Английский язык: Учебно-методическое пособие для специальности 020400 - ''Психология''

М И Н И СТ Е РСТ В О О Б РА ЗО В А Н И Я РО ССИ Й СК О Й Ф Е Д Е РА Ц И И В О РО Н Е Ж СК И Й ГО СУ Д А РСТ В Е Н Н Ы Й У Н И В Е РСИ Т Е Т

У ЧЕ Б Н О – М Е Т О Д И ЧЕ СК О Е П О СО Б И Е П О А Н ГЛИ Й СК О М У Я ЗЫ К У для СП Е Ц И А ЛЬН О СТ И 020400 - П СИ Х О ЛО ГИ Я

В О РО Н Е Ж 2003

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У тверждено научно-методи чес ки м ф акультета РГФ от 15.04.2003г.

с оветом

Сос тави тели : Горчакова Е .П ., Сп и ри донова Н .Б .

№

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П ос оби е п одготовлено на каф едре англи й с кого яз ы ка гумани тарны х ф акультетов ф акультета РГФ В оронежс кого гос ударс твенного уни верс и тета. Рекомендуетс я для с тудентов 1 курс ов д/о ф акультета Ф и Пс и .

М е тод и ч е с к ое п ос об и е , п ре д назнач е нное д ля с туд е нтов – п с и х ологов п е рвого год а об уч е н и я, вк лю ч ае т п ять урок ов, рас с ч и тан ных на три д цать ч ас ов ауд и торных заняти й. Авторы с тавят с вое й зад ач е й науч и ть с туд е н тов ч и тать, п они мать и ад е к ватн о п е ре вод и ть англоязыч н ые те к с ты с ре д н е го уровн я с лож нос ти п о с п е ци альнос ти , п ри ви ть и м навык и уч е б ного ре ф е ри рован и я и ус тного об щ е н и я на п роф е с с и ональн ые те м ы. В ц ентре каждого урока – текс т по одному и з разделов общ ей пс и хологи и . А кти вная лекс и ка урока, отли чаю щ аяс я вы с окой час тотнос тью в пс и хологи ческой ли тературе, закрепляетс я в ходе вы полнени я пос ле текс товы х лекс и ко-граммати чески х упражнени й . В клю чены такжеупражнени я наотдельны ес ловообразовательны емодели и упражнени янаконтроль с теп ени с ф орми рованнос ти умени й и навы ков в разли чны х ви дах речевой деятельнос ти . Завершени еработы над кажды м уроком вклю чает пересказ ос новны х п оложени й текс та, обс уждени е отдельны х моментов по теме урока; лекс и ко – граммати ческое тести ровани е.

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UNI T 1 T HE NA T UR E A ND USES OF EMOT I ON LEAD-IN 1. 1 What basic or primary emotions can you think of? 2 Are expressions of emotional state common to all mankind? Do we judge most accurately the emotions of people from our own subculture? 3 Do we learn how to express our emotions? READING 2. Read the text and choose the most suitable heading from the list A-E, for each part (1-5). A. Development of human emotions. B. Theories of emotion that influence current thinking. C. The main classes into which human emotions are categorized. D. Dimensions on which to measure emotional experience. E. How well can we recognize emotions in others. 3. Read the text and decide whether the following statements are true or false. 1 Anger, fear, grief and joy aren’t generally goal-directed. 2 Interpretation of expressive cues is universal and instinctive. 3 Measurement of emotional experience is impossible. 4 Bodily responses, taken singly, are reliable indicators of emotions. 5 Disgust involves senses and pertains to sensory stimulation. 6 With old age emotional intensity, tension and hedonic tone usually increase. 7 People are consistent in the expression of their emotions.

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TEXT To be systematic in our description, measurement, and classification of the various emotions, we must use one set of terms and agree on their meaning. We have с hosen the following four dimensions on which to measure emotional experience: (1) Intensity of feeling is the dimension of the strength of the emotion, as well as the degree to which the entire self is involved. (2) Level of tension is a measure of the person’s impulse toward action- running, fighting, screaming, and so forth. (3) Hedonic tone refers to an emotion’s position on a scale that ranges from almost unbearably unpleasant to superlatively pleasant. (4) Degree of complexity is related to the extent to which an emotion is mixed with other, sometimes contradictory, emotions. 1

We have chosen five classes into which to categorize human emotions: (1) Anger, fear, grief, and joy are generally called the basic or primary emotions, because they are decidedly central to the self. These four emotions tend to be goal-directed, have a high level of intensity, and are often quite complex. (2) Pain, disgust, and delight all involve the senses and are the main examples of emotions which pertain to sensory stimulation. One might see these as the sensory counterparts of the appreciate emotions. (3) Feelings of success and failure, of shame, pride, guilt, and remorse are emotions, which involve a person’s appraisal of his own behaviour (or basic worth) in relation to his internal standards, clearly, are socially determined in the first instance. (4) Love and hate and a great many other emotions, ranging from positive to negative, and some of the subtle and highly complex, are those which pertain to other people. (5) The appreciate emotions include all our aesthetic feelings, wonder, and awe, as well as the world of humor. 2

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As with other aspects of human development, the course of emotional expression runs from lesser to greater differentiation, from generalized excitement to more variety and finer discrimination, and finally, to more control in the sense that the frequency and intensity of feelings decrease. Not only children, but adults, too, develop increasing control over their emotions, and it appears that with old age the levels of

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emotional intensity, tension and hedonic tone may be generally lower than in the younger years. Since emotional expression is an important form if communication, recognizing emotion in others is essential for social living. In judging another’s emotions, one might use various cues: the person’s stated feelings, behavior, facial expressions, gestures, voice, posture, and so forth, or certain physiological changes. These four indexes do not always agree, however, nor are people consistent in the way they express their emotions from time to time. Most research indicates that joy and pain are easiest to judge from expressive cues, fear and sadness more difficult while pity and suspicion are more difficult still. Children tend to interpret expressive cues differently from adults. The most accurate judgments are made when people observe others from their own culture, but some ways of expressing emotion seem to be universal and instinctive (as suggested by Darwin). Nevertheless, learning plays a significant role, and it may be that its major contribution lies in our learning to hide our feelings or to express them in ways expected and approved by society, rather than in the ways favored by our biological past. 4

Bodily responses, taken singly, are unreliable indictors of emotion, but than together they are more useful. Certain primary emotions can be, to an appreciable degree, detected and differential through examining patterns of bodily or physiological responses. Theories of emotion are better seen as generalized points of view rather than as comprehensive analyses of emotional phenomena. The current theories can be roughly divided in two groups – those that see very little function in emotions, and those that give emotions an important part to play in behavior. 5

