Kant's Weltanschauung

Written Written by by aa distinguished distinguished philosopher, philosopher,

this this

original interpretation of of Kant's Kant's philosophy philosophy original interpretation essential thesis explains thesis of of Kant Kant and and calls calls explains the essential

to our our attention the importance to attention the importance of Kant's of Kant's belief belief that that to to

morality in human life is superior superior life is morality in

both science and metaphysics. both science Thus, the the metaphysics. Thus,

ethical and religious ethical religious elements of Kant's Kant's elements of

thinking emerge in in new perspective. perspective. Dr. Dr. thinking emerge Kroner submits that Kroncr that Kant's Kant's world world view view derives not derives not from his his theory of knowledge theory of knowledge but but from from his his ethical ethical principles principles and and that that

moral dignity dignity and and the the absolute absolute worth worth of the of the moral will will were of the the highest for highest moment for Kant. Kant.

An authorized revisions by by translation with revisions authorized translation the author, the Kant's Weltanschauung one of is one author, Kant's Weltanschauung is the the

in English available in first examplcs English of the the examples available

first

so-called Heidelberg interpretation interpretation of Kant. Kant. so-called Heidelberg stress on school put Heidelberg school put greatest The Heidelberg greatest stress

of Kant's Kant's the moral and religious the moral and aspects of religious aspects thought. as as opposed opposed to to the the school school of Marthought, such commentators as burg. represented by by such as burg, represented on back (Continued back flap) (Continued on flap)

KANSAS

:

CITY,

o 0001

MO PUBLIC LIBRARY

I I

0276936 1

19; KL6zk Kl6zlt 62-05890 62-05890 193 Kroner Kroner Kant's Weltanschauung 'Weltanschauung Kant's

1~ Kl6zk Kl6zk 62.05890 193 62-05890 Kroner Kroner $2,00 $2.00 Kant's Kant's Weltanschauung Weltanschauung

Books

will

be issued only

on presentation

of

'lease report lost cards

library card,

and

change of residence promp fo Card holders are responsible

---.--..-~ ^KANT'S KANT'S WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUBN(j .....

~",--=~~,.,.,

...... , " .

-~-.----~kT

I

''' __-. __ ._" ____ i

!

., .--.;..,----.-----~ . ..j.r

I

,. __ i-.,~-----.----~,---

- -...... ~..,-.'-~. . . # - .....

.L. _ _ _ _ _ __

~.;-'

,

. . ._._-__i_~-

-=-~~==~~].-==_._o

l___•______

•• _ •• _ _ _ _ _ _

KANT'S WELTANSCHAUUNG By By

RICHARD KRONER ~RONER English Translation by

English Translation by

JOHN E. SMITH JOHN E.

THE THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

PRESS CHICAGO PRESS

CHICAGO

translation of of Kants Kanis Weltanschauung An authorized authorized translation Weltanschauung (Tiihingen,

with revisions by the author

I9I4) with revisions by the author (Tubingen, 1914)

Library oj Congress Catalog Number: 56-6640

Library of Congress Catalog Number: $6-6640

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS, 37 CHICAGO 37 PRESS, CmCAGO

W. I, Cambridge University Press, Press, London, London, N. N.W. i, England Cambridge University England The University of of Toronto Press, Toronto 5, Canada Canada The University Toronto 5, Toronto Press, The University © 1956 by The Chicago. Copyright Copyright under under 1956 by University oj of Chicago. the International Copyright Union, 1956. Published Published 1956 ig$6 Composed and and printed printed by by THE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF CmCAGO CHICAGO Composed PRESS, Iilinois, U.S.A. U.S.A. PRESS, Chicago, Chicago, Illinois,

the International Copyright Union, 1956.

Foreword Foreword

JIjVERYONE familiar familiar with EVERYONE with will admit that is a he difficult is a difficult writer; Kant's thought will admit that he writer; thought to follow him through his intricate to through his intricate arguments and his his arguments complexity of expression constantly taxes taxes the the reader. reader. complexity of expression constantly of this, those reading and Because of this, those and teaching have Kant have reading teaching to stress stress every detail; atfrequently tended to they have have atfrequently tended every detail; they catch his tempted to catch his meaning meaning by by devoting devoting the the most most tempted to to attention each The result result has painstaking attention to each passage. has painstaking passage. been been an overemphasis the details details of of Kant's Kant's syssysoveremphasis upon upon the the first tem, particularly particularly on the the early part of of the first Critique, tem, early part Critique, the consequent of a loss total and the loss of a total perspective upon the perspective upon the consequent Kantian philosophy. It is is impossible to overestimate overestimate Kantian impossible to philosophy. It there the confusion follows; there are many who have have confusion which follows; are many the the rudiments of of Kant's mastered at least mastered at least the analysis of of Kant's analysis still remain in the human cognition but who still remain largely the largely in cognition but the basic dark about his episteepisteabout the more basic questions questions which his were intended answer. to to answer. Thus mological inquiries intended mological inquiries details of Kant's there can contemplate contemplate the the details of Kant's are few who can there are inhis entire was theory fully aware that his entire epistemology inthat aware epistemology theory fully his limited tended to to decide whether man, man, with his limited capacidecide whether tended capacithe resolving the philosophical problems ties, is capable of of ties, is philosophical problems resolving capable of the set in the Dialectic" of the first first the "Transcendental "Transcendental Dialectic" set forth forth in

v

FOREWORD

FOREWORD

Critique. Frequently the the problems problems of of the the third third section section Critique. Frequently left to side with of Pure Reason Reason are are left to one one side with of the the Critique of Pure Critique of of result that basic meaning of Kant's criticism criticism of the result the basic the that the meaning of of his rejection in spite is lost. knowledge lost. Yet Yet in of specuspecurejection of spite of his knowledge is main fact remains that that the lative metaphysics, the fact Kant's lative metaphysics, of when concern was with the the plight plight of human reason reason concern avoid but confronted with questions confronted questions which it it cannot avoid but also cannot of knowlwhich it it also cannot answer. answer. The analysis knowlanalysis of is isolated affair but a not an isolated affair but a preliminary preliminary to to dedeedge edge is not termine of human and validthe scope the termine the of knowledge the validscope knowledge this fact moral fact is is forgotten, the of ity of activity. When this activity. ity forgotten, the into of Kant study of degenerates into piecemeal consideration study degenerates piecemeal consideration of epistemological of details, and Kant's Kant's basic basic perspective perspective epistemological details, lost. It a case is lost. is a lost sight of is It is case of of our our having the main having lost sight of the of Kant's because we have taken too purpose of Kant's thought because have taken too thought purpose myopic of his his philosophy. philosophy. myopic a view of 1 Kant's Weltanschauung,! Richard Kroner's book, Kant's Richard Kroner's book, Weltanschauung, will help to rectify this error. will error. Drawing upon his his vast vast help to rectify this Drawing upon Kant's writing, knowledge of Kant's he succeeds succeeds in in setting knowledge of writing, he setting forth the the main drift drift of Kant's thought thought-Kant's basic forth of Kant's Kant's basic It is this is this perspective which is philosophical perspective. It which is philosophical perspective. perspective meant by the term term "Weltanschauung," a term have term we have by the "Weltanschauung," a decided to in retain in the the English decided to retain translation, partly partly bebeEnglish translation, cause it cause it now has has considerable considerable currency in America, but in but America, currency no because chiefly because English word or phrase or chiefly English phrase adequately adequately 1. First First published C. B. 1. in German by by J. J. C. B. Mohr (Tiibingen: Paul published in (Tubingen: Paul Siebeck, Siebeck, 1914). 1914).

m

tit

FOREWORD

F ORE WORD

author has has in expresses in mind. mind. Kroner seeks to seeks to expresses what the author all strands strands of so that draw together together all of Kant's Kant's thought that the the thought so critical philosophy be seen as a and a as suscritical can be seen as a whole as a susphilosophy tained the primacy tained attempt to communicate one idea idea-the primacy attempt to of the of the willing willing subject over all all knowledge knowledge and all all specspecsubject over ulative constructions constructions of of reality. the as ulative reality. This one one idea, as the idea, will discover, reader Kroner's interpretation reader will represents Kroner's interpretation discover, represents of Kant's of Kant's Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. of the the past so Kantian scholarship past century century has has been been so scholarship of vast it would be survast and varied varied that that it be aa matter matter of of great great surif different different schools of interpretation schools of not dedeprise prise if interpretation had not The so-called is the one school the best veloped. so-called Marburg school is one best veloped. Marburg to English known to those unfamiliar English readers, readers, and even even those unfamiliar with the details details have to Kant" of the the "back to with the have heard heard of as Naassociated with such commentators with such commentators as movement associated Less known in in this this country country torp, Cohen, Cassirer. Less Cohen, and Cassirer. torp, associated is the interpretation of the the Heidelberg is the school, associated interpretation of Heidelberg school, of Rickert Rickert and with the and Windelband. Kroner's Kroner's the names of with latter point is representative this latter point of of view. view. Those book is of this book representative of "zuriick zu Kant" movement the "zuriick participated in in the who participated were inclined inclined to to regard post-Kantian speculation as were speculation as regard post-Kantian misguided thoroughly un-Kantian, un-Kantian, aa view view which misguided and thoroughly of metaall vestiges in turn led led them to of all vestiges of metato strip in turn strip Kant of thinker him to thought and thereby reduce to a thinker physical thereby physical thought, concerned only only with with epistemology. the Marburg Marburg concerned epistemology. For the school, going back back to to episto Kant meant going school, going episgoing back to from and temological philosophy completely away completely away temological philosophy Vlt

WORD

F ORE FOREWORD

speculative questions. The Heidelberg interpretation, speculative questions. Heidelberg interpretation, the other other hand, it also in a sense went "back on the while it also in a sense hand, while to Kant/' to discover discover the to Kant," was more concerned concerned to the fundamental critical philosomental moral questions questions which Kant's Kant's critical philosophy attempted to answer. answer. phy attempted to Thus in does not not in Kant's Kant's Weltanschauung Weltanschauung Kroner does aside Kant's Kant's successors successors as simply as illegitimate illegitimate sweep aside simply sweep heirs his thought, in his to his but he shows how Kant in his heirs to thought, but solve the the same questions which own way way tried tried to to solve questions solve by by Fichte, and Hegel had attempted to solve Fichte, Schelling, attempted to Hegel Schelling, metaphysical principal point point estabestabmetaphysical speculation. speculation. The principal that for Kant the in lished Kroner's is lished by Kroner's analysis is that for the will, will, in by analysis is supreme of the the form of the individual willing subject, the individual willing subject, is supreme will it it is is superior to in life and all as actual actual will in human life and that that as superior to all to all knowing and superior to all speculative metaphysics, speculative metaphysics, superior knowing the central central will itself even is made the even to to those those in in which will itself is Kant's Weltanschauung, principle. according to to KroWeltanschauung, according principle. Kant's of freeactualization human that the is the insight that the actualization of freener, is the ner, insight action is is man's highest highest ability dom in in moral moral action duty, ability and duty, action itself and that only in in moral moral action itself do the the dualities dualities that only by speculative reason disappear. posed by disappear. posed speculative reason perspective, Kroner interprets interprets this ethical ethical perspective, From this Kant's epistemological dualism, phenomenalism, phenomenalism, and Kant's epistemological dualism, of of these features features of subjectivism, and instead of regarding instead regarding these subjectivism, self-contained theory aspects of of aa self-contained theory the first first Critique as the Critique as aspects is required by each is of knowledge, he he aims to show how each aims to of knowledge, required by Kant's ultimate ultimate conviction that morality morality is is superior to conviction that Kant's superior to Vltt

FOREWORD

FOREWORD

This means metaphysical means that that ethical ethical conconmetaphysical knowledge. knowledge. This siderations are are first first in in importance siderations and that far from and that far from importance an appendage intended to to supplement being being an appendage intended supplement aa skeptiskeptical epistemology, the the ethical cal ethical outlook actually deteroutlook epistemology, actually determines the the Kantian Kantian theory of knowledge. mines theory of knowledge. In addition to an important In addition to being contribution in in ititbeing an important contribution Kroner's interpretation self, serves to focus attention serves to self, Kroner's focus attention interpretation once more upon outlook of once of Kant and and to to rereupon the whole outlook mind us that such a total perspective is mind us that such a total perspective is operative operative throughout Kant's thought. throughout thought. Richard Kroner, Richard Professor in in the the UniverUniverKroner, formerly formerly Professor of to in sity of Kiel, came to America in 1940. Since then 1940. Since then he he has Kiel, has sity at taught at the Union Theological Seminary in New in taught Theological Seminary at Temple University, in York and more recently adrecently at Temple University, in addition to dition to lecturing lecturing at at Vassar Vassar College, College, Yale Yale University, University, and and other other institutions institutions of of higher higher learning. learning. He is is the the auauthor of an Religious Function Function thor of an excellent excellent little little book, book, The Religious and also of The of Imagination, also of Primacy of Faith, the of Imagination, Primacy of Faith, the Gifford Gifford Lectures Lectures for for 1939, 1939, as as well well as as Culture Culture and and Faith, Faith, aa revised and revised enlarged version version of of an an original original philophiloenlarged by him in 1928 under the sophical system published him in 1928 under the sophical system published by title: Die Selbstverwirftlichung Selbstverwirklichung des des Geistes. Geistes. His His monumonutitle: Die mental two volume mental two volume interpretation interpretation of of the the development development of of German German Idealism, Idealism, Von Kant Kant bis bis Hegel, Hegel, has, has, unforunfortunately, never never been been translated translated into into English. English. When When this this tunately, is is done done itit will will greatly greatly benefit benefit English English readers readers studying studying German German thought. thought.

zx

ORE WORD FFOREWORD

Finally, a word about about the the translation translation itself. itself. In In most most Finally, a word closely, but but in in places the the English English follows follows the the German German closely, places others, notably chapter iii iii on on "Ethical "Ethical Subjectivism," Subjectivism," At times he he has has Kroner has has made made radical radical revisions. revisions. At times Kroner the recast has he others at shortened sentences and at others he has recast the and sentences shortened The entire entire translation translation has has been been original completely. The original completely. for checked by by the the author, author, but but final final responsibility responsibility for any any checked rests infelicitous or errors in translation or infelicitous expressions rests errors in translation expressions with the the translator translator alone. alone. with indebted to to my my wife wife for for verifying verifying many many of of the the II am indebted of the W. Beck Lewis Beck of the notes, and and especially especially to to Professor Professor notes, has who has kindly given of his his University of Rochester Rochester of kindly given of University to prepare prepare an an index index and and to to check check the the proofs; proofs; withwith~ time to time most would book the out his help the appearance of the most out his appearance of help the surely have been delayed. been delayed. surely have in English small book on Kant in It aa small that is hoped that It is English hoped will not only and suggestive will which both intelligible is both which is only suggestive intelligible those for provide an over~all viewpoint for those already familiar already provide an over-all viewpoint to begin others to stimulate others with also stimulate will also but will Kant but with Kant study begin study of with some understanding of Kantian philosophy the Kantian of the understanding philosophy Kant's formidable the basic questions more basic the more questions behind Kant's formidable and the of human knowledge analysis of the structure structure of of the knowledge and analysis goal of human freedom. freedom. goal of human E. SMITH SMITH JOHN JOHN E. others, notably chapter

E. Smith, are by NOTE.-The to the the chapters notes to NOTE. The notes Smith, by J.J. E. chapters are the author. is by the to v, which is author. except the note which to chapter note the v, by chapter except

x

Contents Table of of Contents INTRODUCTION

...

11

.

I. ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM I.

II. ETHICAL DUALISM

II.

III. ETHICAL

III.

6

30

.

61

SUBJECTIVISM SUBJECTIVISM

92 92

IV. ETHICAL PHENOMENALISM

V. PRIMACY OF THE PRACTICAL

108 119 119

INDEX INDEX.

Xl

Introduction Introduction

IXT

the essence T is IS of of the essence in in aa philphil-

osophical to proceed proceed by by means of of demonstrademonstraosophical system system to tion, to to supply reasons and not not to to depend depend on tion, supply objective objective reasons in subjective motives, feelings, and conjectures in place of of subjective motives, feelings,, conjectures place the comprehension argument. Nevertheless, the comprehension of of the the raraargument. Nevertheless, character of the tional, logical, and objective character of the concepts tional, logical, objective concepts in a a system be if one penetrates the facilitated in can be facilitated if the spirit system penetrates spirit ethos alive alive in and ethos in the the system. refer to to the the spirit system. When II refer spirit ethos of and ethos of Kant's Kant's philosophy, philosophy, II do not not intend intend to to dedethe inner character of life of of Kant as pict the character of the inner life as the the biogbiogpict the I but rather intend to concentrate rapher might do, but rather I intend to concentrate on rapher might do, called "Kant's "Kant's Weltanschauung," be called what should should be Weltanschauung," which as a not from originates not Kant as a person person but but from Kant as as originates of one of the world's great the author one of the world's philosophical the author of great philosophical systems. religious views views of of Kant are, ethical and religious are, systems. The ethical source than for purpose, aa better better source than his his epistemologiepistemologithis purpose, for this ethical and religious cal views are are more theories. His ethical cal theories. religious views of center his deeply rooted in the philosophical center of his personin the rooted personphilosophical deeply ality and therefore of his his Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. therefore of ality are at at the Two great great cultural powers are the very very foundafoundacultural powers science and tion philosophy: natural natural science of the the Kantian philosophy: tion of in which Kant pits moral life. life. The manner in pits these these two moral I

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

powers against each other other constitutes constitutes the the dynamics dynamics of of powers against each around foci his system. system. For For in in their their reality reality he he sees sees the the foci around his which all all philosophical philosophical thought thought moves, moves, and and he he regards regards which two the to co-ordinate as of the utmost importance to co-ordinate the two it utmost it as of the

importance within aa system. system. His His entire entire philosophy philosophy receives receives its its parparwithin one On the the one hand, hand, ticular tone tone from from aa twofold twofold insight. On ticular insight.

along with with modem modern rationalists rationalists since since Descartes Descartes and and along of mathematical exactitude the sees, in the exactitude of mathematical Galileo, he in Galileo, he sees, knowledge, the the pattern pattern and ideal ideal of of all all theoretical theoretical study study knowledge, of reality; reality; on on the the other other hand, hand, in in spite spite of of his his full full appreappreof it not accord ciation of of scientific scientific truth, truth, he he does does not accord it any any ciation that the is of Kant metaphysical significance. is of the opinion that opinion metaphysical significance. point of of contact between man and the the supersensible the point contact between the supersensible facts of in the discerned in to be and is to be discerned the facts of is eternal sphere and eternal sphere in the and man's his self-determination, self-determination, in the in his moral life, man's moral life, in the that it is for laws of his moral will; for it is on these laws that the laws of his moral will; rest. Putting dignity and freedom of of man rest. together the Putting together dignity and freedom science and moral life), two evaluations (natural two evaluations life), the (natural science the of denial a metaphysical of a denial of supersensible knowledge of the supersensible metaphysical knowledge relaworld must inevitably result. Only mathematical relaresult. world must inevitably Only the the objects are the tions are knowable, tions are knowable, and they objects which the they are treat. can successfully sciences can mechanical sciences and physical mechanical and successfully treat. physical and pursue act and moral beings The as moral we as in which which we The world world in pursue beings act mathematiour ends obviously cannot be penetrated by mathematibe cannot our ends obviously penetrated by be grasped cannot be world cannot this world cal therefore this therefore cal knowledge; grasped knowledge; means. The in means. The supersensitheoretical in its its reality by any theoretical supersensireality by any 2

ON IINTRODUCTI NTRODUCTI ON ble and and eternal eternal world world is is accessible accessible only through moral ble only through moral we are in the of in the process of building activity; we are it by living activity; process building it by living in accordance accordance with with moral moral laws. laws. We in We make make ourselves ourselves citicitizens of of this this world world by the impact zens of the the by overcoming overcoming the impact of sensible world and in learning to sensible world and in control it it by the learning to control by the moral self. self. The The supersensible world of which we are moral are supersensible world of which as we are are conscious members, conscious of of our members, inasmuch as our selfhood selfhood and act act as as free free agents in the the world of and of sense, can never never agents in sense, can be understood theoretical means. means. It be understood by It is is nature nature only by theoretical only that can be and that can be objectively the objectively investigated investigated and grasped grasped by by the sciences. In this this sense, natural sciences. man as an agent conas an consense, agent fronts nature nature merely as the fronts as the raw material of his activity, material of his merely activity, as as something to his his something which can be molded according according to purpose. Exact mathematical knowledge is therefore purpose. knowledge is therefore exalted by for such knowledge alone exalted by Kant, represents Kant, for knowledge alone represents the .true science science of the .true of reality, reality, and it it alone alone produces produces objecobjective truth tive truth about about its its object. object. Yet, Yet, at at the the same same time, time, the the value of this of this knowledge is rated low. Scimetaphysical value is rated low. Scimetaphysical knowledge ence ence does does not not penetrate penetrate into into the the supersensible, supersensible, the the ininscience conveys conveys theoretical theoretical finite, and the the unlimited; unlimited; science finite, information information only only about about aa subordinate subordinate part part of of the the world, world, a a part part whose whose metaphysical metaphysical insignificance insignificance appears appears most most it originates originates just just clearly when when we consider consider that that from from it clearly those those sensuous sensuous impulses impulses and and desires desires which which undermine undermine the the dominion dominion of of moral moral reason. reason. The The abrogation abrogation of of the the comprehension comprehension of of the the supersuper-

3

KANT'S KANT'S

sensible sensible

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

world thus thus originates originates from from the the double double apap~ world mathematicalthe of the theoretical theoretical appraisal appraisal of the mathematical~ the

praisal: physical method and and the the metaphysical metaphysical appraisal appraisal of of the the method physical If Kant Kant had had attempted attempted to to extend extend this this methmeth~ moral will. will. If moral od, which which he he deemed deemed to to be be the the only only legitimate legitimate and and feafea~ od, to sible theoretical theoretical method method for for knowing knowing reality, reality, to the the sible the indeed as active in which we live as active beings (as indeed the world live we world in which beings (as disciples of of materialism materialism and and naturalism naturalism would would like like to to disciples abandon do), then then he he would would have have been been compelled compelled to to abandon do), a Within life. the respect respect he he had had for for moral moral life. Within a nature nature inin~ the because can no terpreted mathematically morality can exist, because exist, morality terpreted mathematically loses its its meaning; meaning; in in such such aa world world there every every action action loses there mathesince set any any purpose purpose for for itself, itself, since mathe~ the will will cannot cannot set the in its all determines all things matics its own orders and determines alone orders matics alone things in other the other If Kant, inexorable absolute way. and absolute Kant, on the inexorable and way. If of theoretical metahand, the possibility admitted the had admitted hand, had possibility of a theoretical meta~ been have been physics of the supersensible world, he would have physics of the supersensible world, mathematical the mathematical that the the thesis thesis that compelled to give up the give up compelled to in can comprehend and alone can scientific method alone and scientific reality in comprehend reality aa theoretical theoretical metaphysics Such aa theoretical theoretical way. metaphysics would way. Such as nature as encroach upon necessarily have tended to encroach tended to upon nature necessarily have been have been would have science would well, mathematical science that mathematical so that well, so relegated to a place of of secondary importance. secondary importance. relegated to a place theoretical but theoretical Kant the non~metaphysical maintains the Kant maintains non-metaphysical but non-theoretithe and validity of science and the non~theoreti­ mathematical science of mathematical validity He life. He moral life. the moral of the cal but metaphysical validity cal but metaphysical validity of praisal:

4

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION of theoretical value of thereby the value theoretical knowledge knowledge apportions the thereby apportions the metaphysical the value of the to and the value of metaphysical and supersensible supersensible to cultural realms the the two cultural realms especially precious to to him: especially precious science and the life. In mathematical science the moral life. In this this way way mathematical to do deto both realms without he he attempted justice to both realms without dejustice attempted to the one by of the the other. other. stroying by means of stroying the

5

II Voluntarism Ethical Voluntarism Ethical

IN L

brilliant lectures on thesis that Kant, defends the the thesis that Kant basically basically Kant, Simmel defends the emphasis is intellectualist and that is aa radical radical intellectualist that the emphasis placed placed last analysis results the last the moral life in in the by moralli£e in analysis results in by him on the of the the will. SimmeFs an intellectualistic interpretation will. Simmel's an intellectualistic interpretation of to with certain is correct thesis passages in in thesis is correct with respect respect to certain passages into one takes the if account if one takes into account the Kant's ethics; however, Kant's ethics; however, of general philosophy one cannot call call it it general spirit spirit of Kantian philosophy of his intellectualistic. intellectualistic. The great great originality his philosophy philosophy originality of above has rests Windelband, above all, has pointed out) on rests (as all, (as Windelband, pointed out) the highest the tothe fact fact that that it it accords accords the the place within within the tohighest place the human consciousness of the consciousness and within tality of within the the tototality of to the to the intellect but to tality of Weltanschauung not not intellect but to tality Weltanschauung is voluntaristic. the voluntaristic. the will. will. Kant's Kant's philosophy philosophy is statement may in so so far far as as This statement may perhaps perhaps mislead, mislead, in modern man immediately immediately connects with the term "volconnects with the term "voluntarism" untarism" the the metaphysics associated with Schopenassociated with metaphysics Schopenhauer. is to be found found in in Kant. Kant. hauer. But nothing nothing of of this this sort sort is to be LN HIS

brilliant lectures

1

Simrnel l

1. Georg Simmel 1. (1858-1918), philos(1858-1918), German sociologist Georg sociologist and philosopher, mainly with social philosophy. social and moral philosophy. opher, concerned mainly

