POLLUTION CONTROL SOLUTIONS SOLU FOR AIR, WATER, SOLID & HAZARDOUS WASTE WAST
SEPTEMBER 2011
Flare Stack Emission Control Pg 26
Making Groundwater VOCs Pg 32
Recycling Wastes Pg 38
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INSIDE
SEPTEMBER 2011
VOLUME 43
NO. 9
COLUMNS The Editor’s Desk
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07 The EPA’s first administrator was determined to control the internal combustion engine in order to improve the nation’s air quality. Now, after more than 40 years, Americans are still focused on the same goal.. By Roy Bigham
Legal Lookout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Now, Americans can acquire extensive information regarding the pipelines that will impact them, their neighbors, and their loved ones – well into the future. By Lynn L. Bergeson
Green Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Arizona State University engineering students implement a novel way to utilize waste to generate power and improve the United States’ current energy sources. By Barbara Quinn
Casebook Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
26
How will lawmakers’ current decisions impact the world’s environment – and the lives of future generations? By Dr. Dianne Saxe
State Rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Environmental Rules change daily. BLR brings a few of the latest changes needed to stay in compliance. By BLR
FEATURES Infrastructure – Importance of That Which Is Not Visible . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Faulty sewers could not dent the Minnesota Twins’ goals of playing (or competing) at Target Field on Opening Day 2010.
Behind Every Flare Goal, an Assist . . . . .
26
The flare had to be constant, the waste steam was anything but: In this case study, two companies manage to devise a system to control variant levels of variant refinery gases without breaking the bank with added fuels.
32
The Generation of Acetones and Ketones – a Positive Process?. . . . . . . . .
32
A look back at an in-depth study regarding an in-situ chemical treatment, which employed a fermentation process – and exceeded a laboratory’s expectations.
No Wasted Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
Despite the development of innovative recycling programs, landfills continue to dot the surface of the globe as millions of world citizens add to the pile. Perhaps, there may be a more effective method for handling this issue.
32 Member
May 16-19, 2011
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INSIDE SPECIAL REPORTS
DEPARTMENTS
Web Locators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
EnviroNews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08
Exhibition Spotlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
PE Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08 Instrumentation Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Material Safety and Storage Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
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PE Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Classified Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Advertisers Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
POLLUTION CONTROL SOLU SOLUTIONS FOR AIR, WATER, SOLID & HAZARDOUS WAST WASTE
ON THE COVER
SEPTEMBER 2011
Flare Stack Emission Control Pg 26
Making Groundwater VOCs Pg 32
Recycling Wastes Pg 38
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Cover photography supplied by Hobas Pipe USA. Designed by PE's Art Director Tammie Gizicki.
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Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
EDITOR'SDESK Maintaining Focus – Now and into the Future The EPA’s first administrator was determined to control the internal combustion engine in order to improve the nation’s air quality. Now, after more than 40 years, Americans are still focused on the same goal.
L
os Angeles was often cited as the most polluted city in the United States. At the time, thousands of cars and trucks had released extensive exhaust fumes, which were negatively impacting the health of millions of Americans and endangering the state’s flora and fauna species. Consequently, the now highly popular term “smog” was coined. Since then, smog has heavily contributed to a variety of health risks, including restricted visibility, as well as lung cancer, allergies and asthma. Meanwhile, the first administrator of the EPA, William D. Ruckelshaus, is credited with the establishment of the first health-based emission standards for automobiles. As a result of his efforts, the automobile industry has developed a number of engine improvements, which have minimized exhaust emissions. At the same time, Congress also focused on remedying the consequences of air pollution by demanding that fuel efficiency increase by substantial amounts.
Regulation….and its outcome The purchase prices of automobiles have steadily increased throughout the past decade. While price increases are normal, a premium is also needed in order to cover the costs of gadgets and computers, to monitor and control current car engines. According to a report released by the American Lung Association this year, which is titled, State of the Air 2011, the Clean Air Act has significantly reduced pollution levels in various cities throughout the country since it was promulgated in 1990. However, the report concludes that more than half of Americans
still encounter dangerous levels of air pollution each day. According to the American Lung Association’s website, even in 2011, Los Angeles is exposed to more air pollutants, such as ozone, the precursor to the formation of smog, than any other city in the country. As a result, the EPA and the Supreme Court are looking at other pollution contributors aside from automobiles, such as the power generation industry. However, the EPA, as well as governmental leaders, remains focused on the lowly internal combustion engine. Consequently, the agency raised mileage goals again this year – up to 54.5 miles per gallon by 2025. On Aug. 9, 2011, President Obama quietly met with industry and union representatives to announce an expansion of the mileage and exhaust program to include work trucks, buses and other heavy-duty vehicles. The new controls will impact vehicles from 2014 until 2018. As automobile manufacturers and consumers reflect on the past, there is no doubt that the automobile has changed considerably throughout the last 40 years. Now, its future lingers in the cross hairs of governmental leaders, who, unfortunately, are not about to stand down from their initiatives anytime soon. PE
Roy Bigham is Editor of Pollution Engineering. He can be contacted at [email protected]
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ENVIRONEWS PE Events OCTOBER 2011 3-9
28th International Activated Carbon Conf., Pittsburgh, www.pacslabs.com
14-16 10th International Exhibition &
Seminars on Bag Filter Technology and Equipment, Suzhou, China, www. bagfilter.net/english/englishi.html
15-19 WEFTEC 2011 84th Annual Meeting,
Los Angeles, www.weftec.org 17-20 ISA Automation Week, Mobile, Ala., www.isaautomationweek.org
18-19 Fourth Kuwait Waste Management
Conference and Exhibition, Mangaf, Kuwait, www.kuwaitwaste.com
24-27 Air Quality VIII: An International
Conference on Carbon Management, Mercury, Trace Elements, SOx, NOx, and Particulate Matter, Arlington, Virginia, www.undeerc.org/AQ8.
25-27 Algae Biomass Summit, Minneapolis, www.algalbiomass.org
26-28 Renexpo Poland International Trade
Fair for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficient Building & Renovation, Warsaw, Poland, www.renexpo-warsaw.com
27-30 Eco Expo Asia – International Trade
Fair on Environmental Protection, Hong Kong, www.hktdc.com/fair/ecoexpoasia-en
NOVEMBER 2011 1-3
The 2011 Chem Show, Javits Convention Center, New York, www.chemshow.com
1-4
Aquatech Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, www.amsterdam.aquatechtrade.com/ aquatechamsterdam2008/e
8-9
Business and the Environment, Portland, Ore., www.businessandenvironment.org
9-10
Canadian Wasste & Recycling Expo, Montréal, Quebec, www.cwre.ca
15-17 International Conference on Water
Technologies, Renewable Energy & Environmental Control, Tel Aviv, Israel,
www.watec-israel.com
16-17 Greenhouse Gas Strategies in a Changing
Climate, San Francisco, www.awma.org 24-26 Renewable Energy and Energy Efficient
Building and Renovation, Salzburg, Austria, www.renexpo-austria.at/ index.php?id=7&L=1
29-01 SERDP and ESTCP Annual Symposium
& Workshop, Washington, D.C., www. serdp-estcp.org/symposium
Carbon Capture Receives ’Fresh Breath’ The EPA is currently proposing a rule to advance the usage of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technologies, while also protecting Americans’ health and the environment. CCS technologies allow CO2 to be captured at stationary sources, such as coal-fired power plants and large industrial operations, and injected underground for long-term storage in a process called geologic sequestration. The proposal is consistent with recommendations offered by President Obama’s interagency task force on CO2 sequestration. It will also create a consistent national framework to ensure the safe and effective deployment of technologies that will help position the United States as a leader in the global clean energy race. Today’s proposal will exclude from EPA’s hazardous waste regulations CO2 streams that are injected for geologic sequestration in wells designated for this purpose under the Safe Drinking Water Act. The EPA is proposing this exclusion in order to reduce barriers to the use of CCS technologies. The agency requests that comments submitted on the rule share analytical data on the overall composition of captured CO2 streams, including physical and chemical characteristics, to help the agency determine whether or not additional actions are necessary to ensure the safe use of CSS technologies. More information on the proposed rule is available at www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/industrial/geo-sequester/index.htm. To learn more about the geologic sequestration of CO2, please visit http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/wells_sequestration.cfm.
Visit the Calendar of Events at www.pollutionengineering.com for additional information. 8
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
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ENVIRONEWS AIR Baghouse Filtration Products Verified The ETV Air Pollution Control Technology (APCT) Center, operated by RTI International, has verified the performance of three baghouse filtration products for control of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions: the Tetratex 6262, 6277 and 6282 filtration media fabrics developed by Donaldson Company Inc. The center verified the following aspects of filter fabric performance regarding three products: filter outlet PM2.5 concentration, filter outlet total mass concentration, pressure drop, filtration cycle time and mass gain on the filter fabric. The verification reports and statements will be available on ETV’s website at www.epa.gov/ nrmrl/std/etv/vt-apc.html#bfp.
EPA Announces Heir to CAIR On July 7, 2011, the EPA finalized plans for a revised interstate air pollution control rule with CSAPR, i.e. the CrossState Air Pollution Rule. The rule replaces the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR), a cap-and-trade Bush-era attempt to
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accomplish similar goals, which were struck down in court. The rule affects 27 states east of the Mississippi River, and will force counties to comply with more stringent SO2and NOX emissions. Power companies will be expected to install control technology. It is expected that many companies will consider utilizing New Source Review provisions in the future. EPA chief Lisa P. Jackson noted that her goal is to ease utilities’ transition processes as much as possible. “By maximizing flexibility and leveraging existing technology, the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule will help ensure that American families aren’t suffering the consequences of pollution generated far from home, while allowing states to decide how best to decrease dangerous air pollution in the most cost-effective way.” The EPA will likely spend about $800 million per year in federal and state oversight by 2014, and roughly $1.6 billion per year in capital investments. The agency believes this, as well as its other actions, will reduce as much as 73 percent of 2005 SO2 emissions and 54 percent of NOX. EPA said the new interstate rule will protect 240 million
Americans from smog and soot pollution, with tens of thousands saved from death, heart attack, bronchitis, asthma and sick days. The CSAPR replaces and strengthens the 2005 Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR), which the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit ordered the EPA to revise in 2008.
EPA Says CO Standards Are Protective After a careful review of the science, the EPA is affirming that current national air quality standards for CO are sufficient. The science shows that the current standards protect public health, including those who are most susceptible, and the environment. Since 1980, levels of CO in the air have fallen by 80 percent, mostly as a result of motor vehicle emissions controls. To ensure people are protected from unhealthy concentrations of CO and to develop more advanced information about CO and its health impacts, the EPA is revising its air monitoring requirements. The changes will require a more focused monitoring network with CO monitors placed near roads in 52 urban areas with populations of one million or more. Monitors in areas with populations of 2.5 million or more are required to be operational by Jan. 1, 2015 and monitors required in areas with populations of one million or more are required to be operational by Jan. 1, 2017. These new monitoring sites will provide important data regarding the CO levels that may be affecting public health in neighborhoods located near busy roadways. The data will also be used to determine compliance with the current standards and to help inform future reviews of the standard. The current health standards are 9 ppm measured over 8 hours, and 35 ppm measured over 1 hour. CO levels at monitors across the country are quite low and are well within the standards, showing that federal, state and local efforts to reduce CO pollution have been successful.
ENVIRONEWS BUSINESS Rebranding Begins Synagro Technologies Inc. announced the launch of its redesigned corporate website at www.synagro.com. The new website reflects the company’s experience and leadership within the renewable energy markets, the waste capture and conversion industry, and biosolids innovation. “As the largest provider of natural waste recycling and treatment services in the U.S., we are constantly looking for new ways to be stewards of the environment, while expanding our services offerings to meet the growing needs of all our customers,” said Bill Massa, president and CEO of the company. “Our rebranded website is a reflection of our growing business and clearly communicates our vision for the future of the Company and our industry.” The company began the comprehensive rebranding effort in January 2011 and expects compete rollout by January 2012. The rebranding initiative is a reflection of the enhanced and growing service and solution offerings that have resulted from organic growth and recent acquisitions.