The first view, which regards the emotional experience as incidental, considers it but a byproduct of certain physiological disturbance. These theorists maintain that emotion can only interfere with, or disrupt, the normal factors (drives, motives, habits, rational thought, and so on) which influence and direst behavior. Other theorists of pretty much

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the same point of view hold that emotion serves no other purpose than that of arousing the individual, getting him started at which point the “normal factors” take over to direct his behavior. The opposite point of vies maintains that emotions are important in themselves and that the serve useful and essential biological as well as social and psychological functions. Two proponents of this view are Leeper and Tompkins. Leeper considers emotions to be representational processes that, combining the aspect of perceptions and motives, not merely arouse, but direct complex, socially important behavior in specific ways. In Tomkin’s view emotions are primary motives. He defines them as basic, innate wants (positive emotions) and don’t-wants (negative emotions) which are already evident in infant behavior and become elaborated during later development. VOCABULARY PRACTICE (a-q)

4. Match the key terms (1-17) with their explanations

1. appreciative a) the view that emotions can emotions serve as primary drivers 2. bodily cues b) bits of behavior that convey information about an individual’s emotional state 3. degree of c) a class of emotions complexity characterized by a person’s responding toward objects and events in his world 4. emotion as a d) the view that emotions representational cause breakdowns in physiological process functioning and behavior 5. emotion as e) the dimension of emotional arousal experience having to do with its degree of pleasantness and unpleasantness 6. emotion as f) the view that emotion joins disruptive with perception, learning, and motivation as an integral part of a single unified process 7. emotion as g) the dimension of an

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primary motives

8. pertaining people

emotions to other

9. emotions pertaining to selfappraisal 10. emotions pertaining to sensory stimulation 11. expressive cues 12. hedonic tone 13. intensity feeling 14. level tension 15. moods 16. emotions

of of

primary

17. somatic cues

emotion which measures the degree to which an individual is involved in the emotional experience h) relatively mild emotional states that tend to color and pervade a person’s entire experience i) a class of emotions which have to do with inner standards of conduct j) physiological changes accompanying emotional experience k) the extent to which a feeling is mixed with other often conflicting emotions l) the dimension of an emotional experience which measure the impulse to action m) emotions which are decidedly central to the self n) this term has the same meaning as bodily cues o) the view that identifies all emotion as involving a generalized state of physiological arousal p) a class of emotions arising mainly in connection with the person’s perceived relations with other people q) emotions linked with pleasant or unpleasant stimulation of the senses

5. Fill in the correct word from the list: Primary, innate, main, internal, emotional, entire, current, physiological, rational, sensory, social, roughly, hedonic, biological, goal-directed. 1________experience 6________living 11________emotions 2 ________ self 7________disturbance 12 ________ tone

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3________ examples 8 ________ thought 4________counterparts 9 ________ wants 5 ________ standards 10 ________ divided

13 ________ past 14________ theories 15________ motives

6. Fill in the correct verb from the list: Appears, tend to interpret, tend to be, involve, divided, maintains, refers, runs, ranges, decrease, indicates, hold, observe, serves. 1 Children ________ expressive cues differently from adults. 2 Hedonic tone ________ to an emotion’s position on a scale that ________ from almost unbearably unpleasant to superlatively pleasant. 3 Anger, fear, grief and joy ________ goal-directed. 4 Some emotions ________ a person’s appraisal of his own behavior. 5 The course of emotional expression ________ from lesser to greater differentiation, and finally, to more control in the sense that the frequency and intensity of feelings ________ decrease. 6 It ________ that with old age the levels of emotional intensity may be lower than in the younger years. 7 Most research ________ that joy and pain are easiest to judge from expressive cues. 8 The most accurate judgments are made when people ________ observe others from their own culture. 9 The current theories can be roughly ________ into two groups. 10 Some theorists ________ that emotion ________ no other purpose than that of arousing the individual. 7. Match the words with their opposites: grief disgust success shame love

hate failure pride joy delight

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8. Fill in the gaps with the adjectives derived from the words in brackets, using the suffixes: -ful, -less, ing, -ed, -ions. 1. She was ________ with him for keeping her waiting (anger). 2. What a ________ waste of time (fear). 3. This child will do anything – she seems totally ________ (no fear). 4. Imagine the ________ scene when they reunited with their lost daughter (joy). 5. I’d be ________ to come (delight). Thanks for your invitation. 6. Last year they had a _________ holiday in Alps (delight). 7. The funeral supper was a ________ affair (no joy). 8. It must have been very ________ for you to tell her about the accident (pain). 9. The sight of rotting bodies was ________ (disgust). 10. His strange behavior made the police ________ (suspicion). 11. The sick animals were in a ________ condition (pity). 12. He has no mercy – he is a ________ tyrant (no pity). 13. I don’t like our football team’s ________ performance in the cup final (shame). 14. His behavior is openly immoral – he is ________ (no shame). 9. Fill in the gaps with the correct prepositions from the list: with, from, to, on, through, in, for. to agree __, the degree __which, to mix __, to pertain__,__ relation __,__ the younger years, essential __, to judge__, differently __, lies __, differentiated __, interfere __, evident __, motives __ a par __. FOLLOW-UP 10. Answer the following questions. Then using your answers, give your summary of the text. 1. How do we define the intensity of feeling?

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2. 3. 4. 5.

What is level of tension? What is hedonic tone? What are the basic or primary emotions? Which emotions pertain to sensory stimulation, selfappraisal and to other people? 6. What are the appreciative emotions? 7. How do emotions become differentiated? 8. What changes in emotionality come with age? 9. Which aspects of emotion shall we use in judging others? 10. How dependable are expressive and bodily cues? 11. How can emotion be seen as incidental? 12. How can emotion be seen as functional?

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UNI T 2 PER SONA LI T Y : DET ER MI NA NT S A ND T HEOR I ES LEAD-IN 1. 1. Our personalities are coloured and determined by a lot of things. Try to name the forces which shape personality. 2. Do our bodies influence our personalities? Is a fat girl necessary jolly and amiable and a bespectacled boy have been born to be bookish? READING 2. Read the text. Seven sentences have been removed from it. Choose from the sentences (A-G), the one which fits each gap (1-7). A. The unconscious (particularly the collective unconscious) plays a key role in Jungian theory, with more emphasis placed there than on biology. B. As each set of needs is fulfilled, the individual’s personality shows a corresponding development. C. Life’s experiences almost inevitably cause along with pleasant emotions anxiety, frustration and conflict. D. Through these processes the individual tries to satisfy id impulses without getting into trouble with society. E. One way to access personality theories is to see how they treat three underlying issues: the relative dependence on conscious and unconscious determinants, the respective roles of biology and experience, the relative stress on uniqueness versus universality F. They applied the principles of behavioristic learning theory to the acquisition of personality, placing special emphasis on drives, cues and reinforcement. G. His theory is based on both biological and experiential determinants, with particular emphasis on early childhood experiences.