6

VOLUNTARISM

ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM ETHICAL

The whole Kantian Weltanschauung Weltanschauung centers, centers, not not around the will will in in general, general, but but around around the the morally morally will which subjects good will or around the the individual individual will subjects good will to the itself to law. Kant, does not not regard regard itself the moral law. Kant, moreover, moreover, does this moral will will as as the substance of of the this the hidden hidden core, core, the the substance the renounces the task of world; he absolutely renounces the task of building up world; absolutely building up scientific philosophy of the supersensible out aa scientific world out philosophy of the supersensible world of moral life. the facts facts of of the states that of life. He merely that moral moral merely states life points if one life to the the supersensible world. Hence, Hence, if one ununpoints to supersensible world. derstands voluntarism in a which the derstands by the by voluntarism a metaphysics metaphysics in of reality, will center of then Kant's is is the the center then Kant's philosophy will is reality, philosophy is no voluntarism; that knowledge denies that knowledge of of the the voluntarism; Kant denies will has any will has any speculative speculative significance. significance. Schopenhauer's Schopenhauer's is infinitely and voluntarism is metaphysical speculative speculative voluntarism infinitely metaphysical more intellectualistic intellectualistic than Kant's Kant's philosophy. philosophy. the metaKant's Kant's Weltanschauung that the metaemphasizes that Weltanschauung emphasizes of the be adequately adequately physical significance the will will cannot cannot be physical significance of of the expressed in aa theory theory of the will will but but only only by by the the activactivexpressed in holds Kant itself in moral ity of the will itself in its moral capacity. holds its will of the capacity. ity science is theoretical as a as a theoretical science is impossible impossible that that metaphysics metaphysics the metaphysical precisely because metaphysical dignity of human because the dignity of precisely All life rests in in that that activity activity and and capacity. capacity. All metaphysics metaphysics life rests is necessarily necessarily intellectualistic consequently exalts exalts intellectualistic and consequently is other hand, the intellect over over the the will. will. He, He, on the the other hand, who the intellect to conclude conclude that that declares will is is supreme has the will that the declares that supreme has to Of the nature of is incomprehensible. incomprehensible. course, of things the nature course, things is 7

KANT'S KANT'S

WEL1'ANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

philosophical knowledge knowledge of of the the moral moral will will isis not not dede~ nied by by the the rejection rejection of of aa voluntaristic voluntaristic metaphysics, metaphysics, as as nied must ethical such Kant's ethics ethics shows. shows. But But such ethical knowledge knowledge must Kant's of nature the confine itself to understanding the nature of morality, morality, to confine itself understanding and itit must must also also try try to to make make the the respective respective claims claims of of and unan natural science science and and morality morality compatible. compatible. Such Such an un~ natural of task main the dertaking Kant Kant regards regards as as the main task of philosophy. philosophy. dertaking He refuses, refuses, however, however, to to expand expand ethics ethics into into aa metameta~ physics of of the the will. will. We shall shall see see later later that that such such an an exex~ physics pansion beyond the boundaries boundaries of of ethics ethics constitutes, constitutes, in in pansion beyond the metaall of Kant's view, view, the the very very principle principle of all speculative speculative metaKant's its intellect must yield its authority to that that of of physics. must intellect The authority to yield physics. the will, will, for for the the will will can can only play its its own metaphysimetaphysithe only play is not fully comprehensible. cal world which is a world in a role in cal role fully comprehensible. in so so far far as as not in The its metaphysical can play will can role, not The will metaphysical role, play its to the the war of the it ld, but only essence of the essence as the is taken it is world, taken as only to at the of action action aiming of extent the principle it is is the that it extent that aiming at principle good; for action is is meaningless in absolutely commeaningless in an absolutely good; for action of is one one of Kant's philosophy prehended world. Thus Kant's philosophy is prehended world. ethical voluntarism. ethical voluntarism. new an entirely takes on on an In the metaphysical Kant the In Kant entirely new metaphysical takes much more more in aa much life in significance. It It permeates actual permeates actual life significance. in voluntaristic a profound be possible would be than would possible in a voluntaristic way than profound way and desire and metaphysics. Such a metaphysics a recognizes desire metaphysics recognizes metaphysics. Such terms Kantian terms in Kantian or in will of things nature of the very as the will as things or very nature such aa metaphys~ to such but the but according the "thing~in~itse1f"; metaphysaccording to "thing-in-itself"; philosophical

8

ETHICAL ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM VOLUNTARISM not able able to to comprehend the ics man is ics is not comprehend the thing-in-itself thing-in-itsel Rather is the it by desiring and willing. Rather it is the intellect, withintellect, withby desiring willing. to the will, its metaphysical discovers its out regard will, which discovers regard to metaphysical function. Every beast is moved by desire is nature and function. beast Every by desire to the stone stone has and according has aa according to Schopenhauer Schopenhauer even the that draws it the ground; will to the ground; yet yet without without Schopenwill that it to Schopenit is not possible to hauer's metaphysics metaascribe is to ascribe metahauer's it metaphysics possible to the of the or to the will physical the desire desire of the beast beast or to the will dignity to physical dignity stone. The will will takes takes on its of the of the stone. its metaphysical metaphysical signifsignifa in a as if it icance only that it as a principle in a system, that is, only icance is, only if only principle system, is transformed will but is no longer mere will transformed into into thought, is but is thought, longer in short, in into philosophy. philosophy. short, into this transformation transformation voluntarism itself is itself But by voluntarism is by this into intellectualism. the If, on the contrary, it is is changed into intellectualism. If, contrary, it changed is to that the true the metaphysical metaphysical dimension of of man is to be be true that of rather than actual willing found in in actual willing rather than in in knowledge knowledge of the theory, in the in the then the the the will, will, in the deed deed and not not in the theory, then willresides in value the of real value of the metaphysical resides wholly in willreal wholly metaphysical not in in knowing. Consequently, the ing and doing and not knowing. Consequently, the doing ing metaphysical dimension dimension of of man must no longer longer be be metaphysical such but in moral sought in willing as such but only only in moral willing. willing. willing as sought in a metaof the For if the will is no longer the principle of a metais the will For if principle longer be conceived physical cosmology, it it must must lJe conceived as as requiring requiring physical cosmology, its metaphysical funcaa new quality which constitutes its metaphysical funcquality which constitutes tion and dignity. tion and dignity. itself by manifests itself If metaphysical no no longer longer manifests by its its If the the metaphysical

9

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

power of unifying the manifold manifold of of appearances, ifif itit

appearances, power of unifying the is no no longer longer the the ultimate ultimate ground ground of of both both the the being being and and is meanan then knowledge of of this this manifold, manifold, then an analogous analogous meanknowledge be ascribed ascribed to to it, it, which which ing for for the the life life of of the the will will must must be

ing

gives us us the the right right to to declare declare that that this this life life itself itself reprereprethe we vainly vainly sought sought in in theory. theory. Once Once the possipossisents what what we sents a of bility of of making making the the will will the the center center of a metaphysical metaphysical bility be conceived can will the then theory is dismissed, then the will can be conceived as as theory is dismissed, the ultimate making itself itself the the center center-the ultimate center center and and unity, unity. making of Such aa will will would would then then attain attain to to the the high high rank rank of the the Such in The so metaphysical or supersensible. metaphysical, in so metaphysical, metaphysical or supersensible. to those reserved not is far as man is able to reach it, is not reserved to those reach to able is far as it, who attend to it it by by means means of of philosophical philosophical intuition intuition or or attend to who subordiall those who subordiknowledge; rather, it it is is open to open to all knowledge; rather, This end. ultimate and nate ultimate end. This the supreme will to to the their will nate their supreme indidesires of the indiwishes and desires end finite wishes the finite transcends the end transcends all mankind. Instead of vidual unites him with all and unites vidual and its assuming that philosophy logical deduction philosophy with its logical assuming that must the of the world, knows essence of the essence be the to be the will will to knows the world, we must learns what the conacknowledge that philosophy only learns philosophy only acknowledge that and moral will will and from moral means from cept of the metaphysical means cept of the metaphysical practical reason: ethics thus replaces ethics thus metaphysics. replaces metaphysics. practical reason: not through The its metaphysical dignity obtains its will obtains The will through metaphysical dignity not but the instrumentality of metaphysics but through the instrumentality of metaphysics itself, through itself, the good. in Metaphysiitself toward toward the directs itself it directs as it so far far as in so good. Metaphysisomewill somethe will to the cal would only attribute attribute to would cal knowledge only knowledge gives

10 10

VOLUNTARISM

ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM ETHICAL will itself attain by thing that the the will itself could not not attain by willing, willing, thing that of the substance and the namely, the quality of being the substance the namely, quality being all things. The quality, on the supreme principle of of all the supreme principle things. quality, contrary, constitutes the the metaphysical function contrary, which constitutes metaphysical function of the attained by be attained by willing willing and only by of the will will can be only by Of ethics has to this quality, willing. course, conceive this quality, course, ethics has to conceive willing. in so far as it is conceived conceived it be called and only in so far as it is can it be called only the value value of the metaphysimetaphysical. But, of the metaphysi~ But, even so, so, the metaphysical. does not cal does this act act of cal not depend of conceiving; rather depend on this conceiving; rather it it depends the moral achievement with with which ethics ethics depends on the is concerned. concerned. In all the is In short, all depends on the actuality short, depends actuality and the theory of the the deed. deed. The metaphysical, conse~ not on the not theory of metaphysical, conseis not what is in all is universal quently, universal and and identical identical in all quently, is is universal theoretical knowledge but but what is universal and and identiidenti~ theoretical knowledge as the conceives this of cal in form cal in willing. willing. Ethics Ethics conceives this as the of the the but as the moral not of will, as the law not of aa Supersensible Being but moral will, Supersensible Being of the the Supersensible as the as the law law of Willing. Supersensible Willing. it is is no metaphysical law of There is of nature, nature, but but it is the the metaphysical is the our will metaphysical moral within our will which which is the metaphysical moral law within or the supernatural law. It is is the the law of of the or supersensible law. It supersensible supernatural of that rises above the world. He who obeys that law rises above the level level of world. obeys above that the world world of of sense. rises above necessity and that necessity sense. He rises the order which govern govern nature; nature; he he enters enters the the realm realm of of order which the transcends freedom and reason which transcends the phenomenal which reason and freedom phenomenal sphere. sphere. enables finite Cognition of what what is is never never enables finite beings beings to to Cognition of

II

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

transcend the the limits limits of of the the senses senses and and thus thus of of finitude finitude transcend the to and limitation; limitation; this this cognition cognition isis confined confined to the narnar~ and row circle circle encompassed encompassed by by space space and and time. time. There There isis row no ontological ontological vision vision possible possible that that would would surpass surpass these these no boundaries and and penetrate penetrate into into the the precinct precinct of of the the nonnonboundaries i.e., the the eternal eternal. By By the the spatial and and the the non-temporal, non-temporal, i.e., spatial subordination of of the the will will to to the the moral moral law, law, however, however, subordination able to to free free himself himself from from the the compulsion compulsion of of man isis able natural necessity. necessity. If If the the will will acts, acts, motivated motivated not not by by natural to sense impressions, impressions, impulses, impulses, and desires, desires, that that isis to say, say, sense moral the for by man's nature, but out of respect for the moral law, law, by man's nature, but out of respect nenatural of then it performs the miracle of mastering natural nemiracle the then it performs mastering cessity. In this this way way the the will will subjugates nature and and esesIn subjugates nature cessity. it. With order beyond tablishes beyond it. With this this in in a metaphysical tablishes a metaphysical order three the mind to compare it is instructive to is instructive voluntarists, mind it compare the three voluntarists, Kant, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche. Nietzsche. Kant, Schopenhauer, title least deserves the title Of the three, Of the three, Schopenhauer Schopenhauer least of understands by if one one understands of "voluntarist," "voluntarist," if by voluntarism a centhe metaphysical Weltanschauung locates the metaphysical cenWeltanschauung which locates act. Schohis act. Schoand his will and his will in his ter the human human being of the ter of being in His intellectualist. His an intellectualist. be called penhauer called an rather be can rather penhauer can of philosophimeans of will by metaphysics the will ennobles the philosophiby means metaphysics ennobles obend and and obown its own cal but not through its end not but cal speculation through speculation will the cannot jective. The will in his view cannot will the metaphysiview The will in his metaphysijective. its own naown nacal by its the metaphysical itself the is itself it is because it cal because metaphysical by is being not It is ture its willing. It not by and not ture and willing being not willing willing. by its 12 12

ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM which makes the even the will will metaphysical. being even metaphysical. That being Schopenhauer identifying with the the philophiloSchopenhauer cannot help help identifying of the claims to sophical the will, to be be will, although concept of sophical concept although he claims "irrationalist." This ontological identification an "irrationalist." beontological identification becomes especially clear if bears in in mind that, acthat, acespecially clear if one bears to the act in cording to Schopenhauer, the metaphysical act in parcording Schopenhauer, metaphysical paris not to ticular to be the ticular is be found in in willing but, on the conon conwilling but, in the and denial the will trary, in the denial negation of the will. Whereas trary, negation of insists that attains metaphysical rank only Kant insists that man attains metaphysical only exalts his if he exalts will morally, if his will morally, i.e., i.e., if if he he actively particiactively particiin the of the of reason: pates in the founding of the kingdom of reason: SchoSchofounding pates kingdom the contrary, penhauer teaches, teaches, on the contrary, that that man reaches reaches penhauer his his highest only in in willing willing not not to to will will at at all. all. highest stage stage only in Kant) Not aa mode of but the of willing willing (as (as in but the capacity Kant) capacity from all of not other of not willing willing distinguishes man all other beings distinguishes beings to accomplish and enables enables him to his metaphysical metaphysical task. task. accomplish his such an accomplishment condition for for such The condition accomplishment is, is, of of of the course, the knowledge and acceptance of Schopencourse, acceptance Schopenknowledge at an intuitive hauer's metaphysics or, at least, intuitive comprehauer's least, compremetaphysics or, other words, the condition condition is is aa hension its truth; truth; in in other of its hension of words, the as well well as as of of insight. of knowledge state knowledge as insight. Only Only the the man state of in succeeds succeeds in nenenot the man wills, the who not who knows, wills, knows, intellectual contemplation gating the will. will. The intellectual of the the contemplation of gating the source of nature of all things things and as as the the source of the the will as of all as the the nature will is the the liberating act, namely, namely, the the act act human tragedy liberating act, tragedy is Accordwhich liberates man acting altogether. Accordfrom liberates which acting altogether.

13

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

ing to Kant, moral moral willing willing frees frees us us from from subservience subservience ing to Kant, makes to desire desire and and sensuality, sensuality, while while reason reason makes the the will will to free. According According to to Schopenhauer, Schopenhauer, reason reason makes makes us us free free from ail all willing. willing. from Schopenhauer begins begins as as aa voluntarist voluntarist but but he he ends ends as as Schopenhauer mainfirst he as an intellectualist. intellectualist. The The will will isis not, not, as he first mainan the of tained, the absolute substance of the world, world, otherwise otherwise substance tained, the absolute absoman could could never never overcome overcome it. it. The The ultimate ultimate and and absoman as lute isis non-willing non-willing and and non-acting; non-acting; itit is, is, as SchopenSchopenlute the in says, nothingness. nothingness. A voluntarist, voluntarist, in the Kantian Kantian hauer says, hauer is world the that sense, can never proclaim that the is ultimately never ultimately sense, can proclaim his tragic, he can never nothingness his God, that that make never can he God, nothingness tragic, is only possible for aa quietist, aa Buddhist, Buddhist, like like Schopenis Schopenonly possible for quietist, that conclusion this is in in accord with this conclusion that Schopenhauer. It is accord with hauer. It Schopenlast in will hauer teaches that life and will are, in the last analylife that teaches are, hauer analyand is punished by sis, due to a guilt which is suffering a to due punished by suffering and sis, guilt all the true thingat all not at is not death. will is end the the will In the the end death. In thinga of in-itself, the consequence rather the but rather metaphysical in-itself, but consequence of a metaphysical meta-voluntaristic, meta-ethical fall, a falling meta-ethical fall, away meta-voluntaristic, falling away It is is charcharis nothingness. It from which is absolute which the true true absolute from the nothingness. "one can conceive acteristic that he says, man that the man of the acteristic of says, "one can conceive and of our life as an unnecessary and disturbing of our life as an unnecessary disturbing episode episode existence If existence in If isis of nothingness." calm of blessed calm the blessed in the nothingness." can be be what meaning completely then what meaning can meaningless, then completely meaningless, exas exto willing? Had given Had Schopenhauer's thought as Schopenhauer's thought given to willing? and Idea as Will pressed in the last book of The World as Will and Idea World of last book The pressed in the free.

14

ETHICAL ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM VOLUNTARISM the starting been made the been point of of his his thinking, thinking, consistency consistency starting point led him to is would have led that nothingness to maintain that nothingness is the essence of the world, will and idea are the very very essence of the world, while while will idea are the veil veil of merely illusions illusions woven by by the of maya. maya. He whose merely can veil liberates illuliberates himself eyes this veil himself from illupierce this eyes can pierce he beholds the absolute sions; beholds the pure absolute nothingness, the sions; pure nothingness,, the things-in-themselves any intervening things-in-themselves without any intervening medium. of his his work Schopenhauer At the the end of comes to to this this Schopenhauer comes conclusion. He who is the will is delivered delivered from the will and conclusion. that the as world will beholds the the truth, that is, the world as will and idea, truth, is, idea, into nothingness turns into turn becomes turns in turn becomes true true nothingness which in as we cling to existence do we being. Only as long Only as long as being. cling to existence believe that the world, believe that true true nothingness, nothingness, namely, namely, the world, is is lies else existence something. "Behind our existence lies sometf1ing else something. something is accessible accessible to if we have which is to us us only if have shaken off off only 2 this world."2 this world." is so so deeply in intellectualism rooted in intellectualism Schopenhauer Schopenhauer is deeply rooted he not the that, in the last analysis, he not only abandons the will, will, the last abandons in that, only analysis, his very but voluntarism itself, of the the even voluntarism but even itself, his very metaphysics metaphysics of this thesis thesis even will. Kant had already already fought even will. against this fought against said it. Kant once before Schopenhauer once said before expressed it. Schopenhauer had expressed to liberate that "the "the brooding brooding man" who attempts attempts to liberate that evils of this world himself the evils of this world gets gets immersed all the himself from all reason no longer in longer understands understands his reason in mysticism, mysticism, "where his and as Will alld 2. R. B. and J. J. Kemp Kemp (trans.), (trans.), The World as Haldane and B. Haldane 2. R. I, 523. 523. I,

Kegan Paul, Idea (London: Idea Paul, 1906), 1906), (London: Kegan

15

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

itself and and its its own own intentions intentions but but prefers prefers to to roam roam about about boundaries its proper proper boundaries instead of of confining confining itself itself within within its instead inhabitant as behooves behooves an an intellectual intellectual inhabitant of of aa sensuous sensuous as monster the world. Out of this misbehavior the monster system of misbehavior this of world. Out system of Laotse arises, arises, teaching teaching that that the the highest highest good good consists consists Laotse swallowed i.e., in in the the feeling feeling of of being being swallowed in nothingness, nothingness, i.e., in up by by the the abyss abyss of of the the godhead godhead ... only only in in order order to to enenup the reach to thus and calm eternal to enjoy eternal calm and thus to reach the able man to able man enjoy alleged blessed end of of all all things. things. This This nothingness, nothingness, end blessed alleged all annihilates which a is a concept which annihilates all ununtruly conceived, is concept truly conceived, derstanding and in which thought itself itself arrives arrives at at its its derstanding and in which thought 3 end."3 end." As compared compared with with Schopenhauer, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche Nietzsche is is aa As does not not mainmainmuch more more consistent voluntarist. He does consistent voluntarist. much Rather of essence tain that the will is the essence of the world. Rather the tain that the will is confines can be known and confines he essence can this essence that this denies that he denies as of the importance himself to proclaiming himself to willing as importance of willing proclaiming the will and makes of the the will such. defender of staunch defender a staunch is a such. He is the that the teaches that willing an end in Therefore he teaches in itself. itself. Therefore willing an end for to power, will to is the the will highest expression of the will will is of the power, for highest expression deto deis bound bound to of willing he sake of for the the sake all for risks all who risks he who willing is would which would all obstacles obstacles which sire overcome all to overcome sire the the power power to boundless to thwart him. Will to power is will to boundless willing; will is thwart him. Will to power willing; affirthis affi.rto the highest degree. However, this itit isis willing the to However, highest degree. willing Schoof Schohas the the support mation will no no longer mation of of the the will support of longer has itself

.

.

.

Gesammelte Schriften 3.3. "Das Ende aller allcr Dinge" "Das Ende (AkaSchnjten (Aka(1794), Gesammelte Dinge" (1794), demie VIII, 335 f. demie Ausg.), Ausg.), VIII, 335 f.

16

VOLUNTARISM

ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM ETHICAL

penhauer's voluntaristic voluntaristic metaphysic, metaphysic, and penhauer's

it remains remams

it

air. suspended in air. suspended in Affirmation will may solid foundation Affirmation of of the the will foundation may have aa solid voluntaristic metaphysics. be It may also within a voluntaristic metaphysics. It may also be in such a to meaningful in such a system regard aa great system to regard meaningful great amount as valuable of will valuable and significant. If the the world world of will power power as significant. If is is essentially will, it it is is conceivable conceivable that that the the possessor possessor essentially will, the essence of a of the essence of the world world of a great great will will can can express express the more adequately with aa meager meager will, will, and that that adequately than one with in the will would be with the stronger will be in greater harmony with greater harmony stronger of all the nature such of all things. course, such the supersensible nature supersensible things. Of course, exaltation of of willing an exaltation willing would, would, even even within within aa volunvoluntaristic taristic metaphysic, metaphysic, be be possible possible only by means of of aa only by the intellectualization of will. previous intellectualization of the will. Thus Spinoza previous Spinoza to the gives metaphysical prominence to the powerful will powerful will gives metaphysical prominence will and intellect but intellect according according to to but only by identifying identifying will only by "will and intellect intellect are are one one and the the same his his formula, formula, "will thing." thing." every metaphysical metaphysical ininNietzsche, however, discards every however, discards Nietzsche, is the of the will precisely terpretation of the will precisely because because he he is the true true terpretation still assert assert that that willing is voluntarist; how then then can he still willing is voluntarist; to the value ascribe any meaningful? How can he ascribe value to the can any meaningful? so much does he naked insatiable insatiable desire? does he give give so desire? Why naked Why a desire? desire ? Mer all, it it is is innate innate as as aa importance to After all, to such such a importance to power as will natural aliliving beings, and as will to power in all force in natural force living beings, widethe it is in all human beings the most common and wideit is in all beings

17

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

spread fact. fact. If If itit isis true true that that the the philosopher philosopher should should that and grant particular significance to to the the will will and that the the grant particular significance the with bound is very meaning of of the the world world is bound up up with the very meaning will man's then we will, then man's will must must we question, what should should what will, question, be of of ultimate ultimate importance. importance. ItIt isis not not mere mere quantity quantity of of be will that that makes makes the the will will significant significant and and meaningful, meaningful, will is will very strong strong but but valueless valueless will is obviously obviously worse worse for aa very for not the the than a weak one. Only the quality, not the quantity, than a weak one. Only quantity, quality, force and not only value and direction, not strength and force of of and value direction, strength only the to give give will will the pripriwill, can can entitle entitle the the philosopher philosopher to will, macy over over knowledge. knowledge. macy An intellectualistic intellectualistic metaphysics metaphysics lurks lurks behind behind even even Nietzsche's affirmation affirmation of of the the will, will, but but this this metametaNietzsche's with aa value, value, aa value value physics endows the the mere will will with physics endows The folat all. not does not possess which such does as such will as the will which the possess at all. The folaffirmation of the lowing idea is behind Nietzsche's Nietzsche's affirmation lowing idea is behind alone really will: world alone sensible world exists, the sensible will: the truly exists, really and truly is nothing there there there is no supersensible, is no there is metaphysinothing metaphysisupersensible, follows cal. conclusion immediately the conclusion idea the this idea From this cal. From immediately follows to is to this world is in this should do in that and should can and best we can the best that the We are not to be deenjoy it as much as as possible. possible. We are not to be deenjoy it as much to come: come: world to of aa world ceived consolation of the empty ceived by empty consolation by the antimetahere. This This antimetawe must all must gain to gain have to we have all we gain here. gain we to SchoSchoof opposition out born physical metaphysics, born out of opposition to physical metaphysics, and earth and the earth penhauer's nothingness and and deifying deifying the penhauer's nothingness is indeed indeed everything earthly instead of nothingness, instead of nothingness, is everything earthly spread

18 iB

VOLUNTARISM

ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM ETHICAL able to value upon able to bestow bestow aa value upon the will. To the the volunvolun~ the will whatever taristically minded thinker, willing, of whatever sort, of thinker, willing, sort, taristically is better will. Every activity is better than than denial denial of of the the will. is more Every activity is or the sweet calm of precious than a boring boring inactivity the sweet of precious inactivity or exalted by Schopenhauer. exaggernothingness nothingness exalted by Schopenhauer. The exaggerated emphasis Nietzsche the will ated Nietzsche puts upon the will and upon emphasis puts upon upon is thus existence as thus to as such is to be be interpreted as the the volunvolun~ existence interpreted as reaction against taristic reaction taristic the intellectualist intellectualist and BudBud~ against the dhist Schopenhauer, as Nietzsche's dhist just as Nietzsche's campaign Schopenhauer, just campaign in last a cam~ the is, in the last analysis, against Christianity against Christianity is, analysis, a camof compassion. paign ethics of compassion.44 against Schopenhauer's paign against Schopenhauer's ethics Every reason reason to to glorify glorify the the will will to to power power disappears Every disappears if one disregards the if motive behind behind this this campaign. disregards the motive campaign. basis of of Nietzsche's Nietzsche's voluntarism voluntarism is is abolabolThe whole whole basis his metaphysics is no longer ished when his of this this life life is ished metaphysics of longer to set in set in opposition to Schopenhauer's metaphysics of the the Schopenhauer's metaphysics of opposition come. life to life to come. those who abandon the Only the metaphysical metaphysical (though (though Only those is nothing there that also dogma that there is also antimetaphysical) nothing antimetaphysical) dogma enter into into Kant's visible universe universe can can enter Kant's at all but this this visible at all but stand with Weltanschauung. can take take aa stand with Only they they can Weltanschauung. Only Kant who recognize recognize that action harbors harbors aa value value that moral action alone and of is dependent upon itself of its its own which is dependent upon itself alone includes the appreciation of aa supersensible enincludes the good ensupersensible good appreciation of