New Order Received Pro-Environmental Inc. has been awarded a new contract from a major electronics company in order to supply a Fluidized Bed Concentrator (FBC) to handle emissions from a hard drive manufacturing process in San Jose, Calif. The FBC system will collect air emissions from multiple sources with relatively low concentrations of VOCs. The equipment was selected over other technologies for its low operating costs, as well as its relatively small foot print requirement. The FBC system will be installed to replace an existing fixed bed carbon system that will be placed into a standby mode once the new system is commissioned later this summer. Visit www.pro-env.com for more information.
Exhibiting at WEFTEC 2011 Booth #2400
ENFORCEME ENT Miami Man Sentenced to 18 Months in Prison U.S. District Court Judge Adalberto Jordan sentenced Brendan Clery, 34, to 18 months in prison and ordered him to pay a $10,000 criminal fine and to forfeit illegal proceeds in the amount of $935,240. Clery pleaded guilty in April 2011 to knowingly importing approximately 278,256 kilograms of illegal hydrochlorofluorocarbon-22 (HCFC-22, also known as R-22) into the United States. HCFC-22 is an ozone-depleting substance regulated by the EPA under the Clean Air Act (CAA). “EPA takes seriously the smuggling of illegal substances that can harm the ozone layer, which protects us from harmful UVB radiation that can cause skin cancer and cataracts,” said Cynthia Giles, assistant administrator for EPA’s
SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
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ENVIRONEWS Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. “Today’s sentencing is an example of EPA’s commitment to aggressively enforce U.S. laws and meet our international obligations.” According to court records and statements, in 2005, Clery formed and served as president of Lateral Investments LLC, a corporation he established in Florida for the purpose of importing merchandise, including refrigerant gas he intended to sell illegally. Between June and August 2007, Clery illegally smuggled the materials from China, with a market value of $1,438,270, and at no time did Clery or Lateral Investments hold the consumption allowances required to legally import HCFC-22. EPA established a schedule to phase out the production and importation of ozone-depleting substances, with a complete phaseout starting in 2030. To meet its obligations under the Montreal Protocol, an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer, the agency issued baseline consumption allowances for the production and importation of HCFC-22 to individuals and companies. To legally import HCFC-22 for consumption, one must hold and expend one consumption allowance for each kilogram of HCFC-22 imported into the United States. This case was part of a larger criminal investigation known as Operation Catch22. It was investigated by the EPA, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Criminal Investigation Bureau, and prosecuted by special assistant U. S. Attorney Jodi A. Mazer.
PEOPLE The Battle is Not Yet Lost Ray Anderson graduated with honors from the Georgia Institute of Technology’s H. Milton Stewart School of Industrial and Systems Engineering in 1956. He founded Interface Inc, LaGrange, Ga., which manufactures modular carpet products. In 1994, he launched an 12
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
aggressive sustainability program within the company that he titled “Mission Zero.” Ray said earlier this year that half of the program’s goals had been accomplished thus far. After battling cancer for 20 months, Mr. Anderson has passed on, but the legacy he leaves behind will continue for years to come. Visit www.interfaceglobal.com for further information.
WASTE Solid Waste Exclusions Proposed The EPA is proposing to revise certain exclusions from the definition of solid waste for hazardous secondary materials that are intended for reclamation and would otherwise be regulated under Subtitle C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). The purpose of these proposed revisions is to ensure
IRIS Revamped On July 12, 2011, the EPA announced plans to improve its Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) program as part of an ongoing effort initiated in 2009 to strengthen the program. The IRIS is an online database that is publicly available and provides high quality science-based human health assessments used to inform the agency's decisions on protecting public health and the environment. “Decision makers rely on the IRIS program for accessible, science-based health assessments of environmental contaminants,” said Paul Anastas, assistant administrator of EPA’s Office of Research and Development. “Further strengthening the IRIS program is part of EPA’s commitment to continuous improvement and ensuring we use the best possible science to protect human health and the environment.”
“
Decision makers rely on the IRIS program for accessible, science-based health assessments of environmental contaminants.
that recycling regulations, as implemented, encourage reclamation in a way that does not result in increased risk to human health and the environment from discarded hazardous secondary material. The EPA predicted that between 6,500 and 9,100 industrial facilities (depending on the regulatory option(s) selected), in upwards of 622 industries, generate or recycle hazardous secondary materials. In aggregate, the RIA estimates that future average annualized costs to the industry can comply with the seven proposed revisions at between $7.2 million to $13.1 million per year under a lowerbound state adoption scenario; this may lead 13 percent of recycling facilities to implement the revisions, while spending between $7.4 million to $47.5 million per year under an upper-bound state adoption scenario, as 74 percent of recycling facilities actually implement the revisions.
”
Such improvements will make the IRIS even more capable. All new IRIS assessment documents will be shorter, clearer and more visual, concise, and transparent. Documents will be rigorously edited to eliminate inconsistencies and address redundancies, and will include more graphical and tabular representations of data. Related discussions will also be consolidated into concise narrative descriptions. Explore the IRIS database at www.epa. gov/iris.
Halt Imprelis The EPA issued an order to E.I. DuPont de Nemours (DuPont) directing the company to immediately halt the sale, use or distribution of Imprelis, a herbicide marketed to control weeds, which has reportedly harmed a large number of trees, including Norway spruce and white pine. The order, issued under the Federal Insecticide,
ENVIRONEWS Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), requires DuPont to stop the sale and distribution of Imprelis in the U.S. and also outlines specific conditions to ensure the removal of Imprelis from the market meets all legal requirements. This action follows EPA’s investigation regarding the reasons in which a large number of evergreens and other trees have been harmed following the use of the herbicide. In its evaluation, the agency is investigating whether these incidents have occurred as a result of product misuse, inadequate warnings and use directions on the product’s label, persistence in soil and plant material, uptake of the product through the root systems and absorbed into the plant tissue, environmental factors, potential runoff issues or other possible causes. On June 17, 2011, DuPont issued a letter to professional applicators, cautioning against using the product near Norway spruce or white pine trees. On July 27, 2011, DuPont acknowledged to the EPA
that there has been damage to trees associated with product use. Consequently, the company has developed an internet Web page to provide information and updates concerning the usage of the herbicide. On Aug. 4, 2011, DuPont voluntarily suspended sales of Imprelis and announced it will soon conduct a product return and refund program.
WATER Desalination for the Masses Desalination, the removal of salts from water, normally requires high-pressure processes that are energy intensive while using fine filtration. Dr. Jim Beckman, a professor at Arizona State University, has developed a new technology that uses 90 percent less electricity and low pressure techniques. Altela Inc., Albuquerque, N.M., is commercializing the product. A proprietary process is used to evaporate the water. The moisture is then carried to another vessel, where it is
safely condensed, providing clean water. The process separates salts, harmful chemicals and harmful diseases from the water. The system can be portable for usage in any location that utilizes solar power. Visit www.altelainc.com for more information.
Ultrapure Water Market Gushes The market for ultrapure water systems and consumables will exceed $3.8 billion this year as a result of activity in the semiconductor and power industries, according to a McIlvaine Co. report titled, Ultrapure Water: World Markets. 2011 will be a record year for the sales of new semiconductor equipment, as well as ultrapure water systems, with 17 major wafer fabrication facilities slated for initial operation. Such plants need to cleanse the chips at each processing step along the way. All water used for this purpose is subjected to the most efficient filtration and chemical treatment processes available.
SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
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ENVIRONEWS
The $1.3 billion budget projected for the semiconductor segment includes cartridge and reverse osmosis filters, degasification, ion exchange systems, pumps and other equipment. It also includes the piping and construction of the systems within the fab plants. Consumables, such as chemicals, are also included. Coal-fired power plants are the second largest market anticipated for this year. Gas turbines and nuclear power represent smaller markets. Pharmaceuticals will be the fourth largest segment.
Feds Pledge Help to Small Town Water Infrastructures The EPA and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) announced a national partnership to protect Americans’ health by improving rural drinking water and wastewater systems. Small water and sewage treatment facilities with limited funding and resources face challenges due to rising costs and aging equipment and pipe systems. The announced agreement will send federal resources to support communities that need assistance; the agreement will also promote job training to help people find new positions, while also addressing the water industry’s ever-increasing workforce shortage. “The agreement we are announcing today represents an exciting partnership between USDA and EPA that will greatly enhance our investments in water systems and also in developing a skilled workforce to oversee them,” said Jonathan Adelstein, administrator for USDA’s Rural Utilities Service. “By working together, our agencies will strengthen their capacity to provide rural residents with safe, clean, wellmanaged water and wastewater systems for years to come.” Under the agreement, the EPA and USDA will work together to promote jobs by targeting specific audiences, providing training for new water careers and coordinating outreach efforts that will increase the public’s visibility of the industry’s workforce needs, and developing a new generation of trained water professionals. EPA and USDA will also facilitate the exchange of successful recruitment and training strategies among stakeholders, including states and water industries. In June, President Obama signed an executive order that established the first White House Rural Council, which 14
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
ENVIRONEWS was chaired by U.S. Department of Agriculture Secretary, Tom Vilsack. The White House Rural Council will strive to create policies that will help realize the administration’s goals for rural communities. Today’s agreement is part of that initiative.
company, community or organization to inform the panel members about the potential impacts of the proposed rule on small entities. The EPA seeks self-nominations directly from the small organizations that may
be subject to the rule requirements. Other representatives, such as trade associations that exclusively, or at least primarily, represent potentially regulated small entities, may also serve as SERs. Self-nominations were due Aug. 26, 2011.
Perchlorate Control Proposed The EPA invited small businesses, governments and not-for-profit organizations to participate, as small entity representatives (SERs), in a small business advocacy review (SBAR) panel. This panel focused on the agency’s development of a rule that proposes the regulation of perchlorate, a potentially harmful chemical, in drinking water. Federal law requires agencies to establish an SBAR panel for rules that may have a significant economic impact on a substantial number of small entities. Perchlorate is a naturally occurring and man-made chemical that is used to produce rocket fuel, fireworks, flares and explosives. Perchlorate may also be present in some fertilizers and in bleach. The EPA has determined that perchlorate meets the Safe Drinking Water Act’s three criteria regarding the regulation of a contaminant. First, perchlorate may have adverse health effects. Scientific research indicates that perchlorate can disrupt the thyroid’s ability to produce hormones needed for normal growth and development. Second, there is a substantial likelihood that perchlorate occurs frequently at levels of health concern in public water systems – monitoring data show that more than four percent of public water systems have detected perchlorate. Finally, there is a meaningful opportunity to reduce the health risks of the 5.2 million to 16.6 million people who may be served drinking water containing perchlorate on yearly basis. The panel will include federal representatives from the Small Business Administration, the Office of Management and Budget and the EPA. The panel members generally ask a selected group of SERs to provide advice and recommendations on behalf of their SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
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LEGALLOOKOUT By Lynn L. Bergeson
Pipeline Awareness Website Launched Now, Americans can acquire extensive information regarding the pipelines that will impact them, their neighbors, and their loved ones – well into the future. o say the United States’ natural gas pipeline infrastructure is a crucial component of the nation’s day-to-day operations would truly be an understatement. Within the United States, there are more than 302,110 miles of natural gas pipelines. The lines are owned by a variety of entities, including municipalities, local distribution companies, and inter and intrastate pipeline companies. This complex labyrinth of underground piping offers energy security but also presents potentially significant safety risks, which must be avoided. As a result this past spring, the Department of Transportation’s (DOT) Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) launched a Pipeline Safety Awareness website intended to provide the public, community planners, property developers, and others accessible information and guidance on locating area pipelines and ensuring their safety.
T
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Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
Background With more than 2.5 million miles of pipelines delivering energy to homes and businesses throughout the United States, it is no wonder why the safety of these assets is currently a top DOT priority. The nation’s energy distribution system is essential for the domestic economy and is a significant component of energy delivery. Undoubtedly, the integrity of these pipelines is vital – for energy deliverance and environmental soundness. A compromised pipeline can give rise to oil and gas leaks and ruptures that pose safety risks and environmental degradation threats to thousands of Americans.