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3. Read the text and decide whether the following statements are true or false. 1. Separation of child and mother is always harmful to the child’s personality. 2. The defense mechanisms are characteristic way of behaving only in adulthood. 3. According to psychoanalytic theory, three interacting systems: id, ego and superego, - are always in conflict. 4. Biology plays a key role in Jungian theory. 5. Child-rearing practices are universal in different cultures and social classes. 6. Social-learning theories place special emphasis on drives, cues, and reinforcements. TEXT Although the precise degree of influence that heredity has on personality is not yet known, studies of identical and fraternal twins (raised together and apart) indicate that there is a strong genetic factor involved in personality development. Personality and body make-up are correlated, but which causes which is not clean. Some believe that somatic factors (hormonal levels, metabolic rates) influence personality directly. Others see an indirect body influence, through social attribution. They would say that late and early matures differ in personality because they look so different during their formative years that they are treated differently. It is possible, however, that the same factors which cause the individual to mature early (or late) also determine behavior and personality. There is general agreement that childhood experiences help to determine personality, less agreement on the part played by later experiences. Child-rearing practices are considered crucial, but there is no generally accepted “correct” procedure for feeding, weaning, and toilet training the child which can be recommended. In any practical case, the best practice seems to depend on the personality and temperament of the mother and father, as well as on the sex and the characteristic activity level of the child.

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Separation of child and mother is not always harmful to the child’s personality development; under certain circumstances, where the absence is relatively short, and the substitute care is stable, separation can be beneficial for the development of independence. Birth order is thought to influence personality because the make-up of the family, which the newborn enters, is an important part of its environment. Birth order also helps determine the opportunities for group interaction and how the child will be treated by his parents and others. [1] From infancy on, each individual develops characteristic ways of behaving to protect himself from such “psychic pain”. These pervasive and characteristic ways of behaving are the defense mechanisms described by Freud. Repression may prevent a person from feeling anxious, but it may also result in the development of a reaction formation, in which conscious emotions or motives entirely the opposite of the repressed ones plague and drive the individual, colouring his personality. Rationalization helps us to accept undesirable circumstances and to feel less quilt-ridden about our own unworthy behaviour. Insulation enables one to tolerate incompatible attitudes by keeping them in logic-tight compartments. Projecting became onto others can spare us guilt and anxiety. As each of us develops and uses these characteristic ways of coping with anxiety, the defense mechanisms themselves colour and shape our developing personalities. Everyone is affected by the customs, attitudes and the values of the society in which she grows up. Different social classes within the culture are particularly important because such classes usually vary both in values and in child-rearing practices; these, in turn, are crucial influences in the developing personality. The first personality theories were based primarily on the study of maladjusted or disturbed people; modern psychologists count on observations of normal people for formulating their theories. [2]

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In developing psychoanalytic theory, the first of the psychodynamic theories, Freud originated an entire school of thought. While Adler, Erikson, and others challenged certain aspect of the theory, Freud’s concepts and his whole approach have had enormous impact - not only on psychology but on almost all areas of modern life. Freud saw all human psychological processes as consisting of three interactive systems – sometimes in harmony, often in conflict. The id impulses are unconscious, primitive, concerned with bodily gratification. The ego is the “self” and consists of the cognitive processes of perceiving, reasoning, judging and so on. [3] The growing child learns about right and wrong, about acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, and eventually society’s “do’s and don’ts” become part of his own belief system, or conscience, or superego. The id, ego, and superego develop with different strengths, and the various resulting patterns of interaction and conflicts make for general personality differences among people. Freud believed that many personality traits or tendencies could be traced to individual experiences during the tree psychosexual developmental stages. When oral gratification (through nursing) is inadequate or surrounded by anxiety, the person can become fixated at this stage and show excessive chewing, sucking, eating, smoking, and talking. One who becomes fixated at the anal stage would display traits of cleanliness, orderliness, stinginess, and punctuality. One who never outgrows the phallic stage may develop homosexual tendencies, trouble with authority, or both. One who develops normally through the genital stage is capable of experiencing satisfying heterosexual relations and, in other ways, becoming a mature, well-functioning person in his society. Freud examined the unconscious more thoroughly and more specifically than any other psychodynamicist. [4] Freud saw basic forces and the developmental processes as being universal, but he also stressed individual differences, the uniqueness of each person. Jung departed from Freud on a number of issues. He believed that, in addition to a personal unconscious, each of us has a collective unconscious, including many ancestral

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archetypes based on the accumulated experience and culture of the human race. Archetypes can be studied through the examination of myths and mystical experiences. In addition to introversion and extraversion tendencies, Jung saw every personality as having four basic functions: thinking, feeling, sensing and intuition. Different functions dominate different people, and according to Jung, the goal of selfhood is to obtain balance among the four. [5] Uniqueness of the individual and striving for personality development are important here, as is the belief that our experiences continue to influence our personalities throughout our lives. Existential theories are based on the belief that psychology should study direct, subjective human experience, and the further belief that people are essentially “good”. Maslow’s humanistic psychology saw our basic needs as going beyond such things as hunger and pain avoidance to include affection, security and self-esteem. Beyond these, he saw still higher needs (meta needs), such as a striving toward goodness, justice, beauty. [6] For self-actualization, for realizing the full potential of one’s personality, some of the meta needs must be fulfilled. Though Maslow does not explicitly deal with the unconscious, his concepts rely on Freud’s formulation of the role of the unconscious. Both biological drivers and early experiences help shape personality. With the concept of selfactualization vital to the theory, the importance and uniqueness of each individual is obviously important. Social-learning theories are in the tradition of behaviorism, but Dollard and Miller tried to tie in the Freudian concepts with those of behaviorism. [7] Infants are born with “primary drives”, based on biological needs; therefore, the first learning task is to acquire responses which meet these needs. A response which does this is called a drive-reducing response. Cues are the signals to which particular responses have been conditioned through the

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effects of reinforcements. The individual, in learning to satisfy his primary drives, acquires “secondary drives”, and (as with primary drives) he learns to satisfy this. Through the process of reinforcements many different drive-reducing responses are acquired, and these constitute the developing “personality traits”. Social-learning theorists also depend on learning through imitation – especially for the learning of social rules and taboos, social action, and personal mannerisms. The concept of “not thinking” about certain things (in order to avoid anxiety) seems to be the equivalent, in Dollard and Miller’s theory, of “repression” in Freud’s. This same concept comes close to implying an unconscious, although most behaviorists do not use the terms “conscious” and “unconscious”. This school of thought sees biological drives and early experience as being of prime importance in the development of personality. VOCABULARY PRACTICE 4. Match the key terms with their explanations. 1. cue 2. defense mechanisms 3. drive 4. drive-reducing response 5. insulation 6. projection 7. rationalization 8. collective unconscious 9. personal unconscious 10. 11. ego

a) various forms of reaction to the anxiety aroused by conflict that serve to protect and enhance the self-picture; b) those aspects of the unconscious that are inherited and represent the accumulated experience of the human species; c) personality theories growing out of behaviorism (and situationism)

