H e n c e , despite the attenuated significance o f a
p e s h e r - l i k e e x e g e s i s f o r 5 . 1 — 1 1 , it o f a certain permutation
m a y be justified t o speak nevertheless
o f that h e r m e n e u t i c appropriate
for a portion
o f t h e l e t t e r in w h i c h g e n e r i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , s u c h as the q u a s i - c o n v e n t i o n a l n a t u r e o f t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e p i s t o l a r y c l o s i n g a n d the Gattung t h e Haustafel,
of
w o u l d t e n d t o resist m u c h in t h e w a y o f s i g n i f i c a n t e x p o s i
tion o f the Scriptures. I n s u m , t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f I P e t . 4 . 1 2 — 5 . 1 1 has u n e a r t h e d
extensive
e v i d e n c e o f a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c o p e r a t i v e i n its c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e c a s e f o r 4 . 1 4 — 9 is p e r h a p s t h e s t r o n g e s t o f a n y m a d e s o far, a n d e v e n 5.1—11 is n o t w i t h o u t s o m e d i s t i n c t affinities o f t h e s o r t w h i c h l e a v e it w e l l - s u i t e d t o c o n c l u d i n g a l e t t e r t h a t d r a w s r e p e a t e d l y u p o n s u c h a her m e n e u t i c t o p r o v i d e t h e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r its p a r a e n e s i s .
7. C o n c l u d i n g R e m a r k s T h e p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n h a d set i t s e l f t h e task o f c l a r i f y i n g t h e
au
t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c , o r at least s o m e d e m o n s t r a b l y s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s o f w h a t e v e r h e r m e n e u t i c s h a p e d his l e t t e r . L i m i t a t i o n s o f s p a c e a n d p r o c e -
1 8 4 It m a y be recalled f r o m the discussion a b o v e o n p p . 1 6 3 f . that the a p p l i c a t i o n o f Prv. 1 1 . 3 1 in 4 . 1 8 likewise d e p e n d e d
o n a G r e e k version u n s u p p o r t e d b y the H e b r e w . A g a i n there is evid
e n c e of c o n s i s t e n c y o n the a u t h o r ' s part in the w a y h e handles m o d i f i e d
t e x t - t y p e s w h i c h he
himself did n o t create. 1 8 5 C p . the J e w i s h s t e r e o t y p e o f the w i c k e d king as a lion, as discussed b y G . V e r m e s , 4 1 f., n o t i n g esp. 4 Q p N a h .
Scripture,
Concluding Remarks dural
rigour
dictated
that
the
analysis
167
should confine
itself t o
those
p a r t s o f the l e t t e r w h e r e the u s e o f t h e O T w a s c l e a r l y f o r m a t i v e f o r t h e w a y the a u t h o r on behalf
o r g a n i z e d his m e s s a g e . O n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e e v i d e n c e
o f the
author's Jewish
identity
and
education, comparative
m a t e r i a l s w e r e s o u g h t o u t first f r o m t h a t m i l i e u w h i c h p r o v i d e d a m e a n s t o a s c e r t a i n the n a t u r e o f his u s e o f t h e O T . T h e investigation p r o p e r began with that p o r t i o n o f the letter w h i c h was i n f l u e n c e d m o s t b y O T usage ( 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 ) , a c c o r d i n g t o the
literary-
critical analysis, o r , nearly the w h o l e o f the b o d y - o p e n i n g . F o u r p o s s i b l e genres f o r w h i c h a case m i g h t b e plausibly m a d e w e r e identified: mission ary
preaching,
The
affinities b e t w e e n 1.14—2.9 a n d h o m i l e t i c midrash w e r e s h o w n t o
communal
discipline, diatribe,
and
homiletic
midrash.
be distinctly closer than b e t w e e n
1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 a n d a n y o f t h e o t h e r s , al
though
c o u l d also b e discerned. T h e
elements
o f e a c h o f these
body-
o p e n i n g w a s t h e n s t u d i e d in d e t a i l f o r its u s e o f t h e m e t h o d s a n d d e v i c e s characteristic
o f homiletic midrash
contemporary with
the
author.
A
m u c h larger r o l e f o r L e v i t i c u s 1 9 in t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g w a s d e t e c t e d t h a n a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n v e n t u r e d s o far. T h e a u t h o r m a d e its h o l i n e s s t h e m e t h e c e n t r a l t h r e a d o f his m e s s a g e , t r a n s l a t i n g its call into radically Christo-centric terms appropriate
t o the c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f
his a d d r e s s e e s . T h e result w a s s e e n t o b e a r h e t o r i c a l l y p e r s u a s i v e s u m m o n s w h i c h c o m p a r e s w e l l w i t h o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f the genre f r o m Philo a n d t h e N T in p a r t i c u l a r . W i t h s u c h d e m o n s t r a t e d e x p e r t i s e o n his p a r t in t h e u s e o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s in a f a s h i o n t h a t has its n e a r e s t parallels in S y n a g o g u e p r a c t i c e it w a s c o n c l u d e d that a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f his h e r m e n e u tic w a s J e w i s h . T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e J e w i s h m i l i e u as at least o n e m a i n s o u r c e f o r his h e r m e n e u t i c
e n c o u r a g e d further
study
o f it f o r m o r e s u p p o r t . T o
f a c i l i t a t e t h e i n q u i r y t h e a u t h o r ' s c l e a r e s t s t a t e m e n t o n t h e s u b j e c t o f her m e n e u t i c s w a s e x a m i n e d , 1 . 1 0 — 2 . T h e k i n d o f h e r m e n e u t i c it s e e m s t o e x h i b i t was f o u n d t o b e distinctly reminiscent o f the h e r m e n e u t i c
in
s t a n c e d b y c e r t a i n strata in t h e a p o c a l y p t i c m o v e m e n t s o f t h e d a y , as this c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m its v a r i o u s l i t e r a t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e Qumran
and
the
early C h u r c h , w h e r e a significant
from
degree o f realized
e s c h a t o l o g y is a n essential i n g r e d i e n t . O n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t 1.10—2 w a s integral t o t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c a n d that its c o r r e c t h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t h a d b e e n l o c a t e d , it w a s h y p o t h e s i z e d that m a n y o f t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , m e t h o d s , a n d t e c h n i q u e s f o u n d in t h a t m i l i e u s h o u l d t u r n u p in I P e t e r . If t h e h y p o t h e s i s p r o v e d t o b e false, t h e n
1.10—2 c o u l d h a v e n o m o r e
than
hermeneutic
marginal
significance
for
whatever
had
effectively
shaped the letter. A g a i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s c o n f i n e d t o passages w h e r e l i t e r a r y
analy
sis h a d s h o w n O T u s a g e t o h a v e b e e n m o s t d e c i s i v e in t h e w a y t h e a u t h o r a p p r o a c h e d t h e task o f c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e r e w e r e t w o s u c h p e r i c o p a e i n t h e body-opening,
1.22-2.3
and
2 . 4 - 1 0 , t w o in t h e b o d y - m i d d l e , 2 . 2 1 - 5
a n d 3 . 7 — 1 7 , a n d o n e in the b o d y - c l o s i n g , 4 . 1 4 — 9 / 5 . I f . V a r i o u s p h e n o m e n a in e a c h passage w e r e e n u m e r a t e d w h i c h h a d already b e e n identified
168
The Hermeneu tic of I Peter
as i n h e r e n t t o e x e g e s i s at Q u m r a n a n d in t h e N T . T h e p r e s e n c e o f m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e s , f o r e x a m p l e w a s a r e c u r r i n g f e a t u r e in t h e s e p a s s a g e s , a n d c l o s e s t u d y o f t h e i r v a r i a t i o n s d i s c l o s e d t i m e a n d again i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a tion a b o u t h o w t h e y h a d b e e n a p p l i e d . E a c h passage w a s likewise s h o w n t o reflect the kinds o f a p o l o g e t i c or pastoral c o n c e r n s typical f o r a pesherlike h e r m e n e u t i c . A n d e a c h passage w a s seen also t o have correlations w i t h t h e S / G o f 1 . 1 1 , e s t a b l i s h i n g its a n t i t h e s i s as an i m p o r t a n t o r g a n i z i n g prin c i p l e in t h e a u t h o r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e , o n e w h i c h s e e m s t o have e m e r g e d o u t o f the radically dualistic vision o f the eschatological struggle o f G o d ' s p e o p l e
1 8 6
. A w e a l t h o f d e t a i l has t h e r e f o r e b e e n f o r t h
c o m i n g as t o t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e h e r m e n e u t i c e n u n c i a t e d in 1.10—2 b o t h for the author
a n d f o r w h a t h e has d o n e w i t h t h e O T in his l e t t e r . T h e
h y p o t h e s i s stands c o n f i r m e d that he relied heavily u p o n a pesher-like exegesis o f the
Scriptures.
It t h u s s e e m s u n d e n i a b l e t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f I P e t e r is o n c e m o r e i n d e b t e d t o a p e c u l i a r l y J e w i s h h e r m e n e u t i c . W h e r e a s h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h is t h e m o s t p l a u s i b l e i n f l u e n c e b e h i n d t h e l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e h e gives t o t h e b o d y o p e n i n g , s o t o o d o e s the reading o f the Scriptures d e v e l o p e d a m o n g a p o c a l y p t i c s e c t a r i a n g r o u p s o f f e r t h e m o s t i n s t r u c t i v e parallel t o m a n y p l a c e s in t h e l e t t e r w h e r e O T i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
assumes strategic i m p o r t a n c e f o r
his m e s s a g e . I n d e e d , v e r y f e w i n s t a n c e s in his u s e o f t h e O T are l e f t w h i c h d o n o t bear clear traces o f a pesher-like exegesis. H e n c e the
understanding
o f t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c has b e e n a d v a n c e d a l o n g t w o f r o n t s , w h i c h is n o t t o say t h a t t h e r e are n o o t h e r a v e n u e s o f p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e f o r g a i n i n g a c l e a r e r k n o w l e d g e o f his h e r m e n e u t i c . R a t h e r ,
it is t o say t h a t
a start has b e e n m a d e w h i c h , g i v e n t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i n f l u e n c e f r o m
the
d i r e c t i o n o f J e w i s h h e r m e n e u t i c s u p o n the a u t h o r , m a k e s f u r t h e r investi g a t i o n o f t h a t m i l i e u p r o m i s i n g . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f in fluence
from
non-Jewish directions requires
serious consideration, and
u n t i l s u c h areas are e x a m i n e d f u l l y it w o u l d b e p r e m a t u r e t o d r a w a n y s w e e p i n g c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f his h e r m e n e u t i c .
1 8 6 C p . the a p p r o a c h b y J . Schlosser, ' T e s t a m e n t ' , 6 5 — 9 6 , w h o s h o w s s o m e awareness o f the p o r t a n c e o f I Pet.
im
1 . 1 0 — 2 for the a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c ( 9 3 f . ) , b u t q u i t e neglects its S / G . T h i s
w e a k n e s s brings h i m t o over-simplify his description o f the relationship o f the O T t o the au thor's C h r i s t o l o g y , a l l o w i n g little place for a collective or c o r p o r a t e frame of reference in its r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , for e x a m p l e .
Chapter Five
Conclusion
O n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e p r e c e d i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n it m a y n o l o n g e r b e fair t o say t h a t t h e h e r m e n e u t i c o f the First E p i s t l e o f P e t e r suffers f r o m n e g l e c t . T h e i n q u i r y has p r o b e d the letter in a sustained fashion t o u n c o v e r t h e m a i n f a c t o r s o p e r a t i v e in t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e
Scriptures.
A f t e r s i t u a t i n g t h e l e t t e r in its h i s t o r i c a l a n d s o c i a l c o n t e x t , t h e
analysis
p r o c e e d e d t o d e l i n e a t e its l i t e r a r y d e s i g n in u n p r e c e d e n t e d d e t a i l , in o r d e r to
provide data a b o u t
its c o m p o s i t i o n w h i c h c o u l d t h e n b e c o m p a r e d
w i t h d a t a a b o u t its u s e o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t . Several n o t e w o r t h y c o n c l u s i o n s w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y d r a w n f r o m t h e r e s u l t s . It w a s c l e a r t h a t Ps. 3 4 h a d n o t b e e n n e a r l y as f o r m a t i v e in t h e l e t t e r ' s c o m p o s i t o n as m a n y h a v e supposed, and after
t h a t t h e p l a c e w h e r e its i n f l u e n c e is m o s t d i s c e r n i b l e is
3 . 1 2 , again c o n t r a r y
t o p r e v i o u s v i e w p o i n t s . It w a s a l s o c l e a r t h a t
t h e a u t h o r ' s d e x t e r i t y in his l i t e r a r y e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s i n d i c a ted
a t h o r o u g h familiarity
and
a b o v e all its c e n t r a l i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e D i a s p o r a , t h e S y n a g o g u e . It
w i f h c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h life a n d
thought,
b e c a m e c l e a r , as w e l l , t h a t t h e k i n d o f l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e S c r i p tures w h i c h 1 . 1 3 — 2 . 1 0 e x h i b i t s is t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h a t w h i c h is e x h i b i t e d e l s e w h e r e in t h e l e t t e r . T h e s e t w o last c o n c l u s i o n s in p a r t i c u l a r m a d e it p o s s i b l e t o b e g i n the. s e a r c h f o r c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l s in t h e J e w i s h m i l i e u o f t h e p e r i o d w i t h o u t prejudice t o other possibilities. F o u r candidates w e r e identified that seemed
especially attractive f r o m
a m o n g all t h e
m a n y assorted
genres
a v a i l a b l e t o a J e w i s h a u t h o r at t h e t i m e . l ) m i s s i o n a r y p r o c l a m a t i o n , 2 ) c o m m u n a l discipline, 3) diatribe, and, 4 ) h o m i l e t i c midrash. W h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h I P e t . 1 . 1 3 — 2 . 1 0 , it b e c a m e e v i d e n t t h a t t h e f o u r t h o n e a l o n e , homiletic midrash,
c o u l d a c c o u n t adequately for the various p h e n o m e n a
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e o f the O T in t h a t p e r i c o p e . Its s t r u c t u r e w a s f o u n d to bear
p r o n o u n c e d affinities
with
the
pattern o f homiletic
discourse
d e t e c t e d i n P h i l o a n d t h e N T w h i c h springs f r o m a n O T t e x t a n d e x p a n d s u p o n the t h e m e t h r o u g h
the use o f subordinate O T materials,
returning
e x p l i c i t l y t o the t h e m e at its c l i m a x b y w a y o f c o n c l u s i o n . S o i n t e g r a l t o h o m i l e t i c d i s c o u r s e in J u d a i s m
w a s this p a t t e r n t h a t it m a y b e s e e n t o
persist i n m u c h m o r e e l a b o r a t e h o m i l e t i c p r o d u c t s f r o m a l a t e r d a y . T h e a u t h o r o f I Peter d r e w the holiness t h e m e that unifies 1.14—2.9 f r o m the s u m m o n s t o h o l i n e s s in L e v . 1 9 . 2 f . H e p r o c e e d e d t o e x p o u n d t h e with added support
theme
f r o m t h e S c r i p t u r e s , as w e l l as e l e m e n t s f r o m m i s
sionary proclamation, c o m m u n a l discipline, and diatribe. He then b r o u g h t
Conclusion
170
the d i s c o u r s e t o a c l o s e w i t h a translation o f the s u m m o n s t o holiness i n t o the r a d i c a l l y C h r i s t o - c e n t r i c t e r m s o f t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y u n i t e d w i t h its
exalted
Lord. The
author's indebtedness
to Jewish
hermeneutics
is
patent here. But the investigation w e n t further. T h e d i s c o v e r y o f a h o m i l e t i c midrash in
1.14—2.9
confirmed
that
the investigation
was m o v i n g o n the
right
t r a c k in l o o k i n g at t h e J e w i s h m i l i e u , s o t h a t m o r e l i g h t f r o m t h a t s o u r c e was s o u g h t w i t h w h i c h t o clarify the m o s t e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t o n the sub ject
o f hermeneutics
that the
a u t h o r o f I Peter m a k e s , n a m e l y ,
1.10—2.