Pipeline safety awareness Mindful of the need to raise public and worker awareness regarding the value of these embedded assets and the potential risks posed by inadvertent action or
LEGALLOOKOUT By Lynn L. Bergeson
neglect, the Obama Administration has set out to communicate what these risks are and how best to avoid them. An important element of the administration’s communication strategy is the creation of a website devoted to pipeline safety awareness. The website, http://opsweb.phmsa.dot.gov/pipelineforum, includes safety advisories on specific pipelines, as well as maps, reports, research findings, frequently asked questions, and other resources designed to inform the public about their local pipeline infrastructure. Due to recent pipeline incidents involving seam weld anomalies and gaps in data and recordkeeping that have hampered DOT safety initiatives, the department has embarked upon an entirely different communication strategy – public meetings. On May 24, 2011, PHMSA published a notice in the Federal Register, announcing municipal meetings on July 20, 2011 and July 21, 2011 to discuss the management of challenges associated with pipeline seam welds and the enhancement of risk assessments and recordkeeping. Such meetings will likely continue in the future since they provide attendees with opportunities to obtain information, to discuss pipeline safety problems, and offer constructive solutions to these challenges.
NEW!
Such meetings offer readers opportunities to network and learn within a broad community of stakeholders who have invested their time, energy and resources towards increasing pipeline safety awareness. Earlier this year, PHMSA convened another public meeting devoted to the creation of a subcommittee to assist in the preparation of a pipeline safety report, which will be available to the nation, as well as the implementation of a National Pipeline Safety Forum. More information on both public meetings is available at the above-referenced website. PHMSA will continue to update its website as more information regarding pipeline safety becomes accessible. PE
Lynn L. Bergeson is managing director of Bergeson & Campbell, P.C., a Washington, D.C., law firm focusing on conventional and engineered nanoscale chemical, pesticide, and other specialty chemical product approval and regulation, environmental health and safety law, chemical product litigation, and associated business issues, and President of The Acta Group L.L.C. and The Acta Group EU Ltd. with offices in Washington, D.C., and Manchester, U.K.
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17
GREENCONNECTIONS By Barbara Quinn
The Power of Waste Arizona State University engineering students implement a novel way to utilize waste to generate power and improve the United States’ current energy sources. ecent news reports regarding Arizona State University (ASU) engineering students, who have created a digester to generate power from dog waste, have triggered more than a few snickers. While the story is worth a chuckle, using waste as feedstock to produce energy is no laughing matter. The current push for renewable energy sources focuses on technologies that are easily visible, such as solar panel arrays or windmills. The term “biofuel” often directs attention to corn-based ethanol, once championed as the poster child of renewable fuel. However, new developments regarding the transformation of feedstock, as well as technologies with intertwined goals of using waste to produce electricity with fewer siting, cost, and environmental issues, are currently standing in the shadows, waiting to be fully utilized by the engineering population.
R
Feedstock and technology A major component of biofuel is biopower, which is electricity produced from organic matter found in materials, including wood, agricultural or animal waste, plants, and municipal solid waste. Globally, biopower produces more electricity than solar and wind energy combined; in the United States, it is second only to hydropower as the largest source of renewable electricity. While combustion technologies, such as fluidizedbed boilers, are moderately well established, researchers are ramping up their search for answers to questions regarding the bioenergy and biofuels landscape. Throughout 2011, various developments have been discerned inside and outside the typical laboratory setting, especially the following: • DOE’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is developing a high-efficiency thermal waste-heat energy converter that actively cools large waste heat-producing systems and generates electricity. The technology is based on an energy harvesting system that allows current to flow in alternate directions when it is heated www.ornl.gov/info/press_ and cooled. According to ORNL, releases/get_press_relea the technology can generate elecse.m?ReleaseNumber= trical energy from thermal waste mr20110516-00 streams with temperature gradi-
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Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
ents of just a few degrees to several hundred degrees (Use the mobile tag with a smartphone for more information). • Researchers at DOE’s BioEnergy Science Center have recently developed a strain of cellulose-degrading microbe that synthesizes isobutanol directly from cellulose in feedstock such as corn stover and switchgrass. The microbe-enabled bioprocess represents savings in processing costs and time due to its ability to eliminate two steps in the process. According to the researchers, isopbutanol can be blended with gasoline at any ratio and used directly in current engines without modification. • Meanwhile, The Dow Chemical Company has completed a pilot test to utilize recycled plastic to generate energy. According to Dow, the test has shown that 96 percent of available energy can be recovered after incinerating 578 pounds of used plastic, which is equivalent to 11.1 million BTUs of natural gas. • BMW Manufacturing Co. has continued to expand its usage of methane gas to generate electricity at its Greer, S.C. plant. Originally, four turbines generated electricity from methane gas that had been piped from the nearby Palmetto Landfill. Three years later, as engineers recognized the landfill was producing more gas than the plant was using, and expanded the system to further develop the energy-intensive paint shop, which consumes about half the energy used in the entire facility. The original turbines were replaced with high-efficiency ones that increased electrical output from 14 percent to nearly 30 percent. The program annually reduces CO2 emissions by 92,000 tons, which saves the company an average of $5 million in energy costs. With the new turbines, the company anticipates an additional cost savings of up to $2 million. It seems those ASU students had the right idea all along – use feedstock to decrease waste and generate bioenergy. In doing so, two goals can be accomplished at once: generate energy and reduce waste from various sources, whether it be animals, vegetables, offices, homes, or factories. PE
Barbara Quinn has written about environmental, public policy and economic development issues for over 25 years. She has been published in magazines serving the environmental, industrial and municipal communities. She can be contacted at [email protected].
CASEBOOKCANADA By Dianne Saxe, Ph.D.
Carbon Social Costs and Biosolid Usage How will lawmakers’ current decisions impact the world’s environment – and the lives of future generations? s Canadian governmental officials, environmental leaders, and scientists strive to improve the overall condition of the earth’s environment for the future well-being of current and impending global citizens, two questions will likely need to be answered – and soon. How much should we spend on the reduction of carbon emissions in 2011 and beyond? And, perhaps more importantly, what types of negative consequences will develop if the nation does not resolve such issues? U.S. federal lawmakers are required to consider the “social costs of carbon” as they issue significant regulations, while regarding the nation’s overall cost/ benefit analysis. But, how are such costs calculated? The World Resources Institute and the Environmental Law Institute have recently issued a policy brief on the hidden assumptions and value judgments that drive the official numbers, which, on average, are valued at $21/ ton. According to More Than Meets the Eye: The Social Cost of Carbon in U.S. Climate Policy, in Plain English, which is written by Ruth Greenspan Bell and Dianne Callian of the Environmental Law Institute, the beguiling concreteness of these numbers form a masquerade for choices, which are implemented by a few unaccountable economists, regarding various issues, such as: • Which elements of climate science should be included in their models – and at what levels of severity; • Whether and how to include low probability, high impact catastrophes; • Whether and how to include fiscal values regarding non-monetary changes such as species loss, crop shifts, human migration, and disease; • Whether or not the costs imposed on future generations can be discounted.
A
Can biosolids be safely applied to land? The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment is presently concluding its consultation on the proposed Canada-wide Approach for the Management of Wastewater Biosolids, a policy intended to encourage the “beneficial use and sound management of valuable resources in municipal biosolids, municipal sludge and treated septage.” Such policy suggests that beneficial uses should be based on sound management, which includes: • The substantiation of a resource value (efficacy)
• An adherence to federal, provincial and municipal standards and regulations • Strategies to minimize potential risks to the environment and human health, while also reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
“
…what types of negative consequences will develop if the nation does not resolve such issues?
The policy also includes the following supporting principles: 1.) Municipal biosolids must contain valuable nutrients and organic matter that can be recycled. 2.) Adequate source reduction and treatment of municipal sludge, and septage should reduce pathogens, vector attraction, odors and substances of concern in municipal biosolids. 3.) Beneficial use of municipal sludge and treated septage should minimize net greenhouse gas emissions resulting from treatment processes or municipal biosolids use. 4.) Beneficial uses and sound management practices and usage of municipal biosolids and treated septage must adhere to all applicable safety, quality and management standards and regulations. This proposed policy assumes that sewage biosolids can be applied to land, without causing adverse effects, as long as pre-existing laws and standards are abided. The policy also includes some evaluation of emerging substances of concern, such as pharmaceuticals, but, unfortunately, it lacks a clear framework for avoiding the land application of biosolids near vulnerable aquifers. Now, two final questions remain – how will this policy positively impact both the world’s environment and the well-being of our children…and their children? Also, what type of impact will we have on the future? PE
”
Dianne Saxe is one of Canada’s leading environmental lawyers, is a certified specialist in environmental law and member of the Ontario Bar Association Environmental Section Executive. She also holds one of Canada’s only Doctorates of Jurisprudence (Ph.D.) in environmental law.
SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
19
INFRASTRUCTURE – Importance of That Which
IS NOT
By CHARLES J. LEWIS, P.E.; THOMAS L. NOERENBERG, P.E. and BROWN & CALDWELL, St. Paul, Minn.
Above: 72-inch diameter segmental Hobas pipes were inserted via a shaft, which was only slightly larger than the pipes themselves.
Faulty sewers could not dent the Minnesota Twins’ goals of playing (or competing) at Target Field
ON OPENING DAY 2010. 20
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
VISIBLE Design engineers were hands-on throughout the entire internal inspection of the existing sewer.
s Minnesota Twins fans reflect on the most significant events of their club’s recent history, a majority would agree that the opening of Target Field, the team’s recently constructed, world-class sporting facility, was truly a spectacular moment. Yet, few fans actually know about the collective effort of a consortium of designers, constructors, and manufacturers who
A
feverishly worked on the field’s belowground repairs, long before the aboveground work could even begin. Back in 2007, Minneapolis was eagerly anticipating the execution of the first stages of construction on the long-awaited ballpark. Aside from the development of the actual facility, various projects, including adjacent transportation improvements of two commuter rail lines and the Fifth Street Bridge, also were implemented to help revitalize the area. However, deep below the surface, one of the downtown’s oldest sewers lurked. Constructed from limestone and brick in 1889, long before city leaders envisioned skyscrapers, intermodal transportation hubs, and modern sports stadiums, this aging infrastructure concerned some of the city’s leading officials. What effect would construction vibrations and additional loads, due to future renovation projects, have on this antiquated interceptor line? Once the ballpark and new developments to the north were constructed, access to the interceptor for repair or rehabilitation would be extremely limited and highly disruptive. The ballpark would be located directly to the south of the pipeline. Meanwhile, the west abutment for the Fifth Street Bridge, as well as pile foundation piers, was designed to straddle the interceptor. Other structures would then sit directly atop the sewer line. Without a doubt, the Metropolitan Council Environmental Services (MCES) had a decision to make – and fast.
Assessing infrastructure The engineering and consulting firm of Brown and Caldwell (BC), Saint Paul, Minn., was hired in January 2007 to conduct an internal inspection, to evaluate alternatives, to recommend a solution, and to prepare bid documents, all within a highly accelerated time schedule to allow for the completion of rehabilitation before the end of that year. Engineers conducted internal inspections of the sewer line in February and March 2007. The assessment team, which included engineers, a surveyor, and a support staff for lighting, hoist operations and safety, entered the cavernous interceptor after midnight to take advantage of the minimum daily flow that normally occurs before dawn. Instrument usage within the tunnel was restricted due to flowing wastewater and limited visibility; therefore the survey team employed a variety of basic yet creative methods. First, they measured the tunnel width with a steel tape and calculated the height with a modified survey rod. A cloth tape and a nail, driven into the brick arch every 25 feet, was then used to measure pipe length. The inspections revealed a number of deformities, ranging from crown cracks and mineral deposits to two sagging areas bulging inward near the pilings that supported the bridge. Numerous groundwater leaks were located within masonry joints as well. Inspectors also found sediment in the east and west reaches, along with bricks and
SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
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INFRASTRUCTURE – That Which IS NOT VISIBLE
stood sliplining would likely be the most effective repair method available. The inspection also revealed whether or not deformities would limit the actual size of the sliplining pipe. BC contacted two prospective pipe manufacturers to acquire prices on the 72-inch and 78-inch-long diameter pipes. In addition to the cost of the pipe and the appurtenances, the organization focused on consistently meeting delivery deadlines.