4. Cf. book, Schopenhauer Schopenhauer und Nietzsche Nietzsche instructive book, Simmers instructive Cf. Simmel's 4. (Leipzig, 1920). (Leipzig, 1920). 19

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

tirely independent independent of of earthly earthly successes. successes. Everyone Everyone isis capable of of this. this. No one one wants wants to to be be aa scoundrel scoundrel or or aa capable despises wickedness wickedness as as such such and and not not villain; everyone everyone despises villain; of evil bethe fears because he fears the disadvantages of evil beonly he because disadvantages only havior. Everyone Everyone pays pays tribute tribute to to an an unconditional unconditional havior. is not not derived derived from any any higher higher value, aa value value which which is value, at times the is itself itself the the highest. highest. Only Only at times the sosovalue but but is value have to itself fancies phisticated intellect fancies itself to have dispensed intellect dispensed phisticated or to to have have explained explained it it away. away. with such such an an allegiance allegiance or with "Concerning those ideas/ ideas," says says Schiller, Schiller, "which "which prepre"Concerning those system, only only the the vail in the moral moral part part of of the the Kantian Kantian system, in the vail have human other all philosophers disagree, all other beings have beings philosophers disagree, In his in agreement." always found themselves in In his moral moral themselves found agreement." always true voluntarist reveals himself as analysis analysis Kant reveals himself as the true voluntarist heart didithe heart the will will and the who relies relies more on what the a on than rectly any metaphysic any analysis analysis a metaphysic rectly pronounce pronounce than could could provide. provide. finite and conditional conditional All center around finite All analyses analyses center the unconditional unconditional is is relations. In morality, relations. In however, the morality, however, to Nietzsche has even that at stake. It is noteworthy that even Nietzsche has to at stake. It is noteworthy In his his book, sometimes. In this sometimes. acknowledge book, The loytul Joyfulacknowledge this raises the Science Wissenschaft), he raises the quesScience (Frohlichc (Frohliche Wissenschafi), quesat all? truth all? He do we want science and truth at tion, science do tion, why why does not not always this want does feels to admit admit that that this feels obliged always obliged to on earth, that it contribute and that it may welfare on to our our welfare contribute to earth, may that thus concludes the even harm, and thus he concludes that the and even cause cause great harm, great tirely

5

20 20

EETHICAL T HIe A L VOL U N TAR I S ~f

VOLUNTARISM

will to to truth truth at at least least involves involves aa kind will kind of of metaphysical metaphysical faith which which includes includes recognition faith of a world beyond recognition of a world beyond that of of life life and and nature. nature. Nietzsche that all Nietzsche puts all these these puts under the the significant thoughts "To what what exexthoughts under significant heading: heading: "To tent are we still still religious?" tent are we religious?" Kant's is rooted Kant's Weltanschauung in that rooted precisely Weltanschauung is precisely in that faith metaphysical faith which Nietzsche mentions Nietzsche mentions here. here. metaphysical did not Unfortunately Nietzsche did not even keep this faith even this faith Unfortunately keep to the the end but but denied truth truth and science to science themselves themselves and and thus of his thus destroyed his own words. words. Kant, destroyed the meaning Kant, meaning of on the other this faith on the other hand, faith as as the the firm firm hand, regards regards this on stand we must stand in order to characterground on which in order to characterground ize man's position in in the ize the world and the relation of and the relation of the the position ourselves. world to to ourselves. Kant holds Kant holds that that the the recognition recognition of of an an imperative, imperative, not us when we us not only seek the truth but guidguidguiding seek the truth but guiding only as its its highest highest measure measure and and goal, goal, brings brings us us ing our our will will as ing nearer nearer to to the the ultimate ultimate meaning meaning of of the the world world than than any any or speculative or theoretical theoretical knowledge knowledge possibly possibly could. could. If If speculative follow the voice of you follow the voice of your conscience, if you fulfil you your conscience, if you fulfil however your duty, however large it may may loom, loom, then then you you will will your duty, large it penetrate deeper deeper into into the the unknown unknown sphere sphere of of the the penetrate 55 supersensible than than any any kind kind of of thought thought could could do. do. The The supersensible will all good will surpasses all understanding; in this way the good surpasses understanding; in this way the 5. 5. See, See, for for example, example, L. L. W. W. Beck Beck (trans.), (trans.), Critique Critique of of Practical Fmctical Reason Reason (Chicago: (Chicago: University University of of Chicago Chicago Press, Press, 1949), 1949), p.p. 248. 248.

21 21

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

word of of the the Gospel Gospel isis transformed transformed by by the the Kantian Kantian spirit. spirit. word The moral moral imperative imperative isis not not only only aa sure sure guide guide in in life, life, The we follow follow but ifif we but

it we we shall shall be be transported transported beyond beyond the the of that limit the or limits of our existence or beyond the limit of that existence our of limits beyond world which which we we can can perceive perceive and and know know through through scisciworld which ence. Thus Thus within within our our will will aa light light isis kindled kindled which ence. world the illuminates another another world, world, the world of of absolute absolute illuminates If we subvalues, as a modern philosopher might say. If submodern as a values, philosopher might say. to the the moral moral imperative imperative voluntarily, voluntarily, not not ject ourselves ourselves to ject in subservient subservient obedience, obedience, but but in in the the way way in in which which the the in of scientist subjects subjects his his will will to to the the imperative imperative of truth, truth, scientist theoretias our is will is ennobled, just as our theoretithen our practical will then our practical ennobled, just cal will will is is ennobled ennobled by by following following the the guiding guiding star star of of cal in complete complete agreement Lessing. He truth. is in Kant is truth. Kant agreement with Lessing. to and is worthy to is more worthwhile it is that it convinced that is convinced worthy as Lessing or as strive to possess than to for truth truth than strive for it, it, or puts it, Lessing puts possess it, in his his right "If hand, and sealed in truth sealed all truth held all "If God held hand, right that II would the all truth (with the provision truth after all striving after (with provision that striving to me, 'Choose!' II said to eternally err) in in his his left, me, 'Choose!' left, and said eternally err) left hand and say, to the the left would would humbly 'Father, say, 'Father, point to humbly point "6 alone.' for is for truth is you alone.' "6 give me that because pure truth because me that one, one, you pure give is the moral moral imperative The man through that man idea that The idea imperative is through the action moral action that moral in with aa higher in harmony world, that higher world, harmony with Kant's determines liberates him from natural necessity, determines Kant's natural liberates him from necessity, it

Lachmann (1839), ed. Lachmann 6.6. Eint: Sammtliche Werke, Eine Duplik, (1839), 1778, Sammtlicht: Wer\e, ed. Du$U\, 1778, X,49-50. X, 49-50.

22 22

ETHICAL ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM VOLUNTARISM even more decisively. idea Weltanschauung decisively. Behind Behind this this idea Weltanschauung even further thought the moral con~ looms the the further thought that that the moral certainty certainty conexistence of cerning of aa supersensible cerning the existence supersensible world directly directly to go forbids us it and demand knowledge of forbids us to beyond it go beyond knowledge of the the supersensible. are not only forever unable unable to to supersensible. We are only forever not should even covet it. possess such knowledge, we should not even covet it. knowledge, possess as Kant of the as says, nothing of the future, For, For, future, says, "We know nothing not to to know and we ought more than is what not to seek to than is ought rationally up with the the incentives incentives of of morality morality rationally bound up 7 end." and their their end."7 If our ignorance the inIf ignorance were simply derived from the in~ simply derived to know, ability to know what we want to know, Kant's Kant's volunvolun~ ability to tarism would only tarism be the the outcome of of an an intellectualisintellectualis~ only be tic tic resignation, resignation, aa kind of of philosophical philosophical subterfuge, a subterfuge, a substitute for accessible to to man. man. miserable substitute for the the truth truth not not accessible miserable of Kant's philosophy to the spirit It It is is in in keeping keeping with the to spirit of Kant's philosophy it as as a doctrine which bases interpret it a doctrine bases our our metaphysical metaphysical interpret ethical injunction ignorance on an ethical prohibiting us to to injunction prohibiting us ignorance In this this interinter~ theoretically metaphysical truth. In know theoretically metaphysical truth. of the pretation primacy of practical reason reason reaches reaches Kant's primacy the practical pretation Kant's its consummation. its is something ultimate For Kant moral moral obligation obligation is something ultimate and limit and also the the summit and absolute; it signifies the limit and also absolute; it signifies the the peak of all human consciousness. In fact, fact, it it signifies of all consciousness. In signifies the peak

7. Theodore Theodore M. Greene and Hoyt (trans.), Religion Religion H. Hudson (trans.), Greene and Hoyt H. Open Court Publishing Publishing Open Court Co., 1934) p. 149, n. Co., 149, n. 1934), p. 7.

within the Limits of Reason Alone Alolle (Chicago: within the Limits of Reason (Chicago:

23

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

of man's man's whole whole existence. existence. of from from

higher source source aa higher

To To explain explain itit or or to to derive derive itit

would would only only deprive deprive

this obligainexorable its and its unrelieved gravity and its inexorable rigor. tion of tion of its unrelieved gravity rigor. He who who isis bold bold enough enough to to presume presume that that itit isis possible possible to to He and transcend the the limit limit of of the the moral moral consciousness, consciousness, and to to transcend beas moral us constrain throw off off the the bonds bonds which which constrain us as moral bethrow law eternal ings, violates the eternal law and and makes makes himself himself aa the violates ings, in order order to to companion of of the the gods gods or or of of the the devil devil in companion a escape the burden burden of of duty. duty. Not only only does does such such a transtransescape the intellect our of finitude gression run run counter counter to to the the finitude of our intellect but, but, gression is conscience moral our is of greater moment, our moral conscience is what of is what greater moment, opposed to it as well. We ought ought not not to to exercise exercise our our opposed to it as well. our curiosity over any question that that would surpass surpass our curiosity over any question as long as is is meaningful only ethical horizon. Morality ethical horizon. Morality long as meaningful only as strive. A metaphysas we strive. as long we are metaphysare imperfect, i.e., as long as imperfect, i.e., in theory ical ical knowledge away with theory would do away knowledge which in our would necessarily our imperfection necessarily endanger endanger the imperfection theoretiit majesty of the moral law; it would enrich our theoretimajesty of the moral law; will. We of our moral will. cal the expense at the cal knowledge expense of knowledge at are moral law and should never place the moral under the are under place ourdo. selves as metaphysical selves above above it, it, as knowledge would do. metaphysical knowledge of jusinstead of We our imperfection overcome our to overcome We ought jusimperfection instead ought to the world to tifying it, as a metaphysic seeking to explain the world as a explain metaphysic seeking tifying it, to do. must do. to must attempt attempt of Kant's Kant's roots of In the deep understand the order to to understand In order deep roots the in mind must bear we must bear in mind the moral Weltanschauung, we moral Weltanschauung, 24

this obliga-

ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM VOLUNTARISM ETHICAL words of of Goethe: Goethe: UEs "Es irrt irrt der der Mensch, strebt" er strebt." Mensch, satang solang er this in in the the spirit of as: One could render this of Kant as: "Man spirit strives only as long as errs." If If man ceases ceases to to err, strives err, he only as long as he errs." to strive; ceases to to absolute absolute truth truth ceases strive; he who pretends pretends to relax in in the the unending would surely surely relax unending moral struggle. struggle. he would become indifferent to to whether Failing indifferent this, Failing this, is essentially good and divine divine or or whether it it the world is essentially good for moral and religious values. simply simply has no regard regard for religious values. excellent example of such such a a process in We have an excellent example of process in as Schopenhauer Schopenhauer's If, as Schopenhauer's quietism. quietism. If, Schopenhauer thought, thought, the ultimate ultimate ground of is devoid existence devoid of rais of any the of existence ground any rais nothing but a a blind blind impulse, untionality who, untionality and is nothing impulse, who, these conditions, interested in in der these conditions, would any any longer longer be interested the struggle of life? life? Who in in such a world such a the world would purstruggle of pursue ideal ideal ends and carry sue them through conscientiously? carry through conscientiously ? to do away all moral A man would try moral commitaway with all try to indeed with the the will will itself; of his his voice of ments and indeed the voice itself; the illusory knowledge would drown out out the the metaphysical knowledge illusory metaphysical voice of his conscience and he would rather on voice of his conscience he rather rely rely on his his to the commandment speculative certainty than submit to the speculative certainty of the of the moral moral law. law. It It is is no accident accident that that Schopenhauer Schopenhauer speaks about the the speaks about blessed calm of of nothingness nothingness which he prefers prefers to to the the blessed will. But But even even an an optimistic optimistic metaphysics metaphysics finally finally ends ends will. in making the the state state of of intellectual intellectual satisfaction satisfaction superior in making superior to the the untiring untiring impulse impulse of of insatiable insatiable striving, striving, for for all all to

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

metaphysics looks down down upon upon everything everything human human as as metaphysics looks even something that that isis not not absolute absolute and and isis even superseded superseded something

by the the absolute. absolute. Moral Moral consciousness consciousness cannot cannot be be the the ababby man who who believes believes that that he he has has penetrated penetrated man into the the core core of of all all things; things; however, however, unless unless morality morality isis into denied is ultimate its its very very nature nature and and existence existence is denied for, for, ultimate moral to the of essence the is according to Kant, it is the essence of the moral to be be according to Kant, it an is ultiother the the ultimate. If, on the other hand, morality is an ultion ultimate. hand, morality the If, that conclude mate, then must conclude that all all speculative speculative must we then mate, knowledge cannot cannot be be ultimate, ultimate, for for knowledge knowledge of of any any knowledge law. moral the kind is is subordinate subordinate to to the law. kind A more more extreme extreme anti-intellectualism anti-intellectualism is is hard hard to to conconasthe moral necessity ceive. deduces the necessity of of asKant boldly ceive. Kant boldly deduces is finally incomprehensible from suming the world is that the finally incomprehensible suming that the moral "ought." of the the unconditioned validity the unconditioned If, "ought." If, validity of are that like Spinoza or Leibniz, we fancy that we are able to or like Spinoza Leibniz, fancy to the the world, his laws to dictated his know in sense God dictated in what what sense world, of the testimony account of then not take take account could not then we could testimony of the to in our attempt moral consciousness in moral consciousness comprehend the attempt to comprehend ultimate of things. scheme of ultimate scheme metaphysical though metaphysical things. Even though for a place to reserve systems may try to reserve a for moral action in place systems may try their Weltanschauung the view it, as they world as the world it, their preWeltanschauung prethey view of commandment of The commandment cludes The the truly cludes the spirit. truly moral spirit. inclinations becomes becomes and inclinations reason subdue passions to subdue reason to passions and ordered occurrences is is ordered of occurrences meaningless if the the sequence sequence of meaningless if the essence of is the essence of substance is a divine once If a divine substance all. If for all. and for once and solute to to the the solute

26

ETHICAL ETHICAL VOLUNTARISM VOLUNTARISM all things, if God's intellect intellect and and will all will so so govern the things, if God's govern the consciousness is world that that our our own consciousness is nothing nothing but but the the incidental occasion for the of divine incidental occasion for the display divine power, power, display of then then only to i.e., to sense, i.e., only one thing thing would really really make sense, this and to its order to comprehend order contemplate contemplate this display display comprehend its theoretically. theoretically. conceives of of the the world world as as Every metaphysical metaphysical system Every system conceives finished and thereby something thereby leaves leaves the will with with the will something finished to do. it was consistent consistent when Spinoza nothing to do. Hence it nothing Spinoza like Aristotle Aristotle said said that that the of the the idea like the contemplation contemplation of idea of of is the the highest highest virtue virtue and and when he he called called his his God is scientific knowledge of metaphysics, i.e., the scientific the eternal eternal i.e., the metaphysics, knowledge of the ethics. He who takes his metaphysics takes his metaphysics to to be be substance, substance, ethics. the truth will strive any more than to strive the truth will not not continue continue to than any of instead he would the the disciple of Schopenhauer; instead he will will bebedisciple Schopenhauer; that he has has overcome the the world and that lieve that that he can lieve he can be content content with with intellectual love of be intellectual love of God. God. Kant theretherefore held such a a metaphysic fore held that that such metaphysic is is not not only only an an intelintelalso an aberration of an aberration of moral moral lectual blind alley but also lectual blind alley but reason, because because aa metaphysical produces an an reason, metaphysical system system produces shakes man's moral foundaillusory foundaillusory knowledge knowledge which shakes of the moral tion violates the of the moral "ought." tion and violates the majesty "ought." majesty According to the view of the metaphysical thinkers, the to view of the metaphysical thinkers, According agrees with their systems is virtuous. virtuous. only he who he with their systems is only agrees Kant, on the contrary, agrees the common man with the the contrary, Kant, agrees with less be possessed possessed by by the unlearned no less that virtue can the unlearned that virtue can be

27 27

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

than by by the the learned; learned; his his philosophy philosophy isis the the most most ememthan ascribe would phatic protest against the the view view which which would ascribe

phatic protest against class of of men, men, such such as as philosphilosvirtue only only to to aa privileged privileged class virtue

Virtue isis not not knowledge; knowledge; what what isis given given ophers or sages. Virtue ophers or sages. 8 to be be taken taken from from "con-science." "con-science."s to science science will will have have to to be seen seen how how closely closely Kant's Kant's From the the foregoing foregoing itit can can be From is connected connected with with unAmid the the spirit of his entire Weltanschauung. Amid the unentire of his the spirit Weltanschauung. certainty and insecurity of of earthly earthly life life the the moral moral law law certainty and insecurity as our our only only trustworthy trustworthy guide. guide. Our ignorance ignorance stands as stands as is as inescapable inescapable theoretically theoretically about metaphysical metaphysical truth truth is about the in is It as it is necessary morally. It is implied in the very ideal ideal is it as very implied necessary morally. of the the "ought" as the the unconditional unconditional imperative imperative that, that, of "ought" as of the whatever may may be be the origin of the moral moral law, law, beings beings the origin whatever who are to be theoretically it must be to it are subject theoretically and practipractisubject totheir way cally imperfect, ever ever unfinished, unfinished, ever on their way tocally imperfect,, beand are forever striving ward distant goal. ward aa distant striving and beThey are goal They vanvictors forever are ing striven against, they are forever victors and vaning striven against, they is granted to quished. Beatific vision vision is only in granted to us only quished. Beatific in the the moral realm and us in aesthetic itit isis denied denied us aesthetic joy; joy; therefore in philosophical denied in also denied therefore also knowledge. philosophical knowledge. doctrine of of the the limits limits of of doctrine

knowledge knowledge

is

dem Wissel1 Wisscn "was dem 8.8. The fine parallelism has aa fine text has The German German text here, "was parallelism here, muswerden musgegeben wird, das wird dem Gewissen Gewissen genommen genommen werden gegeben wird, das wird dem the in by using the sen," which I am attempting to preserve in English to I am which by using English preserve sen," attempting "Wisthat "Wisis true, words It is "con-science." It however, that and "con-science." words "science" "science" and true, however, word "knowledge" the word sen" translated by be more more properly sen" would would be "knowledge" by the properly translated as the sentence. first part of in the the first as in part of the sentence. 28

VOLUNTARISM

ETHICAL E T HIe A L VOL U N TAR I S IIf

Artistic pleasure itself does not interfere with with the the of life because the two are in not significance of moral life because the are not in significance conflict. Only conflict. Only an aesthetic aesthetic Weltanschauung, that is, is, an Weltanschauung, that aesthetic intuition cosmic intuition, intuition, aesthetic intuition expanded into aa cosmic expanded into the would conflict conflict with moral an Such aesthetic with the ought. Such an aesthetic ought. intuition which results results in in an aesthetic aesthetic metaphysics metaphysics is is intuition as both fallacious and regarded by by Kant as both fallacious and misleading, misleading, regarded intuition which like every over~ like which presumes presumes to to overevery mystical mystical intuition our moral come our moral imperfection seduces us and thereby us imperfection and thereby seduces in a moral into The consciousinto believing in a metaphysics. moral conscious~ metaphysics. believing ness should determine ness alone alone should determine our our Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. The ethical Weltanschauung, ethical Weltanschauung, however, can never never become however, can in a sense it can can never never bebe~ metaphysics; indeed, indeed, in a literal literal sense it metaphysics; since the as ethical "world "world intuition/ come an ethical intuition," since the world world as the standpoint never be can never aa whole can be understood understood from the standpoint of ethics. ethics. of to misinterpret the first first to deliber~ Fichte (perhaps deliberFichte was the misinterpret (perhaps of such a metameans ately) Kant's philosophy by of such a meta~ Kant's philosophy by ately) physics. According to to Kant, Kant, ethics ethics replaces replaces metameta~ physics. According the view physics. Kant's view is is poles poles apart apart from the view that that Kant's view physics. a moral in a moral way; be comprehended comprehended in way; on the world can can be the world the he insists that morality morality makes the the world world insists that the contrary, contrary, he incomprehensible. incomprehensible. Artistic pleasure itself does not interfere

5

29

II II

Ethical Ethical Dualism

THE problem of a monistic

JLHE problem of a monistic world system belongs among among the most significant significant system belongs of all time. time. Therefore philosophical problems of all Therefore it it will will be be philosophical problems ask whether to ask can be be classified classified as as aa of whether Kant can of interest interest to or not. monistic thinker or is frequently frequently understood understood monistic not. What is times is is something rather in modern times by monism in superby something rather superficial. Modern the ficial. philosophy rarely true rarely recognizes philosophy recognizes the true must be into It retransformed duality which be transformed into unity. It reduality unity. and the the contrast of the gards physical the psychical psychical as as . gards the contrast of the physical the -contrast and therefore strives for a union the highest contrast therefore strives for a union highest the two, a psycho-physical of the for a of two, i.e., psycho-physical substance substance or or i.e., for enable us to energy which would enable us to comprehend the the energy comprehend as a a whole. is not world as the world is whole. But But the not fully embraced fully embraced and simply by distinguishing uniting body soul, simply by distinguishing uniting body and soul, contrast which is or nature nature and mind. The contrast is deeper by deeper by far and which is is made central by Kant is is the the contrast contrast far central by between nature nat1!t.e_ and morality, morality, between between what is and is and what ought to to b·~,or"between necessity and freedom. drbetween and freedom. be, ought necessity a monistic is a in so so far Kant is monistic thinker far as as his his philosophy philosophy thinker in leads to faith in in an ultimate leads to a faith ultimate unity unity of of these these separate separate

30 3

ETHICAL DUALISM DUALISM ETHICAL a unity in which nature is subordinated nature is subordinated to realms, to realms, a unity in is postulated by moral reason. moral ends. Such a unity is reason. unity postulated by a dualist in so so far dualist in far as as he Kant is, he denies denies the the is, however, however, a of any theoretical theoretical knowledge of this this unity. possibility possibility of any knowledge of unity. Thus we meet meet a a conflict of conflict of motives operative in Kant's operative in Kant's this conflict conflict of of monistic monistic and dualdualWeltanschauung; Weltanschauung; this istic tendencies tendencies and claims claims touches touches upon the deepest istic upon the deepest of indeed problems of his, and indeed of all, philosophy. his, all, problems philosophy. In so so far far as as Kant regards the In regards the categorical categorical imperative imperative as an ultimate principle he is is forced to forced retain the dualas to retain the dualprinciple of inclination inclination and duty, of desire and will, ism of and will, and duty, of desire of nature nature and freedom. freedom. Nevertheless Nevertheless finally finally the duality duality of life leads leads him, the emphasis him, paraemphasis placed placed upon upon moral life parato a of the doxically the doxically enough, enough, to postulate postulate a higher higher unity unity of realms. Moral decision decision and action action would two realms. would lose lose ail all their meaning if they took place in a world completely their meaning if they place in a completely alien to to them; or if if moral intention intention had no relation relation alien them; or order whatever to to an an objective order transcending it; or if if objective transcending it; or we were not able to that the is supnot able to believe believe that the human will will is supa divine will renders ported by a divine will. What renders moral activity ported by activity is precisely Kant's convicmetaphysically significant metaphysically significant is precisely Kant's conviction tion that that the the supersensible supersensible speaks speaks through through morality; morality; it it is is Kant's Kant's contention contention that that the the moral moral realm realm points points to to the the ultimate ultimate ground ground of of all all being being and all all existence. existence. From this follows that this it it follows that the the moral moral law law leads leads to to which transcends the something transcends both the necessity of both of necessity something 3* 31

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

nature and and even even the the normative normative character character of of the the imperaimpera~ nature tive itself. In In the the last last analysis analysis itit postulates postulates an an ascendascend~ One a transcendent to it ancy over existence; it points to a transcendent One points ancy over existence; which would would ultimately ultimately unite unite the the realm realm of of nature nature and and which of the realm realm of of morality. morality. The The metaphysical metaphysical quality quality of the the the moral The moral its not merely merely its moral quality. quality. The moral moral law law isis not moral to man to subject both his his own law not only commands commands not law subject both only nature and and external external nature nature to to reason, reason, but but itit postulates postulates nature possible, that that the confidence confidence that that such such subjection subjection isis possible, the nor desires and neither our our natural natural impressions impressions desires nor the the neither sense present present insurmountable insurmountable obstacles obstacles outer world world of of sense outer to our to its its moral moral command. This This conficonfiobedience to to our obedience dence presupposes an an original original harmony harmony bebefaith presupposes or faith dence or do. It to we tween ought is and what what is tween what presupposes ought to do. It presupposes that of nature nature alone nor that that of an is neither neither that which is order which an order that the one which guarantees but one of norms but moral norms of moral guarantees that carried through be carried can be moral moral commands can through in the world in which we live. live. in which a more concrete concrete in a idea in this 'idea If understand this would understand If we would Weltanin Kant's Kant's W fact that that in the fact way, eltan~ note the way, we must note the two different different in which the a point schauung is a point in schauung man is meet. isis aa world spheres of nature and morality meet. Man nature of world spheres morality the brutes, from the biological organism developed from brutes, yet yet he biological organism developed This temporally an animal. animal. This isis also more than than an much more also much temporally nevercreature is, natural creature and insignificant natural and spatially is, neverinsignificant spatially man isis theless, a citizen of the supersensible world; man of the a citizen theless, supersensible world; tive itself.