U p o n c l o s e i n s p e c t i o n this p a s s a g e w a s f o u n d t o b e i n f u s e d w i t h a d i s t i n c tively
a p o c a l y p t i c c o l o u r i n g . Its
time-periodization, through
special
concern
for
intermediaries,
eschatological o u t l o o k , conception o f the
disclosure
elaborate
o f heavenly
knowledge
p n e u m a t o l o g y , and
emphasis
o n M e s s i a n i c s a l v a t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , v i r t u a l l y n e c e s s i t a t e a n o r i g i n f o r its hermeneutic
in s e c t a r i a n J u d a i s m w i t h a d e c i d e d l y a p o c a l y p t i c
orienta
t i o n . Further analysis o f c o m p a r a t i v e materials f r o m Q u m r a n a n d the N T p o i n t e d u p t h e p r o f o u n d a n d f a r - r e a c h i n g similarities w i t h p e s h e r - e x e g e s i s in p a r t i c u l a r . T h e q u e s t i o n that was left t o the investigation, t h e r e f o r e , w a s t o ascer tain w h e t h e r
the h e r m e n e u t i c t o w h i c h the a u t h o r h a d c o m m i t t e d himself
at 1.10—2 w o u l d in f a c t a p p e a r t o b e o p e r a t i v e i n t h e w a y h e h a n d l e d
the
S c r i p t u r e s . A v a r i e t y o f p a s s a g e s w e r e s e l e c t e d as test-cases w h e r e t h e O T w a s s h o w n t o h a v e b e e n f o r m a t i v e t h r o u g h earlier l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l 1 . 2 2 - 2 . 3 , 2 . 4 - 1 0 , 2 . 2 1 - 5 , 3.7ff., and
analysis:
4 . 1 4 f f . Each o f these was e x a m
i n e d in t u r n f o r e v i d e n c e o f a p e s h e r - l i k e e x e g e s i s . T h e y w e r e all s e e n t o c o n t a i n o n e or m o r e instances o f a m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e , perhaps the most
criterion
features
o f pesher-interpretation, along with numerous
fore
additional
w h i c h w e r e d o c u m e n t e d for a pesher-like a p p r o a c h t o
Scriptural
e x p o s i t i o n . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a i m s o f p e s h e r - e x e g e s i s w e r e l i k e w i s e in e v i d ence, including a p o l o g e t i c , consolation, warning, and awareness
guidance
of conduct,
o f ' t h e signs o f t h e t i m e s ' . W h a t is m o r e , t h e
'sufferings'/
' g l o r i e s ' s c h e m a at t h e c o r e o f t h e a u t h o r ' s s t a t e m e n t o n h e r m e n e u t i c s in 1.11
(rd e k
reappear
XpiOTOv
na&rjpaTa
Kai rdc, perd
ravra
bo^aq)
was f o u n d to
s i g n i f i c a n t l y in e a c h o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s . T h u s t h e f o r m a l c o n s i s
t e n c y in his a p p r o a c h identified
with
t o O T i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e e n in his u s e o f e l e m e n t s
a pesher-like
e x e g e s i s is m a t c h e d
b y a' c o n s i s t e n c y o f a
m o r e substantive nature. T h e kinds o f correlation b e t w e e n the s c h e m a and these p e r i c o p a e w e r e seen t o vary, d e p e n d i n g o n the c o n t e x t . T h e m o s t o b v i o u s o n e s i n v o l v e an individual reference hearsed
in
terms
t o Christ, w h e t h e r
o f the
Crucifixion rehearsed collective
and
Stone
his r e j e c t i o n a n d v i n d i c a t i o n
testimonia
(2.4ff.),
o r his
Passion
in t e r m s o f Is. 5 3 ( 2 . 2 1 f f . ) . B u t an a s s o r t m e n t
corporate
references
re and of
w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as w e l l w h i c h s e e m
t o h a v e e s c a p e d p r e v i o u s n o t i c e . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f Is. 1 1 . 2 at 4 . 1 4 t o the
experience
of
persecuted
Christians,
although
originating
in
C h r i s t i a n M e s s i a n i c s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t w a s p r o b a b l y i n d i v i d u a l in its o f r e f e r e n c e , w a s o b s e r v e d t o b e c o r p o r a t e in n a t u r e . It is p e r h a p s
preframe
related
Conclusion
171
t o a n o t h e r c o r p o r a t e r e f e r e n c e in t h e c o n t e x t , t h a t o f E z e k . 9 . 6 ( 4 . 1 7 ) t o t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y , b e c a u s e earlier t e a c h i n g o n t h e s u b j e c t s i z e d t h e spiritual
empha
dimension (2.4f.). Contrary to what might be expected
o n t h e basis o f t h e j u d g m e n t - s c e n a r i o in E z e k . 8 — 1 1 , t h e Spirit a n d Pres ence (='glory') o f G o d b e c o m e especially manifest
t o the T e m p l e - c o m
m u n i t y u n d e r c o l l e c t i v e assault as t h e sign o f d i v i n e f a v o u r a n d p r o t e c t i o n . H e n c e , b o t h sides o f t h e s c h e m a are u n m i s t a k a b l y p r e s e n t in w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e a c o r p o r a t e a p p r o a c h t o t h e S c r i p t u r e s in its t e r m s , as o p p o s e d t o an i n d i v i d u a l o n e . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e m a y b e c i t e d in 2 . 4 f f . T h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y u n i t e d w i t h its L o r d is u n d e r s t o o d t o share in his e x p e r i e n c e o f r e j e c t i o n a n d vin d i c a t i o n . H o w e v e r , the c o n t e x t emphasizes the latter and n o t the f o r m e r . B e c a u s e t h e y b e l i e v e in h i m , t h e y r e c e i v e ' h o n o u r ' ( I s . 2 8 . 1 6 in 2 . 6 f . ) , a status t h a t is s h o w n t o i n c l u d e t h e m o s t e x a l t e d e p i t h e t s e v e r p r e d i c a t e d o f Israel ( E x . 1 9 . 5 f . in 2 . 9 ) . T h e f a c t that ' c h o s e n r a c e ' h e a d s t h e list c o u l d n o t m a k e t h e c o r p o r a t e r e f e r e n c e p l a i n e r , a l t h o u g h it v e r g e s o n a c o l l e c tive r e f e r e n c e p r o p e r , in as m u c h as t h e c o n t e x t is c o n c e r n e d w i t h p e o p l e o f G o d as o n e n a t i o n edveotv,
(e'dvoq ayiov,
2.9) a m o n g others
the
( e ^ rolq
2.11L).
A d d i t i o n a l instances
o f a c o m p a r a b l e nature w e r e identified. T h e use
o f Is. 4 0 j u s t b e h o r e h a n d
w a s i n i t i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y its v i v i d p o r t r a y a l
o f t h e t r a n s c i e n c e o f h u m a n life c o l l e c t i v e l y , a n d t h e n d e v e l o p e d in t e r m s o f a c o r p o r a t e r e f e r e n c e t o the G o s p e l ' s s u m m o n s t o r e p e n t a n c e and h o l y l i f e . T h e u s e o f Is. 5 3 in 2 . 2 1 — 5 , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w a s s e e n t o r e f e r t o a collectivity o f a different sort, those w h o had 'lost' their h u m a n i t y
alto
g e t h e r , slaves. W h e r e a s its i n d i v i d u a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e M e s s i a h is f u n d a m e n tal t o its a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e a u t h o r ' s p r i m a r y
p u r p o s e is t o s h o w t h a t his
e x a m p l e u n d e r p r e s s u r e is b i n d i n g e v e n u p o n slaves, b e c a u s e h e d i e d ' t h e s l a v e s ' d e a t h ' {servile supplicium).
L a s t l y , t h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 in 3 . 7 f f . w a s
s h o w n t o have a c o r p o r a t e reference to the righteous o p p r e s s e d w h o c o u l d b e c o u r a g e o u s because o f their eschatological h o p e for a glorious future a n d t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e t h a t G o d w a s a l r e a d y a c t i v e o n t h e i r b e h a l f in the humiliation o f their enemies ( 3 . 1 6 ) . T h e s e results suggest t h a t t h e v e r y c l o s e c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e n C h r i s t o l o g y a n d e c c l e s i o l o g y in t h e l e t t e r is s e a t e d in t h e h e r m e n t u t i c
o f its a u t h o r ,
a n d is a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e w a y h e r e a d t h e S c r i p t u r e s . T h e t e n d e n c y in his t h o u g h t , u n d e r s t a n d a b l y
dominant
e n o u g h , seems t o be a m o v e m e n t
f r o m the f o r m e r t o the latter ( 2 . 4 f f . , 2 . 2 1 L , 4 . 1 4 f f . ) , b u t there s e e m s t o b e m o v e m e n t in t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n in t h e l e t t e r ' s t w o m a j o r O T q u o t a tions
into
which Christological elements
crucial for their application
have been i m p o r t e d
that
are
( 1 . 2 2 — 2 . 3 , 3 . 1 0 — 1 7 ) . A t first t h e u s e o f Is.
4 0 , f o r e x a m p l e , r e s e m b l e s that o f a p r o o f - t e x t w h i c h g r o u n d s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f n e w life b y t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y in t h e p r o p e r t i e s i n h e r e n t in G o d ' s w o r d . F r o m t h e r e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n shifts t o a d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t t h e o r a c l e has its t r u e f u l f i l m e n t Christ
(1.25b—2.3), and
example
o f the
bearing
s p e c i f i c a l l y in t h e m e s s a g e a b o u t t h e L o r d
t h u s r e p r e s e n t s in
the
of OT prophecy upon
author's eyes a his a d d r e s s e e s '
prime circum-
Conclusion
172
s t a n c e s , j u s t as h e h a d a s s e r t e d earlier at 1 . 1 0 — 2 . O r a g a i n , the u s e o f Ps. 3 4 in 3 . 7 f f . b e g i n s w i t h t h e s t r u g g l e o f r i g h t e o u s Christians t o resist dynamics
in
their e n v i r o n m e n t
that w o u l d c o m p r o m i s e the
the
standards
o f c o n d u c t to which they had c o m m i t t e d themselves, but then proceeds t o i d e n t i f y t h e ' L o r d ' in t h e p s a l m as t h e C h r i s t w h o w i l l c o m e t o t h e i r a i d b y t u r n i n g t h e t a b l e s o n t h e i r e n e m i e s . H e n c e Ps. 3 4 m a y b e c l a s s e d as a n o t h e r s u c h O T o r a c l e d i s c l o s e d t o p o s s e s s a fresh s i g n i f i c a n c e 'at t h e last of times' (1.20). N e i t h e r o f t h e s e f o r e - m e n t i o n e d t e x t s has c u s t o m a r i l y b e e n r e c k o n e d a m o n g those the author
w o u l d b e l i k e l y t o h a v e in m i n d , a c c o r d i n g t o
1 . 1 1 , n o r has Is. 1 1 . 2 , e t c . , at 4 . 1 4 f f . T h e n a r r o w , n o t t o say w o o d e n , c o n s t r u a l o f t h e s c h e m a in t e r m s o f Is. 5 3 f o r t h e ' s u f f e r i n g s ' ( 2 . 2 1 f . ) a n d o f Pss. 8 a n d 1 1 0 f o r t h e ' g l o r i e s ' ( 3 . 2 2 ) , as p r e v i o u s l y r e m a r k e d , i n e v i t a b l y restricts t h e s c h e m a t o a p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e M e s s i a h . H o w e v e r , t h e v a r i o u s c o r p o r a t e a n d c o l l e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s a l s o in t e r m s o f t h e s c h e m a m e a n t h a t it m u s t b e c o n s t r u e d w i t h a b r o a d e r f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e . E i t h e r t h e a u t h o r r e g a r d s t h e s c h e m a as c o n t a i n i n g b o t h t h e individual a n d the c o r p o r a t e / c o l l e c t i v e d i m e n s i o n s c o e x t e n s i v e l y , o r , b y v i r t u e o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n ( s e e I C o r . 1 5 . 3 f . ) , as h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e f o r m e r b u t a w a r e all t h e t i m e t h a t it is t o b e a p p r o a c h e d w i t h i n t h e larger framework o f the eschatological ' W o e s ' and 'mighty acts' o f G o d o f w h i c h it is a s u b - s e t , that is, t r a d i t i o n s
i n f o r m e d b y an e x p r e s s l y c o r p o r a t e o r
collective d i m e n s i o n . G i v e n the t h o r o u g h l y traditional there m a y b e s o m e presumption
cast o f t h e l e t t e r ,
t o prefer the latter possibility (see the
discussion a b o v e esp. p p . 1 0 6 f . ) . T h e s e results serve as w e l l t o c l a r i f y a s e c o n d a s p e c t o f t h e a u t h o r ' s h e r m e n e u t i c . It w a s n o t e d earlier t h a t t h e p e s h e r - e x e g e s i s at Q u m r a n a n d t h e p e s h e r - l i k e e x e g e s i s o f t h e N T share alike a c o n c e r n t o e s t a b l i s h respondences b e t w e e n Scripture and history
(see a b o v e e x p . p p .
cor
109ff.).
In particular, p r i o r studies have h e l d that such c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s appear t o b e o f t w o t y p e s : 1 ) t h o s e i n w h i c h t h e e x e g e s i s s e e m s t o start w i t h event and then g o t o Scripture
the
t o i n t e r p r e t it, a n d , 2 ) j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e
p r o c e s s ( s e e a b o v e p . 1 2 2 , n . 1 2 3 ) . T h e f o r m e r t y p e is m o r e c o m m o n in t h e N T t h a n at Q u m r a n , a n d v i c e versa. B e c a u s e o f t h e e v i d e n c e f o r a p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c in I P e t e r , t h e r e is c a u s e t o c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r
its
treatment o f the Scriptures m a y reflect o n e o r the other o f these t w o p r o c e d u r e s . T h e fact t h a t I P e t e r m a k e s n o a t t e m p t at a n a r r a t i v e o f e v e n t s , u n l i k e , s a y , t h e i n f a n c y n a r r a t i v e s in M a t t h e w , c e r t a i n l y c o m p l i c a t e s this t a s k , s i n c e t h e m o v e m e n t f r o m e v e n t t o S c r i p t u r e is easiest t o d i s c e r n in the
narrative m o d e . O n the o t h e r h a n d , the fact that I Peter d o e s n o t
p r o d u c e a sustained
commentary
o n a biblical text
makes
it d i f f i c u l t
t o c o m p a r e w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e at Q u m r a n w h i c h c o m e s t o c l e a r e s t e x p r e s s i o n in t h e p e s h a r i m . Y e t is m a y still b e o f s o m e v a l u e t o v e n t u r e s o m e s u g g e s t i o n s , if o n l y t o p r o m o t e f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n . T o b e g i n , t h e e x e g e s i s o f Is. 4 0 ( 1 . 2 2 — 2 . 3 ) s e e m s t o m o v e f r o m e v e n t t o S c r i p t u r e , b e c a u s e it is a d d u c e d initially as a p r o o f - t e x t t h a t a t t r i b u t e s t h e a d d r e s s e e s ' r e b i r t h t o t h e l i f e - g i v i n g n a t u r e o f G o d ' s w o r d . B u t t h e r e is
Conclusion
173
a n o t h e r a s p e c t t o t h e o r a c l e ' s a p p l i c a t i o n w h i c h is b r o u g h t o u t b y m e a n s o f t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e in 1 . 2 5 b , n a m e l y , t h a t t h e m e s s a g e a b o u t t h e C h r i s t w h i c h w a s p r o c l a i m e d t o t h e m is n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e s p e c i f i c w o r d o f G o d t h a t t h e p r o p h e t h a d in m i n d . B y s u b s t i t u t i n g ' L o r d ' f o r ' G o d ' ( o r a d o p t i n g a m o d i f i e d t e x t - t y p e ) , the a u t h o r appears t o b e clarifying the b e a r i n g o f t h e o r a c l e s o t h a t it m a y relate f u l l y t o his a d d r e s s e e s ' c i r c u m s t a n c e s . H e n c e this p a r t
o f the oracle's application seems to involve a
process that m o v e s f r o m Scripture t o event, the d o m i n a n t t e n d e n c y
at
Qumran. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e v e n t a n d S c r i p t u r e in t h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 . 8 at I Pet. 2.3 m a y b e slightly m o r e difficult t o d e c i d e . T h e original Christolog i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f Ps. 3 4 in t h e e a r l y C h u r c h s e e m s t o h a v e a r i s e n f r o m apologetic
needs
( s e e L i n d a r s , Apologetic,
9 5 f f . , f o r Ps. 3 4 . 2 0 at
Jn.
1 9 . 3 6 ) , w h i c h w o u l d i n v o l v e a m o v e m e n t f r o m e v e n t t o S c r i p t u r e . B u t in t h e p r e s e n t i n s t a n c e in I P e t e r t h e r e are several f a c t o r s w h i c h p o i n t t o w a r d s a m o v e m e n t in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . F i r s t l y , t h e r e is n o e v e n t t o s p e a k o f at h a n d w h i c h w o u l d b e i n h e r e n t l y l i k e l y t o b r i n g t o m i n d s o isola t e d a verse o f S c r i p t u r e as Ps. 3 4 . 8 t o c o m m e n t u p o n it. S e c o n d l y , t h e Christianizing
interpretation
o f the
reference
t o ' L o r d ' is b a s i c a l l y
the
s a m e as t h a t in t h e p r e c e d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f Is. 4 0 . 6 — 8 w i t h w h i c h it is c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d , a n d s i n c e this s e e m s t o i n v o l v e a m o v e m e n t f r o m S c r i p t u r e t o e v e n t , t h e r e is r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h e a u t h o r ' s p r o c e d u r e w o u l d b e consistent. before
Thirdly, the
author
o f I Peter d e m o n s t r a b l y h a d t h e
his e y e s w h i l e c o m p o s i n g his l e t t e r , p r e s u m a b l y
psalm
b e c a u s e o f its
traditional association with persecution and m a r t y r d o m ( I V M a c e . 1 8 . 1 5 ) , but
p o s s i b l y the psalm was current
a n y w a y in E u c h a r i s t i c
settings ( c p .
H e b . 5 . 1 2 ) . It is t h e r e f o r e easier t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e w o r d - p l a y b a s e d o n the t e x t o f 3 4 . 8 arose f r o m r u m i n a t i o n o n the psalm designed originally, perhaps,
to strengthen
the
Christological application, and
tutes a m o v e m e n t f r o m Scripture t o event. T h e author
thus
consti
m a y justifiably
b e i m a g i n e d t o h a v e r e c a l l e d this e x e g e s i s b e c a u s e o f t h e s i m i l e o f t h e c r a v i n g i n f a n t h e w a s e x p l o i t i n g in 2 . 2 , a n d m e r e l y r e p r o d u c e d it f o r t h e benefit
o f his a u d i e n c e , a l t h o u g h
the
word-play might conceivably be
original t o h i m . Regarding the p r o c e d u r e associated w i t h the c o m p l e x o f O T found
i n 2 . 4 — 1 0 , t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n b u t t h a t t h e a u t h o r
traditional
exegeses w h i c h c o m b i n e d C h r i s t o l o g y , the S t o n e
materials
resorted
to
testimonia,
a n d t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y m o t i f in v a r i o u s w a y s , s u c h as I C o r . 3 . 1 0 f f . , II C o r . 6 . 1 6 f f . , R o m . 1 2 . I f . , E p h . 2 . 2 0 L , M k . 1 2 . I f f . a n d p a r s . , M t . 1 6 . 1 8 , A c t s 4 . 1 0 L , and Jn. 2.17f. (see a b o v e p . 1 3 2 , n. 1 3 8 ) . He simply presup p o s e s t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f m u c h o f this t r a d i t i o n w h i c h d e v e l o p e d p r i m a r ily in a m o v e m e n t f r o m e v e n t t o S c r i p t u r e , a n d h e d o e s s o w i t h o u t argu ment,
w h i c h perhaps
SLOTL -nepiexet
ev ypayrj.
e x p l a i n s t h e b i z a r r e i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a at
2.6,
B u t his m a i n c o n c e r n is t o p r o d u c e a fresh a p p l i c
a t i o n t o his a d d r e s s e e s ' e x p e r i e n c e o f r e j e c t i o n a n d h u m i l i a t i o n . It is t h e e v e n t o f h a r d s h i p a n d t h e m i r a c l e o f t h e i r faith in t h e m i d s t o f t h e i r strug gles ( e s p . 1 . 6 f . ) w h i c h d i r e c t s h i m b a c k t o t h e S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a , a n d Is.
Conclusion
174
2 8 . 1 6 in p a r t i c u l a r , w h e r e h e learns that ' h o n o u r ' a n d n o t t o such belief. He
t h e n b r i n g s in t h e I s r a e l - e p i t h e t s
'shame'attach
f r o m e l s e w h e r e in
S c r i p t u r e t o a m p l i f y t h e n a t u r e o f this ' h o n o u r ' . H e n c e t h e m o v e m e n t in his e x e g e t i c a l p r o c e d u r e is c o n s i s t e n t l y f r o m e v e n t t o t e x t . H i s a p p r o a c h t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Is. 5 3 in 2 . 2 1 — 5 s e e m s t o p r o c e e d a l o n g similar l i n e s . T h e m o v e m e n t f r o m e v e n t t o S c r i p t u r e t h a t i d e n t i f i e d Is. 5 3 as a s i g n i f i c a n t t e x t in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g e t i c is c l e a r l y p r e s u p p o s e d in the w a y the author
refers t o t h e e x a m p l e o f C h r i s t a n d
then
a d d u c e s O T m a t e r i a l t o e x p a n d u p o n it. W h e t h e r t h e s a m e m o v e m e n t is responsible f o r the AicoXoj7u, is an
w a y h e f a s t e n e d u p o n a s p e c i f i c d e t a i l in his
o p e n q u e s t i o n , h o w e v e r . It
may
b e t h a t the
text,
hardships
e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e slaves h e w a s a d d r e s s i n g , p o s s i b l y e x a c e r b a t e d b y t h e i r Christian
l o y a l t i e s , i n d u c e d h i m t o l o o k again at Is. 5 3 a n d see h o w it
c o u l d a p p l y in a s p e c i a l f a s h i o n t o their c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Y e t it is a l s o p o s sible t h a t h e c a m e t o his i n s i g h t a b o u t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o ' s t r i p e s ' in t h e v e r y a c t o f a b b r e v i a t i n g the m a t e r i a l f r o m Is. 5 3 w h i c h h e f o u n d u s e f u l , a n d s o might constitute 2.21—5 m a y
a m o v e m e n t f r o m Scripture t o event. T h e r e f o r e , I Pet.
exhibit
s o m e evidence o f a m o v e m e n t f r o m Scripture
to
e v e n t in a d d i t i o n t o c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f m o v e m e n t o f a n o p p o s i t e k i n d . A s t o t h e p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v e d in t h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 at 3 . 7 f f . , t h e r e is a certain analogy with the manner
in w h i c h Is. 4 0 w a s u s e d at 1 . 2 2 f .