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12. 13. theories 14. theories 15. theories 16.

id existential

d) activities and impulses which are not social-learning open to direct conscious examination, but have on conscious psychodynamic effect processes and behavior; identification e) a defense mechanism in which the individual attributes to other people impulses and traits that he himself has but cannot accept; f) a learned stimulus which can determine the kind of response an individual will make a given instance; g) the aspect of personality that is in contact with the external world and helps to satisfy id impulses in appropriate ways; h) any strong stimulus that can impel action; i) a response which lessens a drive by satisfying it in some way; j) a defense mechanism through which the person, through distorted thinking, find false but reasonable explanations for failure, questionable behavior or unpleasant situations;

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k) that system of psychological processes from which come unconscious, instinctive impulses that demand immediate gratification l) a process in which the child feels like person who are important in his world; m) a system within the total personality that is developed by incorporating, accepting as one’s own, the moral standards of parents and the social community; n) a class of theories sharing the assumption that the development of personality reflects in part conflict among needs and impulses, at least some of which o) a defense mechanism which keeps incompatible ideas or feelings separate in order to avoid inner conflict; p) theories sharing the assumption that subjective human experience are the true data for understanding personality;

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5. Fill in the correct verb from the list: involved, traced, is, cause, determine, influence, originated, to accept, to avoid

enables,

to

1. There is a strong genetic factor ________ in personality development. 2. The factors which ________ early or late maturation also ________ behavior and personality. 3. If substitute care ________ stable, separation of child and mother can be beneficial for the independence. 4. Birth order is through ________ personality. 5. False but reasonable explanations for failure help us _________ undesirable circumstances. 6. Insulation _________ one __________ inner conflict. 7. Freud __________ an entire school of thought. 8. Many personality traits or tendencies could be __________ to individual experiences. 6. Fill in the gaps with the correct prepositions from the list: onto, with, on, at, beyond, throughout, to, from, through, in 1 to be harmful ________ 2 to protect somebody/something _______ 3 to project something _______ 4 to cope ________ 5 to be applied ________ 6 to vary _______ 7 to be based _______ 8 to count _______ 9 to have on impact _______ 10 to become fixated _______ 11 an emphasis _______ 12 to go _______ 13 to study something ________ something 14 _______ one’s life 7. Fill in the gaps with the adjectives derived from the words in brackets, using the suffixes: - ous, -al, -ed, - y, ic, - ing, - ive, - ful

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1 She was terrible ________ about her children when they didn’t come home at time. (anxiety) 2 Smoking is ________ to health. (harm) 3 His holiday has had a ________ effect. (benefit) 4 The party sent its ________ greetings to the trade union meeting. (fraternity) 5 Your voice is ________ to your sister’s. (identity) 6 He takes an ________ interest in clothes. (excess) 7 We talked about various ________ questions, such as unemployment and education. (society) 8 We should take into account the ________ influence of television in the development of children and adolescents. (to pervade) 9 Parents have the greatest _______ effect on their children’s behavior. (formation) 10 The police charged with grievous _________ harm. (body) 11 The boy was sent to a home for ____________ children. (maladjustment) 12 Profits for the first three months are 50% high than in the ______ period of last year. (to correspond) 13 He lived in his ________ house. (ancestor) 8. Read the list of adverbs and match them with the words from the text: inevitably, directly, particularly, generally, essentially, explicitly, obviously 9. Read the text again. Expand the following expressions into complete sentences. To link similar ideas, use: also, furthermore, in addition, moreover, etc. To link opposing ideas, use: however, but, on the other hand, although. Family resemblance – maturation rate – child-rearing practices – feeding, wearing, toilet training – separation from mother – birth order – defense mechanisms – repression, rationalization, insulation, projection – social class – personality theories – the psychoanalytic theory – id, ego and superego – Freud’s handling of the three basic issues – Jung’s theory – collective unconscious – the dynamics – need fulfillment – meta needs – imitation. 10. Retell the text using the plan below. 1 To what extent does heredity determine personality?

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2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Do our bodies shape our personalities? How do early life experiences influence personality? How do defense mechanisms colour our personalities? How does society influence personality? What is the nature of personality theories? How do psychoanalytic theories interpret personality? On what premise are existential theories based? What approach do social-learning theories take?

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UNIT 3 MEMOR Y LEAD-IN 1. 1 Memory helps us make use of what we have learnt. What do you think is the purpose of forgetting? 2 Can our memory organize itself spontaneously? Are there many ways to organize it deliberately and efficiently? 3 What’s your advice about cramming for an examination? READING 2. Read the text and choose the most suitable heading from the list (A- F), for each part (1- 6). A. Information processing in reference to memory theory. B. What is the Freudian view of forgetting? C. How do we organize and why do we forget some longterm memories. D. Short- term memory. E. In what ways do the three main memory systems differ? F. The characteristics of sensory memory. 3.Read the text and decide whether the following statements are true or false. 1. In Bartlett’s major experiment the original story was remembered unchanged. 2. Any experience is stored and then coded into one or another kind of information. 3. Short- term memories can be reprocessed into longterm ones. 4. Grouping and regrouping, organizing and reorganizing are constantly going on in memory storage. 5. Forgetting long- term memories doesn’t connect the conditions under which the memories were first processed.

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6. A forgetter represses painful memories unconsciously. 7. The three main theories have no difference in their type of coding. TEXT The scientific investigation of human memory began in Germany with the study of verbal learning. Hermann Ebbinghaus, who started these studies, felt that there were major difficulties in working with meaningful material, so he invented the nonsense syllable. Nonsense syllables are constructed by putting together a “no- sense” sequence of consonant – vowel – consonant. Examples would be “tob”, “duf”, “yad”. While these syllables may not be completely nonsensical, they are less familiar and have fewer associations among them than a collection of meaningful words. In the past hundred years, the study of human memory has gone far beyond Ebbinghaus, but the emphasis on verbal memory (now including meaningful verbal material) remains. 1

Psychologists are in some agreement that there are three different kinds of memory: sensory, short- term, and longterm. Whether there are three or more (or fewer) kinds of memory, however, the theorists of today generally agree that before any experience can be stored in your memory, it must be coded into one or another kind of information. The process of coding and storing experiences (during which the nature of the information may be changed) is referred to as information processing. 2

Sensory memory, the simplest of the three, is of brief duration, has a relatively large capacity, and processes and encodes information in a direct, non-distorted manner. The visual afterimage is an ideal example of a sensory memory store. Sensory memory, it is clear from all this, accounts for very little (or perhaps now) of what most people mean by the term “memory”. 3