32

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL DUALISM able by reason to able by the the power power of of his his moral moral reason to establish establish for for his actions himself and his both himself actions aa value value which transcends transcends all space and puts him in in touch with all time with an all time and all space puts eternal being. eternal relationship perperbeing. This overwhelming overwhelming relationship meates it prompts him to meates Kant's Kant's thought thought throughout; throughout; it to prompts of nature assume aa supersensible ground of nature and morality supersensible ground morality and leads as the the leads him to to postulate postulate some ultimate ultimate subject subject as in his author and sustainer sustainer of his dual status. author of man in dual status. The difficulty of uniting necessity and freedom alaldifficulty of uniting necessity itself when we confront reveals an ultimate ways reveals itself confront an ultimate ways monism. If If we forget that this problem cannot be forget that this problem cannot be solved except basis of of man's man's moral moral life, life, we solved the basis except on the to think as the think of the ultimate ultimate might be tempted tempted to of nature nature as might of monistic ground all but then this would monistic of all existence, but then this existence, ground that we reduce reduce moral motivations motivations to to biological biological mean that it would mean that instincts or organic desires. Or it instincts or organic desires. that we in a a metaphysical nature in interpret nature metaphysical fashion, fashion, thereby thereby interpret of both the of the the risk conconrunning the risk of losing both the clarity of the clarity losing running of morality. of nature nature and the cept the precision precision of morality. All All the the cept of are peculiar of moral to the the sphere moral categories which are peculiar to sphere of categories which like freedom, life, categories like freedom, duty, motive, conscience, motive, life, categories duty, conscience, then be guilt, responsibility, etc., then either be ignored would either ignored guilt, responsibility, etc., a such monism or distorted. with such a vague or distorted. As compared vague compared and the that which supposes that one the same thing is thought thought which thing is supposes Kant's position whenever is used, used, Kant's position the same word is whenever the of its recommends itself because of its great clarity. alitself because great clarity. He al-

33 33

KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG

WELTANSCHAUUNG

the least least obways differences without in in the obemphasizes differences ways emphasizes also recognizes scuring them, but recognizes the the unavoidable unavoidable but he also scuring them, a in other to each task of relating them to each other in a harmonious of relating task system. In the end he he envisages this envisages the solution of this system. In die of its inescapable characcharacin spite problem as as one one which in spite of its inescapable problem attained. ter can never be be attained. can never ter of an be The solution must be found found because because the the idea idea of solution is legitimate. A reason all-embracing unity is reason must be be legitimate. all-embracing unity sensigiven why the moral moral law is is ordained for for man as as aa sensiwhy the given him to as a is addressed addressed to ble being although it is as a rational rational ble being although it has to be which the task If task has to be performed were being. If the performed were being. merely theoretical, there would be be no necessary necessary ground ground theoretical, there merely or the either nature for preferring either nature or the moral realm realm as as for preferring of It both. is for moral reasons representing the unity unity of both. It is for reasons representing the cannot be be regarded regarded as as constituting both that nature nature cannot that constituting both itself the realm realm of of morality, morality, but but neither, neither, on the the itself and the of its be the the ground other the moral law law be its other hand, hand, can the ground of Kant seeks for nature. the seeks for the highhighunity with nature. However, However, unity with est synthesis not merely on theoretical theQretical but but on primarily primarily not merely est synthesis of his Weltanschauung deethical grounds. The spirit ethical grounds. despirit of his Weltanschauung as a a moral world order as world order a postulate postulate of moral mands a of moral not be reason. be obscured obscured that Kant's attempt attempt reason. But it it must not that Kant's not altogether to this problem problem is is not amfree from to solve solve this from amaltogether free these ambiguities biguities. It It is is these prompted his his sucsucthat prompted biguities. ambiguities that his philosophy cessors to transform philosophy in number of cessors to transform his in a a number of ways. ways.

34 34

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL DUALISM

Two motives motives not combined and in in competition not easily competition easily other determine Kant's Kant's doctrine with each other doctrine at at this this ethical and a a religious the one point: religious motive. motive. On the point: an ethical is deeply convinced hand, Kant is that all all religious religious life life hand, deeply convinced that result from a of mind, a moral must result moral disposition disposition of or even mind, or more that that religious but a religious life life is is nothing but a special special mode nothing of moral life on the the other of other hand, he feels feels himself himself comlife;; o~ hand, he to declare declare that is higher even that God is pelled the moral pelled to higher even than the law. Thus a a conflict conflict of of motives law. motives results results which eventually eventually threatens contrathreatens his his Weltanschauung Weltanschauung with with an an inner inner contraI will diction. I will first detail the diction. in detail the ethical ethical motive motive first describe describe in in so so far as it far as over the one. the religious it tends tends to to triumph triumph over religious one. in of this this motive one Seen from the the standpoint one can can say, say, standpoint of fear in without that Kant's Weltanwithout fear of of exaggeration, exaggeration, that in Kant's Weltanthe the place of God. God is, moral law schauung the moral law takes takes the place of is, schauung as Fichte the ordo ordo ordinans, Fichte ventured it later later on, as ventured to to put put it ordinans, on, the is actualized order which is i.e., the ordering actualized in in our i.e., the ordering order his will exthe moral is the moral imperative; imperative; his will exmoral action. moral action. God is curse in in the voice voice of presses in the of our our conscience, his curse itself in conscience, his presses itself the blessed in the blessed happiness happiness of of aa pure pure remorse, his love love in remorse, and his is no other service this view, heart. According to to this there is other service heart. According view, there of of God, no other glorification of God, but obedience to but obedience to other glorification of God, God, 1 the philosoften been been called called the philosthe moral morallaw. has often law. 1 Kant has the

1. L. W. Beck Beck (trans.). (trans.), C1 itique of of Practical Practical Reason Reason (Chicago: 1. L. (Chicago: Critique cf. Bestimmung University of Chicago Chicago Press, p. 234; 234; cf. Bestimmung des des BeBePress, 1949), 1949), p. University of (1785), Gesammelte Schrijten Scht-iften (Akademie (Akademie griffs einer Menschenrasse Menschenrasse (1785), griffs einer 104. Ausg.), VIII, VIII, 104. Ausg.), 0

35 35

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

opher of Protestantism; this this isis true true ifif one one takes takes seriousseriousopher of Protestantism; the as ly the the emphasis emphasis he he put put on on conscience conscience as the highest highest ly

tribunal of of the the moral moral tribunal

and and

religious consciousness. consciousness. In In this respect respect the the Kantian Kantian philosophy philosophy differs differs most most from from this here is of Thomism. Thomism. The The subjectivism subjectivism which which is here imimthat of that discussed be will plied in Kant's Kant's Weltanschauung Weltanschauung will be discussed plied in to later on. At this juncture shall call call attention attention only only to this later on. At juncture II shall the primacy primacy of of the the moral moral consciousness, consciousness, aa primacy primacy the which holds holds even even within within the the sphere sphere of of religion religion itself. itself. which a certain is there here It cannot cannot be be denied denied that that here there is a certain proud proud It the sentiwith a independence which reveals a kinship with the sentireveals which kinship independence as expressed expressed in in his his poem poem ments of of the the young young Goethe Goethe as ments 2 of human independence independence "Prometheus."2 This feeling feeling of "Prometheus." This in the of idea the in is most clearly revealed in the idea of autonomy, the is most clearly revealed autonomy, in as we emfar as so far idea but we ourselves, not God but that not idea that ourselves, in so of the are the legislators body practical reason, are legislators of the pure practical reason, body pure on God's behalf the law not moral God's behalf to the submit to law. We submit moral law. that must be will that true will is our true but It is sake. It our own sake. for our but for done. done. not merely thus not is thus The of man is freedom of moral freedom The moral merely aa external from freedom from external a freedom also a freedom but also from nature, freedom from nature, but ever had ever Kant had before Kant supernatural powers. No No one one before supernatural powers. accorded him him had ever ever accorded one had exalted no one so much; man so exalted man much; no and selfselfsuch of metaphysical such aa degree independence and metaphysical independence degree of religious

The Poems Poems of Goethe (Cambridge 2.2. E. et ai. d. (trans.), E. A. A. Bowring of Goethe (Cambridge (trans.), The Bowring et ed.; Boston, 1882). cd.; Boston, 1882).

36

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL DUALISM creates and preserves himself man creates dependence. preserves dependence. Within himself that excellence excellence which distinguishes the supersensible the as that distinguishes supersensible as all other him from all is preciseother beings. beings. The supersensible supersensible is precisetrait which makes man what he is or rather ly that trait is or rather ly that what he ought to be. the The idea of mankind and idea of the ought to be. idea of God are are indeed so near each other indeed so near to to each other here here that that idea of coincide. Even God is is dependent dependent upon upon the the they almost coincide. they the law being moral law instead instead of of the being dependent dependent upon upon him. him. But the world for still remains But what place place still remains in in the for aa God who is so circumscribed? circumscribed ? What kind of dignity, is so kind of dignity, what of majesty still be attributed to kind can still Is God kind of majesty can be attributed to him him?? Is so conceived ideal of conceived anything than an so anything more than an ideal of mankind mankind?? Is he anything more than Is than aa postulate postulate which agrees agrees anything 3 as Kant puts puts it, it,s but but which neverneverwith our moral need, need, as remains problematic theless problematic?? A contemporary thinker44 theless remains contemporary thinker 228. 3. Beck, Beck, op. op. cit., p. 228. tit., p.

3.

to Hans Valhinger 4. Kroner is is referring referring here h~e to Vaihinger (1852-1933), (1852-1933), aa 4. were in repudiof the of member of the group of neo-Kantians who were engaged repudineo-Kantians group engaged in in of Fichte, Hegel in ating the metaphysical Fichte, Schelling, ating the systems of metaphysical systems Schelling, and Hegel order to "back to to Kant" and to order to get get "back to primarily primarily epistemological quesepistemological quesis distinguished that of of his his colcoltions. Vaihinger's thought tions. Vaihinger's distinguished from that thought is In a leagues in the by its positivistic bent. In a book well well its bent. book in the movement by positivistic leagues If" (Eng. trans. of known in Philosophy of in English, of of "As If" English, The Philosophy (Eng. trans, ~b, 1911), developed the the thesis thesis that that Philosophie des Als Ob, des Als 1911), Vaihinger Philosophic Vaihinger developed as well well as religion, are are dependent all domains domains of thought, science as religion, of thought, science as all dependent at the upon fictions which which are are both both necessary necessary and and at the same time time mental fictions upon mental inparts of of knowledge. knowledge. Those Those who inincapable of of being being defended defended as as parts incapable "as if' if* God exists terpret as holding holding that exists (implythat we must act act "as (implyterpret Kant as

37 37

KANT

KANT'SS

WELTANSCHAUUNG

WELTANSCHAUUNG

in agreement believed himself in agreement with Kant's view when believed himself that we ought act as it as as meaning as if he interpreted interpreted it meaning that to act if ought to never and more. Kant used God existed, nothing never used exactly exactly existed, nothing more. himself in times he expresses these these words but but at at times himself in aa way way expresses to such an interpretation. lends support interpretation. What which lends support to is the the then then is the right right interpretation? not they they on the interpretation? Are not Kant who that was not track right track suggest that not absolutely absolutely suggest right in God? in earnest earnest when he propounded in propounded faith faith in God?55 Did faith is is a a moral Kant perhaps perhaps merely merely say that faith moral need need and say that that nothing aa moral idea, but that nothing can can finally be decided decided idea, but finally be God the exists or concerning the question whether really exists or really concerning question not? not? in harmony be in harmony Such Such an interpretation interpretation would indeed be with assertion that with the the assertion that the the moral law is is fundamentally fundamentally is no that there God it. beyond it. Kant's God and and that there is Kant's beyond Such an interpretation interpretation cannot be be maintained. maintained. 66 A of the man of the intellectual intellectual and and moral stature stature of of Kant all of his words words and and seriously he says; of his seriously means what he says; all to character of writings to aa character of extraordinary moral writings testify testify extraordinary moral or that that we know absolutely does not exist or ing either either that that God does not exist nothing absolutely nothsuch a arrived at ing about such a conclusion) conclusion) have have usually usually arrived at their their view view ing about the influence ideas. through of Vaihinger's influence of through the Vaihinger's ideas. 5. For example, 5. dependable scholar as J. E. Erdmann even such such a a dependable scholar as J. E. example, even in his Versuch einer einel'" wissenschajtlichen Darstellung del' neuel'en in his Vel'such der neueren wissenschajtlichen Darstellung such a view. Philosophie (1848), 177 supports such a view. III, 177, (1848), III, Philosophic supports 3

6. Heinrich 6. Heinrich Rickert, Fichtes Atheismusstreit Atheismusstl'eit und die die Kantische Kantische Rickert, Fichtes

Philosophie (1899). (1899). Philosophic 38

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL

DUALISM

earnestness. Moreover, such an an interpretation earnestness. Moreover, such runs interpretation runs counter to to Kant's Kant's whole whole Weltanschauung.(Faith in counter Weltanschauung.fpaith in aa of nature nature and supersensible and freedom freedom is is a a necesnecessupersensible unity unity of of Kant's Kant's entire entire system. ~ sary in the Faith in the sary consequence consequence of system. from the very foundation of e~ence of God springs from egistencejo^Godjprings tJieveryJfoiindation of is an malspensable element within it. his thought and j hjgjhought ancHai^ When Kant Kant says that it is Vi!hen that it is morally necessary to believe to believe says morally necessary in God God he he does does not say that that in itit isis questionable whether say questionable whether God God really insists that that the the existence exists; rather, existence of of rather, he insists really exists; it cannot be demonstrated God, though it by theoretical demonstrated by theoretical though is assured assured on moral reason, moral grounds. reason, nevertheless is Withgrounds. Within the the confines of of Kant's Kant's W dtatlschaaung no in stronger Wefeaiistliaiiiing no stronger could have argument argument could have been given.) given.] be morally To be for Kant that that God's God's morally necessary necessary implies implies for existence is even even more firmly established than than it it would would existence is firmly established be be if if it it rested rested upon upon speculative speculative arguments; arguments; for for the the moral law is par with with the the laws laws of of nature nature with with moral law is on aa par to but respect to certainty but surpasses with respect to them with respect to respect certainty surpasses dignity of of content. content. Theoretical Theoretical reasons reasons can can be be refuted; refuted; dignity if proved he he isis also also exposed exposed to to doubt, doubt, for for if God God isis proved theories be erroneous. erroneous. If If theories and and inferences inferences may may easily easily be God's God's existence existence isis morally morally postulated postulated itit isis irrefutable; irrefutable; it could be be denied denied only only ifif the the validity validity of of the the moral moral law law· ircould were were denied, denied, but but that that for for Kant Kant would would mean mean that that man man should man. If If faith faith in in God God isis aa postupostushould deny deny that that he he isis man. late as unshakably unshakably cercerlate of of moral moral reason, reason, his his existence existence isis as tt

39 39

KANT'S KANT'S

tain as as tain

WEL'I'ANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

is the the validity validity of of the the moral moral law law itself: itself: this this isis Kant's authentic authentic conviction. conviction. Kant's The morally postulated God exists exists just just as as surely surely as as The morally postulated God we ourselves ourselves exist exist as as moral moral beings; beings; after after all, all, even even our our we but own existence existence cannot cannot be be theoretically theoretically demonstrated demonstrated but own same is itself itself morally morally postulated. postulated. The The same radical, radical, almost almost is doctrine Kant's underlies which religious, conviction which underlies Kant's doctrine conviction religious, also underlies underlies his his doctrine doctrine of of God's God's of the the moral moral law law also of doctrine existence. Any Any doubt doubt cast cast upon upon the the second second doctrine existence. first. the of the .first. ConseConsemust necessarily affect the validity of the must necessarily affect validity is an an ununquently, the the thesis thesis which which maintains maintains that that there there is quently, we expressed disbelief implied in in the the demand that that we expressed disbelief implied misconnot if God existed, should always act act as as if existed, not only only misconshould always nullifies also but ceives Kant's religious attitude, but also nulli.fies the the ceives Kant's religious attitude, of his theoretical outcome of the theoretical ethical his even the and even content and ethical content Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. WeltKant's Weltof Kant's In inner ambiguity the inner In mentioning ambiguity of mentioning the of to imply not mean to anschauung' did not imply the absence of anschauung, II did erbelief as some misguided in God, belief in God, as misguided Kantians have erto emphasize roneously suggested. What II wished to was, emphasize was, roneously suggested. conviction not the absence of honest conviction on Kant's part, honest not the absence of part, conconviction aa conthat conviction but within that that within fact that the fact rather the but rather This conflict conflict motifs. This flict between contrasting exists between flict exists contrasting motifs. beof the the rivalry out of might as arising understood as be understood rivalry bearising out might be his and tween voluntarism and his religious ethical voluntarism Kant's ethical tween Kant's religious faith of a faith. Although Kant's doctrine of a postulated doctrine Kant's faith. Although postulated faith is

40

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL DUALISM a postulated and a seems to postulated God seems to be be aa logical logical consequence consequence of his ethical views, it is is true views, it true nevertheless nevertheless that of his ethical that such such is not faith is moral and rational rational faith not wholly consistent with with wholly consistent the the moral foundation of of his his Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. AccordAccordto the ethical the moral law an is ing motif, the law is an absolute absolute ing to the ethical motif, the to doctrine the of and an ultimate; ultimate; according to the doctrine of the postuaccording postuthe moral law is late, is neither neither the the absolute absolute nor nor the the ultiultilate, the this incongruity which disturbs is this disturbs the mate, and it it is the mate, incongruity whole argument. is Kant between Obviously is oscillating between argument. Obviously oscillating a religious ethical and a an ethical religious Weltanschauung without Weltanschauung without at any definitive and satisfying resolution of arriving of any definitive arriving at satisfying resolution 7 7 conflict. From the the of view the conflict. the religious religious point point of view (which (which at the be a called may at the same time be called a metaphysical tendency may metaphysical tendency it is for Kant the critical critical system), is not within the not legitimate for within it system), legitimate allow the to triumph; the moral motif to allow motif to triumph; rather rather he he must to for a a transcendent look for look transcendent unity unity embracing the realms realms of of embracing the freedom. nature The nature and and morality, morality, of of necessity and freedom. necessity for us, is the moral law law is the ultimate us, while while that that unity unity is is the the moral ultimate for ultimate in itself itself (the ultimate in (the "thing-in-itself"). "thing-in-itself"). excludes any thinker excludes as a critical thinker a critical Since Since Kant as any comprecompreas it it is is in in itself itself except except through through hension the ultimate of the ultimate as hension of is comit is is for for us, us, he is the mediation mediation of of the ultimate as as it the ultimate the pelled to derive whatever knowledge of of God may may be he pelled to derive whatever knowledge Thus law. moral from the possible within his system the law. his system possible within

7. The same point can be seen seen in in Kant's Kant's Religion Religion within within the the can be same point 7. Limits of Reason Alone, Alone, trans. trans. T. T. M. Greene and and H. H. Hudson (ChiLimits (Chiof Reason cago: Court Publishing Co., 1934). 1934). Publishing Co., Open Court cago: Open

411 4

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

two conflicting conflicting tendencies tendencies collide collide in in Kant's Kant's conception conception two be of God; God; the the supreme supreme being, being, on on the the one one hand, hand, has has to to be of morally postulated, postulated, and and morally

faith faith in in him him isis to to be be vindicated vindicated

on moral moral grounds grounds alone, alone, while while on on the the other other hand, hand, on the absolutely absolutely sovereign sovereign and and Kant realizes realizes that that God God isis the Kant to be supreme being, being, beyond beyond and and above above all all relations, relations, to be supreme vindicated by by nothing nothing but but himself. himself. vindicated

The The tremendous tremendous

man isis raised raised by by Kant Kant through through the the idea of of moral moral autonomy autonomy and freedom necessarily necessarily makes makes idea signif~ it difficult difficult to to transcend transcend ethics. ethics. The metaphysical metaphysical signifit moral the to icance which Kant attributes to the moral will, and attributes will, and icance which Kant which forms forms the the very very center center of of his his ethical ethical voluntarism, voluntarism, which inevitably detracts somewhat somewhat from his his doctrine doctrine of of faith. faith. inevitably detracts whose a God as a whose majesty majesty is is The of faith faith appears The God of appears as the of dependent on the majesty of the moral law. Kant was the on majesty dependent the history in the in certainly the first thinker first thinker the philosophy history of philosophy certainly self-suffito full autonomy the £Ull defend the and defend assert and to assert autonomy and self~suffi~ it so in but ciency of the ethical will, but in so doing appears doing it appears ciency of the ethical will, life the to do £Ull justice to the religious life of the that he did not do full not did that he religious justice intellectualism, but he soul. shattered philosophical He shattered soul. He philosophical intellectualism, "ethicism." a philosophical into a fell, at the same time, into philosophical "ethicism." fell, at the same time, full to aa full block a was as much a stumbling block to This ethicism much as This ethicism was stumbling had been been intellectualism had as intellectualism recognition of religious life life as recognition of religious an life. moral life. to moral an impediment impediment to sufsomewhat sufHowever, ethical principle the ethical even the However, even principle somewhat faith. of aa postulated fers doctrine of Kant's doctrine from Kant's fers from postulated faith. height to which height to which

42 42

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL

DUALISM

this doctrine doctrine the the idea idea of Through of God God tends tends to to lose lose its its Through this and as and sovereignty, just as the idea of the moral majesty the idea of the moral majesty sovereignty, just law in in turn turn runs runs the the risk risk of of losing its law clear and and forthforthlosing its clear Kant introduced introduced moral right moral faith faith in in order order to to right meaning. meaning. Kant that moral action has guarantee in has moral moral consequences guarantee that moral action consequences in world of of sense sense which which is is morally indifferent. aa world Reason, morally indifferent. Reason, he argues, divine order of he postulates a divine order of the the world world for for the the argues, postulates of binding together the purpose of what is is real real purpose of binding together the spheres spheres of and what to real But is is such and what ought possible such a a theory ought to be real. theory possible Kant and is for Kant is he consistent? consistent? Does not for the autonomy not the autonomy and sovereignty and of the moral law rest precisely on the rest sovereignty precisely on the contrast between morality and nature, contrast between the the "is" "is" nature, between morality and the Is not just this the essence and the "ought"? duty, acessence of of duty, ac"ought"? Is just this the to that is cording Kant, that duty duty is opposed the impulses impulses to the cording to Kant, opposed to and inclinations If the and inclinations of of nature? nature? If the opposition opposition between between the the two is is mitigated, mitigated, if if we concede concede that that there there is is aa secret secret of unity of the the natural natural and moral moral realms, realms, then, then, so so itit unity the seriousness of the seems, the seriousness of the imperative is endangered. seems, imperative is endangered. The very very struggle struggle of of moral moral life, life, without without which which moral moral life life is is unthinkable, unthinkable, would would then then cease cease to to exist. exist. The The ethical ethical Weltanschauung Weltanschauung inexorably inexorably demands demands an an enentension betwen the during tension betwen the will and its goal; the moral will and its during goal; the moral loses its will wiI1loses its true true power power if if this this obstacle obstacle isis eliminated. eliminated. The The moral moral law law itself itself loses loses its its meaning meaning ifif the the tension tension and and the the obstacle obstacle are are removed. removed. How How can can we we reconcile reconcile the the absolute absolute sovereignty, sovereignty, the the

43 43

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

metaphysical ultimacy, of of the the moral moral metaphysical ultimacy,

law law with with the the docdoc~

trine that this law law isis restricted restricted in in its its validity validity to to the the are we that believe we can sphere of human life? life? How How can we believe that we are sphere of human with filled obliged to lead life filled with exertion exertion and and struggle struggle aa life lead to obliged yet also also believe believe against impulses and and inclinations inclinations and and yet against impulses at no struggle struggle at all, all, that that that this this struggle struggle at at bottom bottom isis no that not are instinct and imperative are not ultimately antagonistic instinct and imperative ultimately antagonistic that believe we to each other? can we believe that we we are are subject subject can How other? each to to one one master master who commands commands the the two two opposed opposed spheres spheres to Does does so so for for moral moral purposes? purposes? Does this this and moreover moreover does and as if live to moral a as a moral being ought to live as if not imply that as man not imply that being ought as Kant says, says, "as "as though though everyevery~ God did did not not exist exist or, or, as God 8 thing depended on on him (man)/' (man),"S whereas whereas man as as aa thing depended exist? Does did exist? if God did religious being should live as as if Does should live religious being that believe to also imply that we ought to believe that we this not that also this not ought imply withthe divine kingdom of the must the coming for the work for must work kingdom with~ coming of out reliance upon out any power which would upon an outward power any reliance withthat with~ believe that also should us, and yet that help that we also should believe help us, and yet out his Kingdom of God his aid of the aid out the Kingdom can never come? or exists or that whether God exists Does mean that not finally this not Does this finally the If God God exists, not, its meaning? loses its law loses moral law exists, the the moral meaning? If not, the colthe of struggle is pointless and the power of the "ought" the and is "ought" col~ power pointless struggle is purposeless the struggle lapses; ifif God not exist, does not God does exist, the purposeless struggle is lapses; reason which mad tyrant and which reason becomes aa mad law becomes moral law the moral and the tyrant can acknowledge. no longer can no longer acknowledge. trine that this

S.8. Ibid., Ibid., p.92. p. 92.