Its
initial a p p l i c a t i o n is m u c h l i k e t h a t o f a p r o o f - t e x t w h i c h s u p p o r t s t h e p r e c e d i n g paraenesis
a i m e d at c o n f l i c t - s i t u a t i o n s . H e n c e , t o the e x t e n t
that
it m a y b e a p p r o p r i a t e at all t o r e f e r t o s o m e s o r t o f m o v e m e n t h e r e , t h e n this is f r o m e v e n t t o S c r i p t u r e , f o r it is t h e p a s t o r a l n e e d t o exhortation author
suited
to
the
addressees'
circumstances
formulate
w h i c h drives
the
t o t h e p s a l m in the first p l a c e . B u t o n c e h e d e l i v e r s h i m s e l f o f
such a traditional
a p p l i c a t i o n h e p r o c e e d s t o a s e c o n d o n e in 3 . 1 3 — 7
w h i c h w a s s h o w n t o h a v e its p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e in a d e d u c t i o n r o o t e d in t h e q u o t a t i o n s ' s c l o s i n g s t a t e m e n t . W h a t m a y b e i n v o l v e d , a c c o r d i n g l y , is a m o v e m e n t f r o m Scripture potential
suffering.
t o e v e n t , in this case t h e fear o f a c t u a l o r
S u c h a p o s i t i o n is e n h a n c e d
b y the
Christianizing
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e ' L o r d ' at t h e q u o t a t i o n ' s e n d , w h i c h t h e a u t h o r a m p l i f i e s f r o m r e t r o s p e c t m u c h as h e d i d at 1 . 2 5 b , b e c a u s e it f a v o u r s c o n s i s t e n c y in his a p p r o a c h . T h u s in b o t h i n s t a n c e s t h e
pressure
o f e v e n t s s e e m s t o h a v e p u s h e d h i m t o t h e t e x t s , a n d o n l y after quent
deliberation
did he
detect
subse
h o w they might be made to disclose
a d d e d s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r his a d d r e s s e e s ' s i t u a t i o n . T h e l i t e r a r y parallel w i t h I P e t . 1 . 2 2 — 2 . 3 m a y b e s e e n t o b e m a i n t a i n e d in t h e w a y Is. 8 . 1 2 f . is u s e d at 3 . 1 4 f . t o e x p a n d u p o n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f Ps. 3 4 . L i k e the u s e o f Ps. 3 4 . 8 at 2 . 3 , it i n v o l v e s a C h r i s t i a n i z i n g
interpre
t a t i o n , a n d , s i m i l a r l y , it i n v o l v e s a t e x t a l r e a d y b e f o r e t h e a u t h o r ' s e y e s , b e c a u s e Is. 8 . 1 2 f . is c o n t i g u o u s w i t h o n e o f t h e S t o n e t e s t i m o n i a h e c i t e d at 2 . 8 a . H e n c e c o n s i s t e n c y in t h e a u t h o r ' s a p p r o a c h t o t h e task o f c o m p o s i t i o n l i k e w i s e f a v o u r s a m o v e m e n t f r o m S c r i p t u r e t o e v e n t . A l t h o u g h it is
c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t his p r o c e d u r e m i g h t
route, such a possibility must
have
followed
the
alternative
s e e m t o b e r e m o t e , b e c a u s e o f the
many
175
Conclusion
o t h e r t e x t s w h i c h m i g h t h a v e s o o n e r s u g g e s t e d t h e m s e l v e s t h a n o n e that is s o i s o l a t e d a n d o b s c u r e as Is. 8 . 1 2 f . R a t h e r , g i v e n t h e p r o m i n e n c e o f t h e t e x t i n his d o c t r i n e o f t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y , it is d i s t i n c t l y easier t o s u p p o s e that t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f fear o n t h e p a r t o f his a d d r e s s e s g a v e h i m o c c a s i o n t o resolve the ambiguities o f the t e x t , so t o speak, p u t t i n g h i m in a p o s i t i o n t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t its c o m m a n d t o b e c o n s e c r a t e d t o t h e L o r d (Christ) o f f e r e d a r e m e d y for their situation. Lastly, s o m e remarks
are in o r d e r r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h the u s e o f several O T r e f e r e n c e s in I P e t . 4 . 1 4 f f . It is c l e a r t h a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e C h r i s t o l o g i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f Is. 1 1 . 2 p r e s u p p o s e d at
4.14
technically involves a m o v e m e n t f r o m Scripture t o event, because o f the pre-Christian
M e s s i a n i c s p e c u l a t i o n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h that t e x t . T h e a p p l i
c a t i o n ' s c o r p o r a t e reference m a y also reflect a m o v e m e n t f r o m
Scripture
t o e v e n t , i n as m u c h as it s e e m s t o p r e s u p p o s e t h e e l a b o r a t e e x e g e t i c a l traditions
associated with
the
Temple-community motif. However, not
m u c h w e i g h t c a n b e g i v e n t o s u c h s u b t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h e n it is r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e y are s o d e e p l y r o o t e d in t h e f u l f i l m e n t - t h e m e at t h e h e a r t o f t h e earliest k e r y g m a , a t h e m e d o m i n a t e d r a t h e r b y a m o v e m e n t f r o m e v e n t to
Scripture. Instead,
addressees'
t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t in I P e t e r e m p h a s i z e s
e x p e r i e n c e o f the
advent
o f the
Spirit
during
the
persecution,
s o m e t h i n g a t t e s t e d b y t h e earliest m a r t y r o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s . I n d e e d , it is p r e c i s e l y h e r e t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s u s e o f the t e x t r e p r e s e n t s an a d v a n c e o v e r previous uses, b e c a u s e ordinarily the advent from
o f t h e Spirit is
interpreted
t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f the S c r i p t u r e s as an e m p o w e r m e n t f o r m i s s i o n
( s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , I P e t . 2 . 4 f f . , a n d c o n s i d e r t h e g o s p e l narratives r e g a r d ing J e s u s '
baptism,
direction in
the
the
Pentecost
traditions,
etc.).
T h u s the
dominant
a u t h o r ' s e x e g e t i c a l p r o c e d u r e w i t h r e s p e c t t o Is. 1 1 . 2
seems to be from event to Scripture. T h e n a t u r e o f t h e u s e o f E z e k . 9 . 6 at 4 . 1 7 f f . m a y b e less d i f f i c u l t t o discern. The
investigation
highlighted
the
complex
exegetical
tradition
b e h i n d it. T h e r e w a s a g e n e r a l e x p e c t a t i o n w i t h a b r o a d f o u n d a t i o n Scripture specific
that the j u d g m e n t exegetical tradition
l o c a t e d the inauguration above pp. 153ff.).
in
w o u l d b e g i n w i t h Israel, a n d t h e r e w a s a associated with
E z e k i e l in p a r t i c u l a r
that
o f this j u d g m e n t in t h e T e m p l e p r e c i n c t s ( s e e
It is t r u e t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s d e c i s i o n t o c i t e E z e k . 9 . 6
l o o k s t o h a v e b e e n t r i g g e r e d b y an u n p r e c e d e n t e d , c o l l e c t i v e assault o n the T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y , s u c h t h a t a m o v e m e n t f r o m e v e n t t o might
seem
to
be
present.
H o w e v e r , the
text's
pre-Christian
Scripture exegesis
a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n s o f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t it m i g h t b e m o r e a c c u r a t e t o s p e a k o f a n o r a c l e i n s e a r c h o f the e v e n t that w o u l d ' f u l f i l ' it, that is, a m o v e m e n t o f t h e o p p o s i t e k i n d . T h e n , h a v i n g a c c e p t e d t h a t at last the t i m e o f the oracle's fulfilment had arrived, the author m a y further d e d u c e f r o m t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e e l d e r s at t h e h e a d o f t h e list t h a t t h o s e a m o n g s t his a d d r e s s e e s w h o s o q u a l i f y are m o s t at risk ( s e e 5 . I f f . ) . H e n c e his e x e getical p r o c e d u r e continues t o m o v e f r o m Scripture t o event. T h e p r e c e d i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s suggest t h a t in t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases
the
pesher-like exegesis o f the a u t h o r o f I Peter m o v e d f r o m event t o Scrip-
176 ture,
Conclusion conforming with
the
trend amongst
N T authors.
But
in
several
i n s t a n c e s t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s e e m s t o b e in e v i d e n c e , 1 . 2 5 b f f . , 3 . 1 3 f f . , and 4.17ff. O f course, such distinctions involve a measure o f conjecture, a n d there m a y well b e c o n s i d e r a b l e r o o m for disagreement, so that the o u t l i n e o f t h e a u t h o r ' s e x e g e t i c a l p r o c e d u r e w h i c h has b e e n s k e t c h e d is little m o r e t h a n a m a k e - s h i f t
o n e . B u t i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s e s are s e r v e d if
the p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c o f I P e t e r m a y b e s e e n t o b e r e l a t e d t o o t h e r early Christian
adaptions
o f that h e r m e n e u t i c . U n l i k e Q u m r a n e x e g e t e s ,
early Christian authors d i d n o t have the l u x u r y o f creating running mentaries
com
b y m e a n s o f w h i c h t h e s e c t m i g h t r e a d its h i s t o r y o u t o f t h e
Scriptures. N T authors were constrained b y the difficulties o f ministering t o far-flung c o m m u n i t i e s i n s t e a d t o k e e p s u c h e x e g e s i s at a m i n i m u m , a n d t o k e e p c l e a r its r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f t h e f a i t h . T u r n i n g f r o m t h e q u e s t i o n o f h e r m e n e u t i c s p r o p e r , several o u t c o m e s b e y o n d t h e o r i g i n a l s c o p e o f this i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l s o d e s e r v e t o b e r e c o r d e d . Chief
a m o n g these c o n c e r n s the significance o f the T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y
m o t i f f o r t h e l e t t e r ' s m e s s a g e , a n d p r o b a b l y its a u t h o r as w e l l . W h e r e a s p r e v i o u s o b s e r v e r s h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f Ps. 3 4 in its c o m p o s i tion, the material
investigation is
has f o u n d t h a t the m o s t f o r m a t i v e b o d y o f O T
associated
with
the
application
o f the
Temple-community
d o c t r i n e t o t h e a d d r e s s e e s ' c i r c u m s t a n c e s , in w h i c h t h e u s e o f Ps. 3 4 p l a y s a subordinate role. T h e m o t i f ' s i m p a c t is c l e a r e s t in f o u r p l a c e s in t h e l e t t e r . It is u s e d t o g i v e final e x p r e s s i o n t o t h e h o l i n e s s - t h e m e o f t h e b o d y - o p e n i n g , 1.13— 2 . 1 0 , t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f w h i c h is t o p r o v i d e t h e o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e rest o f t h e l e t t e r ' s c o n t e n t s m o s t d e s i r e d b y its a u t h o r ( s e e a b o v e p p . 2 2 — 2 4 , and esp. p . 2 4 ) . . T h e investigation f o u n d that the T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y m o t i f was e q u a l l y f o r m a t i v e for the b o d y - c l o s i n g , 4 . 1 2 f f . , m u c h m o r e s o , a n y w a y , t h a n t h e m e r e m e n t i o n o f ' t h e h o u s e o f G o d ' at 4 . 1 7 h i t h e r t o seems t o have suggested. T h e investigation similarly attributed the
au
t h o r ' s o p t i m i s m in 3 . 1 6 r e g a r d i n g t h e h u m i l i a t i o n o f t h e e n e m i e s o f Chris tians t o t h e a p o l o g e t i c h e h a d w o r k e d o u t in t e r m s o f t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y m o t i f at 2 . 4 f f . T h e i r ' s h a m e ' is i m p l i c i t l y t h e a d d r e s s e e s ' g l o r y , w h i c h m a y b e s o m e t h i n g o f a p r o l e p t i c J u d g m e n t ( c p . 4 . 4 f . ) , o r the over ture t o
the
Last J u d g m e n t
( 4 . 1 7 ) , a n d is c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e T e m p l e -
c o m m u n i t y m o t i f b e c a u s e o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s associating the Temple with
the
Great
A s s i z e . O n this v i e w t h e
'defense'
(anoXoyiav)
w h i c h t h e a d d r e s s e e s are t o b e r e a d y t o m a k e o n b e h a l f o f t h e i r ' h o p e ' (3.15)
may
thus represent
o n e o f the
f o r m s that the recital o f G o d ' s
m i g h t y a c t s ( 2 . 9 ) is t o t a k e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e i d e a in t h e a u t h o r ' s e y e s c a n b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e p o s i t i o n o f this p a s s a g e , s i n c e it n o t o n l y introduces
the
s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e b o d y - m i d d l e b u t a l s o is i n t e n d e d
to
a p p l y t o t h e p r e c e d i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t h e t r e a t e d in t h e first half. T h e m o t i f ' s f o u r t h p r o m i n e n t p l a c e in t h e l e t t e r c o m e s in t h e eschatological
climax
to
the
body-middle, 4.7—11.
g a v e r e a s o n t o r e g a r d 4 . 8 — 1 1 a as a p r e f o r m u l a t e d dacted
by
the
author
to answer
to
the
The
investigation
paraenetical
o t h e r side o f the
u n i t re
' T w o Ways'
177
Conclusion material
he
had
abbreviated
in 4 . 2 f .
(see a b o v e p p . 7 2 f . ) .
Given
the
a u t h o r ' s i n t e r e s t in t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y m o t i f , his d e c i s i o n t o r e d a c t t h e u n i t m a y h a v e b e e n m o t i v a t e d b y t h e c u l t i c e l e m e n t s i n t e g r a l t o its paraenesis.
The appearance
o f t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y m o t i f at f o u r o f
t h e l e t t e r ' s c r u c i a l j u n c t u r e s e a s i l y m a k e s it t h e m o s t f o r m a t i v e u s e o f O T m a t e r i a l s in t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f I P e t e r . A s e c o n d o u t c o m e b e y o n d t h e o r i g i n a l s c o p e o f this i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o n cerns the relationship
o f the Scriptures
t o e t h i c s . In e v e r y i n s t a n c e o f a
pesher-like treatment o f Scripture the controlling aim seems t o have b e e n to
clarify and
Christology
buttress Christian
c o n d u c t rather than, say, t o d e v e l o p
o r t o i n d u l g e in a p o c a l y p t i c s p e c u l a t i o n . T h u s G o d ' s
'Call'
( 2 . 9 ) t o h o l y l i v i n g in t h e T e m p l e - c o m m u n i t y b e c o m e s a r u b r i c in 2 . 2 1 (iKXrjdrjTe)
and
(ex^V^r^Te)
3.9
for pesher-like
interpretations
which
d i v u l g e n e w a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s t o t h e struggles o f t h e l e t t e r ' s intended
r e c i p i e n t s . A l l o f this is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e a u t h o r ' s
c o n c e r n t o s p e a k a w o r d o f c o m f o r t a n d - a d v i c e in his p a s t o r a l
pressing capacity,
a n d m a y n o t r e f l e c t in t h e least u p o n the r e l a t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t , o r l a c k t h e r e o f , o f his C h r i s t o l o g y , f o r e x a m p l e , as s o m e k i n d o f e v i d e n c e f o r his s t a t u r e as a t h e o l o g i a n in t h e e a r l y C h u r c h . A n o t h e r s u c h o u t c o m e is a q u e s t i o n t h a t h a d n o t b e e n raised
earlier
in t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e l e t t e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e e v i d e n c e h a d n o t b e e n g a r n e r e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x t e n t o f its d e b t t o J e w i s h
hermeneutics.
H o w e v e r , n o w t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n has m a d e s o m e o f this d e b t c l e a r , o n e m a y w e l l w o n d e r h o w a m e s s a g e s o t h o r o u g h l y i n f o r m e d b y s u c h a her m e n e u t i c c o u l d p o s s i b l y h a v e b e e n s u i t a b l e , n o t t o say c o n v i n c i n g , f o r an audience the p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f w h i c h was Gentile and had tianity directly, and n o t through Judaism
c o m e t o Chris
( s e e a b o v e p p . 8 f . ) . It m a y b e
said in r e s p o n s e that t h e results o f the l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f I P e t e r conducted
earlier
are
e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t h e r e . It s o h a p p e n e d
that
the
rhetorical devices typical t o oral d i s c o u r s e , and the literary d i s c o u r s e clos est t o it, t u r n e d o u t t o b e o n e a n d t h e s a m e as t h o s e f r e q u e n t l y e m p l o y e d b y the author of
his
w h e n a p p l y i n g the Scriptures. T h e r e f o r e , the basic design
approach
was
probably
intelligible
to
most
o f his
addressees,
although various subtleties might have b e e n lost o n t h e m . A l s o , the nature o f t h e h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h in 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 w a s s e e n t o r e s e m b l e c l o s e l y e n o u g h that o f the diatribe
s o as n o t t o h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e l y f o r e i g n t o their
m o s t l y H e l l e n i z e d a n d u r b a n ears. L a s t l y , t h e p e s h e r - l i k e a p p r o a c h itself m i g h t a c t u a l l y h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t a p p e a l i n g a n d p e r s u a s i v e a s p e c t t o his m e s s a g e . T h e a d d r e s s e e s b e l o n g e d t o a w o r l d w h o l l y familiar w i t h t h e art o f oracle-interpretation, and they might well have b e e n especially impres sed
with
claims, explicit or implicit, that alleged fulfilment
D . E . A u n e , Prophecy,
(see esp.
2 3 f f . ) . W h a t m a t t e r e d is w h e t h e r t h e o r a c l e s w e r e
venerable, and o n that subject the antiquity o f the Scriptures was e l o q u e n t . Still a n o t h e r
o u t c o m e o f the investigation pertains t o the
pessimism
m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e e x p r e s s e d as t o w h i c h p r o p h e t s t h e a u t h o r
had
in m i n d in 1 . 1 0 — 2 . Isaiah a n d D a v i d ( t h e P s a l m s ) are c i t e d m o s t o f t e n , b u t e v e n t h e n u s u a l l y w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t reserve ( s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , M o f f a t t ,
Conclusion
178
H o r t , B i g g , B e a r e , C r a n f i e l d , M i c h l , a n d R . M . G r a n t , Letter,
59). Typical
is t h e r e m a r k b y B e s t , ' W e d o n o t k n o w w h a t p r o p h e t s t h e a u t h o r has in m i n d ; b u t h e q u o t e s f r o m Isaiah; p r o b a b l y h e w o u l d h a v e r e g a r d e d whole
Kelly and
Brox).