Short- term memory, the system next in line of complexity, lasts for only a minute or so. Looking up a telephone number, closing the book, and then dialing the number is an example of short- term memory at work. It is believed that all memories, except sensory memories, start as

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short- term memories. These short- term memories are forever lost within a minute or so unless they are reprocessed into long- term memories. This must occur almost immediately and can be done by internal rehearsing or some other form of consolidation means the end of that memory. We can improve our short- term memory by organizing material into smaller, more manageable groups. One name for this is chunking. Chunking requires that the material be coded appropriately, before being stored. Unlike sensory memory, coding in short- term memory need not faithfully reflect the stimulus material. There is some evidence that words and letters, whether spoken or written, tend to be coded according to sound rather than appearance. 4

Long- term memory, which stores massive amounts of material for several minutes or many years, must have an efficient coding system. We do not fully understand this system, but much is known about it. For example, words are coded by clustering. This is a way of organizing material into meaningful groups and thereby making it more manageable. Other material is also organized by clustering. New facts or experiences attach themselves to appropriate groups already in memory storage, which means that grouping and regrouping, organizing and reorganizing are constantly going on. You can improve your memory by imposing your own organization on the material you want to remember, instead of leaving the organizational process to chance association. By thinking over your experiences and ideas, weaving them into systematic relations with each other, you can consolidate them into long- lasting memories. Long- term memories are forgotten in many ways, depending in part on the conditions under which the memories were first processed. One theory holds that experiences are forgotten because the memories are interfered with by what happens after the material is learned, as well as by what happened beforehand. In the first case, the interference is called retroactive inhibition; in the second, it is proactive inhibition.

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Freud saw certain kinds of forgetting as being motivated by the forgetter’s need to avoid unbearably painful memories. Though this kind of forgetting, repression, is purposeful in that sense, the forgetter does not repress consciously. Repression is automatic and unconscious. Laboratory experiments on Freudian forgetting theory are few and not very convincing, but it may well be that because of its very nature, repression does not lend itself to laboratory analysis. Bartlett was the first to suggest that forgetting is a very active and, in fact, creative process. We can see how Bartlett approached the problem of memory by describing one of his major experiments. He asked his subjects, British university students, to read to themselves a 300- word North American Indian folk tale and then to read it again. Fifteen minutes later and at various intervals after that, he tested his students for literal recall. These are some of the things he found: 1. The general form of the students’ first recall was preserved throughout their future retelling of the tale. 2. Elements of the original story (phrases or words) were changed so as to make sense to them. The phrase “hunting seals” was remembered as “fishing”; the more familiar “boat” replaced the original “canoe”. 3. Various new details were invented by the subjects which made the story hang together better and also made it fit in better with British speech patterns, British customs, and British values. The final story the students remembered was often quite different from the original one. The motive for “creative forgetting” here is intellectual, because the purpose of Bartlett’s students in forgetting “creatively” was to make the material more meaningful. 6

The three main memory systems differ in the time they can span, in how much they can carry, in their type of coding, and in their forgetting mechanisms. Sensory memory lasts but a fraction of a second. It can handle as much as the sense organ can register. It depends on a fairly direct coding of the image, which, after its fleeting instant, decays.

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Short- term memory lasts less than a minute or so and can encompass very few items. Its coding is indirect, a good deal of it apparently based on sound, and involves a significant amount of organization. It, too, simply decays or fades away. Long- term memory can last for several minutes or many years and its capacity is almost unlimited. It typically makes use of very complex coding which involves clustering, meaningful thought systems, and so forth. For all the organization in our vast memory store, our memories are nonetheless lost through interference and repression or changed through creative forgetting. Studies in the future will depend largely on an increased understanding of the physiological bases of memory. This, among other things, may enable us to make effective use of drugs in aiding memory- particularly in cases of mental retardation and senility. VOCABULARY PRACTICE 4. Match the key terms with their explanations. 1. Chunking 2. Clustering 3. Coding 4. Information processing 5. Interference 6. Long- term memory 7. Proactive inhibition 8. Repression 9. Retroactive inhibition 10. Sensory memory 11. Short- term memory

a) The disruptive effect on recall of a person’s having learnt other material between his learning of the original material and its attempted recall. b) Organizing of items in memory into smaller groups c) The tendency to recall items in meaningfully related groups, even though the items were originally learned in random order. d) The system with an extremely large capacity and complex organization that is assumed to account for relatively

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enduring memories. e) The memory system that stores stimulus information directly but for a duration of less than a second. f) The disruptive effect of material on recall as a result of a person’s having learnt such material before his first learning of the to-be-recalled material. g) The process of changing and organizing material for suitable storage in memory. The type of coding differs for each of the memory systems. h) The active process assumed to be necessary to keep information in shortterm memory and permit its transfer to long- term memory. i) The presentation on a graph, of the change in performance during the learning process. It may apply either to an individual or to a group. j) The blocking of the recall of material by materials or activities that are learned or experienced either before of after the memory is processed. k) A combination of consonants and vowels presumed to be of low meaningfulness. Invented by Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, and used in verbal leaning experiments.

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l) An instrument that makes possible extremely brief and precisely timed exposures of visual material. m) The operations of coding and storage which take place during the different stages or systems of memory. n) The exclusion from consciousness of experiences that would arouse anxiety and strong, unpleasant emotions. This occurs automatically, through processes of which the individual is unaware. o) The systems with a limited capacity that accounts for memories of very short duration.

5. Match the adjectives in (A) with the words in (B): A 1. meaningful

B a) forgetting

2. systematic

b) material

3. verbal

c) afterimage

4. scientific

d) memory

5. information

e) use

6. brief

f) system

7. visual

g) capacity

8. immediate

h) investigation

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9. manageable

i) consolidation

10. memory

j) groups

11. unlimited

k) processing

12. creative

l) relations

13. effective

m) duration

6. Read the list of adverbs and match them with the words from the text: -

generally immediately appropriately unbearably fairly faithfully particularly

7. Fill in the gaps with the correct prepositions from the list: with by in

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

on into through

to begin _____ the emphasis _____ to mean _____ interference _____ to improve something _____ to be forgotten _____ many ways to weave experiences _____ to consolidate something _____ to be motivated _____ experiments _____ to differ _____

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12 13

to be based _____ to be lost _____

8. Fill in the correct verb from the list: encompass enable attach stores requires invented agree doesn’t lend 1 Short- term memory _____ very few items. 2 Hermann Ebbinghaus _____ the nonsense syllable. 3 the theorists of today _____ that any experience must be coded into some kind of information. 4 Chunking _____ that the material be coded appropriately. 5 Long- term memory _____ massive amounts of material. 6 Drugs may _____ us to aid memory. 7 Repression _____ itself to laboratory analysis. 8 New fact or experiences _____ themselves to appropriate groups. 9. Passive. Expand the following constructions into complete sentences:

passive

To be organized, to be coded, to be done, to be changed, to be stored, to be referred, to be known, to be forgotten, to be learnt, to be called, to be lost. FOLLOW-UP 10. Answer the following questions. Then, using your answers, retell the text. 1 2 3 4 5

Are there different kinds of memory? How can we improve our short- term memory? How is the written word coded in short- term memory? What is clustering? How does interference prevent our long- term memories from becoming permanent? 6 How does repression work? 7 Is there evidence for the Freudian approach to forgetting? 8 What is the future outlook for memory studies?