44 44

ETHICAL DUALISM DUALISM ETHICAL In the the end end the the moral Weltanschauung is In Weltanschauung is weakened to Kant, by the religious postulates which, according Kant, by religious postulates which, according to its necessary correlates. correlates. the case are its In the one case God, postu~ God, postunecessary lated by is not accorded accorded his divine divine lated the moral will, is his will, by in while the other other case case the the moral life life severed right; severed right; while in the is in danger of of its moral meaning at losing its from God is danger losing meaning at is postulated. God as as well the moment God is well as as the the postulated. moral law becomes ambivalent; at the the ambivalent; they they appear appear at to be both independent same time to independent and dependent dependent upon upon absolute non-absolute. non~absolute. The moral each other, absolute and yet moral other, yet that God exists exists finally leads us to to a a position certainty certainty that finally leads us position so different different from that that taken taken by metaphysical not so by metaphysical the strength the cam~ for the knowledge; camknowledge; both sap sap the strength needed for and the paign desire, desire, the campaign paign against against sensuality sensuality campaign evil. against evil. against said that that God in in his his wisdom has has arranged Kant once said arranged so that that we cannot matters so cannot prove his existence matters existence theoreti~ theoretiprove his we we Could no act would cally. prove it, longer act from it, prove cally. longer 9 the sense sense of of duty fear. 9 Should we not but from fear. not rather rather the duty but certain of of God's conclude that was certain God's existence existence conclude that he who was because he would then not act act at at all, would not then have have only only all, because to contemplate contemplate the the glory glory of of one desire desire left, left, namely, namely, to be, Kant admits admits that that the the cercer~ God? this may may be, God ? However this seems to tainty of of God's God's existence existence seems to be be more aa hindrance hindrance tainty to the the moral moral life. life. But But is is this this certainty certainty of of aa than aa help help to than

9. Beck, Beck, op. op. cit. cit., pp. pp. 245-47. 246-47.

9.

f

45 45

KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

moral faith faith different different from that that of of aa metaphysical metaphysical moral knowledge? This., This, as as II have have shown, shown, cannot cannot be be Kant's Kant's knowledge? opinion. opinion. The ambiguity ambiguity of of Kant's Kant's ethical ethical Weltanschauung Weltanschauung

thus stands stands out out clearly. clearly. thus

Kant intends intends

to exalt the moral the summit of of man's man's total total existence, existence, and yet yet he law as the law as also wants also wants to to put put God above above this this summit. He cannot cannot can neither neither render render truly reconcile reconcile these these two motifs. motifs. He can truly full sovereignty to God his his full sovereignty nor nor can can he attribute attribute to to the the to attribute to It is is to attribute like to moral law what he he would like to it. it. It moral law sucKant's which this precisely this ambiguity prompted Kant's sucprompted ambiguity precisely to demolish cessors to reconstruct reconstruct and thereby demolish his his philophilocessors to thereby to failed to edifice. But, sophical But, unfortunately, unfortunately, they also failed to they also sophical edifice. the darkness of this profound and throw light light on the darkness of this profound is because we finally this is puzzling problem. finally Perhaps this puzzling problem. Perhaps inthe eternal antinomy even the inencounter which encounter an eternal antinomy alneither evade evade nor solve, could neither genuity of Kant could solve, algenuity of to dispense though just metaphysics just dispense with metaphysics struggled to though he struggled the of because the inevitability of such an because he recognized inevitability recognized antinomy. antinomy. reasons for for this this contracontrato grope for reasons If continue to If we continue grope for or Kantian diction discord within within the the Kantian Weltanschauung, diction or discord Weltanschauung, tied to to the the very we discover are inextricably discover that that they are inextricably tied they very foundations voluntarism. The idea of the of his his ethical ethical voluntarism. idea of the foundations of us to conto go its conimperative imperative inexorably impels us go beyond beyond its inexorably impels standpoint of moral life fines. It is of life fines. It is precisely from the the moral standpoint precisely

46

to exalt the

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL DUALISM is impossible to that it of the that it is desire the the perpetuation perpetuation of the impossible to desire contrast between inclination nature freecontrast inclination and and duty, nature and freeand duty, is the final final elimination elimination of dom. It It is of this this contrast contrast which which considered the the ultimate ultimate goal. be considered goal. The moral moral will will should be to for strive the attainment of an ought absolutely ought to strive for the attainment of an absolutely state and this a that such will moral state this implies that such a will must strive strive must implies for its its own destruction. for destruction. The moral moral imperative imperative theretherefore cannot be thought as an ultimate of as thought of ultimate in in the the way way fore 10 10 Kant's ethical Kant's ethical Weltanschauung requires. Weltanschauung requires. finds the the metaphysical in the The voluntarist voluntarist who finds metaphysical in the is thereby driven moral itself is to abandon his his own moral will will itself thereby driven to the insight to gain position and finally that the the volunvolunposition finally to gain the insight that taristic view itself cannot It seems absolute. It seems that be absolute. that aa taristic view itself cannot be which refuses to an take absolute Weltanschauung refuses to take an absolute Weltanschauung cannot be since the be aa Weltanschauung at all, the position cannot all, since position Weltanschauung at is to function of very meaning and function of Weltanschauung to very meaning Weltanschauung is If the an absolute absolute standpoint. the view existence view existence from an standpoint. If be then it is be ultimate, then it is ethical cannot cannot ethical Weltanschauung ultimate, Weltanschauung for Weltanschauung at at all. all. Moral this very reason not Weltanschauung for this very reason not its exalted exalted character, life, in spite of its is not not altogether life, in character, is altogether spite of of existence; the totality for interpreting appropriate totality of existence; interpreting the appropriate for for the sake of such interpretation it is necessary necessary to to it is for the sake of such interpretation

the implications of Kant's Kant's moral 10. Kroner's discussion discussion of implications of moral theory theory 10. Kroner's of the in the critical analysis of Kant in should be compared compared with Hegel's analysis of the should be Hegel's critical in his See J. section to be be found found in his Phenomenology. Phenomenology. See B. section "Morality" J. B. "Morality" to Baillie (trans.), Phenomenology of of Mind (London: (London: Allen Allen & Baillie (trans.), The Phenomenology Unwin, pp. 611-79. 611-79. Unwin, 1931), 1931), pp.

47 47

KANT S WELTANSCHAUUNG KANT'S WELTANSCHAUUNG adopt aa standpoint standpoint which transcends transcends the the moral moral horihori~ adopt zon. It is, however, however, neither neither my my intention intention nor nor my my task task It is, zon. in this essay essay to to consider consider the the possibilities possibilities which might might in this lead to to aa new approach approach to to these these ultimate ultimate problems. problems. lead does Kant himself himself try try to to overcome the the difficuldifficul~ How does as we have ties which, which, as have seen, arise in in his his picture picture of of the the ties seen, arise world? The difficulties difficulties all all originate originate from the the same world? source. beings, according according to to Kant, Kant, find find ourour~ source. We human beings, selves limited whereas the the Weltanschauung Weltanschauung limited and finite, selves finite, whereas is necessarily bound to to surpass those at at which we aim is necessarily surpass those confinements. We can complete~ limitations can never never completelimitations and confinements. strive for ly succeed in in surpassing can only only strive for them, we can surpassing them, ly succeed to a a contradicTherefore we fall fall victim victim to contradic~ completion. completion. Therefore of our the completion tion: tion: Weltanschauung completion of Weltanschauung demands the our humanity us from attainattain~ striving, while while our humanity prevents prevents us striving, reach wisdom; the finite beings we can never ing never reach it. As finite wisdom; the beings ing it. is love of wisdom, love of highest wisdom, i.e., i.e., accomplish is thing we can accomplish highest thing inand the If finite limited seek phi1~sophy. limited beings beings seek the in~ philo-sophy. If finite result can only the result be that that the the finite finite and unlimited, unlimited, the only be be forced into a will be forced into a finite finite and infinite unlimited will infinite and unlimited mold. limited limited mold. the ultimate ultimate contradic~ can clarify In contradicIn this this way clarify the way we can the obscurity tions the Kantian philosophy within the tions within philosophy and the obscurity contradictions are the of The contradictions are not the his Weltanschauung. of his Weltanschauung. of Kant's rather they result Kant's personal folresult of shortcomings, rather personal shortcomings, they fol~ as teaches low directly from his premises. Kant teaches that we as his that premises. directly

48

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL DUALISM can only human beings the ultimate beings can grasp the ultimate from our our only grasp as as an unattainable own position, position, and therefore therefore only unattainable only our reach. ethical ideal, and not as as aa truth truth within within our reach. The ethical ideal, premise requires that the the goal goal be be beyond beyond our action, action, premise requires that should the for one be one which we could could actually actually for should the goal goal be it would be reach at it and thus be no goal at all, and thus it could reach it could no all, goal conceived in longer be conceived in an an ethical ethical way; way; it it would be be longer our horizons. horizons. Only something beyond our something completely completely beyond Only what is is not realizable realizable can can be be ethically commanded, aa comcom~ ethically commanded, mand which can be fulfilled is be absolutely absolutely fulfilled is no longer longer in a ultimate. conclude that that Kant believes believes in a ultimate. Thus we conclude of knowledge limitation of based on an an ethical ethical command. limitation knowledge based so far far as Even faith, as it it springs from the in so the moral moral will, will, faith, in springs it is cannot this basic basic insight. Faith, although cannot change this change insight. Faith, although it is its not distinguished not knowledge with with respect respect to to its distinguished from knowledge its content content does differs from it that its it in in that does not not certainty, certainty, yet yet differs It of contradiction. contradiction. It need to to the law of to conform to the logical need logical law faith from a is which distinguishes faith a this difference difference is just this distinguishes just philosophical system. is unconcerned unconcerned about about the the Faith is system. Faith philosophical in its contradiction involved involved in its being being ultimate, ultimate, yet yet only only contradiction within the ultimate within the horizon horizon of of man. ultimate as the the ultimate In Kant's philosophy the the access access to to the ultimate as the In Kant's philosophy ethical one content is, however, an ethical one and, to this this faith is, of faith content of and, to however, an also raextent, one. Faith Faith itself, therefore, is is also ra~ a rational rational one. itself, therefore, extent, a and the contradiction contradiction tional, this in in aa sense doubles the sense doubles and this tional, and less tolerable, because faith, being rational, rational, makes it because less it makes faith, being tolerable,

49 49

KANT'S

leads us us leads

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

to expect expect aa logically logically consistent consistent resolution resolution is not not forthcoming. forthcoming. Kant's Kant's God should should be be conconwhich is which law of the with ceived as in agreement with the law of contradiction; a in ceived as contradiction; a agreement contradiction in in the the content content of of aa rational rational faith faith offends offends contradiction is reason. We cannot cannot rationally rationally believe believe in in aa God who is reason. logically inconsistent, inconsistent, for for the the very very idea idea of of God dedelogically is beyond beyond all all imperfections, imperfections, even even beyond beyond that he he is mands that those which which are are connected connected with with the the mode of of belief. belief. those of the the Kantian Kantian Weltanschauung Weltanschauung it it is is Within the the scope Within scope of its faith should should be impossible that that faith be separated separated from its impossible it is on this and account in the is just this account source the moral moral will, and it source in will, just the world cannot lay claim to to interpret world from that faith lay claim that faith cannot interpret the of ethics. ethics. The intrinaa vantage point higher higher than than that that of intrinvantage point voluntaristic Weltanschauung conthe voluntaristic sic sic ambiguity of Weltanschauung conambiguity of the or avoided the cannot sequently cannot be avoided or overcome by the foundby sequently a of ing of a moral religion. ing religion. vindicate religious as Kant is able to to vindicate So far far as is able at So religious faith faith at on faith is is completely dependent the sphere the all, such faith all, such completely dependent sphere it. In of the the moral reason reason which postulates In the of it. the last last postulates the primacy not only analysis of pracanalysis Kant not proclaims the only proclaims primacy of pracover theoretical reason but-and but and this even more tical over theoretical reason is eyen tical this is for his his Weltanschauung-he decisive decisive for the proclaims the Weltanschauung he proclaims of the over the primacy the moral over the religious consciousness primacy of religious consciousness as well. well. Moral life life can give faith its content as content but but faith faith give faith its never give can never to moral life life its its content. can content. Faith Faith can can give to never provide basis for the autonomy of the moral never a a basis for the of the moral provide autonomy to

50 50

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL DUALISM the moral moral law which will; rather, it it is is the which provides provides aa basis basis will; rather, for faith. faith. Moreover, for Moreover, God can can be be interpreted interpreted from the the standpoint while this this striving can standpoint of human striving striving while striving can be interpreted vantage point. point. never be interpreted from God's vantage take the If, therefore, we take the word "Weltanschauung" If, therefore, "Weltanschauung" arrive at the Kantian conclusion that at the truly Kantian conclusion that literally, we arrive literally, truly we can never arrive arrive at is at any any Weltanschauung Weltanschauung which is free from contradiction; in itself itself will free is ultimate ultimate in will contradiction; what is ever remain for us, therefore ever remain what is is ultimate ultimate for us, and therefore will conencounter every Weltanschauung will inevitably encounter conevery Weltanschauung inevitably tradictions. attain at can attain at best best without without contracontratradictions. What we can ourselves is is an intuition of the not of the world world but but dicting ourselves intuition not dicting of our own life, is precisely the meaning only life, and this this is precisely the meaning only of "ethical of the of the expression "ethical Weltanschauung." a expression Weltanschauung." Such a docvision of life or Weltanschauung is basically basically aa vision of life or aa docWeltanschauung is about the trine about trine the meaning meaning of of man. This moral consummation consummation of of mymyThis meaning meaning demands moral self personalities, in in other other words, words, it it all other of all other personalities, self and of concerns the approach to aa kingdom kingdom of of heaven heaven on concerns the approach to the moral Faith in in God supports earth. encourages the moral earth. Faith supports and encourages should will in task. However, However, this this support in its arduous task. its arduous will support should never be be allowed allowed to to diminish diminish our our obligation obligation to to work never and struggle the contrary, contrary, God only the goal; for the only goal; on the struggle for effort his own him who merits such help through his effort helps such merits help through helps faith in and Moral intentions vindicate faith in the the realrealintentions vindicate action. Moral and action. of of view the From ity of such divine assistance. the point of of divine assistance. of such point ity

5I

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

morality submission to to the the moral moral law law morality submission

is clearly clearly comcompatible with with faith, faith, whereas whereas itit would would be be immoral immoral to to patible infer from from the the existence existence of of the the Almighty Almighty that that the the infer We moral law law isis void void and and man's man's exertion exertion superfluous. superfluous. We moral should never never ask ask how how aa divine divine world world government government isis should logically possible, or or how how such such aa government government can can be be logically possible, to be holds Kant which evil reconciled to the fact of evil which Kant holds to be of reconciled to the fact radical, or or even even how such such aa government government can can leave leave radical, room for for aa moral moral law. law. Such Such questions questions aspire aspire to to somesomeroom thing that surpasses our our capacity; capacity; they they aspire aspire to to knowlknowlthing that surpasses is precisely precisely that that certainty certainty edge of of the the absolute. absolute. Faith Faith is edge which can can be be maintained maintained by by the the moral will. will. This This is is the the which accord with with Kant. Kant. best which is is in in accord definition which best definition is just It is as reason. It transcends reason. of faith just as The faith transcends content of The content from content impossible to derive this logical this content principles logical principles impossible to derive will the of as to derive the content of the will from logical as to derive the content logical principrincinot agree ples. Although Kant would not with Tertulagree ples. Although credo quia absurdum, yet he would be inclined lian's lian's credo quia absurdum, yet cannot comprehend; to I believe although II cannot to say: comprehend; II besay: I believe although lieve, to comprehend order to in order not in (as Augustine says), Augustine says), lieve, not comprehend (as of means cognitive certainty by means of not to acquire order to in order not in by certainty acquire cognitive will. KnowlKnowlthe will. faith, to support in order order to rather in but rather faith, but support the too achieve edge in Augustine's sense would would merely merely achieve aa too edge in Augustine's sense whereas and reason, faith and easy compromise between faith reason, whereas easy compromise between as to to the the well as as well to the superrational as true faith points true faith points to the superrational 52

is

ETHICAL ETHICAL DUALISM DUALISM all attempts at supersensible. rejects all com~ such a a comsupersensible. Kant rejects attempts at such proffilse. promise. of the The incomprehensibility the Divine Divine does does not not mean incomprehensibility of is not it is something negative; it not simply resigna~ something merely merely negative; simply aa resignaof the tion intellect. Instead Instead Kant wishes to replace tion of the intellect. wishes to replace its claims intellectual the will metaphysics and its intellectual claims by the will and metaphysics by faith which is the it. However, the rational rational faith is grounded However, grounded on it. with is nothing but the functionary with such aa basis basis faith faith is nothing but the functionary of the its posi~ of the will. will. The incomprehensible incomprehensible becomes becomes in in its positive significance the of content of the tive the goal of striving; the content of significance striving; goal faith performs of assuring function of that this this faith the function us that performs the assuring us in this this sense sense that that the the famous reached. It goal be reached. It is is in goal can be "I felt felt obliged to order to words, "I deny knowledge knowledge in in order to words, obliged to deny for faith," In accord be make room for should be interpreted. In accord faith/' interpreted. the spirit of Kant's with the of Kant's Weltanschauung can asas~ spirit Weltanschauung we can the place that faith faith takes of metaphysical sert takes the place of knowl~ sert that metaphysical knowlis thoroughly volunedge, because Kant's Kant's metaphysics metaphysics is thoroughly volun~ edge, because taristic and dualistic. denies knowledge knowledge not not pripridualistic. Kant denies taristic in order marily of faith but in order to to make room the sake faith but sake of for the marily for is the life of for but the the life of the the will will is the will. Not faith, for the the will. faith, but focal point of of Kant's Kant's Weltanschauung. focal point Weltanschauung. we Only can fully understand how completely completely now can fully understand Only the term term voluntarism voluntarism is is justified justified as as aa characterization characterization the of the ultimate ultimate intention of the philosophy. intention of the Kantian philosophy. of the of intellecKant is is so countenancing any any form of intel1ec~ far from countenancing so far alof faith tualism that he proves the moral necessity of faith al~ moral the he that tualism necessity proves

53 53

KANT'S KANT'S

though though

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG 11

this faith logically contradicts itself.ll Facing Facing a take the ultimate ultimate questions questions man man can can only only take a moral, moral, not not the inbetter a be could indeed a rational, position. What indeed could be a better in~ What a rational, position. dication of of Kant's Kant's anti-intellectualism anti-intellectualism?? For For the the way way in in dication which aa thinker thinker tries tries to to answer answer the the ultimate ultimate questions questions which does than reveals his his standpoint standpoint more more clearly clearly than does any any dedereveals tail of his system. tail of his system. sense Only now can can we we fully fully appreciate appreciate in in what what sense Only Kant's philosophy philosophy isis dualistic dualistic and and in in what sense sense itit isis Kant's monistic. The unity unity of of the the two separate separate realms realms of of monistic. but of not an is an object not of knowledge but nature and freedom is freedom nature and knowledge object is therefore therefore imimof faith faith alone. alone. A monistic monistic philosophy philosophy is of the how be able able to to understand understand the possible. We shall shall never never be possible. be time the at can same being, namely man, can at the same time be aa same being, namely man, in a supernatural creature nature and yet of nature creature of participate in a supernatural yet participate of can we understand what kind of moral order. Nor can moral order. from "sameness" the opposite "sameness" conjoins apart from spheres apart opposite spheres conjoins the to obey us to the moral consciousness which commands the moral consciousness obey indifferent or resisting its of an indifferent midst of the midst in the law in its law resisting to conceive conceive the reason able to nature. be able never be We shall shall never nature. We of view. view. of from a monistic point of of this this duality duality from a monistic point believes that he he believes demands that Man's consciousness demands moral consciousness Man's moral could he could in the spheres of the an ultimate ultimate unity in an (otherwise he spheres (otherwise unity of would actions would moral actions not less hope that much less even act, not even act, much hope that moral his Weltanschauung have but his moral consequences), have moral Weltanschauung consequences), but this faith logically contradicts itself.

11. cit., pp. 322-23, n.n. 11. Beck, Beck, op. of. cit., pp. 322-23,

54 54

ETHICAL DUALISM DUALISM ETHICAL the dualism of of the the spheres. must be rooted rooted in in the spheres. Only Only of nature and freedom exists can where the the separation of nature exists can separation effort and action, in moral effort action, and he find any any meaning meaning in finds this this meaning only meaning does does the the very very word only where he finds become has Weltanschauung meaningful. The world has Weltanschauung meaningful to Kant the on the presupposition meaning according to only meaning according only presupposition actions are that are meaningful. meaningful. "Meaning of the the that human actions "Meaning of is not theoretical but world" not aa theoretical but aa practical practical concept. world" is concept. The of philosophical dualism dualism is is therefore therefore the the precondition precondition of philosophical the the ultimate the very very question concerning the ultimate meaning of question concerning meaning of existence. existence. as well as In aa world interpreted interpreted monistically well as monistically norms as rules as as well ends, well as as purposes, purposes, would be be meaningless. meaningless. ends, rules would of such a world itself be devoid Consequently such a world itself be devoid of Consequently the human longing for meaning; it could could never satisfy satisfy the longing for meaning; it as to could not clue as to meaning. Such aa world could not even even give a clue give a meaning. ourselves or or how beof why the riddle why we puzzle puzzle about about ourselves bethe riddle of at a world thereall. Such a are ings like ourselves are possible at all. therelike ourselves possible ings to any never give fore give rise rise to philosophy whatsoever. whatsoever. could never fore could any philosophy is true, the world If world can be meaningful meaningful only only If this this is true, then the it is is so if it if is meaningful meaningful to to us, us, only only if so organized organized that that if it it is thus an original the will is our will is meaningful. And thus the life of our life of original meaningful. the a moral necessity. Only the duality duality must exist as a moral exist as necessity. Only duality duality of a of beginning and and end, a point point from which the the will will of beginning end, of departs point toward which it it strives; only the the a point strives; only departs and a to the what is and what ought to be, the duality of duality of is and of be, duality of ought duality

55 55

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

the real real and and the the ideal, ideal, the

is in in conformity conformity with with the the moral moral

is

consciousness. consciousness. But just just But

as the idea of what what ought ought to to be be constantly constantly points beyond itself itself (because (because every every achievement achievement calls calls points beyond absolute of an idea the so forth new duties and tasks), so the idea of an absolute and duties forth tasks), meaning also leads beyond itself. We must must admit admit that that leads also beyond itself. meaning there cannot cannot be be any any meaning meaning at at all all beyond beyond that that of of there purpose and and end, end, and that that meaning meaning implies implies purpose purpose purpose with identical (if it is not actually identical with it). Nevertheless, not it). Nevertheless, actually (if it is are led led to to assume assume that that there there is is an an end end beyond beyond all all we are an absolute ends, aa purpose purpose beyond beyond all all purposes purposes-an absolute meanmeanends, All human ing beyond all relative and and finite finite meanings. meanings. All ing beyond all relative a definitive and ultimate such striving postulates such a definitive ultimate goal, goal, striving postulates it as for and as striving is forever forever incomplete it is as human it for as incomplete striving it absolute an absolute itself always aa meaning beyond itself-an meaning beyond always posits posits absolute fulfilment, meaning fulfilment, and thus an implying an absolute meaning implying characthe duality absolute absolute unity duality which charactranscending the unity transcending situation. However, terizes our human situation. terizes our However, we have no to find ourselves a unity. concept such a of such unity. We find ourselves unable to concept of concrete in concrete fulfilment means in understand absolute fulfilment understand what absolute to be is which has no longer it is terms, end it or what what end terms, or longer to the realized. willed because it is forever realized. Beyond the duality is it forever willed because duality Beyond real the tension of the of and end, beyond the tension of the real and of beginning end, beyond beginning all of good and evil, and and consequently ideal and and the the ideal evil, all good and consequently of cannot want want such such aa We cannot meaning to disappear. seems to disappear. We meaning seems meanthe would meaning it would destroy because it to exist, exist, because destroy the meanmeaning to as the idea of

56

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL DUALISM of our ing of ing

life. Kant quotes with own life. approval the the quotes with approval 12 words of poet Haller of the the poet Haller::12

The world with all all its its faults faults Is better than Is better than aa realm of of will-less will-less angels. angels. of life Kant's vision ethical dualKant's vision of life thus thus demands an ethical dualthere is ism. Within ourselves for ism. ourselves there is aa capacity for rising capacity rising of nature, level of the level of this this earthly earthly above the the level level of nature, above the world, the cosmos itself. itself. The world, and indeed above even the soars above moral will will soars the confines confines of of time above the time and space space it acquires an eternal into the value into the supersensible supersensible and it eternal value acquires the moral law. itself to In aa world world which, which, by subjecting to the law. In by subjecting itself without without freedom and without consciousness, blindly consciousness, blindly in a of organic mathematical obeys mathematical laws, in a world of beings laws, organic beings obeys their desires and who are slaves slaves of of their impulses impulses and desires who are the end of selfare to determined are subject to and determined by the of selfby subject stands as as lawgiver lawgiver and sovereign. preservation, sovereign. preservation, man stands seal of For of his his freedom For man stamps things the the seal stamps upon upon things and by and church he creates creates norms state and church he establishing state by establishing and patterns patterns of of moral moral community. he founds community. Thus he world a of the of sense scope of the world of sense a supersensible within the within the scope supersensible the order gradually brings the Kingdom of God into into order and gradually brings Kingdom of existence. existence. In this philosophical philosophical pride pride which exalts exalts to this In contrast contrast to is also to be man, modest view view is also to be found in in man, aa much more modest counterbalanced greatness of of man is is counterbalanced Kant. ethical greatness Kant. The ethical is 12. Greene and Hudson, p. 58. 58. The original in .in 12. Greene cit., Hudson, op. op. cit., original is p. IJbds (1734). Albrecht des Ubels fiber den Ursprung von Haller, Albrecht von (1734). Haller, Uber Ursprung des