O r again, G o p p e l t , 'Die f o l g e n d e n Aussagen u b e r die
P r o p h e t e n lassen s i c h n i c h t a n d e n at. S c h r i f t p r o p h e t e n n.
the
O T as w i t n e s s i n g t o C h r i s t ' ( 8 1 , a n d see s i m i l a r l y , f o r e x a m p l e , aufweisen' ( 1 0 5 ,
6 4 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e d e m o n s t r a b l e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s c h e m a in
1.11 a n d t h e p e s h e r - a p p l i c a t i o n s a r o u n d t h e l e t t e r i n d i c a t e t h a t n o t o n l y Isaiah a n d D a v i d w e r e w i t h i n t h e a u t h o r ' s sight, b u t s o w e r e M o s e s ( E x . 1 9 . 5 L , D t . 2 1 . 2 3 ? ) , S o l o m o n (Prv. 1 1 . 3 1 ) , H o s e a ( 1 - 2 ) , E z e k i e l ( 8 - 1 1 ) , p r o b a b l y M a l a c h i ( 3 . 1 7 at I P e t . 2 . 9 , a n d 3.1 at I P e t . 4 . 1 7 b y a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the exegesis o f E z e k . 9 . 6 ) , and possibly J e r e m i a h
( 2 5 . 2 9 , again b y
association w i t h the exegesis o f E z e k . 9 . 6 ) . A n o t h e r possibility c o u l d b e Z e p h a n i a h ( 1 . 6 b ) , w h i c h has b e e n d e t e c t e d b e h i n d 1 Q S V , 1 1 , a n d w h i c h the
investigation
e%€$rJTr}oap
nai
found
similar
i^rjpavvrjaap
reason
to suspect
behind
(see a b o v e p p . 1 0 1 f . ) .
n u m b e r is large a n d v a r i e d e n o u g h t o s u p p o r t t h e g e n e r a l that the a u t h o r
was thinking
I Pet.
1.10,
A t all e v e n t s
the
understanding
o f m o s t o f the writings w h i c h
ultimately
b e l o n g e d t o the c a n o n o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e . There remain, vestigation upon
h o w e v e r , m a n y p r o b l e m s a n d q u e s t i o n s w h i c h the
could
them.
n o t treat a d e q u a t e l y
The
controverted
issue
in
s o t h a t its results cast little light as
to
the
relationship
between
p e s h e r a n d m i d r a s h is o n e . T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a d t o c o n t e n t itself, s o m e w h a t a r t i f i c i a l l y , w i t h k e e p i n g its a n a l y s e s o f b o t h s e p a r a t e , e v e n w h e r e they
undeniably
overlapped.
The
alternative
w o u l d have
required
l e n g t h y a n d d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f d e b a t e as w e l l as
a the
e v i d e n c e at Q u m r a n , a n d e l s e w h e r e . W h a t d o e s s e e m t o b e t h e case is t h a t b o t h activities w e r e i n f o r m e d b y a syncretistic d y n a m i c w h i c h p e r m i t t e d o f e n o r m o u s f l e x i b i l i t y in t h e w a y t h e y o p e r a t e d , o f t e n c o m i n g t o e x p r e s sion
in
an
eclecticism o f
methods
and
techniques.
It
is c o n c e i v a b l e ,
t h e r e f o r e , that different g r o u p s might have seen the relationship b e t w e e n t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s a n d t h e i r p r o d u c t s d i f f e r e n t l y , a n d t h a t a v e r y great d e a l m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n is n e e d e d b e f o r e m u c h p r o g r e s s c a n b e m a d e . A m o d e l o f t h e k i n d o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t is d e s i r e d is t h e r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n b y G.J. B r o o k e , Exegesis
At Qumran
(Sheffield, 1 9 8 5 ) , w h i c h subjects 4QFlorileg-
i u m t o t h e c l o s e s t s c r u t i n y in o r d e r t o a d d r e s s this q u e s t i o n . His c o n c l u sion
strongly
favours
regarding
pesher-interpretation
in
4QFlor,
and
e l s e w h e r e at Q u m r a n , as g e n u i n e m i d r a s h ( s e e e s p . 2 1 7 — 9 a n d 2 7 9 f f . ) . A n o t h e r p r e s s i n g q u e s t i o n t h a t a w a i t s f u r t h e r s t u d y is t h e b e t w e e n typological exegesis and pesher-interpretation. t i o n t o d a t e r e m a i n s t h a t b y L . G o p p e l t (Typos, for the Paul,
relationship
T h e best examina
esp. the recent
chapter
E n g l i s h e d i t i o n w h i c h treats o f t y p o l o g y a n d a p o c a l y p t i c i s m in
2 0 9 f f . ) . B u t t h e p r o b l e m really calls f o r a t h o r o u g h
investigation
fully i n f o r m e d b y the m a j o r a d v a n c e s in Q u m r a n a n d N T r e s e a r c h o f t h e preceding generation.
O n l y o n c e this has h a p p e n e d d o e s it s e e m l i k e l y
that I P e t e r c o u l d b e a n a l y z e d
fruitfully.
Conclusion F o r e x a m p l e , G o p p e l t ' s discussion o f the nature o f the between too
179 relationship
typological exegesis and a p o c a l y p t i c hermeneutic seems t o be
s i m p l i s t i c in s o far
as t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s
o f historical
p r o c e s s are c o n c e r n e d . S i n c e this is a c r u c i a l e l e m e n t in b o t h o f t h e i r approaches t o O T interpretation,
t h e f l a w in his p o s i t i o n is s e r i o u s . H e
s a y s , ' A p o c a l y p t i c i s m i n t e r p r e t s h i s t o r y as a c o u r s e o f e v e n t s l e a d i n g t o t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n ; t y p o l o g y i n t e r p r e t s it as a p r e f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e c o n summation'
( 2 1 7 ) . D e s p i t e his c u s t o m a r y d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in t h e w a y h e
h a n d l e s d i f f e r e n t N T a u t h o r s , h e r e h e fails t o e n t e r t a i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t the
relationship
b e t w e e n these
t w o kinds o f interpretation
might vary
from one author to another. S u r e l y t h e results o f t h e p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f I P e t e r m a k e q u e s t i o n a b l e s u c h a d i s t i n c t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f its a u t h o r , a n y w a y . His t y p o l o g ical e x e g e s i s o f t h e N o a c h i c e p i s o d e ( 3 . 2 0 f . ) is s a n d w i c h e d i n t o r e c i t a l o f End-time events o f a manifestly a p o c a l y p t i c nature. M o r e o v e r , a c c o r d i n g t o 4 . 1 7 , t h e E n d has a l r e a d y b e g u n t o arrive in t h e f o r m o f t h e J u d g m e n t t h a t is n o t b e y o n d h i s t o r y b u t is w o r k i n g i t s e l f o u t in t h e e v e n t s o f t h e a d d r e s s e e s ' s t r u g g l e . T h e a u t h o r e x p l i c i t l y relates t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f Chris tian b a p t i s m h e e x p o u n d s t y p o l o g i c a l l y t o this struggle b y i n d i c a t i n g t h a t it is t h e i r m e a n s o f survival o n the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y d o n o t p e r m i t their o r d e a l t o c o m p r o m i s e t h e s t a n d a r d s o f c o n d u c t t o w h i c h t h e y p l e d g e d t h e m s e l v e s w h e n t h e y w e r e b a p t i z e d . H e n c e , it is a c u t e l y d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n tain t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t y p o l o g i c a l e x e g e s i s a n d a p o c a l y p t i c h e r m e n e u t i c h e r e in I P e t e r t h a t G o p p e l t d o e s g e n e r a l l y f o r t h e N T as a w h o l e . T h e t y p o l o g i c a l e x e g e s i s in I P e t e r m i g h t b e t t e r b e r e g a r d e d as
subordinate
t o its p e s h e r - l i k e h e r m e n e u t i c , a t t e s t i n g t o t h e e c l e c t i c i s m w h i c h s e e m s t o b e i n h e r e n t in that h e r m e n e u t i c . T h e p r e c e d i n g issues are b u t s o m e o f the p r o b l e m s w h i c h e n c u m b e r t h e conclusions from
this i n v e s t i g a t i o n that h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t e d . H o p e f u l l y ,
t h e y d o n o t s o h a m p e r t h e results t h a t , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s , t h e a t t e m p t t o s e c u r e a greater a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e h e r m e n e u t i c o f I P e t e r is imperilled.
Appendix One xcvi
XCVI
C . Plinivs T r a i a n o I m p e r a t o r i
Pliny t o the E m p e r o r Trajan
1 SOLLEMNE quibus
est
dubito
mihi,
ad
te
domine, referre.
omnia Quis
de
enim
p o t e s t m e l i u s vel c u n c t a t i o n e m m e a m regere
I T is m y c u s t o m to refer all m y
m y doubts and to inform m y ignorance.
vel i g n o r a n t i a m instruere? C o g n i t i o n i b u s d e Christianis interfui
I have never b e e n present at a n e x a m i n a t i o n
nescio
o f Christians. C o n s e q u e n t l y , I d o n o t k n o w the
q u i d e t q u a t e n u s a u t puniri s o l e a t a u t quaeri.
nature or the e x t e n t o f t h e p u n i s h m e n t s usually
2 Nec
mediocriter
n u m q u a m : ideo
difficulties
t o y o u , Sir, f o r n o o n e is b e t t e r able t o resolve
haesitavi,
sitne
aliquod
m e t e d o u t t o t h e m , n o r t h e g r o u n d s f o r starting
4iscrimen a c t a t u m , a n q u a m l i b e t teneri nihil
a n investigation a n d h o w far it s h o u l d b e pres
a r o b u s t i o r i b u s d i f f e r a n t ; d e t u r paenitentiae
sed. N o r a m I at all sure w h e t h e r a n y distinc
venia, an ei, q u i o m n i n o
tion
desisse
Christianus
fuit,
n o n p r o s i t ; n o m e n i p s u m , si flagitiis
should
be
made
between
them
on
the
g r o u n d s o f a g e , or if y o u n g p e o p l e a n d adults
carcat, an flagitia cohaerentia n o m i n i puni-
should
a n t u r . I n t e r i m , < i n ) iis q u i a d m e t a m q u a m
o u g h t t o b e granted t o a n y o n e retracting
Christiani d e f e r e b a n t u r ,
beliefs, or if he has o n c e p r o f e s s e d Christianity,
3 modum. tiani.
hunc sum
secutus
Interrogavi ipsos a n essent
Confitentes
i t e r u m ac tertio
Chris
interro
he
be
shall
treated
gain
alike;
nothing
whether
a
b y renouncing
pardon
it; a n d
w h e t h e r it is the m e r e n a m e o f Christian w h i c h
gavi s u p p l i c i u m m i n a t u s : perseverantes d u c i
is
iussi. N e q u e e n i m d u b i t a b a m , q u a l e c u m q u e
rather the crimes associated w i t h the n a m e .
esset q u o d f a t e r e n t u r , p e r t i n a c i a m certe inflexibilem
obstinationem
debere
et
puniri.
his
punishable,
even
if
innocent
of
crime, or
F o r the m o m e n t this is the line I have t a k e n with
all
persons
brought
before
me
on
the
quia
charge o f b e i n g Christians. I h a v e a s k e d t h e m in
cives R o m a n i erant, a d n o t a v i in u r b e m re-
p e r s o n if t h e y are Christians, a n d if t h e y a d m i t
4 Fuerunt
alii
similis
amentiae,
quos,
it,
mittendos. M o x i p s o tractatu, u t fieri solet, diffundente
se crimine plures species i n c i d e r u n t .
5 Propositus
est
libellus
sine
auctore
mul-
t o r u m n o m i n a c o n t i n e n s . Q u i n e g a b a n t esse
I repeat t h e
question a second and
third
t i m e , w i t h a warning o f t h e p u n i s h m e n t await ing t h e m .
If t h e y persist, I order t h e m t o b e
led
for
away
execution;
for,
whatever
the
nature o f their a d m i s s i o n , I a m c o n v i n c e d t h a t
se Christianos aut fuisse, c u m p r a e e u n t e m e
their s t u b b o r n n e s s a n d u n s h a k e a b l e
d e o s adpellarent et imagini t u a e , quern p r o p
o u g h t n o t t o g o u n p u n i s h e d . T h e r e have b e e n
obstinacy
ter h o c iusseram c u m simulacris n u m i n u m
others similarly fanatical w h o are R o m a n citi
adferri, ture ac vino supplicarent, praeterea
z e n s . I have e n t e r e d t h e m o n the list o f p e r s o n s
male
t o b e sent to R o m e for trial.
posse
dicerent
Christo, q u o r u m
nihil
cogi
d i c u n t u r q u i sunt re vera Christiani,
6 d i m i t t e n d o s putavi. Alii a b indice n o m i n a t i
Now
that
I have b e g u n t o
deal w i t h this
p r o b l e m , as so o f t e n h a p p e n s , t h e charges are
esse se Christianos d i x e r u n t et m o x negaver-
becoming
u n t ; fuisse q u i d e m sed desisse, q u i d a m a n t e
variety. A n a n o n y m o u s p a m p h l e t has b e e n cir
triennium,
plures a n n o s , n o n
culated w h i c h c o n t a i n s the n a m e s o f a n u m b e r
e t i a m a n t e viginti. ( H i ) q u o q u e o m -
o f accused p e r s o n s . A m o n g these I c o n s i d e r e d
nemo
quidam ante
m o r e w i d e s p r e a d a n d increasing
in
nes et i m a g i n e m t u a m d e o r u m q u e simulacra
that I s h o u l d dismiss a n y w h o d e n i e d that t h e y
7 venerati s un t et C h r i s t o m a l e d i x e r u n t . A d -
were o r ever had b e e n Christians w h e n t h e y h a d
firmabant culpae
a u t e m h a n c fuisse
s u m m a m vel
suae vel erroris, q u o d essent
soliti
r e p e a t e d after
m e a formula of invocation
to
the g o d s a n d h a d m a d e offerings o f w i n e a n d
s t a t o die ante l u c e m c o n v e n i r e , c a r m e n q u e
incense t o y o u r statue ( w h i c h I h a d o r d e r e d t o
Christo
be
quasi
deo
dicere
sccum
invicem
s e q u e s a c r a m e n t o n o n in scelus a l i q u o d o b -
brought into
court
f o r this p u r p o s e a l o n g
w i t h the images o f the g o d s ) , a n d f u r t h e r m o r e
Appendix One stringere, sed ne furta ne latrocinia n e adulteria c o m m i t t e r e n t , depositum
ne
adpellati
fidem
fallerent, ne
abnegarent.
Quibus
181
h a d reviled the n a m e o f Christ: n o n e o f w h i c h things, I u n d e r s t a n d , a n y genuine Christian can b e i n d u c e d to d o .
peractis m o r e m sibi d i s c e d e n d i fuisse rursus-
O t h e r s , w h o s e n a m e s w e r e given t o m e b y
que coeundi ad capiendum c i b u m , promis-
a n i n f o r m e r , first a d m i t t e d the charge a n d t h e n
cuum
tamen
d e n i e d it; t h e y said that t h e y h a d ceased t o be
facere
desisse
et
innoxium;
post
quod
edictum
ipsum
meum,
quo
s e c u n d u m m a n d a t a tua hetaerias esse vetue8 rum.
Quo
magis
d u a b u s ancillis, quid
necessarium
credidi
ex
q u a e ministrae d i c e b a n t u r ,
esset veri, et
Christians t w o
o r m o r e years p r e v i o u s l y , a n d
s o m e o f t h e m even t w e n t y years a g o . T h e y all did reverence of
the
to
y o u r statue
g o d s in t h e
arid the
images
s a m e w a y as the
others,
per t o r m e n t a quaerere.
a n d reviled the n a m e o f Christ. T h e y also de
Nihil aliud inveni q u a m s u p e r s t i t i o n e m pra-
clared that the s u m total o f their guilt o r error
v a m et i m m o d i c a m .
a m o u n t e d t o n o m o r e t h a n this: t h e y h a d m e t
I d e o dilata 9 te decucurri. consultatione, tium
cognitione
ad
consulendum
V i s a est e n i m m i h i res digna maxime
propter
periclitan-
n u m e r u m . M u l t i e n i m o m n i s aetatis,
o m n i s o r d i n i s , u t r i u s q u e sexus e t i a m v o c a n -
regularly b e f o r e d a w n o n a f i x e d d a y t o chant verses alternately a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s in h o n o u r o f Christ as if t o a g o d , a n d also t o b i n d t h e m selves b y but
o a t h , n o t f o r a n y criminal p u r p o s e ,
to abstain f r o m t h e f t , r o b b e r y a n d adul
tur in p e r i c u l u m et v o c a b u n t u r . N e q u e civi-
tery, t o c o m m i t n o breach of trust a n d n o t t o
tates t a n t u m , sed v i c o s e t i a m a t q u e agros
d e n y a d e p o s i t w h e n called u p o n t o restore it.
superstitionis
A f t e r this c e r e m o n y it h a d b e e n their c u s t o m
istius c o n t a g i o pervagata est;
1 0 quae
videtur
sisti
satis
constat
prope
coepisse
celebrari,
et
corrigi iam
et
posse.
desolata
sacra
Certe
t o disperse a n d r eassemble later t o take f o o d o f
templa
an o r d i n a r y , harmless k i n d ; b u t t h e y h a d in fact
sollemnia
diu
given u p this practice since m y e d i c t , issued o n
intermissa repeti p a s s i m q u e venire ( c a r n e m )
your
v i c t i m a r u m , cuius a d h u c rarissimus e m p t o r
societies.
instructions,
which
b a n n e d all
political
inveniebatur. E x q u o facile est o p i n a r i , q u a e
m o r e necessary t o extract the truth b y t o r t u r e
This m a d e m e d e c i d e it w a s all the
t u r b a h o m i n u m e m e n d a r i p o s s i t , si sit paeni-
f r o m t w o s l a v e - w o m e n , w h o m t h e y call d e a c o n -
tentiae l o c u s .
nesses.
I f o u n d nothing b u t a degenerate
sort
of cult carried t o extravagant lengths. I have therefore p o s t p o n e d a n y further e x amination and hastened question
seems
to
me
to
consult
you. The.
to be worthy of
your
c o n s i d e r a t i o n , especially in v i e w o f t h e n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s e n d a n g e r e d ; for a great m a n y indivi duals
of
every age a n d class, b o t h
men
and
w o m e n , are b e i n g b r o u g h t t o trial, a n d this is likely but
to
continue.
It is n o t
o n l y the
villages a n d rural districts
infected
through
contact
too
with
towns,
w h i c h are
this
wretched
cult. I t h i n k t h o u g h that it is still possible f o r it
t o b e c h e c k e d a n d directed t o b e t t e r e n d s ,
f o r there is n o d o u b t that p e o p l e have b e g u n to t h r o n g the t e m p l e s w h i c h h a d b e e n a l m o s t en tirely d e s e r t e d f o r a l o n g t i m e ; t h e sacred rites w h i c h h a d b e e n a l l o w e d t o lapse are b e i n g per f o r m e d again, a n d flesh o f sacrificial v i c t i m s is on
sale
everywhere,
though
up
till
recently
scarcely a n y o n e c o u l d b e f o u n d t o b u y it. It is easy t o infer f r o m this that a great m a n y p e o p l e c o u l d b e r e f o r m e d if t h e y w e r e given an o p p o r tunity t o r e p e n t .