Design criteria outlined
The 78-inch Hobas liner pipe created a capacity of 185 MGD, which exceeded the previous design flow.
stonework that had been dislodged from the tunnel’s invert and walls. Just west of the Bassett Creek crossing, two pipe sags had created a minimum height measurement of 81 inches and a minimum width dimension of 86 inches. Fortunately, the reach of the pipe from the eastern creek was found to be in fairly good condition with few deformities. The lowest height measured 88 inches while the minimum width was 79 inches. However, the eastern reach of the interceptor line literally threw the rehabilitation team a “curve ball.” The pipe had actually been constructed on a curve, with a relatively short radius, posing yet another sliplining challenge for the construction team. MCES’s recorded drawings proved the curve had a 59-foot-long centerline radius with a centerline length of 40.5 feet.
possible renovation methods remained: • A crown repair involving the excavation of the entire length of the pipe. • Sliplining the pipe within the interceptor sewer. The crown repair option was soon discarded since the excavation of the entire length of the pipe would cause public disruption. To slipline the pipe, sections of the existing brick arch would need to be re-opened in order to install the slipline pipe in segments. By the time the constructors had already collected measurements during inspections, they under-
Hobas Pipe USA, Houston, was selected to supply centrifugally cast, fiberglass reinforced, polymer-mortar (CCFRPM) pipe to slipline 1,300 lineal feet of the existing 84-inch pipe. The design flow for 1-MN-320 was projected to reach a peak of approximately 150 million gallons per day (MGD) through the year 2050. When hydraulically modeled, the 72-inch fiberglass pipe showed a capacity of approximately 126 MGD, indicating a surcharging of the pipe during peak flows. Yet, the drawdown, due to the drop, would either minimize or eliminate the surcharging, while aligning its capacity computed using Manning’s Equation of 166 MGD. The 78-inch fiberglass liner pipe created a capacity of 185 MGD, exceeding the 150 MGD design flow.
Choosing a rehabilitation method Regrettably, the 1-MN-320 interceptor had no parallel pipe to redirect flow. No route for temporary flow conveyance could be planned, shipped, or constructed through this congested area while also supporting the project’s aggressive schedule. Additionally, the acquisition of necessary, temporary pumps would be nearly impossible and extremely expensive given the project’s limited time constraints. Therefore, the most effective repair method would have to be implemented “in the wet,” with wastewater flowing in the pipe. Consequently, only two 22
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
Designer Tom Norenberg measures the sewer during the pre-planning inspection.
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INFRASTRUCTURE – That Which IS NOT VISIBLE
BC partnered with the pipe manufacturer to design the segments for the short radius curve east of Bassett Creek. The challenge was to fabricate sections that could be constructed and grouted into a pipe which would not be precisely surveyed. At the center of the curve, the manufacturer construct-
ed an access structure, which included two outside drops for sanitary sewage from the new stadium, the Minikahda Storage building, and the future development to the north.
Construction challenges As the project’s low bidder, Lametti and
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Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
Sons Inc. could commit to meeting the aggressive deadlines required to maintain the timely execution of all ground-level projects. Rehabilitation began in April 2007. Since scheduling between this sewer rehabilitation and the other two concurrent projects was essential, timing and access to the interceptor, as well as material delivery and construction activities, were critical considerations. With numerous projects occurring in the downtown area, pedestrian and traffic changes had to be closely sequenced and scheduled. The contractor then performed moderate cleaning below the water surface for the lining operation before removing mineral deposits from the walls. Several service connections protruding into the interceptor line were trimmed and reconnected. “In some locations, we needed to remove some of the internal brick lining to accommodate the new pipe and to maintain the proposed grade,” said Fred Chase, P.E., vice president of construction, Lametti and Sons. During the process, the engineers and suppliers determined that at least six access pits would be necessary, including two rectangular pits over the sagged sections, as well as a large pit at a bend in the pipe near the east end of the project. The depth, from the surface to the crown of the interceptor, ranged from 18 feet to 50 feet below grade. The access pits consisted of a trench box for the shallow-
INFRASTRUCTURE – That Which IS NOT VISIBLE
according to the schedule established by the rail authority. Undoubtedly, the interceptor rehabilitation work was an absolute success – a “grand slam” per say – as it was completed on schedule in December 2007 for just under $4 million. Target Field was
renovated just in time for the Minnesota Twins’ opening day game in 2010. PE For more information, contact Kimberly Paggioli, P.E., vice president of marketing and quality control, Hobas Pipe USA at (281) 8212200 or by e-mail at [email protected]. Also, please visit www.hobaspipe.com.
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est pit. Others featured a 25- to 30-foot diameter circular ring beam and lagged pits or a rectangular drilled soldier pile and lagged pits, modified to accommodate bends in the interceptor and the inclusion of new structures. To maintain the grade, while also working within a close tolerance between the inside diameter of the interceptor and the outside diameter of the new pipe, the engineers individually placed each pipe. This level of detail required man entry into the interceptor during the low flow times of the day. The new pipe was blocked into place and grouted in two lifts with cellular concrete.
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Shortly after the bid was awarded, the Northstar Commuter Rail authority requested that the project near the area of the Fifth Street Bridge west abutment be completed sooner, as it was a critical component of the development of the new rail line. Due to the change in scheduling, each contractor was required to add another pit in order to install the segment under the abutment first, while also working underneath the bridge as it was being partially demolished. They installed the commuter rail directly above the pipe,
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SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
25
Behind Every Goal,
AN ASSIST By DEBRA WOODS, Director of Sales, Control Instruments Corp. and Drue Smallwood, Applications Engineer, Callidus Technologies by Honeywell
The flare had to be constant, the waste steam was anything but: In this case study, two companies manage to devise a system to control variant levels of variant refinery gases without breaking the bank with added fuels.
W
hen using a flare stack as a pollution control device, it is increasingly becoming important to reduce emissions while saving energy. In refineries and chemical plants, proper flare stack design is essential to handle their multiple waste streams for maximum performance with minimum emissions. Destruction efficiency and emissions (both visible and invisible) are some of the more important criteria to consider when designing a flare. When the design is done correctly, dramatic cost savings will also be realized. Waste streams are collected from the different processes at refineries and chemical plants, and are sent to the flare stack for destruction. EPA codes at 40 CFR 60.18 state that for optimum destruction efficiency in the flare, the waste stream must run at a minimum lower heating value (LHV) of between 200 and 300 BTU/SCF, depending on the smokeless assist medium implemented. 26
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
Continuous monitoring of the waste stream is necessary to identify the minimum heating value and ensure proper combustion efficiency. When there is a constant waste stream or consistent composition in the flare
Commission Guidelines, require monitoring LHV to adjust assist gas to achieve proper combustion efficiency. These are backed by law and often come with stiff penalties – a proper assist gas control system ensures compliance.
“
Doing it with flare
… it is increasingly becoming important to reduce emissions while saving energy.
header, the flare design is fairly straightforward. But what happens when the flare must handle varying waste streams and combinations of each (more than 70 scenarios), all with unique compositions ranging from pure methane to streams with 60 percent steam or even 50 percent NH3? In this case, the flare system design must be flexible and have real-time ability to adjust the amount of assist gas that is injected into the waste stream to ensure destruction efficiencies of 98 percent and higher. Certain regulations around the world, such as 40 CFR 60.18 and the Royal
”
The flare could be designed to simply inject the maximum amount of added fuel to cover the worst-case scenario, but what if this fuel requirement is as high as 50,000 lb/hr? This could mean that the plant is using two or even 10 times more fuel than necessary to operate the flare during minimum production loads. A 200 BTU/SCF waste gas will not need nearly as much assist as a 50 BTU/ SCF waste gas, so expensive fuel will be wasted. The answer to this dilemma is to monitor the LHV and flow rate of the
Behind Every Goal,
AN ASSIST waste gas on a continuous basis using the adaptive-assist approach, and ratio a control valve in the assist-gas line to moderate the gas usage. By directly measuring the LHV of the waste stream, as seen in Figure 1, it can be determined whether the waste stream can be used as a stand-alone fuel source for the flare or whether it needs to be blended with a constant fuel source, such as natural gas or propane. Callidus Technologies by Honeywell, Tulsa, Okla., has used Control Instruments Corp’s, Angleton, Texas, analyzers to optimize the efficiency of their flare stacks by measuring the LHV of gas mixtures of multiple gas streams in order to control the amount of assist-gas needed. These fully heated, stand-alone analyzers feature a microcombustion type calorimeter and have a uniform response to a wide variety of combustibles, including such refinery gases as NH3, propylene, ethylene oxide and BTEX. Its unique design allows accurate measurement and control of multiple gas mixtures under dynamic conditions – enabling the use of adaptive assist to be applied to their flares.
When mixtures vary Since many fuel mixtures contain various combustible gases and vapors, along with nitrogen, CO2, H2O vapor, corrosives, etc., it is important to consider the response of the analyzer to each component. An analyzer’s response to a particular gas relative to a standard reference gas is known as the response factor. Because the analyzer actually burns a sample to determine its calorific value, this micro-combustion calorimeter is a direct measurement of the sample, and therefore has stable response factors (see Table 1). This is useful for practically “anything that burns” including unknown mixtures. By necessity, the flame in the analyzer’s hydrogen-fueled combustion calorimeter is small and the hydrogen fuel is low. Careful control and compensation for fuel and sample flow allows precise measurement from a small flame size in an apparatus that is small enough
Figure 1: An Adaptive assist system uses LHV monitoring of the waste stream to identify its energy content and determine whether it can be used as a standalone fuel supply or whether it needs to be supplemented with a constant fuel source (assist gas) such as natural gas or propane.
to be thermostatically heated to a high temperature. The small flame quickly responds to changes in concentration, by using temperature detectors with low thermal mass. This analyzer therefore, quickly and continuously measure the heating value of a wide range of combustibles and is fully heated to prevent condensation of water vapor, and corrosion of gases such as H2S or NH3; the sample stays intact during measurement. The combustion experts have researched increasing destruction efficiency. For example, one waste gas
stream in a plant consists of 40 percent NH3 mixed with 60 percent steam. NH3 is not only dangerous and toxic at elevated levels, it also carries a foul smell that can permeate an entire plant, and destruction of NH3 is paramount. Pure NH3 will burn independently at drastically reduced velocities, but when mixed with high volumes of steam, the gas can simply vent off without a proper heat zone to destroy it, and it will not achieve complete combustion. Depending on the burner design, a flare starts experiencing flammability problems with a steam concentration of around 40 percent. The reason that a propane mixture with 62 percent steam cannot burn is because of fuel/air mixing. As the steam concentration approaches 62 percent the range of flammability limits (between lower and upper limits) approaches zero. As a general rule of thumb, NH3 should burn sufficiently at 300 BTU per standard cubic foot (SCF). So common practice says to bring the mixture up to 300 BTU/SCF and everything should burn fine. However, when water (steam) is involved, as in this highlighted case, simply bringing the mixture to 300 BTU/SCF with propane isn’t adequate. Due to the various gas streams in this plant, the industry standard practice of calculating assist gas and mixing upstream of the flare inlet could not be used. It has been proven through calculations that this method would result in significantly more assist gas used, which would lead to incomplete combustion and hence not achieve the proper destruction efficiency.
Table 1: Heating value response factors.
SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
27
Behind Every Goal,
AN ASSIST Introducing assist gas Primarily, there are two types of designs can be used to introduce assist gas. In the first case, the assist gas is introduced upstream of the flare inlet and thoroughly mixed before exiting the flare tip. The second case injects assist
gas at the flare exit through an upper flame ring, creating a flame bath in which the waste gas burns due to the high adiabatic temperature of the flame. A flammability diagram is commonly used in burner design in order to ensure that complete combustion is possible.