57 57

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

by his his ethical ethical weakness weakness and and corruption, corruption, the the metaphysmetaphysof roots the ical horizon is limited by the physical roots of man's man's limited is ical horizon physical by existence. There There isis radical radical evil evil in in every every human human being being existence. moral of the which revolts revolts against against the the legislation legislation of the moral concon~ which sciousness and and persuades persuades man man to to regard regard moral moral reason reason sciousness as an an invidious invidious tyrant tyrant from from which which he he should should try try to to as the between contest the escape. Kant denies that the contest between the good that denies good escape. Kant and the the evil evil incentives incentives in in man, man, whether whether in in the the individindividand ual or or in in society, society, in in private private or or in in public public life, life, can can ever ever ual end. Man will will always always be be divided divided into into aa lord lord and and aa end. bondsman or or slave. slave. If If he he makes his his inclinations inclinations the the bondsman maxim of of his his decisions decisions and actions, actions, the the moral moral law law transforms itself itself into into an an inexorable inexorable judge judge which which concontransforms We are moral is a demns punishes. Kant is pessimist. are and punishes. demns and pessimist. of state in rest not born to find peace and rest in any state of the soul, find to soul, born not any peace will ever present rather goal is an ever law is the law rather the spurring the will present goal spurring inclinations on toward the good, though impulses and inclinations on toward the good, though impulses evil. of evil. continually tempt us in the direction direction of continually tempt us in the favor the the not favor does not therefore does Kant's Kant's Weltanschauung Weltanschauung therefore to beatitude. beatitude. to lead lead man to attempt later made by Fichte to by Fichte attempt later not believe believe in the does not that he does Kant doubt that leaves no doubt Kant leaves of aa beatific beatific moral the possibility (or even even the moral value) value) of possibility (or is forever forever he is state Man isis eternally mind. Man of mind. state of imperfect, he eternally imperfect, never reaching the making, in the ((even even beyond the grave) reaching making, never grave) in beyond the deification The his goal, always divided against himself. The deification himself. divided his goal, always against is to Kant aa to Kant describe is of the mystics which the soul which of the the soul mystics describe us the in the which produces product enthusiasm which vain enthusiasm of aa vain produces in us product of by

5*

ETHICAL DUALISM ETHICAL DUALISM illusion illusion that

we are are endowed with aa capacity capacity which fact possess. we do not denies that not in fact possess. Kant explicitly that explicitly denies have intimate intercourse with any man can have an intimate intercourse with God, God., any 13 the self-styled as the such as "favorite of such "favorite of heaven,,18 claims to heaven" claims to self-styled of mystical enjoy. of mystical certainty and of mystical enjoy. The claim of mystical certainty union with God militates less surely against our militates no less surely against our moral undertaking does the claim undertaking than than does the overambitious overambitious claim to metaphysical to metaphysical knowledge. knowledge. are driven from paradise, We assiduous fulfulWeare paradise, and the the assiduous of our alone can point the way filment of filment our duties duties alone point the way toward the the heavenly heavenly goal. the Kantian God is is enthroned enthroned goal Thus the to in relation stands at in and, in relation to us, stands at an in awesome majesty us, majesty and, divine love love cannot unapproachable distance. The divine cannot be be unapproachable distance. it can and like a of acquired enjoyed piece of property; property; it can enjoyed like a piece acquired that remote fruit the of only be the remote fruit of that worship of God which be worship of only in is synonymous with is conduct and which is is in synonymous with moral conduct endeavors cases hard and trying. most cases trying. Although Kant endeavors most Although idea of the the forgiving the Christian to adjust the Christian idea of forgiving and rereto adjust it cannot deeming God to his moral moral Weltanschauung, \Veltanschauung, it to his deeming be the God of of wrath and vengeance vengeance is is that the denied that be denied in accord with his outlook. This Weltanschauung Weltanschauung his outlook. accord with more in in God's God's fact dreadful fact that does not veil mitigate the the dreadful that in or mitigate veil or does not less than that the the good world good man no less than evil exists exists and that world evil all which is this the wicked wicked must must suffer. It is this fact fact above all suffer. It the as existence makes our existence, as well as the existence and the the the as well makes our existence, very nature of God, impenetrable mystery. mystery. nature of God, an impenetrable very 189. 13. Greene and and Hudson, Hudson, op. p. 189. 13. Greene cit., p. op. cit.,

59 59

r-,- T' S KK AA NT'S

W E L TAN S C H A U U N G WELTANSCHAUUNG

Kant's moral moral pessimism pessimism isis nevertheless nevertheless compatible compatible Kant's with aa certain certain moral moral optimism. optimism. Kant Kant would would perhaps perhaps with in the evil the not deny deny that that the the sum sum total total of of the evil in the world world not surpasses the the amount amount of of pleasure pleasure and and joy joy allotted allotted to to surpasses

man, but but he he would would not not conclude conclude from from this this that that life life isis man, unworthy to to be be lived. lived. He He would would insist insist that that we we can can live live unworthy aa

worthy worthy

life if we struggle struggle against against the the moral moral evil evil in in conand misfortune our breast, and that even misfortune and hardship coneven that our breast, and hardship may win. win. The The moral moral tribute to to the the victory victory which which we may tribute law is is stern stern and and rigorous, rigorous, but but there there is is victory victory at at the the law infinite the in even though though this this end end looms looms only only in the infinite end, even end, distance and entangles the thinking in insoluble insoluble the distance and entangles thinking mind in Weare never permitted permitted to to despair despair either either contradictions. are never contradictions. We to of or of the world, world, neither neither are we allowed allowed to of the ourselves or of ourselves Kant reach perfection. ever reach believe can ever that we can believe that depicts perfection. Kant depicts the hovering between the extremes of ignorance man as between as hovering ignorance of God and Satan and of and evil, of of good and knowledge, evil, good knowledge, as a person). in Satan as believe in does not believe (although he not does he person). (although in which the opposites But a hybrid not a is not But man is disapopposites disaphybrid in rather by neutralizing each other; rather he participates pear each other; participates pear by neutralizing divided against therefore divided is therefore in and is in their their antagonism against antagonism the opposition full the the himself. to full to the Man experiences himself. Man opposition experiences characterit is is characteras it as well well as which himself as mark of of himself the mark is the which is this face of of this the face in the istic he lives; in which which he world in of the the world istic of lives; in his and form form his himself and opposition he has to to develop develop himself opposition he has Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. life if

60 60

Ill III

Ethical Ethical Subjectivism Subjectivism

VOLUNTARISM and dualism VoLUNTARISM dualism facet of determine aa third third facet of Kant's Kant's "Weltanschauung: its Weltanschauung: its voluntarism and dualism subjectivism. dualism this this third third subjectivism. Like voluntarism trait is basically ethical, is because indeed it its and indeed it is because of of its trait is basically ethical, and ethical character voluntarism and thoroughly that both both voluntarism and thoroughly ethical character that dualism are are bound up If the the moral moral will will is is the the dualism up with with it. it. If center of of the the human self-if self if this this self centers in in moralmoralcenter self centers and if is the ity-and if morality the center center of of Weltanschauung, Weltanschauung, ity morality is be subjective, for the the then this this Weltanschauung Weltanschauung must be subjective, for is self is to which it extent to is human just just to to the the extent it is human self of a self of a willing the the self and thinking differing funfunsubject differing thinking subject willing and or that be willed damentally from all can be willed or all objects that can objects damentally ensues from the the thought. Even the faith which which ensues the moral faith thought. the world of life life and the basic moral aspect world is is subjective. basic moral subjective. aspect of it is in man but faith not not in is faith but in in God, is neverneverAlthough it it is God, it Although or theless not object or objective entity but faith in in any not a a faith theless objective entity but any object self. This is the in the absolute self. the absolute This is the in the supreme in the subject, in supreme subject, theoretical and be known in in aa theoretical reason why God cannot cannot be reason why way, but only in an ethical, objective in but ethical, i.e., i.e., subjective subjective only objective way, way. way.

6I 6x

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

subis not easy to However, it it is understand how the the subHowever, easy to understand as theoas an ethical is related to the subject ject as ethical self self is related to theoject subject as ethics retical intellect retical intellect or or understanding, understanding, or or how Kant's ethics is difficult It to of his supplements his theory of knowledge. It is difficult to knowledge. supplements theory inteethics and epistemology understand understand how both both ethics epistemology are are intewith each each other grated other and and how they they constitute constitute one grated with is that subusual explanation consistent consistent whole. whole. The usual that the the subexplanation is is based ethical of Kant's jectivism of Kant's ethical Weltanschauung Weltanschauung is based jectivism of his the upon the subjectivism of his epistemological theory theory epistemological subjectivism upon which he he calls idealism." In In order order to to which calls "transcendental "transcendental idealism." turn to to the thesis we must turn examine this this thesis the problem problem of of the the of the two types inner relation between inner relation between the of subjectivismsubjectivism types the ethical and the the ethical the transcendental transcendental one. one. We must ask ask is more characteristic the two is which of of the characteristic of of Kant's Kant's WeltWeltin the anschauung' of the the two is is dominant in the anschauung, and which of I of his All fabric of said so far fabric his feeling and thought. All I have said so far thought. feeling the ethical is more leads to suspect that the ethical subjectivism leads one to suspect that subjectivism is decisive than the epistemological significant than the epistemological or or significant and decisive transcendental. We shall see that that this this is is indeed so. transcendental. shall see indeed so. is If at the of lf morality possible at all, all, the duality duality of nature nature and and morality is possible its existence must be a limitafreedom must exist, and its existence be a limitaexist, tion of knowledge. tion of knowledge. Freedom cannot be aa quality or cannot be quality or of the in the the sense sense in property the subject in which which colors, colors, subject in property of or are powers, or potentialities are the qualities or properties the powers, potentialities qualities or properties of objects. is not of Man is not "free" as the possessor of of aa "free" the possessor as objects. "natural" property; "natural" property; he is is not not free result of of some some as a free as a result

62

ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM natural endowment, but he he ought natural to will will and and to endowment, but to act act ought to as aa free free subject. He He to as ought to will and to act as will and to act as aa subject. ought in the the proper subject to since freedom freedom belongs subject in sense, since proper sense, belongs to the subject and never never to to an an object the which is subject (person) (person) and object which is This is a contrast is a precondition impersonal. of morality. impersonal. This contrast precondition of morality. The contrast contrast between between theoretical The (scientrnc) theoretical (scientific) knowlknowland edge and practical (moral) volition, or between theoor between theoedge practical (moral) volition, retical and practical reason, is likewise retical likewise such such a a precondipractical reason, is precondition. Practical Practical reason does does not not know objects, it tion. it does does not not objects, know it knows rather know nature; rather the the purposes of the the will, nature; it will, purposes of its norms, its of The kind of knowledge which its its goal. norms, is goal knowledge which is in field of the appropriate in the field of the sciences-objective, thesciences theappropriate objective, oretical, be applied cannot be oretical, impersonal in impersonal knowledge-cannot knowledge applied in the fields of and the fields of willing acting. two fields limit fields limit willing acting. The two each other. essay therefore therefore set set out out with with the the thesis thesis each other. This This essay that that Kant acknowledges acknowledges the the validity validity of of both both science science and and morality morality in in principle principle and and that that this this dual dual acknowlacknowlis the root of his is the root of his entire philosophy. can edgment entire philosophy. We can edgment now see see that that this this same acknowledgment acknowledgment requires requires the the basic basic subjectivism subjectivism found in in his his philosophy. philosophy. The correlative The theoretical theoretical knowability knowability of of nature nature isis correlative with with the the objectivity objectivity of of the the natural natural phenomena, phenomena, whereas whereas the correlative with with the the the subjectivity subjectivity of of the the moral moral will will isis correlative practical character character of of aims aims and and ends, ends, purposes purposes and and practical not rerenorms, imperatives imperatives and and ideals. ideals. This This contrast contrast isis not norms, solvable as long long as as morality morality exists. exists. Nature Nature has has to to be be reresolvable as

63 63

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

stricted that the moral moral will will has has aa field field of of its its own; own; so be restricted restricted so that that theoretical knowability knowability itself itself has has to to be theoretical realm limited a of The concept of a limited realm freedom can grow. freedom can grow. The concept called nature nature springs springs therefore therefore from from the the ethical ethical spirit spirit called its volunvolunof Kant's Kant's Weltanschauung; Weltanschauung; itit springs springs from from its of If practitaristic, dualistic, dualistic, and and subjectivistic subjectivistic features. features. If practitaristic, from differ not did cal, i.e., moral reason did not diller from theoretical, theoretical, cal, i.e., moral reason the directs former the that in i.e., scientific reason in that the former directs the will will reason scientific i.e., while the the latter latter conditions conditions the the sensible sensible world, world, the the whole whole while the nature opposition between freedom freedom and nature (i.e., (i.e., the realm realm opposition between the between or causal of in the sense of causal order) or between the of necessity sense the of necessity in order) moral and and the the physical physical law law would never never arise. arise. This This opopmoral position follows follows from from Kant's Kant's ethical ethical subjectivism. subjectivism. It It is is position obboth of the this subjectivism which restricts restricts the sphere this sphere of both obsubjectivism which retime reat the same time jectivity and of and at natural objects of natural and objects jectivity existence. the whole of existence. exhaust the fuses to exhaust nature to to allow allow nature fuses to of existence existence does include It the whole of that the is true true that It is thethe theboth and freedom, nature and both nature subjects, the freedom, objects objects and subjects, be If this oretical the practical. and the oretical and practical If this whole realm could be to extended to science could be extended known if science known theoretically-if theoretically as subin other other words, include life moral life-if, the moral words, we as subinclude the if, in of jects were only another kind of object (as psychology, kind another were only object (as psychology, jects us believe), makes us in its especially its behavioristic behavioristic form, in believe), form, makes especially an ultimate ultimate not be be then would not an would ethical subjectivism then ethical subjectivism ethical and truth. voluntarism and ethical ethical voluntarism case ethical in this this case But in truth. But metafrom metabe excluded excluded from dualism to be have to also have would also dualism would SO that the stricted so

64

ETHICAL ETHICAL

SUBJECTIVISM SUBJECTIVISM

physics, physics,

and instead instead there a speculative ensue a there would ensue inspeculative intellectualism and monism, tellectualism monism, aa metaphysical metaphysical naturalism naturalism seen that that Kant denies this and objectivism. denies this objectivism. We have seen possibility emphatically. Nature Nature has has to to be be rerepossibility most emphatically. for the sake of stricted for of freedom. The "whole realm of of stricted the sake existence" cannot be the be theoretically theoretically known (in the way existence" (in way a proposed by a speculative and metaphysical monism). speculative proposed by metaphysical monism). of The moral will will and moral moral action action are are independent independent of natural not belong belong to to the the phenomphenomnatural causality; causality; they they do not to If either one of the ena subject to physical necessity. If either of the subject physical necessity. has aa legitimate two opposites, nature and freedom, freedom, has opposites, nature legitimate as a claim to to the claim to be regarded regarded as a key to the comprehension of key comprehension of of existence, it is the is not not nature nature-the the whole realm realm of the existence, it of is be but freethe that to so sphere of the objects-that is to be so regarded, but freesphere regarded, objects a of the Not scientific obdom the sphere dom-the of the subjects. a scientific obsphere subjects. adebut only ethical subjectivism jectivism but be adejectivism only an ethical subjectivism would be quate for comprehending comprehending the the whole. whole. Such aa comprecomprequate for is is altogether impossible, precisely hension, however, hension, however, altogether impossible, precisely is not not theoretical theoretical or or speculative, because reason is because moral reason speculative, not objective that is, not metaphysical, that is, not objective but but subjective. subjective. not metaphysical, the life does not not Moral regulates the of persons, persons, it it does reason regulates life of Moral reason as a a whole. conceive all all things as whole. or contemplate conceive or contemplate things From the the point point of view of of ethical ethical subjectivism of view subjectivism we can understand the the doctrine doctrine of of epistemological epistemological can now understand that practical is true true that practical reason reason regulates regulates subjectivism. it is If it subjectivism. If is realm of of moral the the will moral existence, the realm will and the of the the life life of existence, is 65

KANTS KANT'S WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG it not not possible possible that that theoretical theoretical reason reason (or (or intellect) intellect) regregulates ulates the the realm realm of of natural natural existence, existence, in in so so far far as as this this of realm is regular regular at at all? all? This This indeed indeed is is the the core core of Kant's Kant's realm is famous thesis thesis that that the the intellect intellect prescribes prescribes its its laws laws to to nanais the the gist gist of of his his transcendental transcendental ture, and and this this in in turn turn is ture, idealism or idealism or phenomenalism. phenomenalism. This This phenomenalism phenomenalism is is ethical subjectivism. of his the outcome outcome of his ethical dethe subjectivism. Nature deon theoretical not the in last the pends in the last analysis, not the theoretical subject subject analysis, pends forms or of its virtue by virtue of its subjective forms or categories of the the categories of subjective by as understanding, but primarily primarily on the the moral subject subject as understanding, but of Kant's center of in the being in the center Kant's Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. EpisteEpistebeing is a of the ethical mological subjectivism is a consequence of the ethical consequence mological subjectivism and not reverse. not the the reverse. as the the realm of of causal nature as causal necesnecesof nature limitation of The limitation order is thus a consequence of of sity sity and mathematical order is thus a consequence a postulate of reason. Fichte moral of moral reason. Fichte moral freedom and a postulate this point even overemphasized) has (and has emphasized overemphasized) this emphasized (and even point ethical Weltanschauung into Kant's by transforming Kant's ethical by transforming Weltanschauung into as he says, nothing ethical metaphysics; nature is, an ethical is, as metaphysics; nature says, nothing but the is more critical the "material "material of of duty." critical and Kant is but duty." as elsewhere; cautious here here as does not base nature cautious not base nature on elsewhere; he does the moral imperative the the logical forms of of imperative by by deriving deriving the logical forms the natural natural order of freedom and selfthe idea idea of the order from the selfhood. If If that that were possible hood. ethical subjectivism would ethical possible subjectivism turn into a speculative into a a turn theory, a possibility which Kant speculative theory, possibility denies. The "primacy of practical expressly reason" expressly denies. "primacy of practical reason"

it

66 66

ETHICAL ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM SUBJECTIVISM be extended extended (and must not not be thereby falsified) by mak(and thereby falsified) by the of a it the theoretical ing it principle of a theoretical (metaphysical) principle ing (metaphysical) Kant knowledge of the Absolute Ego. rejects this FichFichknowledge Ego. rejects this tean duality of of nature nature and freedom freedom tean presumption. presumption. The duality be or derived derived from a cannot be theoretically theoretically understood understood or a even if this this were if principle were freedom supreme principle, even principle supreme principle, which does limit nature. limitation itself, indeed does limit nature. This This limitation itself, the doctrine is expressed in doctrine of idealism. is of transcendental transcendental idealism. expressed in the doctrine answers the the question of how the This doctrine the human question of of nature is able able to to discover intellect intellect is discover laws laws of nature or or how nanaof objects) ture ture (the be known objectively (the realm of objects) can be objectively the by the thinking subject. subject. by thinking over The answer rests rests upon the sovereignty of reason reason over upon the sovereignty of subthis the result of ethical is nature, and this sovereignty is the result of ethical subnature, sovereignty the expression "the intellect intellect prescribes jectivism. Even the prescribes expression "the jectivism. laws" has for nature its has a to nature its laws" a "practical" to connotation, for "practical" connotation, action. Kant interprets is aa kind kind of of practical practical action. prescribing interprets prescribing is understandtheoretical reason the relation relation between theoretical reason (or understandthe (or between the to relation nature ing) and nature by analogy to the relation by analogy ing) practical reason logical forms, forms, i.e., the will. The logical reason and will. i.e., the practical the natural highest principles of of the natural order, order, are are conceived highest principles all these as norms, rules, regulative concepts-all these terms terms as norms, rules, regulative concepts role in playaa decisive in the Pure Reason. Reason. And the Critique decisive role of Pure Critique of play the operaall these terms that Kant interprets indicate that terms indicate all these operainterprets the in the tion reason, even in the theoretical theoretical function of of reason, tion and function ethical legislation; field, along the of ethical legislation; he he alludes alludes lines of the lines field, along

67

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

directly in one one passage passage to to the the idea idea that that the the root root of of reareadirectly in as such such isis practical. practical. In In that that passage passage Fichte Fichte may may have have son as son found the the courage courage of of his his ethical ethical speculation. speculation. Nature Nature ininfound and scienrational it is for is rational and sciendeed depends upon reason, for it deed depends upon reason, tifically knowable knowable only on on this this account. account. Reason, Reason, be be itit tifically

only

practical or or theoretical, theoretical, isis legislator legislator in in both both fields, fields, but but practical this In one. a is the idea idea of of legislation legislation itself itself is a practical practical one. In this the victorious also is is also victorious in in episteepisteway the ethical subjectivism way the ethical subjectivism mology, although Kant ~ant avoids avoids Fichte's Fichte's exaggerations. exaggerations. mology, although The subjectivism subjectivism of of reason reason leads leads to to the the thesis thesis that that the the The objects, inasmuch as as they they are are scientifically scientifically comprehencomprehenobjects, inasmuch the i.e., by reason. reason. sible, are conditioned by the subject, subject, i.e., by sible, are conditioned by Without this this theoretical theoretical subjectivism subjectivism objective objective truth truth Without cannot depends on on subjectivbe discovered: discovered: objectivity cannot be subjectivobjectivity depends are obthere knows that ity, for there are no no oba subject without a for without subject that ity, the opnot the is not jects to known. Subjective be known. to be opknowledge is Subjective knowledge jects as rather posite of objective knowledge, rather knowledge of knowledge as objective knowledge, posite the of the knowledge is always an operation activity of operation or an activity always knowledge is of the subjectivity thinking subject, and the knowledge subjectivity of knowledge thinking subject, the it from being objective, but, does not preclude it from does not preclude being objective, but, on the and meaningcontrary, it makes its its objectivity possible objectivity possible and meaningcontrary, it makes thus subjectivity. and thus ful. means rationality and ful. Objectivity subjectivity. Objectivity means rationality sothe sowith confused with the be confused This should not be should not This subjectivity subjectivity indeed or indeed senses or human senses called of the human of the called "subjectivity" "subjectivity" whatwith or or physiological with any theory whatphysiological theory psychological any psychological term "subjectivism" the term soever. In Kant's Kant's epistemology soever. In "subjectivism" epistemology the

68 68

ETHICAL ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM SUBJECTIVISM

always points exclusively to the the thinking to the the always points exclusively to thinking subject, subject, to the or "transcendental," i.e., the "ruling" or "commanding" "transcendental/ i.e., "ruling" "commanding" to reason. Kant's understanding, to sovereign reason. Kant's subjectivism understanding, sovereign subjectivism therefore should not by any any comparison therefore not be interpreted interpreted by comparison with or Hume; it is is totally different with Locke, Berkeley, or Locke, Berkeley, Hume; it totally different doctrine that that knowledge of "subjecfrom the doctrine knowledge consists consists of "subjec~ ideas. Just tive" tive" impressions impressions and ideas. Just as as Kant's Kant's concept of concept of the subject the is inseparably inseparably connected connected with with the the concept concept subject is of reason, is by by no means psypsy~ of likewise his his subjectivism reason, likewise subjectivism is but and ethical. Kant's ethical subchological but logical ethical. Kant's ethical sub~ chological logical is predominant throughout his jectivism is philosophy. predominant throughout his philosophy. jectivism In In the the Critique Pure Reason Reason Kant calls calls space of Pure Critique of space and of pure time "forms of time "forms pure intuition." intuition." None of of his his theses theses is is to was more none more open to misinterpretation and none misinterpretation open attacked or defended than this this famous doctrine. widely attacked or famous doctrine. widely of space primarily as as principrinci~ Kant conceives conceives of space and time primarily of mathematical mathematical knowledge pIes knowledge both both pure pure and applied. applied. ples of Nature can mathematically because because space can be known mathematically space and time time are both forms of human intuition intuition and therethereare both forms of are subjecfore of nature nature herself. herself. Space time are subjec~ fore forms forms of Space and time tive therefore objective objective too, too, for for it it is is the the knowing knowing tive and therefore are time here. the subject which is the legislator here. Space and time are is Space legislator subject the forms of objects objects which can can be be that order order the the sphere forms that the sphere of of space time mathematically. The doctrine doctrine of known mathematically. space and time the possibility is invoked invoked for purpose of of explaining explaining the possibility the purpose for the is backbut it has ethical of mathematical physics, but it has an ethical backof mathematical physics, 5

69

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

ground and and an an ethical ethical implication. implication. ground

The The knowing knowing subsub~

ject isis able able to to encompass encompass the the sphere sphere of of objects objects because because Man moral the as on the the same same level level as the moral subject. subject. Man as as aa it isis on it not aa mere mere product product of of nature nature because, because, and and to to subject is not subject is the extent extent that, that, he he isis aa moral moral agent: agent: free free and and autonoautono~ the actions. own his mous, the the author author and and initiator initiator of of his own actions. He He mous, the and theoretical the is what he is in both fields, the theoretical and the pracis what he is in both fields, pracreason or of tical, because he is the representative of pure reason or the is he because pure tical., representative because pure pure reason reason is is embodied embodied in in him him as as aa subject. subject. because Thus the the subjectivism subjectivism of of the the epistemological epistemological interpreinterpre~ Thus the in roots tation of nature has its roots in the subjectivism of the the its subjectivism of tation of nature has ethical interpretation interpretation of of man. man. ethical as aa moral moral will will and and moral moral person person does does not not bebeMan as to the not does he long to the objective world, he does not belong belong to the long to the objective world, whole to is world of objects-he is superior to the whole spatialhe world of objects spatialsuperior suba subhis is of his being temporal order. This is the the meaning This order. being a meaning temporal as supertem~ as well as ject. As is superspatial as he is As such, supertemsuch, he superspatial ject. or poral. He belongs a purely to a (to employ employ intelligible or (to purely intelligible belongs to poral. the lies the fact this noumenal sphere. In this fact lies the Greek term) the Greek term) sphere. of The subjectivism foundation moral dignity. of his his moral foundation of subjectivism of dignity. The that man's man's psychologimean that nature not mean does not therefore does nature therefore psychologinature by transforms calor physiological constitution transforms nature constitution cal or physiological by the exman or the process of knowledge or that man adapts the ex~ that of the process adapts knowledge in aa sense, ternal internal conditions, his internal to his sense, world to ternal world thus, in conditions, thus, is raranature the contrary, anthropomorphizing On the it. On contrary, nature is anthropomorphizing it. to thus elevated elevated to and thus tionalized the knowing tionalized by subject and knowing subject by the ject