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UNI T 4 MOT I VA T I ON: FR UST R A T I ON, CONF LI CT A ND F ULFI L LMENT LEAD-IN 1. 1 Think of the forces that move us in life. What values, ideals and rules (of society) make us do what we do? 2 Comment on Shakespeare’s words: “The fault, dear Brutus, lies not in our stars but in ourselves”. READING 2. Read the text. Five sentences have been removed from it. Choose from the sentences A-E, the one which fits each gap (1-5). A. His ideas about unconscious motivation have had a great influence, not only on psychology, but on literature, medicine and many other areas of life. B. An example of such a process would be the release of stored fat when the organism’s food intake has been so long delayed that his supply of “fuel” is depleted. C. The two seem to be dramatically opposed. D. For some people even normal levels of stimulation are insufficient, so that they actively seek stressful and sometimes life-threatening situations. E. Frustration, though unpleasant and sometimes painful, can have beneficial effects. 3. Read the text and find the sentence which best describes. a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

the theory of social determinism the biological approach frustration tolerance motivational conflict acquired motives equilibrium motives expansion motives

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TEXT Throughout history people have looked everywhere for the forces that move them – outside themselves, in supernatural entities; within themselves, in their own needs and desires; and in the society in which they live. The idea that each of us is but a pawn of fate. That good fortune and bad luck help to determine our destinies is hard to shake. Yet wanting to believe that we can control our lives, most of us subscribe to the concept of man, the rational master. Those who need unambiguous explanations, clearly based on simple cause-andeffect relations, see human beings as machines and point to man is an island unto himself, some theorist’s have proposed that social forces exert a strong influence on human motivation. This is the theory of social determinism. But social determinism cuts two ways: we are, individually, influenced by society, but collectively, we build society and are able to change it. The belief that we are often unaware of our true motives is a very old one, but it was Freud who developed it most fully. [1]. Another influential view of motivation grew out of Darwin’s theory of evolution. It argues that the basic motivating force in humans, as well as in animals, is a set of biological drives, and that those motives that cannot be traced directly to one of these drives are acquired motives, or secondary drives. These secondary drives are seen as being derived from the primary biological drives. The biological approach holds that on organism is motivated to take action only when its equilibrium is disturbed, when some important ingredient is lacking or is present in excess, and when the involuntary and automatic processes of homeostasis cannot restore equilibrium. [2]. But our bodily needs do not always call forth appropriate conscious needs. This can be explained in part, but non entirely, by conditioning. Though some would explain motivation entirely on the basis of a physiological striving for equilibrium and the elimination of tension, there are other kinds of striving, that can not be explained in this way. The striving to know, to explore, to create, and even to play is not necessary for

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survival, security, or equilibrium. They may actually in duce, rather than reduce, tension. The human need for stimulation is so strong that prolonged exposure to an environment in which external stimulation is kept at a minimum can be severely disturbing, even intolerable, although biological needs may be satisfied. [3]. Human beings seem to have two sets of motives, and [4]. Equilibrium motives are directed toward survival, safety, comfort, and the reduction of tension Expansion motives which widen our experiences and our horizons, tend to in duce tension and sometimes actually court danger. Several theories, notably. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, try to encompass in a single scheme the two types of motives. Wherever there is motivation, there is some frustration, for no one’s needs can be instantly and entirely satisfied. [5]. By narrowing an individual’s attention and concerns and providing more intensely toward his goal. In some eases he will seek a substitute goal to satisfy the same motive, or thorough compensation he will adopt another motive and channel his energies in that new direction. But when the level of frustration is too high, it can lead to regression and other disruptive behavior. The level of frustration which an individual can stand in a given situation before he succumbs to maladaptive behavior is his frustration tolerance. Frustration tolerance varies greatly from person to person and seems to be an enduring personality characteristic of the individual. When two or more strong motives are work simultaneously, or when we are confronted by two goals, we are put into a state of motivational conflict. A person is torn between moving forward the positive aspects of her goal (approach) and moving away from its negative aspects (avoidance). When one must choose between two positive goals (approach – approach conflict), the resolution is usually rapid and relatively painless. When one is required to choose one of two negative goals (avoidance – avoidance conflict), the decision is likely to be more difficult and more prolonged. When the two negative goals are important, there is often an attempt to escape the need to choose, even if such an escape should involve a radical restructuring of one’s life. A goal that

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has, at he same time, both strong positive and strong negative features (approach – avoidance) is also likely to create a very stressful kind of conflict. VOCABULARY PRACTICE 4. Match the key terms with their explanations. 1. approach – a) Aroused states in an avoidance conflict organism, related to the body’s 2. avoidance physiological requirements, avoidance conflict whish set the organism into 3. bodily need action. In one view of 4. compensation motivation, drives are 5. conflict considered to be innate 6. conscious biological tendencies; in this need view all complex motivation, 7. rives which is developed through 8. equilibrium learning, is based on these 9. equilibrium biological tendencies; and take motives form of derived or of 10. expansion motivation, drives are regarded motives as only a limited segment of 11. homeostasis the whole of the motivational 12. motive energies of the organism. 13. social b) Forces propelling an determinism individual to experience enjoyment and satisfaction, to 14. unconscious obtain gratification to motivation understand and discover, to seek novelty and stimulation, to achieve and create. Such motivation frequently induces or increases tension c) A form of directed behavior in which the person is unaware of the needs and desires, the intentions and goals, which are pushing or pulling him d) A conflict in which the goal object has both positive and negative aspects. It is

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probably the most typical kind of conflict e) The maintenance of steady physiological states of the body through selfregulating processes. These processes function without the awareness or voluntary action of the person f) The doctrine that asserts that the individuals behavior is dictated mainly by the requirements and characteristic of the social system as a whole g) Forces directing an individual’s behavior toward a specific goal h) A need for a specific substance or condition required for some aspect of biological functioning. It may or may not be accompanied by awareness i) Forces propelling an individual to remove lacks, excesses, and disruptions in bodily functions and physiological states, and to avoid or escape danger, sometimes called survival motives. The general effect of equilibrium motivation is the reduction of tension j) A stable state, or condition, in which opposing forces are balanced k) The simultaneous functioning of opposing goals or motives. Or the state of a person in whom these opposing desires are operating, as when