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P Pollution ll ti E Engineering i i SEPTEMBER2011
Each diagram has five different lines. The first line presented is the operating line for the fuel with no steam dilution. At zero fuel flow, the oxygen concentration is 21 percent. As the fuel flow increases the oxygen content decreases to zero when the mixture is 100 percent fuel. The second line (lower) is drawn from the lower flammability limit on the fuel with no steam line (as described above) to the minimum oxygen concentration required for combustion. The third line (higher) is drawn from the upper flammability limit on the fuel with no steam line (as described above) to the minimum oxygen concentration required for combustion. The enclosed triangle formed by these lines represents the limits of flammability for the fuel/ steam mixtures in air. The operating line is for the combustion process. It is drawn from zero fuel (oxygen 21 percent) flow to the maximum combustible component percentage contained in the fuel air mixture. If this line does not pass through the flammability triangle, then it is not possible to have a flammable mixture.
Get burned In Graph 1, (the 300 BTU/SCF NH3 / steam/propane mixture), the operating line does not even pass through the triangle. In fact, the mixture would have to be brought all the way up to 448 BTU/
Behind Every Goal,
AN ASSIST SCF in order for combustion to even be possible (Graph 2). It should be noted that this mixture has a very narrow range of flammability. This just is not practical and will result in high fuel costs and a narrow margin for error. Therefore, another design approach must be taken. Changing the flare tip design permits mixtures of the steam and NH3 that are well within the flammability limits. In fact, calculations using computational fluid dynamics and other mathematical models helped combustion experts discover that not only is a certain amount of assist gas required for these types of applications, but they also confirmed the way assist gas is injected dramatically affected its required volume. The fuel in the high steam cases can be used to create a flame bath at the exit – this requires an assist ring with high volume nozzles injecting assist gas at the tip exit. By introducing the propane at the flare tip via an upper
Ammonia -Steam Plus Propane - 300 Btu 0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1 Fuel In Air lower
0.05
Higher Stoich Operating Line
0 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Frac Comb
Graph 1: Mixing Ammonia/Steam/Propane (300 BTU/SCF)
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29
Behind Every Goal,
AN ASSIST Ammonia -Steam Plus Propane - 448 Btu 0.25
0.2
0.15
Frac O2 0.1
Fuel In Air lower
0.05
Higher Stoich Operating Line
0 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Frac Comb
Graph 2: Mixing Ammonia/Steam/Propane (448 BTU/SCF)
Ammonia -Steam Plus Propane 0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1 Fuel In Air lower
0.05
Higher Stoich Operating Line
0 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Frac Comb
Graph 3: Optimized Design (“Exit Case”) with Upper Assist Gas Ring
ignition ring, the operating line falls well within the flammability triangle for both cases (Graph 3). This design variation can save 50 percent of the added fuel requirement over mixing it with the waste gas upstream if done properly. In this par30
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
ticular case, injecting assist gas at the flare tip exit provides better mixing with the waste stream to achieve complete combustion at the exit tip – therefore, achieving optimum destruction efficiency with less added fuel.
In either case, whether mixing upstream or creating a flame bath at the exit, LHV monitoring adds an additional layer of efficiency and savings. By using actual measurements, the process can be adjusted in real-time to work with actual conditions. In a plant where products and concentrations can change at any moment, it is essential to monitor the LHV in realtime to provide the needed readings for dynamic adjustments. So, the monitoring device not only saves money by reducing the amount of assist gas needed, but in conjunction with proper flare design, will improve destruction efficiency of hazardous compounds. PE By Debra Woods, director of sales, Control Instruments Corporation, Fairfield, N.J. and Drue Smallwood, applications engineer, Callidus Technologies by Honeywell, Tulsa, Okla. Visit www.controlinstruments.com or www.callidus. com.
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The Generation of ACETONES and KETONES – a Positive Process?
By JIM MUELLER, PH.D., The Adventus Group
A look back at an in-depth study regarding an in-situ chemical treatment, which employed a fermentation process – and exceeded a laboratory’s expectations. hen an impacted aquifer is amended with carbon, or heated, a small portion of the fermentable organic matter may be converted to a variety of ketones, including acetone or methyl ethyl ketone (MEK; 2-butanone). The processes might temporarily raise groundwater concentrations for such compounds above site-specific cleanup levels and also may trigger regulatory concerns, unless one completely understands the methods, fate and transport of ketone production. Acetone is a VOC, but it also provides a readily biodegradable food source for soil microbes that perform reductive dechlorination. In groundwater, acetone generally has a half-life that varies from 19 to 197 days.[1] On the other hand, MEK, one of the more common volatile ketone compounds, has been widely used as an
W
32
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
industrial solvent for paints, lacquers and varnishes in the past.[2] It is also known for being highly degradable[3] as its environmental half-lives have reportedly ranged from 13 to 128 days.[1]
“
fermentation products is widely recognized as a potential limitation of substrate addition for enhanced bioremediation.[5] For instance, during a carbon injection, comprised of corn syrup and
During another case study reported by the same authors, elevated levels of MEK and acetone concentrations were detected in the injection well and several downgradient wells.
The occasional, transient production of acetone and/or MEK generally occurs when alkanes and high-organic carbon levels, which exist in sub-oxic, methanogenic environments, are present.[4] It is assumed that MEK and acetone production transpires before the system actually becomes fully anaerobic, or after a carbon source is injected. The formation of such
”
cheese whey, that was followed by the bio augmentation example reported in the literature[6], MEK was observed at concentrations of 3,200 μg/L, but was not reported in subsequent monitoring (with a detection limit of 100 μg/L). It was hypothesized that MEK was developed as a result of highly effective dechlorination reactions and was possi-
ACETONES and
Injection spacing 12 ft
Figure 1: Site A - The treatment of chlorinated ethenes in a silty sand/clayey sand aquifer elevates acetone and MEK levels.
bly associated with the enhanced activities of Clostridium sp. or other ketoneproducing fermenters that also dechlorinate ethenes. During another case study reported by the same authors, elevated levels of MEK and acetone concentrations were detected in the injection well and several downgradient wells, with initial levels as high as 6,000 μg/L. These concentrations rapidly decreased due to an extension of time and distance. Meanwhile, acetone can also be generated abiotically. For example, it was produced as a result of electrical resistance heating (ERH) treatment at five U.S. Navy facilities.[7] After ERH, acetone concentrations in groundwater are typically less than 500 mg/L, as acetone rapidly biodegrades to non-detectable levels while the site cools down to ambient conditions.
such as propionic acid, generated during preservation, can be biologically reduced to isopropyl alcohol (IPA). IPA then undergoes photocatalytic
KETONES
oxidation as it converts to acetone. Such oxidation can occur during the entire duration of the sample hold time (between sample collection and analysis). • False positives – Certain VFAs may be transformed into acetone during sample preservation and/or analytical processing. Some sources of carbon will generate large volumes of VFAs. For example, it is possible to convert acetic acid or other VFAs to acetone through the usage of high temperatures while packing in a column during GC analysis. It may even be feasible to convert VFAs to acetone during certain sample cleanup steps that are employed prior to GC analysis. • Metal oxides – There is also evidence that some metal oxides can convert acetic acid into acetone; various aquifers actually have extensive amounts of native iron oxides. • Field activity contaminants – Acetone may also be converted as a result of contaminants from field activities, such as residuals from cleaning equipment.
Other possible sources of ketones There are several other circumstances in which MEK and acetone are observed in water samples from remediation sites: • Lab artifacts – Acetone has also been produced in samples that were stored using standard preservation techniques. Volatile fatty acids (VFAs),
Figure 2: Site B - The treatment of chlorinated ethenes, ethanes, and methanes in a saprolite aquifer leads to increasing levels of acetone and MEK. SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
33
ACETONES and
KETONES Table 1. Site E: Design of EHC ISCR.
EHC PRB dimensions: Figure 3: Site C - The treatment of chlorinated ethenes, ethanes, and methanes in a weathered bedrock aquifer raises acetone and MEK levels.
Value Unit
PRB length
200 ft.
PRB width
15 ft.
Depth to top of plume
6 ft bgs
Depth to bottom of plume
35 ft bgs
PRB thickness
29.0 ft.
PRB volume
87,000 ft3
Mass of soil in PRB Estimated porosity Volume pore space
5,003 U.S. tons 30% 26,524 ft3
EHC mass calculations: Percentage EHC by soil mass Linear groundwater velocity Contact time Contact time * application rate multiplier Mass of EHC required Mass of EHC required per sq. ft. of face area
• Minor catabolites of zero valent iron (ZVI) reactions – In iron literature, there are reports concerning the formation of small amounts of butane (C4H10) and butene (C4H8) during degradation of TCE and TCA, while using ZVI. Oxidation from butane to MEK may also occur.
“
of time, in which ketones were observed, ranged from two to 15 months, dependent upon site-specific conditions. Site A. Chlorinated ethenes present in a silty sand/clayey sand aquifer, with a groundwater velocity of 5 ft/d was treated with EHC at 0.25 percent (soil mass basis). In one well near the up-gradient
Acetone was elevated above standards during the initial two to eight-monthlong time period following the injection. Afterwards, the concentrations remained below regulatory guidelines.
Field data of ketone generation The generation of ketones has certainly not been observed at every site where products, such as Adventus’ EHC, have been utilized, yet some of these compounds have still been noted at times. Examples of temporarily elevated acetone and MEK concentrations are provided below, according to the following five sites. The distance of travel varied from nearly five to less than 100 feet down gradient, and the length 34
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
”
edge of the injection zone (Figure 1), the concentration of acetone was elevated above standards during the initial two to eight-month-long time period following the injection. Afterwards, the concentrations remained below regulatory guidelines. Site B. EHC was applied to treat a plume containing chlorinated ethenes, ethanes and methanes in a saprolite aquifer. In two wells near the downgradient edge of the injection zone, the concentrations of
0.30% 0.16 ft/day 94 days 28 days*%EHC 30,050 lbs. 5.2 lbs./ft2
acetone and MEK were elevated during the first three to 18-month-long period following the injection process (Figure 2). Subsequently, the concentrations remained below regulatory guidelines. Site C. Chlorinated ethenes, ethanes and methanes were present in a weathered bedrock aquifer. For a period of three to 14 months after the injection, the concentrations of acetone and MEK were elevated in one well near the up-gradient edge of the injection zone (Figure 3). Thereafter, the concentrations remained below regulatory guidelines. Site D. To treat chlorinated ethenes in a silt and silty sand aquifer, a 1 percent EHC application rate was applied during the PRB configuration. The concentrations of acetone and MEK were elevated for roughly five to 15 months after the injection occurred in multiple wells within and near the down-gradient edge of the injected zone (Figure 4). All concentrations remained below regulatory guidelines after the treatment.[8] Site E. Throughout September and October 2009, a 200-foot-long EHCamended zone, situated perpendicular to the perceived groundwater flow direction, was created to control a cis 1, 2-dichloro-
ACETONES and
KETONES
Figure 4: Site D - The treatment of ethenes in silt and silty sand aquifer further increases MEK levels.
ethene (cDCE) plume at a site in Northeast USA. The targeted depth interval ranged from 6 to 35 ft. bgs. The area received 30,050 lbs. of the amendment, which was applied to eight injection points (Table 1). Following the injection via hydrofracturing, rapid and effective cDCE removal (without the accumulation of catabolites) was associated with the detection of MEK in wells YO-119 and YO-117D and, to a lesser degree, in wells YO-117S, YO-14ALX, YO-14X, and YO-12AX (Figure 5). Acetone generation was noted as a transient effect at YO-12AX during the March and June 2010 sampling events (Figure 6). Data from the two wells above indicated that the occurrence of MEK actually coincided with increases in concentrations of TOC and dissolved iron. Therefore, it is likely the MEK was produced due to enhanced microbial activity, which was influenced by the injected chemicals. It should be noted that the injection contractor also used supplemental guar. As previously noted, guar is a readily biodegradable carbon source that could have contributed to the observed MEK response. SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
35
ACETONES and
KETONES
%UD]LOLVD%,* FRXQWU\ /HW6*:KHOS \RXPDNHLW PDQDJHDEOH Navigating the environmental opportunities in Brazil takes the skill of an explorer, the expert knowledge of a local guide, and the reliability of the best porters. Find it all in the capable hands of SGW Services, Brazil’s leading environmental consultancy, serving multinational clients to the highest international standards. Whether you’re a consultancy based in U.S. without operations in Brazil, or an industrial client searching for local and reliable alternatives for Brazilian plants, let SGW be YOUR local team. Visit us online today at SGWservices. com or call 800-259-1292 (in the US) or 815-599-1280 (international) and discover all the ways SGW can help you make your entry into Brazil a little less intimidating.