Appendix One
182
1 ACTUM
XCVII
XCVII
Traianus Plinio
Trajan t o Pliny You
q u c m d e b u i s t i , m i S e c u n d e , in e x -
have f o l l o w e d the right course o f pro
cutiendis causis e o r u m , q u i Christiani a d te
c e d u r e , m y dear Pliny, in y o u r e x a m i n a t i o n o f
delati
the cases o f p e r s o n s charged w i t h being Chris
f u e r a n t , secutus
es.
universum aliquid, q u o d
Neque enim
in
quasi certain for-
2 m a m h a b e a t , constitui p o t e s t .
Conquirendi
tians, f o r it is i m p o s s i b l e t o lay d o w n a general rule t o a f i x e d f o r m u l a . T h e s e p e o p l e m u s t n o t
n o n s u n t ; si deferantur et a r g u n t u r , punien-
b e h u n t e d o u t ; if t h e y are b r o u g h t b e f o r e y o u
di s u n t , ita t a m e n u t , q u i negaverit se Chris-
and
t i a n u m esse i d q u e re ipsa m a n i f e s t u m fecer-
m u s t b e p u n i s h e d , b u t in the case o f
it, id est
who
supplicando
dis nostris, q u a m v i s
the
charge against
denies
is p r o v e d ,
they
anyone
that he is a Christian, a n d m a k e s
suspectus in p r a e t e r i t u m , v e n i a m e x paeni-
it clear that
tentia i m p e t r e t . Sine a u c t o r e vero p r o p o s i t i
our
libelli
his r e p e n t a n c e
( i n ) n u l l o crimine l o c u m h a b e r e de-
them
he
is n o t b y offering prayers t o
g o d s , he is to b e p a r d o n e d as a result however
suspect
his
of
past c o n
b e n t . N a m et p e s s i m e x e m p l i n e c nostri sae-
d u c t m a y b e . But p a m p h l e t s circulated a n o n y
culi est.
mously
m u s t p l a y n o part in a n y
accusation.
T h e y create the w o r s t sort o f p r e c e d e n t a n d are q u i t e o u t o f keeping w i t h the spirit o f o u r age.
(Text from Radice)
T h e L o e b Classical L i b r a r y , Pliny,
II, 2 8 5 - 9 3 ,
trans, b y B .
Appendix T w o
It is d e s i r a b l e f o r c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s t o a n a l y z e b r i e f l y
several e x
a m p l e s o f h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h . T h e first is f r o m P h i l o , Leg. All. I I I . 1 6 2 — 8 (text and translation a c c o r d i n g t o the e d i t i o n b y F.H. C o l s o n and G . H . W h i t a k e r , in t h e L o e b Classical L i b r a r y , v o l . I, 1 9 7 1 ) .
L V I . T h a t the f o o d o f the soul is n o t earthly b u t h e a v e n l y , w e shall f i n d a b u n d a n t evidence in the Sacred W o r d . bread o u t
" B e h o l d I rain u p o n y o u
o f h e a v e n , a n d the p e o p l e shall g o
o u t a n d t h e y shall gather t h e d a y ' s p o r t i o n f o r a d a y , t h a t I m a y prove t h e m w h e t h e r t h e y will w a l k b y M y l a w or n o t " ( E x o d . xvi. 4 ) . Y o u see that
the
soul
is fed
n o t w i t h things o f
earth
that d e c a y , b u t with such w o r d s as G o d shall have p o u r e d like rain o u t o f that l o f t y a n d pure region
o f life t o w h i c h the p r o p h e t has given
the title o f " h e a v e n . " T o p r o c e e d . T h e p e o p l e , a n d all that g o e s t o m a k e the s o u l , is to g o o u t and gather a n d m a k e a beginning o f k n o w l e d g e , n o t all at o n c e d a y . " For to
but
begin
"the
day's portion for a
w i t h it will b e u n a b l e
to
c o n t a i n all at o n c e the a b u n d a n t w e a l t h o f the gracious gifts o f G o d , b u t will be o v e r w h e l m e d b y t h e m as b y the rush o f a torrent. In the sec o n d place it it b e t t e r , w h e n w e have received the g o o d things sufficient o f t h e m s e l v e s as d u l y m e a s u r e d o u t to us, t o think o f G o d as D i s p e n ser o f
those
that
still r e m a i n . H e that
would
fain have all at - o n c e earns f o r h i m s e l f l a c k o f h o p e a n d trust, as well as great lack o f sense. H e lacks h o p e if, he e x p e c t s that n o w o n l y b u t n o t in the future also will G o d s h o w e r o n h i m g o o d things; he lacks faith, if he has n o belief that b o t h in the present a n d a l w a y s the g o o d gifts o f G o d are lavishly b e s t o w e d o n t h o s e w o r t h y o f t h e m ; he lacks sense, if he imagines that he will b e , t h o u g h G o d will it n o t , a sufficient guardian o f w h a t he has gathered t o g e t h e r ; f o r the m i n d that
vaingloriously
ascribes
to
itself
sureness
and security has m a n y a t i m e b e e n r e n d e r e d b y a slight turn o f the scale of feeble a n d insecure guardian o f all that it l o o k e d o n as in its safe keeping. LWI.
G a t h e r t o g e t h e r , therefore O s o u l , w h a t
is a d e q u a t e o f itself a n d suitable, a n d m o r e than sufficient
neither
so as t o be excessive, nor
Appendix Two
184
o n the o t h e r h a n d less so as t o fall s h o r t , t h a t dealing
in right
measures t h o u m a y est d o n o
w r o n g . F o r t h o u art required a l s o , w h e n m a k i n g it t h y s t u d y t o cross o v e r f r o m the passions a n d w h e n sacrificing the Passover, t o t a k e the for w a r d step, w h o s e s m y b o l is the l a m b , n o t w i t h o u t m e a s u r e , f o r he says, "each m a n shall reck on
w h a t suffices
for him
as a l a m b "
(Exod.
xii. 4 ) . B o t h in the case o f m a n n a t h e n , a n d in the case o f every b o o n w h i c h G o d c o n f e r s u p o n o u r race, it is g o o d t o take w h a t is f i x e d b y strict measure a n d r e c k o n i n g a n d n o t that w h i c h above
is
a n d b e y o n d us; f o r t o d o this is t o b e
over-reaching.
Let
the
soul,
then,
gather
the
day's p o r t i o n f o r a d a y ( E x o d . x v i . 4 ) , that it may
declare
guardian o f reason
n o t itself b u t the b o u n t i f u l G o d the
for the
g o o d things. injunction
L V I I I . A n d the
we
are
considering
s e e m s t o m e t o b e this. T h e d a y is a s y m b o l o f light,
and
the
light
of
the
soul
is
training.
M a n y , t h e n , have a c q u i r e d the lights in the soul for night a n d darkness, n o t f o r d a y a n d light; all e l e m e n t a r y lessons f o r e x a m p l e , a n d w h a t is called
school-learning
when
pursued
and
with
no
philosophy
motive
higher
itself than
parading their superiority, o r f r o m desire o f an offi c e u n d e r o u r rulers. B u t the m a n o f w o r t h y a i m s sets h i m s e l f to acquire d a y f o r the sake o f d a y , light
for t h e sake o f light, the
beautiful
for the sake o f the b e a u t i f u l a l o n e , n o t for the sake o f s o m e t h i n g else. A n d this is w h y he g o e s on
with
the
whether (Exod. value
will
"that walk
I m a y prove in
M y law
xvi. 4 ) ; for this is the excellence
principle, does
words:
they
a coin,
debased
f o r its o w n
therefore, to
or
them no"
divine l a w , t o sake. T h e right
tests all aspirants as o n e
see
whether
they
have
been
in that t h e y refer the soul's g o o d
to
s o m e t h i n g e x t e r n a l , or w h e t h e r , as tried a n d ap proved
men,
treasure
as
they
distinguish
belonging
to
a n d guard
thought
and
this mind
a l o n e . Such m e n have the privilege o f being f e d n o t w i t h earthly things b u t w i t h the h e a v e n l y forms of knowledge.
T h e p a t t e r n i d e n t i f i e d b y P. B o r g e n is c l e a r l y in e v i d e n c e in t h e p r e c e d i n g t e x t . T h e d i s c o u r s e ' s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e is a c i t a t i o n f r o m t h e P e n t a t e u c h , E x . 1 6 . 4 . T h e r e f e r e n c e t o rpoyai
w i t h w h i c h it o p e n s is a s y n o
n y m u s e d as a c a t c h - w o r d f o r t h e p a s s a g e ' s r e f e r e n c e t o aprovs ovpavoijy iterative
a phrase
t h a t a l s o lies b e h i n d yrjivoi
d X X ' ovpavioi.
en TOV
T h e s e are
a l l u s i o n s w h i c h f u n c t i o n l i k e t h o s e in I P e t . 1 . 1 4 f . t o i n t r o d u c e
the Pentateuchal t e x t that f o l l o w s .
Appendix Two A Ex.
number
o f key-terms a n d phrases
185
w h i c h have their f o u n d a t i o n
in
1 6 . 4 t h e n c o m e s a f t e r w a r d s , as in I P e t . 1 . 1 7 f f . T o t h e t e x t ' s iko t h e r e
duPprjoxi,
is
dpTOvq €K
TX) <popd xetjudppou . . . eniKXvo&rjoeTai,
t h e r e is rpe^erai,
rrjq iierapaiov
pavioiq.
TCJV
ovvayayeru flliepav, ptriTe
Kal Ka&apdq
T o its e^eXevoerai
ovvayayeTco,
MT?
ptavva,
TCJV
Uavcjv
. . . nrJTe
d j u e r p c o c ( 1 6 5 ) , TO dpKOvv
1 2 . 4 ) , neneTprinevov rwepa
(167),
and
pdoio
avTOvq,
el
(166), TTJV
nopevoovTai
rrjv
T o its t h e r e is
and
enov-
t h e r e is 6 X e c o c . . . npoKO-nrjv,
t h e r e is TO Trjq
neixeTpruieva,
rd
and
again,
fjfiepaq
avTapKr\
eiq (165),
e X d r r o ; ( 1 6 5 ) , / l e r p o t c SIKCU'OIC. . . .
( 1 6 5 , in the subordinate
TO
fjptepav
bei
fjnepav Kal
K£K\T)Kev,
ovvd^ovoi
ovvaye,
. . . dya&d
a n d dufiprjoeiv. T o its ovpavov
fjv ovpavov
Kal
T o its TO Ttjq
avTdpKt]
nXeloo
yvoeux;,
6 Xaoq
ovvax&evTuv,
(166). rd
a n d Tpeyeodai.
TTK mepaq eveKa
. . . etc
rmepaq
Tip vdfic^ fiov
(167).
allusion t o E x . rj^epav
(166),
T o its dircjq
r)
nei-
17 ov t h e r e is a r e p e a t o f t h e
s a m e at t h e e n d o f 1 6 5 , f o l l o w e d b y vdjjtoq . . . # e t o c ,
5 o K t / i d f e t , a n d 56/a-
/i(U.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a i n t e x t , E x 1 2 . 4 t h e r e i s , as a l r e a d y n o t e d , a s u b o r d i n a t e o n e , E x . 1 2 . 4 (165) '€KaoToq y
Tai
elq npofiaTOv.
ovvapidnrjoeTai Ex.
. . . TO dpKovv
avT&
P h i l o u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t its eKaoToq a p p r o x i m a t e s t o ovvd%ovoi
o wapiti
fir} oe-
. . . TO dpKovv
avT&
TO rrjq rjfiepaq
e t c wnepav
in
1 6 . 4 , w h i c h a l l o w s h i m t o use the allusion t o e x p a n d u p o n the m a i n
t e x t . T h e t e c h n i q u e is c l e a r l y o n e o f v e r b a l a n a l o g y , t h e ascribed traditionally
second midda
t o Hillel, b y means o f w h i c h o n e Scripture m a y b e
b r o u g h t in t o h e l p i n t e r p r e t a n o t h e r ( s e e S t e m b e r g e r , Einleitung, c o u r s e , t h e r e is 16.4
and
28f.). Of
n o e x a c t verbal identity b e t w e e n the q u o t a t i o n f r o m E x .
t h e a l l u s i o n t o E x . 1 2 . 4 , b u t t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p is
unmistakable
n e v e r t h e l e s s . A similar state o f affairs
s e e m s t o e x i s t in I
P e t e r , w h e r e t h e r e is n o e x a c t v e r b a l t a l l y b e t w e e n t h e m a i n t e x t , L e v . 19.2,
and
the
first
40.6—8. Rather, ness
major subordinate
O T r e f e r e n c e t h a t f o l l o w s i t , Is.
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s in t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e h o l i
G o d enjoins and the transient h u m a n
w a y o f the
'flesh'. A
much
c l e a r e r i n s t a n c e o f v e r b a l a n a l o g y m a y b e s e e n in t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t of
I P e t e r , h o w e v e r , w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t e s t i m o n i a in 2 . 6 f . o n
the strength o f their c o m m o n m e n t i o n o f a ' s t o n e ' ( c p . also the
appear
a n c e o f ' c h o s e n ' in I s . 2 8 . 1 6 a n d in t h e a l l u s i o n t o E x . 1 9 . 5 f . at 2 . 9 ) . Philo's discourse draws to a climax with a repeat q u o t a t i o n o f E x . 1 6 . 4 at
t h e e n d o f 1 6 7 , w h i c h is t h e n a p p l i e d t h r o u g h v a r i o u s c a t c h - w o r d s a n d
paraphrase, leading finally t o an i n c l u s i o n w i t h the d i s c o u r s e ' s o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e t h a t e c h o e s E x . 1 6 . 4 a g a i n , JUT} r o t e yrilvotq . . . TPeyeo&at.
dXXd . . .
enovpavioiq
I Peter, o n the o t h e r h a n d , resorts t o a different O T refer
e n c e f o r its c o n c l u s i o n , E x , 1 9 . 5 L , a l t h o u g h
this t e x t l i k e w i s e p r o v i d e s
i n c l u s i o n w i t h L e v . 1 9 . 2 in its m e n t i o n o f 'a h o l y p e o p l e ' . A l o n g t h e w a y P h i l o e m p l o y s several s t o c k - t h e m e s e s p e c i a l l y p r e v a l e n t in own
t h e p o p u l a r i z e d S t o i c i s m o f his d a y , k n o w l e d g e a n d v i r t u e sakes
for
their
( 1 6 7 ) a n d m o d e r a t i o n in o n e ' s a p p r o a c h t o t h e i r a c q u i s i t i o n
( 1 6 3 f . ) . H e u s e s s t o c k - f i g u r e s t o o , s u c h as t h e ' t o r r e n t ' ( 1 6 3 ) ,
'day/light'
Appendix Two
186
vs. ' n i g h t / d a r k '
(167), and
c o i n a g e the
genuineness
o f which must
be
e s t a b l i s h e d ( 1 6 8 ) . H e e v e n e m p l o y s a n a l l e g o r y in 1 6 7 t h a t i d e n t i f i e s t h e ' d a y ' o f E x . 1 6 . 4 w i t h t h e ' l i g h t ' o f k n o w l e d g e . N o t t o b e o v e r l o o k e d is his a p o s t r o p h e t o t h e ' s o u l ' in 1 6 5 . F r o m s u c h f e a t u r e s as t h e s e it is c e r t a i n l y n o t d i f f i c u l t t o see t h a t P h i l o w a s i n d e b t e d t o t h e
diatribe-style,
w h e t h e r t h a t c a m e t o h i m t h r o u g h his S y n a g o g u e , t h r o u g h his e n c o u n t e r s w i t h the T h e r a p u t a e , o r w h a t e v e r . T h e a p p r o a c h o f I P e t . 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 m a y b e s e e n t o b e m o r e r e s t r a i n e d in this r e s p e c t , b u t n o t m u c h . S t o c k - t h e m e s a n d -figures a b o u n d , m o s t o f w h i c h have their origins similarly in a p o p u l a r style o f p r e a c h i n g ,
here
c o n s i s t i n g c h i e f l y o f m i s s i o n - p r o c l a m a t i o n a n d c a t e c h e s i s , as e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s . In a d d i t i o n , b o t h k i n d s o f p o p u l a r d i s c o u r s e s e e m t o p r o v i d e t h e a u t h o r s in q u e s t o n w i t h t h e i m p u l s e s t h a t g u i d e t h e i r r e s p e c tive m o r a l i z i n g t r e a t m e n t s o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . T h e y b o t h u s e a l l e g o r y , fur t h e r m o r e , and t h e y b o t h use the principle o f verbal a n a l o g y t o bring o u t relationships b e t w e e n O T references. W h e n taken together with the same basic pattern o f O T e x p o s i t i o n identified b y B o r g e n , these features gest t h a t t h e r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n Leg. All.
sug
III. 1 6 2 — 8 a n d I P e t . 1.14—
2 . 9 is n o t a s u p e r f i c i a l o n e . I n s t e a d , it s e e m s t o p o s s e s s s u f f i c i e n t
sub
s t a n c e t o w a r r a n t t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f I P e t . 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 as h o m i l e t i c o n a par w i t h that o f P h i l o . T h e s e c o n d c o n t e m p o r a r y d i s c o u r s e t o b e c o m p a r e d w i t h I P e t . 1.14— 2 . 9 is H e b . 3 . 1 - 4 . 1 1 ( 1 3 ? ) .
F o l l o w i n g O . M i c h e l a n d J.
Schneider,
S c h r o g e r a c t u a l l y l i m i t s t h e u n i t t o 3 . 7 — 4 . 1 1 ( s e e his Schriftausleger, a n d his T n s t r u m e n t a r i u m ' , cope
F.
283,
3 2 2 ) . Y e t it is far f r o m c e r t a i n t h a t t h e p e r i
d o e s n o t b e g i n u n t i l 3 . 7 a n d t h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m Ps. 9 5 , b e c a u s e
S c h r o g e r s e e m s t o b e u n d u l y i n f l u e n c e d in this j u d g m e n t b y t h e p r o e m h o m i l y f o r m . S i n c e the p r o e m - h o m i l y regularly o p e n s w i t h a q u o t a t i o n f r o m t h e W r i t i n g s , it is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e
that he might regard the
citation
o f Ps. 9 5 as h a v i n g t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n , a n d a g o o d p a r a l l e l c a n b e o b s e r v e d at H e b . 1 0 . 5 f f . ( P s . 4 0 ) . B u t t h e r e are several d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h this v i e w . T h e p r o e m - h o m i l y c a n n o t b e c o n f i d e n t l y dated so early, and, even o n the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t it w a s c u r r e n t , t h e r e w e r e o t h e r t y p e s o f m i d r a s h as w e l l t o w h i c h the a u t h o r would
m i g h t r a t h e r h a v e b e e n i n d e b t e d . M o r e o v e r , 3.1—7
s e e m t o b e i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r w h a t f o l l o w s , b e c a u s e it
identifies
t h e h o u s e o f G o d as t h o s e w h o r e m a i n faithful t o his S o n , p r e c i s e l y t h e b u r d e n o f the message in 3.7ff. If
the
e v i d e n c e slightly
favours beginning the
u n i t at
3 . 1 , it is less
decisive w i t h respect t o the unit's e n d . T h e reference t o entering
God's
rest in 4 . 1 1 m a y a p p r o x i m a t e t o i n c l u s i o , r e t u r n i n g t o the s a m e e x p r e s s i o n in t h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m Ps. 9 5 at 3 . 1 1 . T h u s t h e u n i t m a y w e l l s t o p t h e r e . B u t 4 . 1 2 — 3 c l e a r l y serves as a c o d a t o the p r e c e d i n g a d m o n i t i o n a b o u t hearkening
unto
G o d ' s w o r d . D e s p i t e its s e l f - c o n t a i n e d n a t u r e , w h i c h
suggests t h a t it m a y h a v e b e e n a p r e - f o r m u l a t e d p i e c e , t h e p e r i o d m i g h t t h e r e f o r e b e i n c l u d e d j u s t i f i a b l y w i t h i n t h e u n i t . In a n y c a s e , t h e q u e s t i o n d o e s n o t b e a r g r e a t l y u p o n t h e p r o b l e m at h a n d .