36

we say, “She is in conflict” l) A conflict in which an individual has to choose between two negative goals. This conflict can result in prolonged oscillation and even an attempt to escape entirely from the situation m) A need for a substance or condition of which one is explicitly aware. It may or may not be accompanied by a bodily need n) Behavior aimed (deliberately or unconsciously) at making up for some lack or loss in personal character or status. 5. Fill in the gaps with the words which have the same meaning with the expressions in brackets. 1 His remarks are clever and _____ (can’t be misunderstood). 2 The old ideas about human motivation reflected naive belief in _____ (unknown spiritual) forces. 3 He gave an _____smile. (without intention). 4 There was _____ food to feed everyone (not enough). 5 Her fame is _____ (to remain alive). 6 They didn’t realize the _____seriousness of the county’s problems until they went there themselves. (actual) 7 The _____ purpose of his visit is to improve trading relations. (main) 8 In the _____ stages of the civilization people had no metal tools. (earliest) 6. Using the suffixes – ous, - y, -ic, -al, -ful, - less, - ing, en. Write down adjectives from the given words influence pain to acquire to disrupt body to endure to give to disturb stress

37

7. Read the list of adverbs and match them with the words from the text. individually collectively fully

directly diametrically actually

entirely intensely relatively

8. Fill in the correct verb from the list: Subscribe, to escape, to encompass, seek, restore, induce, to take, is kept, call forth, lead to, widen, reduce, exert. a) _____ to the concept of main, the rational master; b) Social forces _____ a story influence on human motivation; c) Homeostasis can’t _____ equilibrium; d) Organism is motivated _____ an action; e) The striving to create _____ rather than _____ tension; f) External stimulation _____ at a minimum; g) People actively _____ stressful situations; h) Bodily needs don’t always _____ conscious needs; i) Expansion motives _____ our experience; j) Frustration can _____ regression; k) An attempt _____ the need to choose l) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs try _____ in a single scheme the two types of motives. 9. Fill in the gaps with the correct prepositions from the list: between, on, to, within, throughout, by, from, for, out of. 1 _____ history 2 _____ themselves 3 to subscribe _____ 4 to be directed _____ 5 to choose _____ 6 to be based _____ 7 an influence _____ 8 to grow _____ 9 to strive _____ 10 to be derived _____ 11 to explain _____

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12 to be necessary _____ 13 to be torn _____ FOLLOW-UP 10. Answer the questions. A B C D E F G H I J

Is it reasonable to view human beings as machines? Are we helpless victims of social forces? Do we know our own motives? What is the relations between bodily and conscious needs? What kind of behavior is triggered by the need for stimulation? How can frustration lead to more directed striving? What is compensation? How do we use substitution? What is frustration tolerance? How do we normally deal with conflict?

11. Retell the text using the plan below. K L M N O

Where have we sought the forces that move us? Is biological equilibrium our basic goal? Motivation. How do we react to frustration? What are the three basic patterns of motivational conflict?

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UNIT 5 T HE PR OBL EMS OF MENT A L T EST I NG LEAD-IN 1. What is intelligence? Is it an inborn ability? Does it only reflect a person’s schooling or his experience gained in the course of lifetime? READING 2. Read the text,divide it info logical parts and choose the most suitable heading from the list A-E. A B C D E

Can we measure without defining? Do our mental abilities stay constant throughout life? Are mental tests valid? Are group differences in IQ genetically determined? What is the nature of intelligence?

3. Read the text and decide whether the following statements are true or false. 1 Hereditary and environmental influences don’t influence on mental ability because parents can’t transmit their environment to their children. 2 It’s a common belief that intelligence involves many capacities. 3 The rate of growth of mental ability seems to slow down in rate adolescence. 4 A universally accepted definition of intelligence is a unified ability to solve of problems. 5 Thomson and other believe that intelligence consist of a general factor which controls every adaptive act. 6 Current mental tests are applicable to investigating group difference in intelligence.

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TEXT Despite the lack of a precise definition of what it is that mental tests measure, their use (by armies and industries as well as schools) has demonstrated their practical utility. Psychologists still hope that accumulated data from “intelligence tests” will eventually lead to an understanding of the nature of mental ability. The test maker first select a number of the test items which, in his opinion, might measure “intelligence”. These items should then be tested to determine whether they are culture-fair and whether they show a growth curve with age. This last permits the assigning of an age level to each item. The test is then standardized on a representative sample of the population for which the test is designed. A child’s score is based on the number of items at each age level answered correctly. This permits scoring in items of mental age, MA. IQ (intelligence quotient) is computed by dividing MA by chronological age, CA. This faction is then multiplied by 100 to remove the decimal point, and is reported in whole numbers. With this formula, it necessarily follows that of 100; a child who does better than average will receive an IQ score above 100; and a child who does worse than the average, below 100. The rate of growth of mental ability seems to slow down after about age 16, and may remain stationary after some point in adulthood. Because chronological age continues to increase (inexorably), this formula would inevitably scale, designed for adults, makes no assumption about MA growth and compares each person’s performance with his age-mates only. This test, composed as it is of a number of subscales, can be used to compute separate scores for different abilities as well as one overall score. IQ scores are fairly successful in predicting performance in grade and high schools, less so for become increasingly important at that level. People with high IQ scores tend to do well on most kinds on jobs. Some jobs attract those with

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relatively high IQs, but there is a wide range of scores within any one occupation. There is no unanimity as to whether intelligence is one capacity or many. For Spearman, intelligence consists of a general factor, G, which controls every adaptive act, although each task also involves a different specific ability, or S factor. His theory can account for the moderately high positive correlation usually found among tests of different abilities. Thurstone thought that these correlations could be better accounted for by assuming seven relatively independent group factors, each responsible for a different cluster of abilities. Guilford found forty such group factors and predicted that 120 would eventually be found. Thomson and others believe the number to be nearly infinite, because each human ability is specific and unrelated to any other, although each actual task involves several abilities. It is because some abilities needed for one task may also be involved in another task that, the specificity theorists say, there are correlations among different tests. The current tendency is to avoid characterizing a person’s mental abilities by a single score; instead the many different facets of the human mind are separately measured and scored. A normal person increased his adaptive skills and reasoning powers as he grows older, although the rat of growth may decrease after adolescence. There is some decline in old age, but there is enormous variation, with mental “old age” arriving relatively early to some and never to others. One doesn’t “have” an IQ in the sense that one has blue eyes. IQ scores change. They are stable only over shunt periods and become less stable the longer the interval between tests. Also, the younger the child, the less stable the IQ. For those reasons it is inadvisable to categorize a child’s intelligence on the basis of an IQ score taken in early childhood. It is difficult to disentangle hereditary and environmental influences on mental ability because, typically children as well as their genes. Studies of naturally occurring events (which result in children being reared apart from their parents, identical twins being reared apart from each other, and so