Figure 5. Site E – The location of monitoring wells and MEK impacts (red circles depict higher MEK; pink circles illustrate lower MEK).
Data from the July 2010 sampling event revealed the MEK concentration essentially decreased in well YO-119, demonstrating the transient nature of the phenomenon. Specifically, MEK concentrations stabilized or decreased at well locations YO-119, YO-117D and YO-12AX (Figure 6). However, based on the most recent data (samples collected on July 29, 2010), MEK concentrations had already been increasing at wells YO-14ALX and YO-117S prior to July 2010. Analysis of site-specific degradation rates is not yet practical, but, based on the data in the downward slopes for MEK concentrations at YO-119 and YO-117D, it is possible to hypothesize half lives ranging from two to 14 days (using YO-119D data) or even upwards of 370 days (using YO-117D
data). According to a half-life range of 20 to 200 days (which is consistent with literature values discussed above), and assuming no further increases of MEK concentrations occurred (consistent with concentration trends at YO-119 and YO-117D), the June 2010 MEK concentrations would likely not drop below cleanup criteria for another three months to three years (Table 2). However, based on observations and experiences at other sites, the presence of MEK is expected to rapidly decrease and, consequently, will not be an issue throughout the next 12 to 18 months. Predictably, the MEK concentrations at this site were closely correlated with the TOC levels (Figure 7). With respect to acetone detections on site, the data results were mixed. The
Table 2. Site E: Hypothetical Time for MEK to Drop from July 2010 Observed Concentrations to Below Standards.
Well
7KH6RLO *URXQGZDWHU 6HUYLFHV&RPSDQ\ 36
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
MEK μg/L in June 2010
Number of Half-lives to Drop Below 5 μg/L
Time to drop below 5 μg/L (days)
Half-life of 200 days
Half-life of 20 days
YO-119
480
7
132
1,317
YO-117D
320
6
120
1,200
ACETONES and
Figure 7. Site E - MEK and TOC
Figure 6. Site E - MEK time histories
historic acetone data at down gradient wells depicted sporadic hits above the 5 μg/L performance standards, with a maximum of 50 μg/L detected in April 2001 at YO-12A. More typical detections are within the range of 5 to 16 μg/L. While these detections are not conclusively linked to any one process, acetone was detected in several other wells during the April 2001 round of sampling as well, suggesting those results may have been associated with lab contamination. The monitoring area consisted of wetlands, which may provide sufficient TOC for naturally occurring processes to generate acetone. Nevertheless, it is presumed the acetone detected in March and June 2010 at YO-12AX, with concentrations of 71 μg/L and 80 μg/L, respectively, was developed through
KETONES
chemical additions and subsequent fermentation processes. PE
3. Devinny, J.S., M.A. Deshusses, M.A., and T.S.
For more information, please visit www.adven-
4. www.navylabs.navy.mil/Archive/emdq-
Webster. 1999. Biofiltration for Air Pollution Control. Lewis Publishers, New York.
tusgroup.com.
2005/2-3-1.pdf
EHC is a registered product name from the
5. ESTCP, 2010. Final Report – Loading Rates and Impacts off Substrate Delivery for
Adventus Group.
Enhanced Anaerobic Bioremediation. ESTCP Project ER-0627, Bruce Henry, Parsons,
References
February 2010.
1. Aaronson, D. and P.H. Howard. 1997.
6. Suthersan, S. S. and F.C. Payne. In Situ
Anaerobic Biodegradation of Organic Chemicals in Groundwater: A Summary of
Remediation Engineering, page 133.
Field and Laboratory Studies, Prepared for:
7. Beyke, G. and D. Fleming. 2005. In Situ
American Petroleum Institute, Chemical
Thermal Remediation of DNAPL and
Manufacturer’s Association, National Council
LNAPL Using Electrical Resistance Heating,
of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream
REMEDIATION Summer 2005.
Improvement, Edison Electric Institute, and American Forest and Paper Association. 2. Lurie, A.P. 1967. Ketones IN Kirk – Othmer
8. Peale, J.D.G., J. Mueller and J. Molin. 2010. Successful ISCR-enhanced bioremediation of a TCE DNAPL source utilizing EHC and
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol.
KB-1. Remediation Journal, Vol. 20 Issue 3,
12. John Wiley & Sons, NewYork, pp. 101–169.
Pages 63 – 81.
SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
37
No Wasted By DR. GARY C. YOUNG, PH.D., P.E.
Despite the development of innovative recycling programs, landfills continue to dot the surface of the globe as millions of world citizens add to the pile. Perhaps, there may be a more effective method for handling this issue. rch rcheological heologi l icall studies stu tudi diees demdemonstrate that trash/garbage/waste was generated by Native Americans in Colorado as far back as 6,500 BC. Based upon archeological assessment of the waste site located in “The Centennial State,” this ancient clan generated 5.3 pounds of waste per day, in comparison to the modern-day, middle class American population, which creates around 2.5 pounds of waste per day. Of interest, the first municipal dump in the western world is actually credited to the Athenians, dating all the way back to 500 BC. Such findings prove that humans have generated waste since the beginning of time. But waste disposal was not a problematic issue during the times in which nomads roamed the earth, as mankind simply continued to move, leaving their waste behind. As the world’s population continued to expand and people left their farms and congregated in larger cities, quantities of waste soon increased at a more rapid pace. Yet, unfortunately, waste removal methods did not improve much at all. In fact, such methods have only worsened in recent years as around 55 percent of the United States’ garbage is
A
38
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
cur rren ntl tly ly b uriied d iin n sa nit itary llandfills. andf dfil df illls il currently buried sanitary As the world’s population and disposal needs continues to grow, present recycling efforts, developed by federal, state and local governments, are clearly not improving the globe’s waste situation quickly enough. At this point in time, the momentum of technology can truly help protect human health and welfare and, thusly, the environment, by creating an infrastruc-
key product produc ductt from from om such h th thermall gasi sifi fica cati t on key gasification technologies is the conversion of MSW into a syngas, which is predominantly CO and H2. This syngas can then be converted into energy (steam and/or electricity), other gases, fuels, or chemicals. The management of municipal solid waste (MSW) by gasification to syngas tends to create numerous options as shown in Figure 1.
“
The management of municipal solid waste (MSW) by gasification to syngas tends to create numerous options
ture design and developing sustainable MSW processes that can transform the world’s present waste problem into sustainable, useful green energy. As a leader in the management and treatment of solid wastes, thermal pyrolysis/gasification technology is increasingly viewed as a suitable and economically viable approach. Various types of thermal processes are based upon pyrolysis/gasification technology, including pyrolysis, pyrolysis/gasification, conventional gasification, plasma arc gasification, and mass burn. A
”
An assessment of this process follows, while focusing on various technical and economical terms and considerations.
What is pyrolysis?
Pyrolysis can be defined as the thermal decomposition of carbon-based materials within an oxygen deficient atmosphere, while generating heat to produce a synthetic gas (syngas). Little or no oxygen is actually present and no direct burning occurs at all. The process itself is endothermic.
No Wasted
ENERGY Syngas ( CO & H2 ) Options S yngas C leanup
P ower G eneration: + E lec tric al E nergy + S team
P ower Options
C atalys t
S ynthes is G as (S Y NG AS )
C atalys t
C atalys t C atalys t
F eeds toc k Mu n ic ipa l S olid W a s te (MS W )
G a s ific a tio n R eac to r
C hemis try O ptions
C atalys t
C atalys t C atalys t S lag, V itrified S lag, and/or As h
C atalys t
C atalys t
B io-C hemis try O ptions
B io-C hemic al P roces s
Hydrogen
E thanol, Mixed Alc ohols Methanol Olefins L iquified P etroleum G as (L P G ) Naphtha K eros ene/Dies el L ubes W ax es G as oline Oxoc hemic als e.g., K etones Ammonia
S ynthetic Natural G as (S NG )
F uels & C hemicals s uch as for ex ample, E thanol, Methanol, Methane, and Others
Figure 1. MSW to Energy, Gases, Fuels and Chemicals
What is pyrolysis/ gasification? Pyrolysis/gasification is a variation of the pyrolysis process. Another reactor is added, whereby any carbon char or pyrolysis liquids produced during the initial heating step are then further gasified in a close-coupled reactor. The reactor may use air, oxygen and/or steam during such gasification reactions.
What is conventional gasification? Conventional gasification is a thermal process, which converts carbonaceous materials, such as MSW, into a syngas, while using a limited amount of air or oxygen. Gastification generally occurs as long as temperatures range between 1,450 and 3,000°F. Steam is also injected into the conventional reactor to promote CO and H2 production.
process are produced by an electric arc in a torch, whereby a gas is converted to a plasma state. Plasma arc gasification utilizes a reactor that features a plasma torch, formed by the organics of waste solids (carbon-based materials). The plasma reactor is typically operated from 7,200 to 12,600°F. A process schematic can be viewed in Figure 2. The plasma arc gasification process is achieved with an injection of a carbonaceous material, such as coal or coke, into the reactor. This material quickly reacts with oxygen to produce heat for the pyrolysis reactions in an oxygen-starved envi-
ronment to produce a limited combustion that creates enough heat to generate syngas reactions. Steam is then added to the plasma reactor to further promote the syngas reactions. The combustion reactions (exothermic reactions) then supply additional heat, which is developed from the plasma arc torches for the pyrolysis reactions (endothermic reactions), yielding a temperature that typically varies between 7,200 and 12,600°F. The bottoms from the reactor form a vitrified slag because the operating temperatures are very high, (7,200°F to 12,600°F). This vitrified slag is basically non-leaching and successfully passes the EPA leaching standards. Various types of metals can be recovered from the slag, which can also be used to produce other byproducts, such as rock wool, floor tiles, roof tiles, insulation, and landscaping blocks. Another positive attribute that is usually observed during the plasma arc gasification process is that reactor design has improved and lessened the need for pretreatment/preprocessing. In the meantime, although plasma is known as the fourth state of matter, it is distinctly different than solid, liquid or gaseous states. Plasma can create an ionized gas through the utilization of electrical forces, whereby the temperatures typically range between 3,632°F and 9,032°F. A hot ionized gas can be created by plasma technology using an electrical disAir E mis s ions S yngas C leanup
B yproduc ts s uc h as S ulfur & Ac id gas es
S ynthes is G as (S Y NG AS )
What is plasma arc gasification? Plasma arc gasification is a high-temperature pyrolysis process whereby the organics of waste solids, especially carbon-based materials, are converted to a syngas. At the same time, waste solids’ inorganic materials and minerals produce a rocklike, glassy byproduct, known as vitrified slag. The syngas is predominantly CO and H2. The high temperatures of this
F eeds toc k Munic ipal S olid W as te
P re-proc es s ing
(MS W )
P las ma Arc G as ific ation R eac tor
Air/O 2
P ower G eneration: + E lec tric al E nergy + S team
E lectr icity to G rid
R ec yc lables
V itrified S lag & Metals
Figure 2. Process Schematic, MSW to Electricity via Plasma Arc Gasification
SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
39
No Wasted
ENERGY before melting the inorganic materials. Finally, Alter Nrg Corporation uses a proprietary plasma-based gasification technology developed by a wholly owned subsidiary of WPC, to convert various feedstocks, such as coal, petroleum coke, MSW, industrial waste, bio-mass or biosolids, into commercial syngas.
What is mass burn? Mass burn, often referred to as incineration, is a combustion process that uses excess O2 and/or air to burn solid wastes. This method is not a pyrolysis process.