Appendix Two The 12.7, T
187
unit's o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e c u l m i n a t e s in an iterative allusion t o N u m . w h i c h w i l l b e c i t e d at 3 . 5 , ( c p . 3 . 2 , niorbv
oka;
Hence
avTov,
there
w i t h 3 . 5 , Mcovofis
seems
to
be
. . . KOTOS
ev
ovra 6Xu
. . . Mcoiiarjc, TO; OIKW
ev
avTOv).
a fairly c l o s e parallel o n c e again t o the
way
I P e t . 1 . 1 4 f . i n t r o d u c e s t h e P e n t a t e u c h a l c i t a t i o n at 1 . 1 6 . A s j u s t n o t e d , it a l s o s e e m s t h a t N u m . 1 2 . 7 sets t h e d i r e c t i o n f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e d i s c o u r s e l i k e L e v . 1 9 . 2 d o e s w i t h its h o l i n e s s t h e m e . A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m ' h o u s e ' is itselfmissingfrom3.7ff.,thehouse o f G o d theme repeatedly c o m e s to expres sion in the various terms related t o the idea o f the p e o p l e o f G o d . Further m o r e , M o s e s is larger
context
m e n t i o n e d a g a i n at o f Numbers
at
3 . 1 6 , a n d t h e r e are a l l u s i o n s t o
3.17—9
v e r b a l t a l l y b e t w e e n N u m . 1 2 . 7 , avTov, antecedent
for b o t h
(14.22—35).
the
F i n a l l y , t h e r e is
a n d Ps. 9 5 . 7 , avTov.
a
G o d is t h e
p r o n o u n s , and the emphasis t h r o u g h o u t
3.7—4.13
is u p o n t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f G o d ' s p e o p l e t o r e s p o n d t o h i m , s u c h t h a t
the
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this t a l l y is n o t a m a r g i n a l o n e f o r t h e e x p o s i t i o n . I n d e e d , i t is e v e n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the
f o r m a l l y w i t h the p r a c t i c e w h e r e b y the verbal tally
S e d e r falls i n t h e
M a n n , Bible,
first
o r s e c o n d verse o f the Haphtara (see J.
I, 1 1 ) . T h e r u l e o f a n a l o g y w a s l i k e w i s e s e e n t o h a v e a n i m
p o r t a n t p l a c e in t h e u s e m a d e o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s in I P e t . 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 . Heb.
3 . I f f . r e s e m b l e s I P e t . 1 . 1 4 f f . as w e l l i n t h e w a y s u c c e s s i v e s u b
ordinate
O T r e f e r e n c e s are i n t r o d u c e d t o e x p a n d u p o n c e r t a i n f a c e t s o f
the
Pentateuchal
phrase integral
text, and to provide a quarry
f o r k e y - t e r m s a n d para
t o t h e a u t h o r ' s e x p o s i t i o n . T h e q u o t a t i o n o f Ps. 9 5 c o n
tains a g r e a t d e a l o f m a t e r i a l w h i c h r e a p p e a r s l a t e r . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h r e e e x p l i c i t q u o t a t i o n s o f it at 3 . 1 5 , 4 . 3 , a n d 4 . 7 , a n d o n e i m p l i c i t q u o t a t i o n at 4 . 5 , n e a r l y e v e r y o n e o f its l i n e s is e c h o e d s o m e h o w : or\pepov 4.7),
TX}S ycovrjq
CLVTOV dKOvorjTe
vpcov/nXavGjvTai eprjptp
TT) Kapbia
( 3 . 1 7 ) , ol
naTepes
( 3 . 1 6 , 4 . 2 ) , pr] OKXr)pvvr)Te
(3.12, bpcov
3 . 1 3 , 4 . 1 2 ) , napa-nuipaopcp
(3.16—9, 4.2, 4.6, 4 . 8 ) ,
€TT)
( 3 . 1 7 ) , npoooox&ioa
4.3,
4 . 6 b i s , 4 . 1 0 , 4 . 1 1 ) , a n d , naTdnavoiv
( 3 . 1 7 ) , copooa
( 3 . 1 8 ) , eloeXevOOVTOLL
(3.13,
rdc.
Kapbiaq (3.12),
TeooepdnovTa (3.18, 3.19,
(3.18, 4.1, 4.3, 4.4, 4.8, 4.10).
I n a d d i t i o n t o Ps. 9 5 t h e r e is a s u b o r d i n a t e e x p l i c i t q u o t a t i o n o f G e n . 2.2
at 4 . 4 . I t s h a r e s a v e r b a l t a l l y w i t h Ps. 9 5 ,
The
q u o t a t i o n is a l s o t h e o r i g i n o f a k e y - w o r d r e p e t i t i o n , TGJV
epycjv
KaTdTravoiv/KaTenavoev. epyuv/TCOV
( 4 . 1 0 ) . O t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e O T a l l u s i o n s a p p e a r in 3 . 1 6 ( E x . 1 7 . I f f . )
a n d 3 . 1 7 — 9 ( N u m . 1 4 . 2 2 f f . ) . T h i s l a t t e r g i v e s rise t o a n o t h e r k e y - w o r d in 4.11,
eneoev/neoxi.
T h e m e t h o d in w h i c h s u b o r d i n a t e O T r e f e r e n c e s h a v e
b e e n u s e d in H e b . 3 . 1 - 4 . 1 3 is s o f u n d a m e n t a l l y 2.9
l i k e t h a t in I P e t . 1.14—
as t o l e a v e l i t t l e r o o m f o r d o u b t t h a t t h e s a m e a p p r o a c h t o t h e t a s k o f
c o m p o s i t o n is i n v o l v e d . L a s t l y , it m a y b e r e m a r k e d t h a t 4 . 1 2 — 3 f u n c t i o n s as a c o d a in a m a n n e r strictly a n a l o g o u s t o I Pet. 2 . 1 0 , i n c l u d i n g the n o t e o f e s c h a t o l o g y bv r)piv
6
Xoyoq).
It
stands
to
r e a s o n that s u c h an e m b e l l i s h m e n t
likewise m o t i v a t e d b y the desire t o e n d the
(npds was
discourse with a rhetorical
flourish. B o t h Leg.
All.
III. 1 6 2 — 8 a n d H e b . 3 . 1 — 4 . 1 3 m a y b e seen t o c o m p a r e
Appendix Two
188
c l o s e l y w i t h I Peter, w h e t h e r in the pattern o f O T usage, in the basic s t r u c t u r e o f t h e d i s c o u r s e , i n h o r t a t o r y t h r u s t , o r in r h e t o r i c a l d y n a m i c s . T h e similarities d o n o t h a v e t o b e
e m p h a s i z e d t o the p r e j u d i c e o f the
differences b e f o r e the c o n c l u s i o n b e c o m e s a l m o s t u n a v o i d a b l e that o n e kind
o f h o m i l e t i c c o m p o s i t o n is p r e s e n t . O f c o u r s e , it is i m p o s s i b l e t o
say f o r c e r t a i n j u s t
h o w far r e m o v e d f r o m a c t u a l o r a l d i s c o u r s e t h e s e
h o m i l i e s a r e , a n d a l l o w a n c e a l w a y s has t o b e m a d e f o r d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f distance a l o n g w i t h literary
f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t h e i r a c t u a l p o s i t i o n s in
d o c u m e n t s i n t e n d e d f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n . B u t s o m e o f the s p e e c h e s in the g o s p e l s a n d A c t s , as w e l l as J u d a i s m , give
m a t e r i a l s f r o m t h e R a b b i s a n d e l s e w h e r e in
solid form-critical g r o u n d s f o r c o n c l u d i n g that the m o s t
formative influence u p o n them was homiletical practice. T h e t h i r d e x a m p l e f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h I P e t . 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 is t a k e n Pesikta R a b Kahana
from
2 1 b f . It has b e e n s e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e m a n y
h u n d r e d s o f p r o e m - h o m i l i e s w h i c h are e x t a n t , b e c a u s e it illustrates c o n c i s e l y t h e v e r s a t i l i t y o f t h e Gattung
i n its m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d f o r m . T h e
p r o e m b e l o n g s t o the piska for the s e c o n d special Sabbath, Z a k o r ,
the
Pentateuchal text for which was Dt. 25.17—9, ' R e m e m b e r what A m a l e k d i d . . . ' , a c c o r d i n g t o M i s h n a M e g . 3 . 4 . T h e t e x t b e l o w is f r o m S. B u b e r ' s e d i t i o n ( L y c k , 1 8 6 8 ) , a n d the English translation that f o l l o w s m a y b e c o n s u l t e d f o r c e r t a i n e x p a n s i o n s o n t h e t e x t w h i c h m a y p r o v e u s e f u l in its clarification. •
^nm nnv
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ron
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When
thou
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a scorner,
thou
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what
Amalek
the simple
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will become
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( D e u t . 2 5 : 1 7 ) is cited the verse
prudent
(Prov. 1 9 : 2 5 ) . B y scorner
is m e a n t A m a l e k ; a n d b y simple
in the w o r d s the
in the simple
is m e a n t J e t h r o .
W h e n A m a l e k c a m e t o fight against and
did
m n
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Israel
on account
Israel, w h a t d o e s Scripture say? Then
of Rephidim
came
Amalek,
( E x o d . 1 7 : 8 ) , for b e f o r e A m a l e k ' s a t t a c k Is
rael's h a n d s h a d let go b o t h T o r a h and c o m m a n d m e n t s . T h e actual n a m e of the place Massah-and-Meribah Everywhere
called
(Trying-and-strife), as revealed the
name
thereof
by
Massah-and-Meribah
t h e verse just p r e c e d i n g : Hi (Trying-and-strife)
T h e H o l y O n e h a d so n a m e d it in His anguished crying o u t At Israel
[against
Him],
and
because
they
tried Him
{ibid.).
the striving
(Exod.
of the
was
Who
is
17:7).
children
of
A t that t i m e M o s e s likewise h a d cried
Appendix Two o u t in anguish saying Why
strive
ye
with
me?
189
Wherefore
do ye
try
the
Lord?
(Exod.
17:2).
R . Levi said: W h a t parable applies here t o Israel? T h e parable o f a m a n w h o h a d a s o n w h o m he p l a c e d o n his shoulder and t o o k t o the m a r k e t . T h e r e , w h e n the s o n saw a desirable
object,
he said to his father, " B u y it f o r m e , " a n d his father b o u g h t f o r h i m w h a t h e w a n t e d the first t i m e he a s k e d , the s e c o n d t i m e , a n d the third. B u t t h e n , w h e n the s o n saw s o m e o n e w h o m he he a s k e d , "Have y o u seen m y f a t h e r ? " the m a n said t o his s o n : Y o u f o o l , y o u are astride m y shoulder,
whatever
y o u w i s h I b u y for y o u , a n d y e t y o u ask that m a n , " H a v e y o u seen m y
f a t h e r ? " W h a t did t h e father d o t h e n ? H e t h r e w his s o n f r o m his shoulder, a n d a d o g c a m e a n d bit the s o n . S o , t o o , after Israel w e n t o u t of E g y p t , the H o l y O n e e n c o m p a s s e d t h e m w i t h seven c l o u d s o f g l o r y , as is said He compassed
him about,
He cared
for
him
( D e u t . 3 2 : 1 0 ) . T h e y asked f o r
m a n n a : H e gave it. F o r quail: H e gave t h e m . A f t e r H e gave all t h e y a s k e d , t h e y p r o c e e d e d r u m i n a t e Is the
Lord
among
us, or not?
to
( E x o d . 1 7 : 7 ) . T h e H o l y O n e said t o t h e m : Y o u r u m i n
ate as t o M y presence in y o u r m i d s t ? A s y o u live, I shall m a k e y o u aware of it. H e r e is a d o g t o bite y o u . A n d w h o was the d o g ? A m a l e k , f o r the very n e x t verse in E x o d u s says, Then Amalek
( E x o d . 1 7 . 8 ) . H e n c e Remember
K a p s t e i n , Kahana,
(Deut. 2 5 : 1 7 ) .
came
( E n g . trans, f r o m W . G . Braude a n d I.J.
39f.)
T h e p r o e m - t e x t , o f c o u r s e , is Prv. 1 9 . 2 5 a , Q i y •» n s n
n a n yb . T h e
h o m i l y has its o r i g i n s i n the a g g a d i c t r a d i t i o n t h a t e x p l a i n e d t h e visit b y J e t h r o t o M o s e s m e n t i o n e d in E x . 1 8 . I f f . as t h e o u t c o m e o f Israel's v i c tory
o v e r A m a l e k r e c o u n t e d in E x . 1 7 . 8 f f .
tradition Amalek
(see M e k h i l t a 2 . 1 6 2 ) . T h e
is u s e d t o f a s h i o n an a l l e g o r y i n w h i c h y b is i d e n t i f i e d and
T i s with Jethro.
Then
1 7 . 8 is i n t r o d u c e d b y an i t e r a t i v e a l l u s o n t o it, T h e citation's mention o f
D H ' S i n
with
the subordinate q u o t a t i o n o f E x . * 7 K 1 W *>
1
D V o n ^ n ? p*?tty.
is s u b s e q u e n t l y c o n s t r u e d as
nsi
a n d Dn *»7 *>, r a t h e r t h a n as a p r o p e r n o u n , again in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h agga d i c t r a d i t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e b a c k s l i d i n g o f Israel at M a s s a h a n d M e r i b a h r e f e r r e d t o j u s t b e f o r e h a n d in E x . 1 7 . 7 w a s d e s c r i b e d as a l e t t i n g g o o f T o r a h a n d c o m m a n d m e n t s ( s e e B T S a n h . 5 6 b ) . E x . 1 7 . 7 is c i t e d n e x t , a n d a d o u b l e - m e a n i n g is a s s i g n e d t o D I p n n ,
w h e r e b y t h e n o u n is
c o n s t r u e d first o f t h e T e m p l e , a n d a f t e r w a r d s , p r e s u m a b l y b y m e a n s o f m e t o n y m y , o f G o d h i m s e l f . G o d is said t o ' c r y o u t ' ( m i x ) , f o l l o w e d b y t h e r e m a i n d e r o f E x . 1 7 . 7 that gives t h e r e a s o n f o r his a n g u i s h . B u t t h e n M o s e s t o o 'cries o u t ' ( m i x )
in w o r d s t a k e n f r o m E x . 1 7 . 2 , s u c h t h a t t h e
a c t o f c r y i n g o u t m a y b e s e e n t o b e a n a l l u s i o n t o 1 7 . 4 , n w B pyx *n. T h u s G o d ' s c r y i n g o u t c o n s t i t u t e s an i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n t o E x . 1 7 . 4 . R . L e v i ' s p a r a b l e is t h e n r e c o u n t e d b y w a y o f i l l u s t r a t i o n . It c o n c e r n s a f a t h e r , a n i n g r a t e s o n , a n d a d o g that t h e f a t h e r a l l o w s t o b i t e his s o n o u t o f p u n i s h m e n t . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e e p i s o d e in Israel's h i s t o r y u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n is o b v i o u s . T h e f a t h e r is G o d , t h e s o n is Israel, a n d t h e d o g is A m a l e k . G o d is e x p l a i n e d as h a v i n g s h o w n p a r e n t a l c a r e t o Israel i n t h e wilderness, substantiated b y a citation o f D t . 3 2 . 1 0 , i n t r o d u c e d o n c e m o r e ,
t h r o u g h an i t e r a t i v e a l l u s i o n ( ] a * > p n / i m a a i D > ) . I n a t h r e e - f o l d s e q u e n c e b a s e d o n t h e t e x t t h a t a n s w e r s t o t h e t h r e e - f o l d s e q u e n c e in t h e p a r a b l e , G o d is said t o h a v e b e e n l i k e an i n d u l g e n t f a t h e r , g i v i n g t o Israel e v e r y thing
that was requested, manna,
wondered 17.7,
q u a i l , e v e r y t h i n g . Still t h e
Hebrews
w h e t h e r G o d w a s w i t h t h e m , e x p r e s s e d in t h e w o r d s o f E x .
1 3 p a
mrp
wn
) *> K DK. T h e n , t h e p r e a c h e r starts t o d r a w t h e
h o m i l y t o a c l o s e b y p u t t i n g w o r d s i n t o G o d ' s m o u t h w h i c h b r o a d l y para-
190
Appendix Two
phrase the parable and the what happened appearance
S c r i p t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s , i n o r d e r t o state t h a t
t o Israel at t h e h a n d s o f A m a l e k w a s h o c o i n c i d e n c e . T h e
o f A m e l e k at E x . 1 7 . 8 f f . after t h e r e b e l l i o n at M a s s a h
and
M e r i b a h is t o b e s e e n r a t h e r as d i v i n e l y o r d a i n e d p u n i s h m e n t . T h e h o m i l y e n d s w i t h an i n c l u s i o n in t h e f o r m o f a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e m a i n t e x t , D t . 2 5 . 1 7 , t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t Israel s h o u l d n e v e r f o r g e t this p a i n f u l l e s s o n f r o m its p a s t . T h e relationship
o f t h e o p e n i n g t e x t , Prv. 1 9 . 2 5 , t o t h e P e n t a t e u c h a l
citation f o r the d a y thus b e c o m e s plain. T h e preacher understands that J e t h r o ' s visit illustrates t h e p o i n t p f t h e p r o v e r b . A l t h o u g h it w a s s o m e t i m e i n c o m i n g , J e t h r o f i n a l l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t M o s e s ' G o d w a s m i g h t y in deed. What
happened
to A m a l e k put
the
matter b e y o n d a
reasonable
d o u b t i n his e y e s , as
it w e r e . T h e d e f e a t o f A m a l e k w a s t h e last p i e c e o f
evidence he
b e f o r e d e c i d i n g t o visit M o s e s . T h e r e f o r e , j u s t as
required
t h e s e q u e n c e o f r e b e l l i o n a n d w a r f a r e in t h e E x o d u s n a r r a t i v e is n o t a f o r t u i t o u s o n e , n e i t h e r is J e t h r o ' s arrival. It is his t e s t i m o n y t o t h e f a c t t h a t G o d is a m o n g his p e o p l e . J e t h r o d e s e r v e s t o b e l a b e l l e d ' s i m p l e ' in t e r m s o f t h e p r o v e r b , b e c a u s e it t o o k h i m s o l o n g t o c o m e t o this c o n c l u s i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e p e o p l e o f Israel t a k e e v e n l o n g e r t o c o m e t o this c o n c l u s i o n , making
them
underscore
f o o l i s h i n d e e d . T h e i r o n y is i n t e n d e d
to
t h e i r i n g r a t i t u d e as t h e senseless c h i l d o f t h e p a r a b l e , a n d
look
downright
to
m a k e it m o r e d i f f i c u l t
than ever f o r a later g e n e r a t i o n ,
those to w h o m
t h e p r e a c h e r w a s s p e a k i n g , t o f o r g e t this e p i s o d e t o t h e i r s h a m e a n d G o d ' s credit. T h e b a s i c p a t t e r n o f this p r o e m - h o m i l y is c l e a r , d e s p i t e c e r t a i n d e v i a tions f r o m the n o r m . T h e Seder ( D t . 2 5 . 1 7 — 9 ) , or, m o r e accurately, supplemental
the
lesson, complicates any attempt to identify a corresponding
p r o p h e t i c lesson, s o m e t h i n g o f t e n difficult u n d e r the best o f c o n d i t i o n s . A l s o , unlike
t h e t y p i c a l p r o e m - h o m i l y , its o p e n i n g t e x t ( P r v . 1 9 . 2 5 a ) is
n o t r e p e a t e d at t h e c o n c l u s i o n . H o w e v e r , all this g o e s t o s h o w that e v e n at a relatively late date considerable As n o t e d , nevertheless,
flexibility
w a s still p o s s i b l e .
t h e h o m i l y d o e s e v i d e n c e an i n c l u s i o n t h a t is
associated w i t h the Scriptures, D t . 2 5 . 1 7 , the s u p p l e m e n t a l
lesson rather
t h a n t h e p r o e m - t e x t . M o r e o v e r , it m a k e s u s e o f several s u b o r d i n a t e
OT
r e f e r e n c e s in a d d i t i o n
Dt.
t o the p r o e m - t e x t ,
Ex. 16.10—8, 17.Iff., and
3 2 . 1 0 . E a c h o f t h e s e g i v e s rise t o c a t c h - w o r d s a n d p a r a p h r a s e , m a n y o f w h i c h have
already
been
noted
in p a s s i n g ,
with
the
p r o e m - t e x t , b e c a u s e o f its h i g h l y o b l i q u e r e l a t i o n s h i p
exception of
the
t o the e x p o s i t i o n .