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forth) make it clear that both heredity and environment are influential. The closer the genetic relation between people; the closer their IQ scores, and the more similar the environments in which people develop, the closer their IQ scores. Deliberate intervention in the environment can raise IQ. Teaching, training, and “coaching” in specific subjects can increase mental ability, and so can affection, personal attention, and a lively, stimulating atmosphere. Severely malnourished children have lower IQs than better nourished children in the same countries. The brain’s growth can be retarded during its development by inadequate nourishment to the mother’s body – the environment of the unborn baby. Low intelligence at birth, therefore, may be environmentally (not genetically) caused. In middle childhood boys are more likely to gain in IQ scores, girls to lose. Women sometimes show greater growth in adulthood, particularly if they scored lower than boys in adolescence. This may be accounted for by the change in expectations of what a young girl should be, intellectually, and what a mature woman is “allowed’ to be. Such findings may also explain poor performance in other groups. For women and minority group members, motivation, society expectations and self-expectations all play a part in performance. The present state of science and of society makes it impossible to establish definitely whether group differences in IQ are genetically determined. We have neither experiment. To separate genetic and environmental influences on groups of people. Because minority groups were not adequately represented in the standardization process, and because neither the tests nor the testing situation, are culture-fair, current mental tests are not applicable to minority group. VOCABULARY PRACTICE 4. Match the key terms with their explanations. 1. mental age a) a factor which controls several intellectual activities and thus 2. g (“general” accounts for the positive correlation intelligence)

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intelligence) 3. group factor 4.growth criterion 5.individual tests 6.intelligence quotient 7. performance tests 8. power tests 9. speed tests 10.standardizati on 11. verbal tests 12. aptitude

within cluster of mental tests b) a score based on performance on a mental test and determined by the age level of the items passed c) this criterion demands that each item be passed by an increasing number of children in secretively older age groups d) intelligence or aptitude tests in which the score is determined primarily by the number of correct answers an individual can give in a certain period of time e) test designed to measure general intelligence or special aptitudes and consisting primarily of motor test items f) intelligence or aptitude test consisting primarily of either written or oral items g) a temp used be Spearman to represent a “general” intelligence, which he believed is involved in every kind of problem-solving or adaptive task h) test administered to one person at a time i) a score which expresses the individual’s mental age in relation to his chronological age j) intelligence or aptitude test in which the score is determined by the difficulty of the asks that are successfully completed k) the procedure of administering a new test to a representative sample of people to determine seal values for the scores. l) he potential ability of a person to perform a specific kind of ability.

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5.Match the adverbs in A with the words in B A 1. necessarily

B a) represented

2. fairly

b) caused

3. annually

c) occurring events

4. inexorably

d) to be follows

5. inevitably

e) it follows

6. increasingly

f) successful

7. relatively

g) decreasing

8. moderately

h) result

9. eventually

i) important

10. naturally

j) high

11. genetically

k) determined

12. environmentally

l) to increase

13. adequately 6. Match each word from A with its synonym or explanation from B. A 1. precise

B a) changeable

2. practical

b) exact

3. representative

c) typical

4. stationary

d) suited to actual use

5. overall

e) suffering from bad feeding

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6. identical

f) not changing

7. influential

g) having great effect

8. inadequate

h) including everything

9. malnourished

i) not good enough

10. unborn

j) not yet existing

11. adaptive

k) here: born from one egg; exactly alike

7. Fill in the correct verb from the list: retarded account permits to avoid to lose to compute raise to establish

to gain involves predicted tend receive to disentangle increases

1 A growth curve with age _______________ the assigning of an age level to each item. 2 The average child at each age will _______________ an IQ of 100. 3 The Wechsler scale can be used _______________ separate scores for different abilities. 4 People with high IQ scores _______________to do well on most kinds of jobs. 5 Spearman’s theory can _______________ for the moderately high positive correlation’s 6 Guilford _______________ that 120 group factors would be found. 7 Each actual task _______________ several abilities. 8 The current tendency is _______________ characterizing a person’s mental abilities by a single score. 9 A normal person _______________ his adaptive skills.

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10 It is difficult _______________ hereditary influences on mental abilities. 11 Deliberate intervention in the environment can _______________ IQ. 12 The brain’s growth can be _______________ during it’s development. 13 In middle childhood boys are more likely _______________ in IQ scores, girls _______________. 14 It’s impossible _______________ definitely whether group differences in IQ are genetically determined. FOLLOW-UP 8. Answer the following questions. Then, using your answers, give your summary of the text. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

What major criteria must be met by mental tests? How is a child’s IQ computed? Why must adult IQs be computed differently? Which other way of computing IQs is most popular? Do mental test scores predict school success? Is occupational choice related to IQ? Is intelligence one ability or several independent abilities? 8 How many group factors make up intelligence? 9 What is the theory of specificity? 10 Are adult IQs predictable? 11 Can IQ scores be raised by deliberately changing the environment? 12 Does nutrition affect intelligence? 13 Why is it especially difficult to study the genetic determinants of group differences in intelligence? 14 Are current mental tests applicable to minority groups?

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Л и те ратура. 1. Е.В. Ни к ош к ова. Ан гли йс к и й язык д ля п с и х ологов. У ч е б ное п ос об и е д ля вузов. – М .: Изд ате льс тво ВЛ АД ОС – П РЕС С ,2002. – 160с . 2. Kulikova N.V.English for Psychology Students: У ч е б ное п ос об и е п о англ. язык у д ля с туд е нтов ф ак ульте та п с и х ологи и выс ш и х уч е б н ых заве д е ни й. П од ре д ак ци е й Л .А. М е льни к , Е.Б . З е н к е ви ч : М Г У . – М .: Рос . п с и х . об щ е с тво, 1998. – 255с . 3. English for Psychology Students: У ч е б ное п ос об и е п о ч те н и ю д ля с туд е нтов – п с и х ологов/ Ре д . – с ос т. З .Э . Б огос ловс к ая; П од об щ е й ре д ак ци е й Т.Н. Ш и ш к и н ой. – М .: Рос . п с и х . об щ е с тво. Вып .1. – 1999. – 159с . 4. Virginia Evans. Round – Up. English Grammar Practice 4. Longman, 2002. 5. Psychology: A Basic Course. /David Krech, R.S. CrutchField, N. Livson, H. Krech. – New York: Knopf, 1986. – 514p.

С ос тави те ли : Г орч ак ова Еле н а П е тровн а С п и ри д онова Наталья Б ори с овна Ре д ак тор: Б уни на Т.Д .