Performance/thermal efficiency of technologies:
charge from an AC or DC source. The gas is typically comprised of air, O2, N2, H2, Argon or a combination of these gases. Hot ionized gas is created through the usage of either a transferred or nontransferred plasma torch. A transferred torch produces an electric arc between the tip of the torch and a metal or slag, located at the bottom of the reactor or within the conductive lining of the reactor wall of the plasma arc gasifier. In a non-transferred torch, the arc is located inside the torch itself. Plasma gas is created within this torch and is heated by the arc before exiting the tip of the torch, whereby the hot gas is injected into the reactor. There are certainly merits to both designs. Meanwhile, the Westinghouse Plasma Corporation (WPC) has designed a proven, proprietary plasma gasifier known as a Plasma Gasification Vitrification Reactor (PGVR) (Figure 3). This reactor is a moving bed gasifier that uses WPC’s industrial plasma torch technology. To develop plasma, the reactor’s feedstock enters the gasifier and interacts with hot plasma gas. The amount of air or O2 used in the torch is controlled to promote the endothermic gasification reactions of organic materials. Inorganic constituents are then converted into a molten slag that typically forms a glassy, non-hazardous slag when cooled. As shown in Figure 3, the hot plasma gas flows into the gasifier/reactor to gasify MSW 40
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
Five thermal processes have been discussed thus far, but which process should actually be used by scientists and researchers, based upon thermal efficiency and economic principles? To answer this question, the thermal efficiency and economics of each of the five technologies were analyzed, verified and then compared to one another. To compare each of the thermal process technologies discussed, the typical range of process operation can be found in Table 1.
Comparison of Various Type of Thermal Processes: Net Output of Thermal Processes from Waste [Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to Energy]
Plasma Arc Gasification Type of Thermal Process
Figure 3. Alter Nrg Plasma Gasifier (Westinghouse Plasma Corporation)
The thermal efficiency of each thermal process technology was determined and reported according to the net energy production of electricity to the electrical grid per ton of MSW as shown in Figure 4 and Table 2. Plasma arc gasification produces about 816 kWh/ton of MSW in comparison to conventional gastification technology, which produces about 685 kWh/ton of MSW. Analysis of each of these thermal processes concluded that plasma arc gasification is the more effective process regarding the handling of solid wastes in general as a result of: • Thermal efficiency • The various processes used to develop different solid wastes • The minimal pretreatment/presorting of solid wastes • The production of syngas, which can be converted into a variety of energy sources, including steam, electricity and/or liquid fuels • Environmental soundness since the solid byproduct, vitrified slag, can be used as construction material while syngas may be utilized to generate various energy products, as well as any discharged gaseous effluents treated by currently acceptable environmental processes
Conventional Gasification
Pyrolysis/Gasification
Pyrolysis
Mass Burn (Incineration)
Net Energy Production to Grid, kWh / ton MSW NOTE: Computations in this table were done (5-30-2007) by Gary C. Young, from information in the reference noted and Energy-from-Waste, copyrighted in 2007 Gary C. Young. REFERENCE: The Regional Municipality of Halton, Step 1B: EFW Technology Overview, May 30, 2007 Submitted by Genivar, Ramboll, Jacques Whitford, Deloitte & URS, Regional Municipality of Halton, 1151 Bronte Road, Oakville, ON L6M 3L1
Figure 4. Comparison of Various Types of Thermal Processes
No Wasted
ENERGY • The possible, future elimination of landfills • The reduction of wastes in an existing landfill, which eliminates the need for the development of future landfills. Further economic analysis was conducted to determine the economy of scale for a plasma arc gasification process. The economy of scale analysis determines the capacity at which a facility is economically feasible. For these computations, MSW was gasified to syngas and vitrified slag. The syngas was converted to electricity and sold on the local area grid while the slag was sold as road material. The basic plasma arc gasification process for this analysis is shown in Figure 2. Preprocessing of MSW was considered minimal for a properly designed plasma arc gasification facility. Several economic analyses for various plant capacities, in MSW tons/day, and various net annual revenues, including selling prices for electricity rates of 4.5, 5.5, and 6.5 cents/kWh, were used to develop Figure 5. With a feed rate of about 724 tons/day of waste, a facility can generate about $10 million, net annual revenue before taxes [total annual revenues minus total annual expenditures], if electricity is sold at 4.50 ¢/ kWh. At a selling price to the grid of 5.50 ¢/ kWh, the net revenue is about $13 million per year and at 6.50 ¢/kWh net revenue, before taxes, is about $16 million per year. Capital investment would be about $130 million. In addition, each facility would create more than 50 new jobs. At a feed rate of 500 tons/day of waste, net annual revenue before taxes, is about $5 million/year at 4.5 ¢/kWh, $7 million/ year at 5.5 ¢/kWh, and $9 million/year at 6.5 ¢/kWh. Capital investment would be about $102 million. According to Figure 5, it is obvious a plasma arc gasification facility is near its break-even point when it approaches a capacity of about 200 to 300 tons of waste per day. PE Dr. Gary C. Young, Ph.D., P.E. is a licensed professional engineer in the states of California, Texas, Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin. He is the
Plasma Arc Gasification Facility: Linn County/Cedar Rapids/Marion, Iowa Economy of Scale & Energy Sale Price Influence Upon Net Annual Revenue Before Taxes "Preliminary" Economic Analysis 24,000,000 22,000,000
Opinion: Capacity 100 tpd 200 tpd 500 tpd 700 tpd 1,000 tpd
20,000,000 18,000,000 16,000,000
Capital Investment $38,676,000 $58,622,000 $101,584,000 $124,309,000 $154,000,000
Selling Price Electricity, 6.5 cents/kWh
Selling Price Electricity, 5.5 cents/kWh
Parameters: Tipping fee, $35/ton Green tags, 2.0 cents/kwh Vitrified slag, $15/ton State tax credit, 1.5 cents/kWh up to 20MW Capital at 6.00% interest and 20-years O&M considered
14,000,000 12,000,000 10,000,000 8,000,000
Selling Price Electricity, 4.5 cents/kWh
6,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 0 -2,000,000 -4,000,000 0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) & Industrial Waste (IW), (tons / day) *DU\&
Figure 5. Plant Capacity and Net Annual Revenue, Economy of Scale
Thermal Process Technology / Typical Range of Process Operation: Plasma Arc Gasification
7,200 – 12,600 oF
Conventional Gasification
1,400 – 2,800 oF
Pyrolysis Gasification
1,400 – 2,800 oF
Pyrolysis
1,200 – 2,200 oF
Mass Burn (Incineration)
1,000 – 2,200 oF
NOTE: Except for Plasma Arc Gasification, these processes have environmental issues for disposing of ash and slag. Table 1. Thermal Process Technology(s)
Type of Thermal Process Technology Net Energy Production to Grid Mass Burn (Incineration)
544 kWh / ton MSW
Pyrolysis
571 kWh / ton MSW
Pyrolysis/Gasification
685 kWh / ton MSW
Conventional Gasification
685 kWh / ton MSW
Plasma Arc Gasification
816 kWh / ton MSW
founder and owner of Bio-Thermal-Energy Inc. and can be contacted for additional informa-
Table 2. Thermal Process Technology and Net Energy to Grid
tion at (319)373-5191 or at [email protected].
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WEBLOCATORS ABUTEC LLC ABUTEC is an international manufacturer of Enclosed Flares, Vapor Combustors, Incinerators, and Thermal Oxidizers all aimed at reducing plant emissions and increasing efficiency.
www.abutec.com
CONTROL INSTRUMENTS CORPORATION Installing the CalorVal BTU Analyzer will reduce your fuel costs and increase the productivity in your application, by optimizing burner efficiencies through measuring and controlling blended gas mixtures. And with its standalone package design, installation is easy and inexpensive.
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US CHEMICAL STORAGE Visit USChemicalStorage. com for information on safe and compliant storage for hazardous materials. Browse building literature, photographs, sample drawings, building colors, quick quotes and more.
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Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
AIR LIQUIDE AMERICA SPECIALTY GASES, LLC World leader in specialty gases, SCOTT™ EPA protocol gases for CEM calibration and RATAs, low-ppm NOX protocols, GHG protocols, and other environmental compliance gas mixtures.
www.ALspecialtygases.com
FLUID METERING, INC. Fluid Metering, Inc. has introduced their NEW Chloritrol™ valveless metering system for accurate, maintenancefree injection of Liquid Sodium & Calcium Hypochlorite for purification of municipal drinking water and other sanitizing operations.
www.chloritrol.com • [email protected]
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE Good for the planet. Great for your career. Earn your bachelor’s or master’s degree in Environmental Management entirely online from UMUC.
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EXHIBITORSPOTLIGHTS Fluid Metering, Inc. introduces
Jerome J605 by Arizona Instrument LLC
NEW Liquid Hypochlorite Injection System
The heart of the Jerome J605 Hydrogen Sulfide Analyzer, by Arizona Instrument LLC, is gold film technology. A thin gold film, in the presence of hydrogen sulfide, undergoes an increase in electrical resistance proportional to the mass of hydrogen sulfide in the sample. An internal pump pulls ambient air over the gold film sensor; the gold film sensor adsorbs the h2s, and the Jerome determines the amount adsorbed, displaying concentration of h2s in parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb) depending on the range in use.
Fluid Metering, Inc. has introduced their NEW Chloritrol™ valveless metering system for accurate, maintenance-free injection of Liquid Sodium & Calcium Hypochlorite for purification of municipal drinking water and other sanitizing operations. Accurately metering liquid sodium hypochlorite presents a unique challenge because of the fluid’s tendency to out-gas. The Chloritrol™ has been field tested in very demanding applications, and demonstrated that it exceeds performance expectations.
Arizona Instrument LLC
Fluid Metering, Inc.
1- 800-528-7411 www.azic.com • [email protected]
1-800-223-3388 or 1-516-922-6050 www.chloritrol.com • Syosset , NY
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Solid thermoplastic wet end components handle acids/caustics with no corrosion and ultrapure fluids with no ionization, outperforming stainless steel, high alloys, plastic linings and fiberglass. Choose from numerous models of SUMP-GARD® Vertical Centrifugal Pumps, CHEM-GARD® Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps and FLEX-I-LINER® Peristalic Pumps. Flows to 1150 gpm (261 m3/h).
SGW Services is a company providing environmental consultancy services, formed by the association of some of the best and most experienced professional on the environmental market. SGW Services experience includes the development of environmental projects in a wide range of sectors, for example: Oil & Gas, Petrochemical, Pulp & Paper, Automotive, Metallurgical, Chemical, Transport, Food and Construction, among others.
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PEPRODUCTS Product Focus: Instrumentation
Portable Gas-Detection Monitors The company has recently announced the distribution of its MultiRAE instrument product line. The gas-detection monitors offer safety and environmental professionals optional wireless functionality, as well as detection capabilities, so they may be able to monitor toxic and combustible gases, VOCs and radiation in a safe, fast and efficient manner.
ICP-MS Solution Measures Chrome-6 Levels in Drinking Water To ensure nationwide laboratories help water treatment organizations comply with EPA guidelines that drinking water contains no more than 0.5 ppb levels of chromium VI, the company has released the XSERIES 2 ICP-MS. The product can detect chromium VI levels at less than 0.01 ppb, all but ensuring organizations comply with current EPA standards.
Provides Accurate and Reliable Flow Data People who design municipal ground water production wells or booster stations understand that accurate and reliable flow measurement is absolutely necessary. By utilizing a steel flanged-end tube meter with indicator-totalizer, the ML04 Propeller Flow Meter features measurement accuracy of plus or minus two percent, while measuring liquid flow from 40 to 60,000 GPM.
RAE Systems Inc.
Thermo Fisher Scientific
McCrometer
San Jose, Calif. • (408) 952-8200 www.raesystems.com
Waltham, Mass. • (781) 622-1000 www.thermofisher.com
Hemet, Calif. • (800) 220-2279 www.mccrometer.com
Product Focus: Material Safety and Storage Equipment Twin Leg Personal Fall Limiter By providing greater mobility and continuous connection capabilities to workers as they move from one location to another while on- the job, the company’s Twin Leg Personal Fall Limiter increases productivity, offers protection and improves comfort levels – with one unique product. The limiter also features a patent-pending ARCA Harness Connection.