T h u s t h e h o m i l y c o m p a r e s w e l l i n its b r o a d e s t c o n t o u r s w i t h t h e p a t t e r n P. B o r g e n i d e n t i f i e d
in s e l e c t passages f r o m P h i l o a n d t h e
that has b e e n i l l u s t r a t e d a b o v e in t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f Leg.
N T , a pattern
All.
III. 162—8
and H e b . 3 . 1 - 4 . 1 3 . It is l i k e w i s e w o r t h w h i l e
to mention
s o m e o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e rules
a n d d e v i c e s w h i c h this p r o e m - h o m i l y d i s p l a y s . V e r b a l tally especially i m p o r t a n t for the relationship
( a n a l o g y ) is
b e t w e e n D t . 25.17—9 and E x .
1 7 . I f f . , w h e r e b o t h r e f e r t o ' A m a l e k ' . Less o b v i o u s is t h e w a y t h e p r e a c h e r
Appendix Two
191
p r e s u p p o s e s a w i d e r t e x t - p l o t at t i m e s . S o h e has c o n f l a t e d a n a l l u s i o n t o Ex.
1 7 . 4 , tsma?,
ponn to
the
n?ai
with
Tiay
a d o m i n a n t allusion to 1 7 . 2 ,
]innn
na,
mi
rmn
nttffc
c i t a t i o n o f D t . 3 2 . 1 0 , is t h e ' c l o u d s o f g l o r y ' ( " 7 1 n a n
w h i c h is a n a l l u s i o n t o E x . 1 6 . 1 0 h e r e f e r s t o the m a n n a
"pi
K I . M o r e importantly, leading up
]jyn
riKin
mm
m D
May),
. Afterwards,
( 1 6 . 1 4 L ) , t o t h e q u a i l ( 1 6 . 1 3 ) , e t c . H e n c e , h e is
i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e p a r e n t a l c a r e d e s c r i b e d in t h e w o r d s o f D t . 3 2 . 1 0 f r o m d e t a i l s in t h e larger c o n t e x t o f his m a i n s u b o r d i n a t e c i t a t i o n , E x . 1 7 . 1 f f . A n o t h e r m i d d a is e m p l o y e d in t h e a u t h o r ' s t r e a t m e n t o f Rephidim, d i v i s i o n ( s e e S t e m b e r g e r , Einleitung, t o R . E l i e z e r , notarikon). to
•
1 J7?3
word-
3 9 , f o r the thirtieth rule attributed
T h e r e is a n o t h e r i n t h e d o u b l e - m e a n i n g g i v e n
n , i d e n t i f y i n g it w i t h G o d t h r o u g h m e t o n y m y f o r t h e T e m p l e ,
b e c a u s e it is r e a l l y t a n t a m o u n t t o a n a l l e g o r y ( a n d c p . t h e a l l e g o r i c a l i d e n tification
o f A m a l e k a n d J e t h r o w i t h Prv. 1 9 . 2 5 a ) . I n a n y c a s e it w a s
standard R a b b i n i c practice to exploit multiple meanings o f w o r d s . T h e exposition
also i n c o r p o r a t e s
aggadic tradition
and
a parable
for
good
m e a s u r e . T h e b r e v i t y o f this p r o e m - h o m i l y m a k e s all t h e m o r e i m p r e s s i v e t h e v a r i e t y o f d e v i c e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s f o r S c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h it contains. F r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s i s o f P . R . K . 2 2 a it b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t t h a t I P e t . 1 . 1 4 — 2 . 9 has b e e n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d in f o r m - c r i t i c a l t e r m s as h o m i l e t i c m i d r a s h , f o r b o t h share t h e s a m e e s s e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d are f u n d e d by
the
same p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , rules,
w i s e , it m a y b e r e a d i l y s e e n t h a t a n a l y z e d , Leg.
All.
techniques, and
procedures. Like
the other e x a m p l e s w h i c h have b e e n
III. 1 6 2 — 8 a n d H e b . 3 . 1 — 4 . 1 3 , b e l o n g t o t h e
same
f a m i l y o f d i s c o u r s e . T h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e y all s t e m f r o m t h e s a m e t y p e o f h o m i l e t i c midrash, o f c o u r s e , b u t t o say that t h e y manifest a funda mental
integrity
which
transcends
their literary e x p r e s s i o n , a n d birth
the
particular
that the J e w i s h
supplies t w o p r o b a b l e settings,
accidents
attending
milieu w h i c h gave
them
the S y n a g o g u e and the A c a d e m y
( h o u s e o f m i d r a s h ) . T h e a u t h o r o f I Peter m u s t have b e e n familiar, there f o r e , w i t h o n e o r the o t h e r , or b o t h , o f these.
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Index to Biblical References
Old Testament Genesis 2.2
187
6 . Iff.
39,43,68
7.13ff.
37
16.9
42,43
18.12
37,64
22.8
56
23.4
42
28.12
41,105
30.3
55
Exodus 3.19
42
6.1
42
12.4
184,185
12.5
38,39,43,56
12.11
41
12.48f.
86 116 183, 184, 185, 186 190 191
97
1 9 . 1 If.
95,97
19.14
95,97
19.16
97
19.17
97
19.18
57,95
19.19
95
19.23
95
20.7
37
20.26
37
22.18
86
12.17
15.17f.
16.10
96
19.8
Numbers
16.4 16.10ff.
19.5
187
14.22ff.
187
21.18
116
24.15ff.
115
24.15f.
116
24.24
115
Deuteronomy
16.13
191
16.14f.
191
5.28f.
116
17.1ff.
187, 1 9 0 , 191
9.26
42 42
17.2
189,191
10.17
17.4
189,191
18.18f.
116
17.7
188,189
21.23
3 9 , 4 3 , 6 3 , 143, 178
17.8ff.
189,190
23.2f.
116
17.8
188,189
18.1ff.
189
19.5f.
37,39,43,40,98,99, 137, 171, 178, 185
19.6
45
23.22
37,40
29.38
38,39
25.17f.
188,190
25.17
188,190
30.12f.
122
32.10
188,189,191
33.8f.
116
Joshua 6.26
116
Leviticus 11.44
37
11.44L
36
11.45
37
17.7
56
Judges 18.5
Chaps. 1 8 - 9
56,96,97,98,167
18.9f.
97
19.2
36,37, 56,96, 318
19.3
I Samuel 9.9
187,
101
101
16.7
64
28.7
101
95
19.4
95
19.5f.
97
II S a m u e l 7.1 Of.
116
208
Indexes
I Kings
34.22
45
14.5
101
39.13
42
22.5
101
40
186
22.7
101
55.22
3 8 , 77
62.12
41
II K i n g s 1.2ff.
101
72.19
42,154
79.6
56
3.11
101
79.9
42, 154
4.29
41
85.11
41
9.1
41
88.4
42
II C h r o n i c l e s
88.6
42
89.27
41
5.6
56
95
186,187
19.7
42
95.7
187
35.25
157
110.1
3 7 , 6 9 , 74, 152, 172
36.21
112
118.22
37,131,132,133,134, 136,137
143.7
Ezra 4.17
42
21 Proverbs
Nehemiah 9.5
3.13ff. 42,
154
42
3.25
38,42,64,152
3.34
37,77,80,165
10.12
37, 72, 73, 125, 152
38,43
11.31
37, 7 5 , 1 6 3 , 164, 165
10.12
42
17.3
41,42
30.21
42
17.28
62
19.25
1 8 8 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 0 , 191
Job 1.7
Psalms 8.6f.
3 7 , 6 9 , 74, 152, 172
10.12 14.12
41
22.24 28.1
42
28.4
42
24.12
41
24.21
38,45,62,
26.10
16,62
27.21
41
31.17
41
31.30
42
30.3
42
31.5
38, 75, 164, 165
3.18ff.
42
34
2,
4.2f.
116
152
Isaiah 19,37,41,44,45,
47, 48, 55, 5 8 , 6 4 , 66,
6.11
101
67, 70, 7 3 , 7 5 , 7 9 , 8 1 ,
8.11
116
94, 129, 144, 145, 146,
8.12f.
3 7 , 6 7 , 147, 148, 150,
8.14
37, 131, 132, 135, 137 101
1 4 7 , 1 5 0 , 151, 152, 164,165
169,171,
151,174
172, 174, 176
8.19
34.2
44,45
9 . 1 f.
153
34.3
45,46
9.2
42
34.4
45,46
10.3
37,46,61,152
34.5ff.
43
11.2f.
163
11.2
37, 75, 152, 153, 154,
34.5
38,44,94,95
34.6
45
34.7
45
34.8
37,44,45,97,
163,164,172,175 128,
11.5
70
23.1
115
129, 141, 173, 174
23.12
115
34.9
45
28.5
42
34.10
45
28.16
3 7 , 4 4 , 131, 132, 133,
34.11
45
134, 135, 137, 138,
34.12
46,58
150, 171, 174, 185
34.13f.
37,47,80,
34.16
45, 150
144
36.1
92
34.18
44,45
39.8
92
34.19
67
40.1
92
34.20
173
40.2ff.
124
35.10
92
Indexes
209
40.3
125
8.19
40.5
125
10.15
106
40.6f.
36,38,40,42,43,46,
10.25
56
11,20
42
57, 5 9 , 8 0 , 9 3 , 9 4 ,
124,
56
125, 127, 1 3 0 , 1 3 8 ,
14
157,162
144, 145, 147, 171,
14.16
160
172, 173, 174, 185
17.10
42
40.8
130
23.5f.
116
40.9
38, 7 9 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 102,
25
157,162
130
25.11
112
25.29ff
156
Chaps. 4 2 - 3
95
42.12
38,40,43,92,98,
42.13
92
43.20f.
37,39,43,98,
43.20
107
137
137
25.29
38,156,160
25.33
160
28.18
106
2 9 . Iff.
20
44.20
92
29.10
45.1
92
32.29
38, 160
112
49.8
106
50.27
106
49.20
92
50.31
106
50.9
38,44,47,67,
151
51.16
38
Chaps. 5 2 - 3
38, 39, 43, 47, 63, 68,
2.20
157
7 4 , 9 5 , 138, 139, 140,
3.50
41
Lamentations
141, 142, 143, 144, 152, 170, 171, 173,
Ezekiel
174
5.5
121
116
Chaps. 8 - 1 1
161, 162, 171, 178
52.3
10,38,43
9.1
161,162
52.6
92
9.3
161
52.1
52.7
92, 102
9.4f.
52.13
38, 56
9.6f.
4 3 , 157
9.6
37, 75, 79, 154, 156,
157
53.1
139
53.2
139
157,158, 160, 161,
53.3
139
162, 163, 171, 175,
53.4ff.
38
53.4
38,43,139
10.4ff.
161
53.5
37,38,83,139,141,
11.22f.
161
143
12.27
106
53.6
3 7 , 3 8 , 1 3 9 , 141
21.If.
157
53.7
38,43,56,139
31.16
42
53.8
139
33.18
42
34.5
42
53.9
3 7 , 3 8 , 139, 140, 143
178
53.10
74, 139
34.16
42
53.11
38, 68, 74, 139
44.10
116
53.12
38,43,139 Daniel
54.16
116
5 6 . 1 ff.
93
3.52
57.19
93
4.1
21,24,41
59.18
42
4.24
121 121
42
6 0 . 1 ff.
153
5.25
62.8
116
6.26
21,41
66.181.
153
6.27
41
7.4ff.
77
7.16
101 106
Jeremiah 1.17
41
7.22
2.10
115
8
158
3.17
106
8.26
106, 113
3.19
41
9.1 f.
106
6.15
106
9.1
112
7
157,162
9.3ff.
101
7.81T.
156
Chaps. 1 1 - 2
158
7.8
97
11.30
115
Indexes
210 12.1ff.
106
12.1f.
107
12.6
101
1.11
118
1.15
118
2.3
112
2.16
118
Hosea Chaps. 1 - 2
38, 43, 58, 9 5 , 98,99, 137,178
1.6ff.
37
Zephaniah Chaps. 1 - 2
156
1.6
101,178
3.16f.
106
Joel 3.17
116
Haggai 2.9
38,40,153
Amos 3.2
156
5.21f.
97
1.10
121
9.11
116
5.6
121
13.7f.
156
116
13.9
41,51
Obadiah 16f.
Zechariah
Micah 6.6f.
97
102
Habakkuk 1.8
3.1 f. 3.1
Nahum 1.15
Malachi 156 38,156,178
3.2f.
41,51
3.10
157
3.17
3 7 , 3 8 , 4 0 , 4 3 , 9 8 , 137, 178
H 8
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha Judith 9.8
42,154
Tobit 4.3ff.
23
12.6ff.
23
I Maccabees 9.26 14.10
41,45 42, 154
II M a c c a b e e s l.lff.
20
1.1 Off.
20
1.11
22
1.24
42
2.17
137
III M a c c a b e e s 2.9
42,154
IV Maccabees 18.15
67, 129, 146, 173
18.17
99
Wisdom of Solomon 1.6
42
2.12ft.
140
3.7
37
5.1
68
5.15ff.
70
12.13
42,43
13.1
56
14.22
56
Sirach 2.5
41
16.12
41
35.12
42
Psalms of S o l o m o n 17.25f.
116
17.32f.
153
17.33
116
17.36
107
17.39
154
18
i07
18.6
107
18.8
107
I Enoch l.lff.
106
1.2
51
9.1
41
16.3
41
Indexes 80.2ff.
107
103.2ff.
107
211
V. 143
5
V. 159
5
V . 512f.
107
Jubilees 16.18
137
23.13ff.
107
23.30ff.
107
33.20
137
A s c e n s i o n o f Isaiah 9.15 I V Ezra 3.1
Testament of Naphtali 8.4
61
Testament of Benjamin 10.8f.
156
5
4.35ff.
106
5.1 ff.
107
9 . Iff.
106
13.13ff.
106
14.45f.
113
II Baruch
Assumption of Moses 8.1f.
104
107
11.1
Sibylline Oracles
5
13.9
156
2 6 . Iff.
106
III. 5 3 8 f.
107
32.2f.
156
IV. 115f.
159,160
67.7
5
IV. 117f.
160
IV. 117
161
IV. 125f.
159
Joseph and Asenath 15.13
New Matthew
55
Testament Mark
1.23
118
1.15
72
2.1 IT.
115
5.13
7
2.6
118
8.31
51
2.15
118
9.2ff.
153
2.18
118
10.33f.
108,143
2.23
118
10.42
33,77 3 3 , 56
3.16
154
10.45
4 . 1 ff.
90
12.1ff.
173
4.15ff.
118
12.28
57
5.1 Of.
67
13.8f.
153
5.10
33
13.9ff.
14,75,153
5.1 If.
51
13.9f.
153
5.16
33,61
13.14
14,155
5.23f.
97
13.32
41,104
14.36
41
5.23
65
5.43ff.
57
5.43
57
5.49
56
4.16ff.
6.12ff.
65
6.22ff.
33,51,63
8.17
118
6.22
33,51,75
12.181.
118
6.26
33
13.161.
51,103
6.27f.
33
13.35
118
6.28
33,65
1 5 . 1 ft.
90,91
6.32f.
33, 48, 63
16.18
173
6.33
63
18.15
64
6.36
56
19.311.
90,91
9.31
39
21.25
118
10.231.
51,103
21.3311.
90
10.2511.
91
2 5 . 3 Iff.
65
12.32ff.
33
27.91.
118
12.32
33
Luke 90
212
Indexes
12.33
33,51
17.28
28
12.35
33,41
17.30
56
12.42
33,72
18.12f.
14
16.2
71
20.17ff.
77
23.46
75
22.5
20
24.25f.
51
22.14
68
24.44
51
24.2ff.
14
28.22
13
18.28
121
John 1.32
154
2.17f.
173
2.17
120
l.lff.
3.3f.
86
1.8f.
34
3.3
57
1.8
21
6
91
1.1 Sf.
34
6 . 3 Iff.
90
1.13
23
79
1.16-4.25
34
10.35
Romans 34
12.14f.
120
1.17
28
12.38
120
1.29f.
71
12.40
120
2.6
34,42
13.18
120
2.11
34, 42 28
15.25
120
2.24
19.24
120
3 . 1 Off.
28,93
19.36
120
3.25
56
19.37
120
4 . 1 ff.
90
20.17
104
4.4f.
93
4.24f.
56
20.29
4 4 , 51
21.18
102
A c t s o f the A p o s t l e s
4.24
34
4.25
63
5.1-11.36
34
90
5.2
34
2.16
121
5.6
63
3.13
38
5.8
63
3.14
68
5.9
56 63
2.14ff.
3.15
38,56
5.14
4.10f.
137,173
5.15
63
4.11
121
6.7
3 4 , 71 63
5.30
143
6.8
6.5
84
6.10
34,68
6.15
153
6.11
34, 46, 63
7. Iff.
90
6.18
63
7.52
68
7.71.
60
7.55
104
7.22
64
7.56
153
8.15
41
8.34
106
8.171.
75
9.2
20
8.17
34
9.15f.