0 770

ETHICAL ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM true essence essence or or to its true to its essential truth. truth. Nature its its essential Nature has has no no or its truth outside, or apart from, its rationality. Science Science outside, apart from, rationality. the as comprehends the objects as they really and truly truly are. are. It It comprehends objects they really and is intellectual dignity of is the the intellectual to his his dignity of man corresponding corresponding to which moral dignity enables scientist to to purify the enables the the scientist dignity purify the so that sensible world so that it it can be sensible be interpreted interpreted in in mathematheKant's doctrine is not not matical symbols. In this this respect doctrine is symbols. In respect Kant's at all. all. aa subjectivism subjectivism at of Kant's as well The subjectivism Kant's epistemology epistemology as well as as subjectivism of of his his ethics ethics heightens that and the exalts that of exalts the significance heightens significance of man. As the the ethical ethical realm is or deof is not not degraded degraded or debased by the subjectivity of the based the moral moral will, will, the the realm realm by the subjectivity of scientific knowledge is of likewise not of scientific not impaired impaired by by the the knowledge is likewise is of nature. it rational subjectivity Instead, it is rational sovereignty subjectivity of nature. Instead, sovereignty in both manifest in is manifest fields and which and power power which is both fields the majesty of truth truth and morality. corresponds to the majesty of morality. Nacorresponds to ture ture is is essentially a non-subjective non-subjective nature nature subjective; a essentially subjective; nature it would not not be be nanawould be be aa non-rational non-rational nature-it is determined by ture call nature nature is at all. all. For what we call ture at by scientific investigathe rational rational character character which makes scientific the investigaof scientific scientific explanation tion posthe foundation foundation of tion and the explanation posis of nature absurd. is absurd. sible. non-subjective knowledge of nature A sible. non-subjective knowledge is subjective, it is is rational If knowledge in in so as it rational is so far far as If our our knowledge subjective, whether but whether then nature nature too too is is necessarily subjective; but then necessarily subjective; the horizon there exists beyond beyond the horizon of of the the is anything that there is anything that exists Kant's all at subject and of subjective knowledge at all (as Kant's of (as subject subjective knowledge

7I

RANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

expression "thing-in-itself" expression "thing-in-itself"

seems seems to to suggest) suggest) isis anantranscendent By no no means means can can this this transcendent other question. question. By other scientific of sense the in be an "object" in the sense of scientific objects objects thing thing be an "object" in the the sense sense required required by by scientific scientific objective objective knowlknowland in and

edge. BfC. The conclusion, conclusion, therefore, therefore, that that the the epistemological epistemological The of knowthe restrict subjectivism does not restrict the possibility not possibility of knowsubjectivism does If this this possibility possibility were were restricted, restricted, ing objects is justified. If ing objects is justified. such restriction restriction would would concern concern not not the the knowledge knowledge of of such the rather but qua objects objects of of knowledge knowledge but rather the the objects objects qua the in so so far far as as they they are are more more knowledge of the objects in knowledge of the objects else can can objects objects be be than objects objects of of knowledge. knowledge. But what else than except objects? In In what sense sense can can they they surpass surpass objecobjecexcept objects? of knowlthan be something objects of knowltivity and and be something more than objects tivity deas Kant descientific knowledge of The theory of scientific edge? knowledge as theory edge? satisvelops it in the Critique of Pure Reason cannot satisvelops it in the Critique of the factorily answer these these questions; they transcend the questions; they factorily answer enthe entranscend the as they concept of the object as as much as they transcend concept of the object tire o epistemology. horizon of tire horizon probpoint to those probThey point epistemology. They insoluble precisely as insoluble as because lems Kant regards which Kant lems which precisely regards of epistemological means of be solved means they cannot solved by be cannot epistemological by they in the the is of If the sphere of objects is subjective thought. subjective in objects thought. If the sphere this must mean that sense restricted sphere, of being sense of sphere,, this must mean that being aa restricted that wider realm, to aa wider objects (nature as as such) realm, that such) belong belong to objects (nature whole. of aa larger they are a fragment or or segment larger whole. segment of they are a fragment which isis of ItIt isis not then the subjectivity of knowledge the not then knowledge which subjectivity

72

ETHICAL ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM SUBJECTIVISM the restricting that the the restricting factor, but rather rather that the objective factor, but objective itself is restricted because sphere itself is restricted precisely because it is objecit is sphere precisely objecas such is tive. is not the whole; it is is not tive. Nature as not the whole; it not fully fully known or knowable by scientific methods because by scientific because by by methods it is such it is not not known in in the the perspective perspective of of the the is restricted Science is whole. Science restricted because because it it investigates investigates and and explains the objects in aa merely merely objective way, i.e., i.e., one objects in explains the objective way, is not meta-objective: science which is meta-objective: science investigates investigates and explains in a merely physical and empirical, not in in aa merely physical explains empirical, not Nature as rea as a remeta-physical and speculative way. Nature speculative way. meta-physical is truly known by science stricted realm is stricted as it it really (obtruly by science as really (obof knowledge this type In jectively) is, is, but this knowledge is is restricted. restricted. In type of jectively) as nature so far far as of the so nature is is envisaged the perspective perspective of the envisaged from the of reality, the natural sciences cannot cannot know it, whole of reality, the natural sciences it, of scientific and the the theory of scientific knowledge (i.e., epistemoltheory knowledge (i.e., epistemoldefine is cannot even is meant by by nature nature in in ogy) cannot even define what ogy) is subjective sense. Scientific Scientific knowledge this sense. knowledge is just bebethis subjective just not it and cause it is scientific and not speculative. is scientific cause speculative. of thus conceived Subjectivism thus conceived implies the method of implies the Subjectivism since this scientific this method restricts restricts the the scientific rationality, and, since rationality, and, in also implies implies that that in knowledge, subjectivism mode of of knowledge, subjectivism also absolute such knowledge do not have absolute knowledge. do not have we such knowledge knowledge. if we could could know it, We would know nature absolutely if nature absolutely it, not merely by by scientific means, but but also also by by knowing knowing scientific means, not merely or knowing either whole of reality or knowing reality reality through through of reality either the the whole later the concept of this whole. Schelling, later on, conwhole. this the concept of on, conSchelling,

73 73

KANT'S KANT'S

\VELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

knowledge of of nature nature in in his his knowledge the famous "philosophy "philosophy of of nature." nature." Kant, Kant, on on the contrary, contrary, famous Fichte's denied he as denied such a philosophy just as he denied Fichte's denied such a philosophy just structed such such an an absolute absolute structed

We

metaphysics of an an Absolute Absolute Ego. Ego. We do do not not know, know, and and metaphysics of can never never know, know, what what nature nature ultimately ultimately is, is, how how itit isis can ultimately one with freedom freedom or or how how itit looks looks from from the the ultimately one with like of God. but man point of view not of man but of God. Subjectivism, like of not Subjectivism, point of view voluntarism and and dualism, dualism, figures figures in Kant's Kant's WeltanWeltanvoluntarism

in

schauung precisely precisely because because schauung

it imposes imposes aa restriction restriction upon upon root ethical the it is our power power of of comprehension; comprehension; it is the ethical root of of our since this about subjectivism which brings about this imposition, since imposition, brings subjectivism it demands demands that that there there be be "room for for freedom." freedom." The conconit trast between between freedom freedom and and nature, nature, between between subject subject and and trast and reason of moral object, is essential to the primacy of moral reason and the primacy essential to is object, to a higher must not be obliterated by knowlobliterated must not be higher knowlany claim to by any for if it edge. Nature can be be known only subjectively, for if it only subjectively, edge. Nature can be could be known absolutely could be absolutely freedom could likewise be dethen morality known absolutely. But But then morality would be deabsolutely. abin an abinclusion in survive inclusion stroyed, for morality cannot cannot survive stroyed, for morality of case of in the case so included (as it is solute Where it is so solute system. (as in system. man's and lost and man's is lost Hegel's system) its its distinctiveness distinctiveness is Hegel's system) moral dignity is thereby eclipsed. moral dignity is thereby eclipsed. obnot obtherefore not The of subjectivism isis therefore real opposite The real opposite of subjectivism subKant's epistemological jectivism but absolutism. Kant's but absolutism. epistemological subjectivism because jectivism does not scientific knowledge restrict scientific not restrict knowledge because jectivism does absoits absodenies its itit denies its objectivity, but because itit denies but because denies its objectivity, it

74 74

ETHICAL ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM luteness. The objects luteness. are known by by physics physics and the the natnatobjects are as they ural sciences sciences as but are not objectively are, but they are not ural they objectively are, they are "in "in God." known as see things in as they God." We do not not see things in they are as Berkeley sense percepGod, claims that that we do. do. Our sense percepGod, as Berkeley claims and our tion intellectual at best, tion our intellectual conception, conception, even at best, do into the not of all things; innot penetrate penetrate into the divine divine mystery of all mystery things; inare human powers, stead, they are powers, and, being human, human, they they stead, they and, being are both are both subjective but never never absolute absolute or or objective but subjective and objective divine. The mutual dependence obdivine. dependence of of subjectivity subjectivity and obthe rests man's of consciousness into jectivity rests upon the split of man's consciousness into split upon jectivity the consciousness of nature, the objective consciousness of i.e., the objective world world and and the nature, i.e., his own self the consciousness self and the the consciousness of of his the realm realm of of perperis because because of of morality sons. It sons. It is morality and freedom freedom that that this this not overcome. The must be of cannot split cannot and not be overcome. duality split duality of at all all costs. costs. SubSubbe preserved preserved at science science and action action must be are bound together jectivity and objectivity together just just as as the the objectivity are jectivity the objects is bound up up with the objects known. knowing knowing subject subject is is the Kant's epistemology That is the reason reason why why Kant's culmiepistemology culmifor the conditions for dictum: "The conditions posnates in the posnates in the the famous dictum: of the the objects sibility of objects are are at at the the same the experience of the experience of sibility of the for the time the the possibility possibility of the objects time conditions for the conditions objects of the the themselves." In this principle the identity of the objecIn this themselves." identity objecprinciple of of knowland the tivity of the objects of the subjectivity of knowlof the subjectivity objects tivity diis ditheir supreme conditions is to edge with respect to their with supreme conditions respect edge rectly emphasized. As long as we stay within the the conconstay within long as rectly emphasized. never transcend we can never transcend fines of Kant's epistemology, of Kant's fines epistemology,

75 75

KANT'S WELTANSCHAUUNG A N T S WELTANSCHAUUNG K

the limitation limitation of of this this mutual relation relation of of objects objects the

and

Absosubject. Kant refuses refuses to to allow allow any any concept concept of of an an Absoand both would be lute which be both objective objective subjective as as is is lute subjective the case case with with the the Absolute Absolute in in the the systems systems of of Schelling Schelling the and Hegel Hegel. of knowledge Kant's theory theory of knowledge definitely definitely separates separates the the Kant's are human and, human and and the the divine. divine. We Weare and, that that is is to to say, finite, because because our our knowledge knowledge of of the the objects objects is is say, finite, separated from the the knowledge knowledge of of God and, and, in in this this separated final truth. to final sense, relinquishes any truth. The truth truth sense, relinquishes any claim to as man's finite and restricted of restricted just just as man's is forever forever finite of science science is forever finite achievements are moral are forever finite and imperfect. moral achievements imperfect. the Pure the Critique of the third division division of The third of Reason, the Reason, of Critique is dedicated to the dedicated to so-called the "Transcendental Dialectic," so-called "Transcendental Dialectic," is of theoretical of these limits of theoretical explicit demonstration of these limits demonstration explicit knowledge. knowledge. is not to be attributed attributed of knowledge The limitation not to limitation of knowledge is it is of the the understanding is the inadequacy to the to alone; it understanding alone; inadequacy of of of rather the the relation obobrather of the mutual relation of the consequence consequence is the the consequence of the the primacy of ject and subject. It is subject. It primacy of ject consequence of that is, of ethical ethical subjectivism. the the subject, is, of subject, that subjectivism. The world the human and as soul, cannot be as a a whole, be known whole, the soul, and God cannot because the can never by the human understanding, because they never by understanding, they can be made the the objects of sense sense perception be theoretical perception and theoretical objects of in the the same way as can natural conception natural phenomena. conception in way as phenomena. are names for that They for something transcends the the They are something that transcends subject.

76

ETHICAL ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM of sense sense intuition intuition as as well "forms" of of rational intellec"forms" well as as of rational intellecare in not time as the tion, and they are not in space and time as the objects tion, space they objects are. They are in the the proper of physics sense metaof physics are. proper sense metaThey are in therefore resist physical resist the the methods methods of of they therefore physical and they of the and finite such. They as such. are not not physics of the finite intellect intellect as physics They are the same categories condition by the categories that that condition conditioned by are in in that that sense sense supraeverything natural, and they everything natural, they are supranatural. be natural. They cannot be investigated, analyzed, They investigated, analyzed, and as can the objects science. subjected to experiment can the of science. subjected to experiment as objects of the transcend scientific horizon in this They transcend the scientific horizon and are, this are, in They "transcendent." The relation relation between sense, between object object and and sense, "transcendent." enables man to to know objects is no longer subject objects is subject which enables longer valid here. valid here. conditions which give the underThe subjective undersubjective conditions give the its strength and power in field of the field standing of the the natnatpower in the standing its strength are the the duality of object ural ural sciences sciences are object and and subject, the duality of subject, the the objects the subject, dependence of the objects upon upon the the spatialdependence of subject, the spatialthe natural of ity and temporality of the natural phenomena. These phenomena. These ity temporality "obare no longer conditions of transcendent "obare of those those transcendent longer conditions "Ideas" in to distinguish jects" which Kant calls calls "Ideas" in order order to distinguish jects" which as a a the phenomena them from the phenomena of of nature. nature. The world world as in the whole is is not not aa phenomenon phenomenon in the same sense as all all sense as whole events world are are phenomena. phenomena. within the the world substances within events and substances is not The soul capable of being experienced experienced not an entity of being soul is entity capable psychological data data and and procprocin the same same way as are in the are psychological way as esses. Idea of of an an entity which comprises God the Idea esses. And God-the comprises entity

77 77

KANT

KAN'T'SS

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTAN'SCHAUUNG

is is more real all real than than any thing-is entities and is all entities simple thing any simple all possible experience and beyond beyond beyond the the horizon horizon possible experience beyond all of of all all possible possible objective objective knowledge. knowledge. a Only a pre-Kantian dogmatism could hold hold that that God, God, Only pre-Kantian dogmatism could by rational rational means. means. In soul, are knowable by soul, and world are sense many that philosophical systems, even at at present, present, that sense systems, even many philosophical in in not a are still still pre-Kantian in are a systematic, though not in aa systematic, though pre-Kantian sense. Indeed, Indeed, all all naturalism naturalism of of whatever whatever historical, sense. historical, of Bergson less naturalism of is pre-Kantian, the kind is Bergson no less kind pre-Kantian, the naturalism of Alexander or the naturalism than that of than that or Driesch, Driesch, the naturalism of of as well as that of Feuerbach or Marx as well as that of or Strauss, although Strauss, although of them unlived after all these these thinkers all thinkers lived after Kant. Kant. None of understood the truth behind Kant's Kant's subjectivism, truth behind derstood the subjectivism, and conhis warning all of of them disregarded therefore all therefore warning and condisregarded his limits aside the themselves justified aside the limits sidered justified in in setting sidered themselves setting conThese which he he had had imposed. These limits, rightly rightly conlimits, imposed. are no limits sidered, limits imposed upon human knowledge knowledge sidered, are imposed upon as correct to outside. It is not not correct to say, has been been rerefrom outside. It is say, as has the "Dialectic" that Kant peatedly done by critics, that in the "Dialectic" in by critics, peatedly it taught agnosticism or rational rational resignation; resignation; at at least, least, it taught agnosticism or is Kant's correct to this in sense in is not not correct to say in the the sense in which which Kant's say this critics have. In us to be wary of of any any critics generally warning us to be wary generally have. In warning in is not dogmatic metaphysics and in proving that reason that reason is not dogmatic metaphysics proving the power of knowing endowed with with the power of the world, world, the the knowing the soul, certainly does away with with aa certain does away certain soul, and God, God, Kant certainly of the type of knowledge. But the question is, what type? what type knowledge. type? question is,

78

ETHICAL ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM SUBJECTIVISM

Clearly, Clearly,

Kant rejects that philosophical rejects that philosophical knowledge knowledge

deal with the transcendent Ideas to deal the transcendent which tends to as if Ideas as if they were were concepts of finite finite things belonging to to the the they concepts of things belonging spatial-temporal to the the same rational rational spatial-temporal world and subject subject to which control the substances and processes processes categories control the substances categories that world. But within renounce such such knowledge within that But to to renounce knowledge is is by no means to to espouse has been been called called agnostiagnostiby espouse what has it simply excludes cism. On the the contrary, contrary, it simply excludes spurious spurious and knowledge dispels the illusion illusion of of aa knowledge knowledge dispels the knowledge which is is really no knowledge at all. Kant's Kant's rejection of rejection of really knowledge at all. metaphysical knowledge actually against the the metaphysical knowledge actually guards guards against of the falsification of of transcendent falsification the true true nature nature of Ideas. transcendent Ideas. Only if the the world, the soul, were finite finite things things world, the soul, and God were Only if as Kant rejects would such knowledge be as rejects be possible; but knowledge possible; but then then they be what they they would not not are, they they would not be they are, a sphere represent definitely transcends transcends nature. nature. sphere which definitely represent a is therefore in no way Kant's restriction restriction is therefore in way aa statement of Kant's statement of on the a of clarifiresignation but, the contrary, a triumph of clarificontrary, triumph resignation but, cation. cation. It is the It is the inadequacy inadequacy of of objective objective knowledge knowledge and even the nature nature of of an an object object itself, rather than than the the inability the itself, rather inability of the subject, which entails the limitation of knowlentails the limitation of knowlof the subject, edge in relation relation to transcendent Ideas. It belongs belongs to to Ideas. It to the the transcendent edge in the of an an object object to to be be finite, finite, conditioned, conditioned, and the nature nature of it belongs to the nature as it nature of of objective incomplete just just as objective belongs to the incomplete the knowledge not to reach the Infinite, the Unconditional, to reach the not Unconditional, Infinite, knowledge

79 79

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

and the the Perfect. Perfect. This This isis the the reason reason why why God God and and the the and does Kant be known known as as nature nature can. can. Thus, Thus, Kant does world cannot cannot be world away with with limits limits rather rather than than imposing imposing them, them, because away which in the he frees the Ideas from the bondage in which they were were from he frees the Ideas they bondage because

It isis only only subsesubse~ placed by metaphysical dogmatism. It placed by metaphysical dogmatism. quent to to this this that that Kant Kant reaches reaches intellectual intellectual resignation. resignation. quent not because because the the It isis not It

intellect isis unable unable to to comprehend comprehend scientific does it as as it does scientific objects, but but the transcendent Ideas Ideas objects, the transcendent finite and and therethere~ because being being human the the intellect intellect isis finite because fore unable unable to to understand understand the the reality reality of of the the trantran~ fore "mere" are Ideas scendent Ideas. Ideas. In In this this sense sense the the Ideas are "mere" Ideas, Ideas, scendent i.e., subjectively conditioned. conditioned. i.e., subjectively To be be sure, sure, science science investigates investigates and comprehends comprehends the the To seen from this reality of its objects, objects, and, and, seen this standpoint, of its standpoint, reality than better field better than metaphysics science its own field in its succeeds in science succeeds metaphysics accessible are Ideas. does in the field of the Ideas. The objects are accessible the does in the field of objects Ideas the Ideas the intellect; because are controlled controlled by intellect; the because they by the they are intellect. are because they transcendent because are transcendent they transcend the intellect. of the the It that objective reason that this reason is for for this It is objective knowledge knowledge of desired. to be desired. even to but not even Ideas not only is not Ideas is impossible but only impossible of objectivity whole sphere The the whole transcend the Ideas transcend The Ideas objectivity sphere of to objects and objective knowledge. with and both to both with regard knowledge. objective objects regard as them merely Still, there is a defect in in knowing merely as Still, there is a defect knowing them than rather than of aa subjective Ideas, defect of not the the defect it is is not but it Ideas, but subjective rather of aa subjective, defect of an the defect but the an objective subjective, objective knowledge, knowledge, but characterizes defect characterizes This defect that This is aa finite, that is finite, knowledge. knowledge. intellect

80 80

ETHICAL ETHICAL

SUBJECTIVISM

the human intellect limitation of the of the intellect and stamps that the limitation stamps that divine intellect intellect would be intellect able to intellect as as human. A divine be able to Ideas not as Ideas understand the in their understand the Ideas not merely Ideas but but in their merely as intellect would not the divine divine intellect not reality. But even so, so, the reality. Ideas as know the the Ideas as objects in an objective as nature nature objects in objective way, way, as to us, is "face to is known to us, but but it it would know them "face to face," face," in their fulness i.e., in their fulness and totality. i.e., totality. the Kant develops divine the hypothetical idea of of the the divine develops hypothetical idea third Critique, intellect in intellect in his his third the Critique Judgment. of Judgment. Critique, the Critique of this intellect as not conceives this discursive like like He conceives intellect as not being being discursive intellect which cannot the the human intellect cannot grasp grasp truth truth without without at a moving it, taking taking one one step a time, time, stopping step at moving around it, stopping The reconstruct. divine then to to reconstruct. divine intellect, to analyze and then to intellect, analyze is intuitive the truth intuitive and knows the in one the contrary, on the truth in contrary, is are mere as as they are Ideas, i.e., glance. The Ideas, inasmuch Ideas, i.e., Ideas, they glance. of human Ideas separated reality, are are aa product product of Ideas separated from reality, of discursive This separation is aa result result of discursive understanding. separation is understanding. This that sense, thinking and, in that it is is merely merely subjective. subjective. The sense, it and, in thinking of the in its does not intellect in its knowing divine knowing of the truth truth does not divine intellect a it not to does need at have to to proceed one step at a time, it does not need to have time, step proceed infinite and unrefor it it is is infinite separate unreIdea, for reality and Idea, separate reality the full full truth at a stricted. truth at a stricted. God, alone, knows the God, and God alone, the world, glance. world, and the the alone knows himself, himself, the glance. He alone and of the the Idea soul. the Idea of God, the world, soul. Man knows only world, God, only the inevitable inevitable and the soul. It is this which constitutes constitutes the is this soul. It the definitive limitation of knowledge. One can of human knowledge. definitive limitation

81 81

WELTANSCHAUUNG KANTS WELTANSCHAUUNG

KANT'S

of object as die entire entire separation that the say subject as separation of object and subject say that of theoretical as that well that of theoretical and practical practical reason reason is is only well as only it does not exist. of God in the the comprehension human; it does not exist. human; in comprehension of is be far this How far can be fathomed by us us is this comprehension by comprehension discuss later difficult question which I aa difficult I will will discuss later on. on. Here question of the subjectivism II only to emphasize emphasize that that the subjectivism of only want to in accord his general accord with his is in view Kant's epistemology Kant's general view epistemology is sake of of his limitation of the limitation which stresses of man for for the the sake his stresses the task and life. moral task life. In divine intellect In the the divine intellect nature nature and freedom, freedom, object object are in are not and subject, not separated as they they are in the the human. separated as subject, are is is basically basically aa moral moral being, being, this this separation Since Since man is separation is strive and struggle, necessary. He could could not not strive he could could struggle, he necessary. if this a responsible not be a not be responsible person, person, if this separation were not not separation were of his lot. The epistemological his human lot. characteristic characteristic of epistemological the of transcendent ideas is based subjectivism of the transcendent ideas is based therethere~ subjectivism as is is that of objective fore, that of the objects objects fore, as objective knowledge knowledge and the themselves, on the the ethical ethical subjectivism of Kant's Kant's themselves, subjectivism of Weltanschauung. Not the the knowing, but the the morally morally Weltanschauung. knowing, but is subject in in that is that distinctive willing and acting, subject distinctive acting, subject subject willing as finite sense which sets sets man off finite in sense off as to the the in contrast contrast to of God. Moreover, the epistemological infinity Moreover, the epistemological principrinci~ infinity of of limitation, pIe the so-called so~called "agnosticism" of Kant, Kant, limitation, the ple of "agnosticism" of is in in perfect is agreement with the biblical W eltan~ with the biblical Weltanperfect agreement schauung also separates prin~ in prinschauung which also separates God and man in ciple which likewise likewise holds holds that that men cannot cannot ciple and which