Drum Containment Bag Provides Secondary Containment
Parts Washers Eliminate Risks In order to eliminate the short-term and long-term side effects of solvent exposure within the workforce, the company’s parts washers fully utilize a process often used in bioremediation. Through this process, microscopic organisms “digest” oils and greases and convert them into water and CO2, thus eliminating solvent exposure from global companies forever.
In order to assist drivers as they hoist contain ers on to and off of their trucks, the PIG Drum Containment Bag provides secondary containment and improves mobility, as drivers transfer products from the field to various shops and companies. Since the product is UN rated for solid hazardous materials shipments, it helps facilities comply with all governmental shipping and storage regulations.
MSA
Walter Surface Technologies
New Pig
Cranberry Township, Pa. • (724) 776-8721 www.msanet.com
Windsor, Conn. • (860) 298-1100 www.walter.com
Tipton, Pa. • (800) 468-4647 www.newpig.com
44
Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011
PEPRODUCTS
Energy Efficiency and Adjustable Speed Motors Baldor Electric Company, Fort Smith, Ark. While performing like a highhorsepower servomotor, the RPM AC Permanent Magnet (PM) product line utilizes low rotor inertia and high-power density. Available in NEMA (180, 210, 250, 280 and 440) or IEC (112, 132, 160, 180 and 280) frame sizes, the PM line offers customers energy efficiency and adjustable speed options. (479) 6464711, www.baldor.com
high rainfall levels, human lives may, at times, be endangered. To remedy such overflow, the company has developed an informative handbook in order to help individuals design, size, install and position stormwater tanks – and save money in the meantime. (+45) 87 50 14 00, www. grundfos.com
HydroWhirl Poseidon BETE Fog Nozzle Inc., Greenfield, Mass.
Online Analyzer Electro-Chemical Devices, Irvine, Calif. In order to accurately and reliably measure phosphate and total phosphate levels, the cost-effective, easy-to-use CA-6 online analyzer uses proven colorimetric analyses. The analyzer can measure phosphate at zero to 5.0 mg/L, zero to 50.0 mg/L or zero to 200 mg/L, as well as total phosphate at zero to 2.0 mg/L, zero to 20.0 mg/L or zero to mg/L. The machine can also analyze more than 20 other common parameters, including aluminum, silica, nitrogen, iron and sulfate. (800) 729-1333, www.ecdi.com
Stormwater Tanks Handbook Grundfos, Bjerringbro, Denmark As cities and low-lying areas continue to encounter sewage overflow due to overwhelmingly
As a versatile, Clean-In-Place (CIP) rotating, tank-washing nozzle, the Posiedon utilizes slow moving rotation and high-impact spray pattern in order to clean tanks efficiently and quickly. The product is especially ideal for tanks with diameters of up to 22 feet, which are often used in the food, beverage, chemical and pharmaceutical industries. (413) 772-0846, www.bete.com
able, non-wetted spring and is offered in body materials of Geon PVC, natural polypropylene, Corzan CPVC and Kynar PVDF. (973) 256-3000, www. plastomatic.com
Digital Pressure Sensor Ashcroft Inc., Stratford, Conn. Fully equipped with a 4-20 mA analog output, a four digit LED display and programmable switch contacts, the GC35 sensor offers its users remote signaling, local reading and pressure control – all in one single design. Available in ranges from zero/ 5 0 through zero/7500 psig, as well as compound ranges as high as 300 psi, the sensor also features adjustable analog scaling and RoHS and CE compliance. (203) 378-8281, www.ashcroft.com
Washer Compactor Duperon, Saginaw, Mich. In spite of its ability to clean and compact screenings of less than 4 inches at rates of 60 cu. ft/hour,
Automatic MultiPurpose Backpressure Valve
Static Injection Mixer Westfall Manufacturing Company, Bristol, R.I.
Plast-O-matic Valves Inc., Cedar Grove, N.J. As an automatic, multi-purpose backpressure valve, the Series RVDT can perform a wide array of functions in a piping system, ranging from pressure relief and backpressure control to pump bypass and antisiphon protection. The half-inch valve uses an adjust-
ity oils from groundwater in a quick, efficient manner without using a groundwater or torpedo pump, the company has recently developed a remediation system product line. Instead of utilizing such pumps, the system actually has a belt oil skimmer that is fitted with a poly belt and stabilizer rods, which can remove up to 12 gph of oil from water wells. (440) 543-7400, www.abanaki.com
Duperon’s washer compactor is truly a simple, non-batching process unit. With its dualauger system, the compactor has been proven to reduce the volume of compacted debris and dry solids by 84 and 60 percent, respectively. (989) 754-8800, www.duperon.com
The company’s highly innovative fixed-plate injection mixer can blend highly corrosive materials that other products simply cannot. The secret? The product actually features an orifice pattern that utilizes both alternate vortex shedding and shear zone turbulence. The mixer ranges in diameters from 2 inches to 120 inches. (888) 928-3747, www. westfallmfg.com
Heavy Oil Groundwater Remediation System
Thermocouple Simulator
Abanaki Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio
With its easy-to-read backlight display, the simulator, which calibrates all types of thermocouple
In order to remove high-viscos-
Omega, Stamford, Conn.
SEPTEMBER2011 www.pollutionengineering.com
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PEPRODUCTS applications, including pipe elbows and fan blades? If so, the DFense Blok wearing compound may be the product needed. Available in 30-lb. pails, the compound is effective within 25
instruments, can be used in all types of working environments and industries, including automotive and chemical. The series works with 14 thermocouple types, including U (T-DIN) and P (Platinel II). (203) 359-1660, www. omega.com
Alumina Ceramic Bead-Filled Epoxy Compound Devcon, Danvers, Mass. In need of a product that repairs typical wear and abrasion
minutes of application. (978) 7771100, www.devcon.com
Seawater Desalination Prototype
novel, low-energy seawater desalination prototype is currently being tested for future usage in Singapore and, ultimately, other countries. By desalinating seawater, the system will be able to improve the water supply and well-being of thousands of individuals. (847) 713-8477, www. siemens.com
Fixed or Portable Water Treatment System
Siemens Industry Inc., Hoffman Estates, Ill.
Welenco Water Well Technology Inc., Bakersfield, Calif.
As countless global citizens are in desperate need for a regular water supply, the company’s
To save and restore existing water wells and to purify aquifer water supplies, the company has
designed innovative technology that, pending patent, will custom build fixed or portable water treatment systems, which can treat any – and all – types of waste streams. The system can be used for total liquid waste remediation and as pretreatment for reverse osmosis filtration. (800) 961-WELL, www. welenco.com
They needed Wastewater Solutions To find it, they turned to www.pollutionengineering.com/buyersguide Check out this prominent resource for all your industrial and municipal solutions in the air, water and solid/hazardous waste markets! ◗ Search by Company Name or Product Category ◗ Downloadable Product Spec Sheets ◗ Alpha Company Listings ◗ Live Web & Email Links ◗ Product Photos ◗ Videos
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PE Pollution Engineering (ISSN 0032-3640) is published 12 times annually, monthly, by BNP Media II, L.L.C., 2401 W. Big Beaver Rd., Suite 700, Troy, MI 48084-3333. Telephone: (248) 362-3700, Fax: (248) 362-0317. No charge for subscriptions to qualified individuals. Annual rate for subscriptions to nonqualified individuals in the U.S.A.: $115.00 USD. Annual rate for subscriptions to nonqualified individuals in Canada: $149.00 USD (includes GST & postage); all other countries: $165.00 (int’l mail) payable in U.S. funds. Printed in the U.S.A. Copyright 2011, by BNP Media II, L.L.C. All rights reserved. The contents of this publication may not be reproduced in whole or in part without the consent of the publisher. The publisher is not responsible for product claims and representations. Periodicals Postage Paid at Troy, MI and at additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: PE Pollution Engineering, P.O. Box 2146, Skokie, IL 60076. Canada Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608. GST account: 131263923. Send returns (Canada) to Pitney Bowes, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON, N6C 6B2. Change of address: Send old address label along with new address to PE Pollution Engineering, P.O. Box 2146, Skokie, IL 60076. For single copies or back issues: contact Ann Kalb at (248) 244-6499 or [email protected].
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StateRules
brought to you by
2 7 4 3 5
6
8 1
1
AL – ADDRESSING COAL ASH
The state legislature has recently passed bill HB 50, allowing Congressmen to regulate coal ash initiatives. The ADEM will develop regulations to implement the new law throughout the coming months. HB 50 removes an exemption from solid waste regulation for fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, and flue gas emissions control waste streams. These wastes primarily result from the combustion of coal or other fossil fuels at power plants. The wastes, commonly known as coal ash wastes or coal combustion byproducts, have become a major focus of regulatory agencies due to the current leaks and complete breakdowns of ponds that hold the wastes.
2
CT – MANDATED PAINT RECYCLING
Under a new law signed by Gov. Dannel P. Malloy, “do-ityourselfers” and painting contractors must now be prepared to take initial, proper steps as they recycle leftover latex and oil paints in the future. The governor’s novel program initiatives will include the costs of safely managing leftover paint when considering the purchase price of new paint; the regulation will also develop an industry-led program to reduce paint waste, increase reuse and recycling, and safely dispose of remaining unusable paint.
3
DE – SEND IN THE COWS
The sight of invasive, overgrowing plant species and overpopulated native animals is not uncommon within the state of Delaware and is certainly a challenging predicament to combat. Such a dilemma currently
50 PLE01094Airg.indd Pollution Engineering SEPTEMBER2011 1
exists at the Freshwater Marsh Nature Preserve, located in Brandywine Creek State Park. DNREC’s solution? Send in the cows. Their mission? Eliminate the invasive species and restore the marsh.
4
IA – DRINKING WATER FUNDING AVAILABLE
The state’s Revolving Fund is now accepting applications for a special round of drinking water endowment. Funding is available for the development of projects that will impact public health risks, water efficiency, or energy efficiency; all subsidies are provided as a portion of the project cost as loan forgiveness, which is the equivalent of a grant offered through the state’s revolving fund. Applications are due by Dec. 1, 2011.
5
KY – AMENDING UST REGS
6
MO – DRINKING WATER SYSTEMS NOT TESTED
The state is presently amending its UST regulations to incorporate the provisions of the federal Energy Policy Act of 2005, which requires state standards for secondary containment, delivery prohibition, and operator training. The UST regulations will likely be implemented in either October or November 2011.
According to the DNR, 21 drinking water systems have chronically failed to uphold to the state’s predetermined safety requirements. Systems are considered chronic violators when they have three major monitoring breaches in a 12-month period. The DNR requires all public water
systems to test for bacteria at least once a month to verify the system is providing safe drinking water. The current list of major violators comprises less than one percent of the state’s approximately 2,800 public drinking water systems.
7
NJ – GHG EMISSIONS ACHIEVED
8
OK – CLEARING AWAY THE HAZE
According to a report recently issued by the DEP, statewide GHG emissions decreased by more than eight percent in 2008, which is lower than the 2020 emissions levels targeted by the 2007 Global Warming Response Act. The 2008 GHG inventory proved that 124.9 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent emissions (MMTCO2E) were generated in 2008 – a decrease from 135.9 MMTCO2E in 2007. The 2008 findings were already lower than the intended 2020 target of 125.6 MMTCO2E.
The federal EPA is presently implementing a plan to reduce air pollution emissions from several state power plants that are over 30 years old. Under the Clean Air Act, states are required to control emissions that cause visibility impairment (i.e., regional haze). The EPA has determined the state’s plan to address regional haze was not adequate for these facilities; therefore, the state is now required to execute its own plan. Such changes will likely improve visibility and protect human health in the future. This update is provided by Business & Legal Reports Inc., practical EHS publishers since 1977. Find environmental answers and state compliance help online at http://enviro.blr.com or contact BLR at (800) 727-5257.
12/10/08 2:54:47 PM
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