14
8 . 3 1 ff.
24
42
8.34
34
10.34 10.39
143
Chaps. 9 - 1 1
37,90
11.23
105
9.4
42,153,154
13.16ff.
90
9.6ff.
90
13.29
143
9.9
121
13.33
121
9.25ff.
93
13.37
121
9.25f.
58
14.15
14,56
9.25
34
15.14ff.
90
9.32f.
34
15.15
121
9.33
28, 131, 133, 137
15.20
60
10.6f.
121
15.23ff.
20
10.1511.
34
15.23
6,26
10.18ff.
28,94
15.29
23,60
11.25ft.
24
16.6
7
11.25
121
213
Indexes 11.33f.
28
12.1-15.13
23,34
Chaps. 1 2 - 3
2 3 , 3 4 , 56
12.1f.
15.1f.
58,173
12.1
26,34
12.2
34, 56
53
15.3f.
108
15.5H.
121
16.20
27
. II Corinthians
12.3
34
12.6f.
34
12.9ff.
34,57,61,65,68
1.21
106
12.9
34
3.7ff.
90
12.10
34,65
4.16
64
12.13
72
5.7
51
1.3
22
1.8
25
12.14ff.
34,61
5.14f.
63
12.14
65
6 . Iff.
22
12.15
65
1.16ff.
173
12.16f.
61
6.16f.
37 15
12.16
65
7.11
12.17
65
8 . 1 f.
12.18
65
12.4
121
13.1ff.
16,34,62
13.12
27
13.1f.
34
13.3f.
48
13.7
62
13.8f.
34,57
13.11
61
13.12f.
71
13.12
71,72
14.12
34
14.19
65
14.21
71
14.23
82
15.4
79,103
15.9f.
28
15.10f.
37
15.14ff.
34
16.16
34
16.21f.
34
16.25
51,121
I Corinthians
5,15
Galatians 1.4
68
1.11
25
1.15f.
105
2.7f.
7
2.21
63
3.6ff.
90
3.13
143
4 . 2 1 ff.
90
4.24
121
5 . Iff.
26
5.13-6.10
23
5.13
62
5.19f.
71
6.7f.
22
6.11
26
Ephcsians
Chaps. 1 - 3
90
1.3
1.4
21
1.3ff.
24,35
1.11
102
1.4
35
1.12
7
1.6
24
1.18ff.
90
1.7
56
2.6ff.
90
1.9
35
2.6f.
121
1.12
24
2.8
104
1.13
35
3 . 1 Off.
173
1.14
24
3.13
102
1.17
154
4.1
121
1.20f.
35
22, 50
4.6ff.
27
2.2f.
35
4.12
65
2.3f.
35
5.7
39
2.11-3.6
105
7.22
62
2.18f.
35 35
9.3
15
2.18
9.19f.
64
2.20f.
173
9.25
42
2.20
103
10.11
103
3.2f.
35
10.14
25
3.2
35
13.2
121
3.5
5 1 , 103
14.2
121
3.8ff.
51
214
Indexes
3.16
35
4.9
3.17
35
4.13f.
15
4.1-5.20
58
5. Iff.
23
4.17ff.
57,58
5.10
63
4.17
35,56
5.12
26
4.18
35,56
5.13ff.
65 66
57
4.22
35
5.15
4.23f.
5
5.22
60
4.25f.
35
5.23f.
76
4.25
57
5.26
27
4.31
35
4.32
35
5.1
56
1.4
5,15
5 . 2 Iff.
63
2.6f.
121
5.21f
35
2.16f.
76
5.21
35,61
II Thessalonians
5.25
35
5 . 3 1 f.
121
3.2ff.
77
5.32
121
3.16
64,69,121
6.5f.
63
I Timothy
6.5
35,61,62
6.1 Of.
77
3.16
79
6 . 1 If.
71
4.17
77
6.14
35,41
II T i m o t h y
Titus Philippians 1.3
21
1.12
25
1.28f.
15
2.12
25
2.14f.
22
2.19ff.
26
1.5ff.
77
3.4f.
50
Philemon 19f.
26
Hebrews
3.1
26
3.10
75
3.1ff.
1 8 6 , 1 8 7 , 191
4.2
26
3.1
186
Colossians
3.2
187
3.5
187
1.8
102
3.7ff.
90,186,187
1.20
56
3.7
186 187
1.26f.
121
3.12
1.26
51
3.13
187
2.2
121
3.15
187
3 . Iff.
58
3.16f.
187
3.8ff.
65
3.16
187
3.10
57
3.17f.
187 187
3.16f.
58
3.17
3.18ff.
63
3.18
187
4.3
121
3.19
187
4.1
187
4.2
187
I Thessalonians 1.1
24
4.3
187
1.10
108
4.4
187 187
1.17-4.18
26
4.5
2.1
25
4.6
187
2.13f.
22
4.7
187
2.14f.
5,15
4.8
187
2.16
155
4.10
187
4.1ff.
23,57,58
4.11
186,187
4.1f.
57
4.121.
4.1
26
5.4
35, 134
186,187
4.3
60
5.12f.
35
4.4
65
5.12
173
6.4
35,55,97
215
Indexes 9.8
102
1.5
9.12
68
1.6f.
9.26f.
68
9.28
3 0 , 4 6 , 5 0 , 6 1 , 74, 102 24, 26, 2 0 , 3 1 , 3 5 , 50, 63, 74, 82, 107, 1 6 5 , 173
35
10.5ff.
90, 120, 186
1.6 1.7
24, 2 9 , 3 0 , 3 3 , 4 9 , 74 24,30,41,50,61,74,
10.9ff.
93
10.10
35
10.12
68
1.8f.
24
10.32f.
15
1.8
6,
10.37f.
99
102 17,24,30,44,50,
51
10.37
145
1.9
11.13
10,35
l.lOf.
30,46,50,61,65
11.16
10
11.27
51
1 0 6 , 1 0 9 , 111, 114,
12.4
15
117, 122, 123, 127,
7,24,35,50,79,
100,
102, 103, 104, 105,
12.14
66
128, 129, 130, 144,
12.17
35
156, 167, 168, 170,
12.24
35
12.27
102
13.If.
35
13.2
720
13.3
15
1.1 If.
106
13.3
61
1.11
35, 50, 74, 101, 102,
177 1.10
30,41,46,50,51,101, 102, 103, 105, 111, 117,178
13.5
35
103, 105, 106, 107,
13.13
10
1 0 8 , 1 0 9 , 112, 118,
13.15f.
35
127, 129, 130, 136,
13.20
35,76
138, 151, 154, 156, 164, 165, 168, 170, 172, 178
James 1.12
24,25,29,30,32,41,
1.1
35
1.2f.
35
1.2
35,51
1.1 Of.
35,59
1.12
35,51
1.18
35,57
1.20f.
35
1.21
57
1.27
58
1.13f.
2.6f.
15
1.13
3.13
35
4 1 , 4 6 , 52, 5 9 , 6 1 , 6 6 ,
35,60,65
74, 7 7 , 8 3 , 9 3 , 102,
4.1
47, 50, 51, 5 4 , 9 7 , 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 112, 117, 126, 127, 129 1.13ff.
25,26,49,52,59,66, 7 4 , 8 1 , 85, 8 6 , 8 7 , 88, 93,123,169,
176
35 25, 2 9 , 3 0 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 5 ,
105
4.6f.
3 5 , 78
4.6
166
4.10
43,35
9 4 , 9 5 , 100, 135, 167
5.19
35
170, 177, 186, 187,
5.20
35,125
1.14ff.
188, 191 1.141. 1.14
1.1-4.11
82
1.1-2.10
20,82
10,25,30,34,46,54, 55, 56, 58, 5 9 , 6 0 , 83, 95, 96, 125
10,28,30,35
1.21.
9
1,15f.
1.2
3 3 , 3 5 , 4 1 , 104, 105
1.15
1.3-5.11
82
1.3-4.11
82
1.3-2.10
27,86
55,80,93 30,40,46,53,56,63, 80, 93
1.16
36,40,56,57,80,93, 187
50,85
1.1 7ff.
l.Sff.
24,30,49,
l.Sf.
2 4 , 3 3 , 50, 54, 78, 129
1.3
22, 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 3 , 3 5 , 4 1 ,
1.171.
44,
1.17
1.4
11, 30, 52, 53, 54, 56 57, 58, 185, 187
I Peter
1.1
52,80,81,85,87,93
46,47,50,52,126,
52, 54, 56, 57, 129, 185 55,93,96 25, 2 9 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 4 1 , 4 2 ,
129
46, 53, 55, 56, 5 9 , 6 3 ,
30,33,50
6 6 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 129
216 1.18f.
Indexes 10,33,43,54,55,56,
2.6
44, 55, 58, 59, 133,
2.7f.
133, 135, 136, 138
2.7
40, 55, 58, 59, 129,
135,173
95, 96, 129 1.18
10,30,33,35,38,53, 55, 56, 57, 5 8 , 9 5 , 9 6
1.19
9,10,38,39,43,53, 5 5 , 8 6 , 93, 107, 125
1.20
30,33,35,55,56,68,
133,134,135,136, 34
2.8
36, 37, 40, 55, 58, 59,
112, 156, 172 1.21
9 3 , 9 5 , 135, 136, 163,
30,34,38,46,53,54, 55, 56, 107, 129
1.22-2.3
174 2.9f.
138, 167, 170, 171, 172,174
1.22f.
52, 54, 55, 57, 58, 86,
55, 58, 5 9 , 6 1 , 9 3 , 9 5 ,
30,34,52,54,55,72,
96, 98, 99, 129, 131, 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 1 3 8 , 171,
58
176,178,185 2.10
1.23f.
34,54,55,59,96
1.23
9,33,35,40,41,42, 54,
9,30,37,38,39,40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 52, 53,
93, 95, 129 1.23ff.
29, 5 8 , 9 4 , 9 8 , 134, 135
2.9
126,127,174 1.22
25,28,29,32,34,37, 38, 43, 52, 55, 58, 59, 93,95,98,99,129,
55,93,95,125,
137,187
126, 127 1.24f.
36, 4 0 , 4 3 , 124, 125
2.11-4.11
1.24
35, 55, 5 7 , 1 2 5 , 134,
2.11-4.6
12
145
2.11-3.12
66
1.25f.
171
2 . 1 If.
1.25
25,38,40,52,54,55, 57, 58, 6 3 , 6 7 ,
79,80,
125, 126, 127, 128,
2.11 2.12
35,48,52,54,55,57,
2.13ff.
26,30,33,47,52,54, 58,60,82,94,95,
2.13f. 2.13
73,74,144 15,16,34,59,62,63, 33,34 25,35,60,62
97
2.14
14,
35
2.15
16,30,47,61,62,
16,30,47,62
151
2.2f.
35
2.2
9, 3 0 , 33 3 4 , 4 6 , 55,
2.16
58,
2.17
59,61,63,93,125,
2.18-3.7
43, 86, 93
2.18ff.
2.3f.
43,48
2.4ff.
2,48,55,58,93,
16,30,46,62,63 33,38,46,
60,62,63,
152
128, 129, 173 2.3ff.
11, 16, 1 7 , 3 0 , 3 3 , 3 7 ,
64, 76, 82
5 8 , 6 7 , 127, 128, 130
2.2-6
10,25,29,32,35,42,
152 2.13-3.12
48
57,
59,61,63,
4 7 , 6 0 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 6 4 , 134,
174,176
2.1
25,30,31,
62, 65
129, 130, 147, 173,
2.1f.
2 0 , 2 5 , 4 9 , 138, 152
6 4 , 171
82, 9 3 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 9 8 , 102,
2. Iff.
82 59,60,62,63,65,73, 82
130,
132, 136, 137, 138,
2.18f.
157, 158, 161, 164,
2.18
33,141,142 11,35,46,60,61,63, 142
167, 170,171, 173, 175, 176
2.19f.
2.4f.
29, 40, 52, 5 8 , 8 6 , 1 2 9 ,
2.19
60
130, 136, 171
2.20
30, 47, 53, 63
2.4
38, 44, 49, 55, 59, 75,
2 . 2 1 ff.
95,96
2.211.
33,34,35,46,47,55,
2.21
2.6f.
33, 138, 139, 171, 172 53,60,63,66,68,69, 70, 74, 7 5 , 1 4 1 , 1 7 7
59,93,96,97,125, 2.6ft.
64,78,80,107,139, 170,171,174
136 2.5
33,48,60,63
141, 143, 144, 167,
7 9 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 9 7 , 134, 2.5ff.
138
2.8f.
1 3 0 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 3 , 136
2.22ff.
38, 43, 142
37, 58, 130, 136
2.22f.
1 7 , 4 7 , 6 3 , 1 4 0 , 141
33,34,36,43,87,98, 135,150,
171,185
2.22 2.231.
30,37,38,64,141 38
217
Indexes 2.23
11,30,33,38,42,64,
67, 68, 148, 151, 152
75, 139, 143, 164 2.24
3.18ff.
11,33,34,35,37,38, 39, 4 3 , 4 7 , 6 3 , 6 4 , 70,
2.25
152
74, 8 3 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 1 ,
3 . 1 Of.
142,
3.18
143
66,67,68,69,70,71, 74,107,
143 3 . 1 ff. 3.1
11,
3.19f. 59,60,64
3.19
33,61,64 76
152
39,43,67 42,66,68,69,
3.20f.
30,35,60,61,64,
33 33,34,35,38,59,63,
30,35,37,38,42,47, 51,60, 64, 134,141,
3.1f.
2,56,59,64,66,68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 78, 80,
3.20
30,37,65,69
30,31,46
3.21
12,46,69
3.3f.
42,64
3.22
3.3
64
3.2
33,34,35,37,61,66, 68, 69, 104, 107, 149,
3.4
35,46,64,102
3.5f.
60,64
172
3.5
35,46
3.6
11,37,38,42,47,
3.7ff.
48, 129, 152, 167, 170,
152
4.1ff.
60,71,72
4 . 1 f.
70
4.1
34,41,44,48,66,67, 6 8 , 6 9 , 70, 71, 72, 73,
171,172,174 3.7
75,
33,35,40,44,48,59, 152
10, 1 1 , 3 5 , 71, 7 3 , 9 6 ,
4.2
3 0 , 6 2 , 70, 71, 72 72, 134
176
3.8ff.
34,60,66,73,80
4.3f.
3.8f.
11,61,65,67,
4.3
147, 3.8 3.9f. 3.9
145,
10, 2 6 , 3 0 , 3 3 , 6 9 , 71,
148
96
26,33,35,59
4.4f.
61 11,30,33,35,40,44, 48, 65, 1 4 6 , 1 4 8 , 152,
176
4.4
30,31,71,74
4.5f.
151
4.5
30,33,34,61,67,69,
177 3 . 1 Off. 3.10f.
71
171
4.6
30,31,37,44,47,67,
4.7ff.
66,67,69,71,82 2 6 , 3 1 , 6 0 , 6 7 , 71, 72,
72,144
74, 8 0 , 8 2 , 1 7 6
3.10
40, 6 5 , 6 7 , 70, 146
3.11
66,67,
3.12
25,
4.7f.
145,148
34,61
4.7
12,30,31,34,59,67,
29,31,32,67,68,
71,72,73,74,77,82,
82, 144, 145, 147, 148,151,
102,112,163
169
3.13-4.11
73,74
3.13ff.
59,67,68,70,73,76,
3.13f.
4.8
33,35,37,41,62,
4.9
148, 149, 174, 176
4.10f.
117 35,72
4.11
25,29,30,31,33,
148
11,
174
4.12-5.14
82
4.12-5.11
2 0 , 2 5 , 27, 153, 166
4.12ff.
26,49,72,74,76,77,
4.12f.
82, 8 7 , 1 5 3 , 1 7 6 12,25,29,31,74,75, 78,107
15,25,31,33,46,
66,67,68,148,149, 151 3.15f.
35,67,152
3.15
15,35,46,67,68,
4
-!2
11,25,26,29,31,42,
71,
51,
148,176 4
3.16
11,
15,30,31,33,46, 4
6 1 , 6 7 , 6 8 , 134, 150,
-
1
3
-
1
3
f
-
82
3.17
30,31,47,48,62,66,
74,82
25,33,
51,63
31,35,74,75,83,102, 107,165
171,176 3.17ff.
72,
73, 74, 82
47,48,61,66,67,
82, 1 4 6 , 1 4 7 ,
3 1 , 3 3 , 3 4 , 74, 102,
4.10
25,29,30,31,32,38,
37,67, 147,150,
72,
41,71,72,74
15, 25, 2 6 , 3 1 , 4 0 , 4 4 ,
44,
3.14
35, 61, 73, 79, 176
78, 8 0 , 8 2 , 1 4 4 , 146,
149,152
3.14f.
4.8f.
73, 1 2 5 , 152, 1 6 4
70, 8 0 , 146, 147, 148, 3.13
152
4.2f.
60,61,64,144,146, 148,
104
68,152,179
4
-
1
4
f
f
-
1 6 5 , 1 6 6 , 167, 170, 171, 172, 175
4
-
1
4
f
-
1 6 , 3 1 , 74, 7 5 , 8 0 , 134,
218
Indexes 154, 155, 162, 164
4.14
11,31,33,37,42,46, 47, 74, 75, 7 9 , 9 7 , 104,
4.15f. 4.15
5.10
2 9 , 6 6 , 76, 77, 78
5.11
33,76
5.12f.
82
153, 153, 162, 170,
5.12
6,26,77,105
175
5.13f.
27
12,16 12, 15,
16,26,31,33,
5.13
7,27,28,161
5.14
7,27,33
4 7 , 77 4.16 4.17ff. 4.17f.
47, 74, 75 26,43,74,75,78,80, 154,163,
4.17
II Peter
175,176 164
31,37,74,75,78,79,
1.14
102
1.17f.
153
1.19f.
79
3.1
17
112, 130, 155, 156, 158,161,162,163,
4.18 4.19
I John
164, 165, 171, 176,
1.7
178,179
3.3ff.
56
37, 163,,166
3.9
57
29,31,32,38,42,47, 48, 6 2 , 6 5 , 7 4 , 7 8 , 79,
56
3.10
57
4.19f.
65
80, 82, 164 5.1ff.
25,26,49,76,77,79, 82, 165, 166, 175
5.1f.
76, 77, 78, 155, 162, 163,165,
5.1
167
III J o h n 5f.
72
Revelation
6,25,26,29,31,32,
1.5
56
34, 75, 76, 78, 7 9 , 8 0 ,
1.6
137
82,'102,107,
165
1.19f.
121
5.2f.
33
2.10
15
5.3
33
2.23
42
35,42,76,165
5.10
137
5.4 5.5f. 5.5
3 3 , 3 5 , 4 4 , 78 33,37,41,45,76,77,
10.4
113
10.6f.
121
79, 165, 166
12.1f.
107
5.6ff.
76, 165, 166
13.2
77
5.6f.
76, 78, 80
14.8
5
41,42,43,77,165
17.5
121
5.7
38,42,43,77
19.10
104
5.8f.
165
20.4
15
3 8 , 4 3 , 59, 77, 153,
20.16
137
166
22.10
113
22.16
115
5
5
-
-
6
8
5.9
5,17,35,76
5.1 Of.
26,76,165