82 82

ETHICAL ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM SUBJECTIVISM the mystery fathom the can be fathom of God just just because because God can be mystery of in so far as he reveals known only himself. Kant is less in so far as he reveals himself. is less only the Bible, since he not more agnostic he at at least least adadBible, since agnostic than the a certain certain comprehension mits a of reason mits by means of reason alone, alone, comprehension by not of God but the of of Idea of God. though not of himself, but of the Idea God. In In himself, though this comprehension reason the reason of the this practical reason-the reason of the comprehension practical willing predominance, not not the the acting subject-has willing and acting subject has predominance, of the reason of scientific or intellect. reason the scientific or speculative speculative intellect. in true sense, a subject Man is, far as is, in the the true only in in so so far as sense, a subject only acts. This is true which he wills wills and acts. This is true even even of of the the subject subject scientific knowledge, for can seeks scientific for know nature seeks we can nature knowledge, active investigation only through voluntary investigation of of her her only through voluntary and active it is is a never comes to an a Science never comes to an end; end; it phenomena. Science phenomena. a because the dynamic activity (not a process) precisely because the dynamic activity (not process) precisely scientist himself above all, finite scientist himself is, a human subject, is, above all, a subject, finite see and grasp and imperfect as long long as as he does does not not see grasp the the imperfect as could ever ever reach this goal, he full total truth. truth. If If he reach this full and total he could goal, he a a human but be he be a scientist, a subject, but he would no longer scientist, subject, longer of knowlGod." The object of theoretical knowlwould be be "like "like God." theoretical object the horizon exists as as an object within the horizon of of the the edge object only only within edge exists the object of the the will will whereas the human consciousness, consciousness, whereas object of for it is ever ever fleeting, fleeting, ever ever to to be be realrealnever exists it is at all all for exists at never is an an eternal task. ized never real real. Its realization is eternal task. but never ized but Its realization From the practical perspective perspective theoretical theoretical knowledge knowledge the practical to know the by the will-the will to the itself the will the will is determined determined by itself is this perspective, perspective, knowing, knowing, like like truth. seen from this truth. And seen

83

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG

WELTANSCHAUUNG

its is never other human activity,, all activity, is never ending; ending; truth truth-its all other supreme ultimate "object"-is never grasped. grasped. This "object" is never supreme and ultimate Kant's in the deepest is the epistemological subsub~ is insight in Kant's epistemological deepest insight jectivism. jectivism. this insight of this insight the the transcendent transcendent Ideas Ideas the basis basis of On the of intellectual tasks never comassume the the significance significance of intellectual tasks never com~ forever pletely fulfilled and forever standing at the the horizon horizon of of standing at pletely fulfilled itself takes science itself while science takes on signifhuman science, science, while signifthe solution of these icance as as an approach toward the solution of these icance approach In this ethical subjectivism is not not only the tasks. this way, tasks. In only the subjectivism is way, ethical science. Science but the life of is very life of science. Science is background but even the even very background is its basically an ethical this is its ultimate ultimate and ethical undertaking; undertaking; this basically ethical ideal pene~ most exalted ideal thus thus peneexalted conception. most conception. The ethical the theoretical trates trates the theoretical sphere itself and appears appears within within sphere itself Kant it as as its its supreme master and and interpreter. speaks it interpreter. speaks supreme as of the of the Ideal culas the culdirectly of the Ideal of (theoretical) Reason (theoretical) directly of the entire theory of knowledge. is only mination of It is mination the entire knowledge. It theory of only now that that the the whole depth depth of of Kant's Kant's subjectivism opens subjectivism opens before that we know the the objects before our it is not that objects only only is not our eyes: eyes: it that our is part and our very subjectively, but that knowledge is very knowledge subjectively, but part is the of the our moral existence. is innermost parcel of our moral existence. This innermost parcel of his essence of essence his subjectivism. subjectivism. Epistemology, then, finally finally becomes becomes aa province province of of Epistemology, then, Kant's ethical Weltanschauung. All Kant's ethical interpreters of of Weltanschauung. All interpreters Kant (and are in they are in the the majority) majority) who believe believe that that (and they the epistemology is the the is center, the ground, the very the the center, epistemology ground, the very

ETHICAL ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM SUBJECTIVISM of Kant's that his essence of essence Kant's philosophy, philosophy, and that his ethics ethics reprerepresents only or sents a subsidiary venture, an appendix or merely only subsidiary venture, appendix merely his thought, ignore the aa part part besides besides other parts parts in in his thought, ignore the of the structure of inner structure did not as inner the whole. whole. While Kant did not go go as who as Fichte, constructed his his system far as as far Fichte, constructed with ethics ethics as system with as its did pave the way its root its root and as its goal, goal, Kant did pave the way toward toward a system. such a avoided the the consequence consequence drawn by by such system. He avoided as willing as Fichte subFichte because because he was not not as Fichte to to subwilling as Fichte the theoretical scientific knowledge ordinate the ordinate theoretical activity of scientific activity of knowledge to ethical was of a a cerHe aware exclusively to ethical thought. aware of cerexclusively thought. as we have have seen, he tain of nature, nature, and, and, as tain self-dependence seen, he self-dependence of of nature never abandoned the never the indissoluble indissoluble duality duality of nature and of intelinteltherefore of freedom, of theory theory and practice, practice, of freedom, and therefore he the maintained lect will. Consequently, he maintained the duality lect and will. duality Consequently, and not did of epistemology ethics of ethics and did not proceed to the the proceed to epistemology of an establishment of establishment an all-embracing all-embracing system. In his his system. In Weltanschauung can find find an an unsystematic^ unsystematic, even even an an Weltanschauung we can It is precisely because of this antisystematic tendency. It is because of this precisely antisystematic tendency. Kant's is more accurate feature it is accurate to to speak of Kant's that it feature that speak of his system. Weltanschauung and not not of of his system. Weltanschauung is an integral of The antagonism of object and subject and object subject is integral antagonism and enduring factor in Kant's Weltanschauung. Neither Kant's factor in Weltanschauung. Neither enduring speculation nor moral moral faith with this this faith can do away away with speculation nor it is, as it antagonism. Kant's philosophy, philosophy, revolutionary is, revolutionary as antagonism. Kant's of English preserves aa great great deal deal of of common sense, English sense, of preserves than the even empiricism. Kant understands even better than the embetter understands empiricism.

85 85

KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

piricists themselves themselves what the the nature nature of of experience experience is. is. Science Science depends depends upon upon experience experience because because the the subject subject and is human in scientific scientific investigation investigation is and finite finite operative in operative are the for the same and, for the same reason, the objects are finite, being finite, being reason, and, objects or of finite a objects of a finite knowledge or phenomena. logiobjects phenomena. The logiknowledge of replacing cal impossibility by any any raracal impossibility of replacing experience experience by tional tional construction construction or or intuitive intuitive insight insight rests rests upon upon the the ethical impossibility by speculation. speculation. ethical impossibility of of replacing replacing action action by The ethical ethical goal goal can can be be attained attained only only approximately, approximately, are is true the cognitive this is true of of the cognitive goal as welL well. Both are and this goal as in both cases the the willing willing subject is the the goals, because in both cases subject is goals, because sense. in the subject in the most appropriate sense. Although cogniappropriate Although cognisubject at its its goal, truth is, tion of the truth is, precisely precisely speaking, tion of the goal, speaking, at it. For cognition as is infinitely separated from it. science science is infinitely separated cognition as is always incomplete and fragmentary. as action well as action is well always incomplete fragmentary. the character of The incomplete character of the objective objective world and incomplete thus depends the limitation limitation objective objective knowledge knowledge thus depends upon upon the the ethical ethical subject. or imperfection of the or imperfection of subject. of objects as the the totality to man Nature as objects corresponds totality of corresponds to of as of objective knowledge. Nature itself as the the subject itself is is objective knowledge. subject finite (i.e., as finite as as incomplete and imperfect) as man is, for for is, (ie., incomplete imperfect) correlates with with the the other one correlates other and cannot be conceived cannot be conceived the other. other. The finite finite human understanding of without the understanding of the ethical ethical subject as its counterpart, just such the requires, as its subject requires, counterpart, just such finite world as as the the one in in which we exist. aa finite exist. This This world world is conditioned conditioned and even is even "created" "created" by the human underunderby the

piricists

86 86

ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM the intellect intellect of of a a being is not standing, i.e., by by the being that that is not standing, i.e., creature. Many creator but have have creator but creature. Many philosophical philosophical systems systems theoretical reason reason as conceived of theoretical as being being infinite, perconceived infinite, perdivine. Kant, other hand, of fect, Kant, on the the other hand, thinks thinks of fect, and divine. reason as theoretical reason as being being finite, finite, imperfect, hutheoretical imperfect, and huholds because that the intellect the will man, because he holds that the intellect and the will man, the same level. level. If If it are on the that the it is is true true that the forms forms of of are in man's are rooted nature follows that nature are rooted in man's intellect, then it it follows that intellect, then are also they are also indirectly indirectly rooted rooted in in man's will, although will, although they avoids logically Kant avoids of these deriving any of these forms from logically deriving any will the will. the abnot somewhat precarious Is Is such aa view view not precarious?? Is Is it it not not abas the nature as surd to interpret interpret nature the creation creation of of the the human surd to creature of Is not not man rather rather aa creature of nature nature herherintellect? intellect? Is it not that an infinite infinite self? And is self? is it not possible possible to to assume that is nature as it is and unrestricted unrestricted intellect intellect would know nature as it at"in the imperfections free from the "in itself," i.e., free itself," i.e., imperfections which at? Is Is it not much natmore tach to to human knowledge? it not nattach knowledge to think ural such aa possibility possibility and thus thus to think of of such ural to to grant grant as infinite, nature perfect, and divine? divine? Is Is not not herself as nature herself infinite, perfect, does is the the creature, creature, and does nature the creator creator while while man is nature the not nature nature thus ultimately coincide coincide with with the the infinite, infinite, thus ultimately not a view issue intellect? Such a perfect, and and divine view would issue divine intellect? perfect, to Kant's Kant's ethical ethical in absolute subjectivism in an absolute superior to subjectivism superior subjectivism because because the longer be be the subject subject would no longer subjectivism man but but God; God; it it would would be be aa meta-ethical meta-ethical subjectivism. subjectivism.

KANT'S KANT'S

WEL'l'ANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

Only this this absolute absolute subjectivism, subjectivism, so so itit seems, seems, would would no no Only longer stand in contrast contrast to to any any epistemological epistemological objecobjeclonger stand in because with be identical identical with it, it, because only only such such tivism but but would would be tivism an an

intellect would would penetrate penetrate the the objects objects absolutely, absolutely, thereby bridging any chasm chasm between between cognition cognition and and thereby bridging any absolute truth. truth.. absolute However, such such aa view view isis excluded excluded by by the the very very prinprinHowever, nature of idea The ciples of Kant's Weltanschauung. The idea of nature of Kant's Weltanschauung. ciples as no no longer longer restricted restricted leads leads precisely precisely to to that that kind kind of of as speculation which Kant Kant regards regards as as both both fallacious fallacious and and speculation which that to an to morality. morality. It It leads leads to an uncritical, uncritical, that detrimental to detrimental and of nature is to say, dogmatic, identification of nature and God, God, of of identification is to say, dogmatic, It totally totally abandons abandons the the solid solid ground ground object and subject. It object and subject. and thought. of thought. Nature Nature freed freed from from of human experience experience and as all is no longer nature restrictions is all restrictions investigated and longer nature as investigated freed from scientific knowledge understood understood by science; scientific knowledge freed by science; all is no longer scientific restrictions is all restrictions knowledge such longer scientific knowledge are set set restrictions are the restrictions as When the can acquire. alone can as we alone acquire. distheir with aside, and error error disappear aside, striving disappear and with their disstriving and The itself must go. appearance the phenomenal world itself go. The appearance the phenomenal of nature and God, total of subject and and object, total identity object, of nature and God, identity of subject is the the it is our concepts; of all implies total destruction of all our concepts; it implies total destruction and therefore in which all differentiation and therefore total total night night in which all differentiation all comprehension vanishes. all comprehension vanishes. an impossibility which isis an Kant which the possibility calls the Kant calls impossibility possibility which a concept ideal, i.e., a which signifies for for us us aa regulative i.e., ideal, signifies concept regulative intellect

88

ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM ETHICAL of limit of the the limit

ideal is all insight. insight. The regulative is peculiar peculiar regulative ideal that its in commensurate with the in that its content is is no longer commensurate with the longer all concepts within content of the limit; content of all limit; and yet yet its its concepts within the conceived except content cannot be be conceived as the the limiting limiting case case content except as those all those concepts. The numbers zero of all of zero and infinity infinity concepts. cases of the numerical are thus numerical system. of the They are thus border border cases are system. They are as we can so far far as numbers in in so can conceive conceive them, them, and yet yet they no longer longer compare all other other numbers. numbers. When compare with all they we use use them in in calculus calculus we notice notice that that they they do not not the arithmetical are numobey the arithmetical rules; they are abnormal rules; they obey bers and yet bers yet they they are are nothing but numbers. numbers. The epistenothing but episteborderline case is to the mological borderline case is akin to the numerical one. numerical one. mological It marks the It the maximum of of knowledge knowledge which can can be be attainable to conceived in terms terms of of knowledge knowledge attainable to us us alone, alone, conceived in is unattainable it is terms. Our knowland yet unattainable in in those those terms. knowlyet it conditioned by edge is conditioned by only only aa partial partial identity identity of of object object edge is and subject, namely, aa partial partial identity identity of of the the conconsubject, namely, of the the objects ditions or or forms forms of objects and and of of the the intellect, ditions intellect, of matter and and by by aa partial partial incongruity incongruity of matter and form in in the the of sense reason in in the the subject. objects and of sense and reason subject. When objects and in the vanishing is the this approaches point as as is the case case in this vanishing point approaches the case of total (the borderline case of knowledge) then borderline then total identity identity (the knowledge) of and form and matter, the concepts of subject object, of matter, of the object, subject concepts are done away away with with and consequently consequently even even themselves done are themselves the of their identity becomes becomes incomprehensible. their identity the concept incomprehensible. concept of it Since to know means to to subjectify subjectify what is is objective, Since to objective, it all

89

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

follows that that we we do do no no longer longer know know anything anything when when subsubfollows as identical. identical. ject and and object object are are regarded regarded as of The very very concept concept of knowledge knowledge isis therefore therefore bound bound The up with Kant's ethical subjectivism; only ethically subethical Kant's with subjectivism; only ethically subup as knowledge. knowledge. jective knowledge can can be be understood understood as jective knowledge ethical The theory theory of of knowledge knowledge ends ends where where ethical subjectivsubjectivThe are ism ends, for they are mutually dependent upon each ism ends, for they mutually dependent upon each other. Only Only aa world world subjectively subjectively restricted restricted can can become become other. the object object of of knowledge, knowledge, only only aa subject subject likewise likewise rerethe as the the knowing knowing subject. subject. stricted can can be be conceived conceived as stricted the that But does this not imply that the only conceivable not this But does only conceivable imply knowledge is is that that of of the the natural natural sciences sciences and and that that the the knowledge of knowledge only conceivable object of knowledge is is nature? nature? In In aa only conceivable object Kant Wherever conviction. sense is really Kant's this is sense this really Kant's conviction. of theoretical theoretical reason and speaks of objective of knowledge, of objective knowledge, speaks sciences. But the natural sciences. in mind the has in so he always so on, on, he always has critical philoshis own critical of his what the knowledge about the what about philosknowledge of of the theory ophy? does the comprehend knowledge comprehend theory of knowledge ophy ? How does itself? Kant does not philosophilosophical cognition itself? philosophilosophical cognition into He inquires into the phize about his philosophy. his about inquires philosophy. phize of morality, into art art sciences and of spheres natural sciences the natural of the morality, into spheres of touches the ever and religion, but he hardly ever touches upon the probbut and religion, upon probhardly no of has lem itself. has no epistemology Kant itself. Kant lem of of philosophy epistemology of philosophy of his his difficulties difficulties some of philosophical and some knowledge, and philosophical knowledge, Like most most great discovdefect. Like are with this this defect. are connected connected with great discoverers to the nature of the very to the nature of the with respect was naive naive with erers he he was very respect ject

go go

ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM ETHICAL instrument which helped to make his his discovery. instrument helped him to discovery. is not my intention It is intention to correct or to fill the the gap It to correct Kant or to fill my gap 1 his system.! I must, in his discuss in I however, discuss one important must, however, system, important in illuminates this withways illuminates this gap concept which in many concept many ways gap withit: the concept of the thing-in-itself. out filling out filling it: concept o the thing-in-itself. 1. A German thinker, killed in in World War 1. thinker, Emil Lask, Lask, who was killed fill this in his his book, tried to to fill this gap die der Philosophit: I, I, tried book, Die Logik gap in Logi^ der Philosophic und die C. B. B. Mohr [Paul Kategorienlt:hre J. C. Siebeck], 1911). 1911). [Paul Siebeck], Kategorienlehre (Tiibingen: (Tubingen: J.

9I

IV Ethical Ethical Phenomenalism

Is JLs

NOT the the thing-in-itself thing-in-itself

precisely that that object object which is is supposed to transcend the the supposed to precisely of knowledge limits of limits knowledge and which, which, therefore, therefore, cannot be be in any grasped but aa subjective way? Is Is not not the the thingthingany but subjective way? grasped in in-itself that in-itself that transcendent transcendent reality reality from which we are are Is not forever by an insurmountable barrier barrier?? Is not the the off by forever cut cut off introduced of thus pre-Kantian conception of knowledge thus introduced knowledge pre-Kantian conception this not ? Does this into epistemology? anew into not mean that that we epistemology which to an epistemological insists return to return conception insists epistemological conception that the object be absolutely absolutely independent of the the that the object must be independent of does not that the condition the subject and that the subject subject does not condition the subject ? All the in considerations of of the object in any respect? All the considerations the prepreany respect object ceding chapter chapter safeguard us from falling falling victim victim to to such such safeguard us ceding As erroneous interpretation. as we within an erroneous long as stay within interpretation. long stay of the the Kantian epistemology, limits of the limits false epistemology, such a false When is leave argument is unlikely. we leave epistemology argument unlikely. epistemology behind, contrast between between object object and subject subject the whole contrast behind, the is no longer valid. is valid. The thing-in-itself can therefore can therefore thing-in-itself longer even be be regarded regarded as as an object object of of divine divine knowledge. knowledge. of the The real real meaning of the concept under consideration under consideration meaning concept 92

PHENOMENALISM

ETHICAL PHENOMENALISM ETHICAL not epistemological at all. all. It It is is not is founded on the the ethical ethical epistemological at contrast between derives its contrast between nature and freedom and and derives its this moral source. source. Ethics, as it it were, were, depower from this deEthics, as power limitation of this means mands the limitation of epistemology, epistemology, and this that epistemology in the limited in that is being being limited the interests interests of of epistemology is tranmorality. The thing-in-itself, seemingly an object tranmorality. thing-in-itself, seemingly object becomes instead the scending knowledge, instead the objective of scending knowledge, objective of so much to the knowing striving; it corresponds not so to the knowing as as striving; it corresponds not to the insist upon the limito the willing willing subject. had to to insist subject. Kant had upon the limiof knowledge and tation the unknowable tation of thereby upon the knowledge thereby upon for sake the of the the realm of thing-in-itself for the sake of of freedom freedom in in thing-in-itself which the unfolds itself. the will of the will unfolds itself. The objectivity objectivity of the discloses itself as the thing-in-itself thus thus discloses itself not not as the objectivity objectivity thing-in-itself the of but as a new object of a of of knowledge but as the objectivity of object objectivity of knowledge the fact of the the will. will. Despite duty-the object of Despite the fact that that the the duty the object the intellect, this new is even will even more subjective will is intellect, this subjective than the of a is of a higher higher grade grade than than the the objectivity objectivity of of objectivity objectivity is nature and of natural knowledge knowledge just just because because it it points points of natural nature and of the the will sure the to be sure the object object of will to the the supersensible. supersensible. To be theoretical objects, restricts the the realm realm of of merely objects, but but it it restricts merely theoretical In this also the human horizon. horizon. In this way way theotheoalso enlarges enlarges the exdoes not retical knowledge is restricted because because it it does not exis restricted retical knowledge haust the content of the the human consciousness. Withconsciousness. Withcontent of haust the out we could never understand understand the the could never the thing-in-itself out the thing-in-itself practical aspect of the emphasis placed upon upon of science, science, the emphasis placed practical aspect conof the intellectual conprogress, and the significance of the intellectual the and significance progress, is

93 93

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG

WELTANSCHAUUNG

of the science the scientist. scientist. This This ethical ethical element within within science of epistemology knowledge its its peculiar peculiar subsubgives knowledge epistemology which gives to all an to jectivity also man to objectivity superior to all also leads leads objectivity superior jectivity It is is a knowledge. It a symptom of aa narrow mind to to insist, insist, symptom of knowledge. to do, as are inclined inclined to that theoretical theoretical objectivity as some are do, that objectivity that we as is true true that eclipses morality. It It is as moral beings beings are are eclipses morality. most most impressed by our imperfection and our subjective subjective imperfection impressed by it almost unbearable finitude as an unbearable burden. burden. However, finitude as an almost However, it finitude which the same finitude is the same imperfection is the imperfection and the limit our theoretical also limit also theoretical understanding. understanding. of the It the peculiar It is is the peculiar glory glory of the ethical ethical to to enlarge enlarge the the to an ever ever increasing mind's horizon to mind's increasing extent extent and to to for it of infinity. open up for it aa vista vista of By leaving natural infinity. By leaving natural open up its desire for for truth knowledge with with its desire truth forever forever unsatisfied, unsatisfied, knowledge a the thing-in-itself bestows the bestows a peculiar nobility upon peculiar nobility upon thing-in-itself infinite embodies an scientific scientific knowledge. knowledge. The infinite an object object to be possessed never never to possessed and an objectivity transcending objectivity transcending attainable objectivity. any objectivity. The thing-in-itself thing-in-itself symbolsymbolany attainable izes ultimate forever izes ultimate truth, forever attracting the searching the truth, attracting searching distance never to be mind from aa distance never to be spanned. Every truth spanned. Every truth actually is really really penultimate, penultimate, finite therefinite and thereactually reached is fore not This is the fore not satisfying. This is the ultimate reason why ultimate reason why satisfying. calls the Kant calls the object object of knowledge, phenomphenomof natural natural knowledge, enon or appearance. Everything encompassed encompassed by by scisciappearance. Everything is finite finite and therefore ence is therefore can can be be put put down as as appearappearance. Every ance. Every human intellect limited because because the the will will intellect is is limited

94 94

PHENOMENALISM

ETHICAL PHENOMENALISM ETHICAL also must be will demands freedom also be provided provided for; for; the the will freedom necessitates limitation which in turn necessitates limitation of of the the objective objective the be must conceived as sphere. Thus the objective sphere be conceived as sphere. objective sphere 1 1 takes on a aa phenomenal one. Nature takes a phenomenal phenomenal phenomenal one. the for sake of this means that aspect for the sake of morality, morality, and this that its its aspect are postulated limitations by freedom. freedom. Nature Nature must must limitations are postulated by in such guise, is unable appear not because because man is unable to to disdisappear in guise, not cover what might or actuality, cover might be be called called its its reality reality or but actuality, but has the the moral capacity because man has because to will will capacity and duty duty to that nature. is The is beyond nature. thing-in-itself is something that beyond something thing-in-itself is thus the thus the goal of man's moral moral quest. goal of quest. be Nature Nature ought to be nothing than appearance; appearance; nothing more than ought is demanded by the a view ethical spirit of Kant's Kant's such view is such a spirit of by the ethical in a Weltanschauung. Schelling, in a poignant passage of Weltanschauung. Schelling, poignant passage of Philosophical Letters Letters on Dogmatism Dogmatism and Criticism, his Philosophical his Criticism, 2 2 makes this this same point: point: "Have you never guessed, guessed, howyou never ever darkly, that it it is is not not the the weakness weakness of of your your reason reason ever darkly, that but rather rather the the absolute of your your will will which absolute freedom of but to any the noumenal world makes the world inaccessible inaccessible to any objective objective it is is not never that the power? guessed that it not the limilimi? Have you never you power guessed rather your of your tation of knowledge but but rather your unlimited unlimited tation your knowledge 1. It 1. this point point that that aa great many English-speaking interIt is at at this great many English-speaking interis Kant's what preters have misunderstood Kant's language by identifying is have misunderstood by identifying preters language or here called his his "ethical phenomenalism" with with aa psychological psychological or "ethical phenomenalism" here called physiological phenomenalism. phenomenalism. physiological .is

2. F. W. J. J. von von Schelling, Philosophische Briefe Briefe uber uber Dogmatismus Dogmatismus 2. F. Schelling, Philosophische und Kriticismu/' Kriticismul' (1795), I, 340. Wcrfy, 1,340. (1795), Werke, 95 95

WELTANSCHAUUNG

KANT'S KANT'S WELTANSCHAUUNG

freedom which keeps keeps the the objects knowledge within within objects of knowledge the confines never have of mere appearance?" the confines of appearance?" We can never not would which of nature nature be fragany not be fragknowledge of any knowledge not raise new questions and mentary, would not raise questions which mentary, be problematic problematic and essentially essentially incomwhich would not not be as in itself is merely appearance because itself is plete. Nature in merely appearance because as plete. Nature for us. It is, as it it never exists for for itself such never exists itself but but only only for us. It it such it is, as of our were, our finite finite understanding understanding the counterpart were, the counterpart of finite just is finite just because because of of our supernatural freewhich is supernatural free3 s dom. avoid the this point At this point we can can no longer the question longer avoid question our knowledge 3. Sometimes 3. it has has been been held held that that our of nature nature is is Sometimes it knowledge of more than than aa knowledge of appearance appearance because because science science transcends transcends knowledge of the horizon of sense sense perception essence of perception and penetrates penetrates into into the the essence of the horizon of is a sensible things. This is sensible things. This a typical and one already misinterpretation and already typical misinterpretation If the the term "essence" points himself. If term "essence" points to to that that ultiultirejected by Kant himself. rejected by mate truth science does does not the term by the term "thing-in-itself," then science not truth meant by "thing-in-itself," then essence of of things. things. [T.M. [T. M. Greene and H. H. produce a knowledge knowledge of of the the essence produce a Religion within within the the Limits Limits of of Reason Reason Alone (Chica(ChicaHudson (trans.), (trans.) Religion Co., 1934), p. 58.] Certainly, somego: Open Court Publishing Co., 1934) 58,] Certainly, Kant somep. go: Open Publishing used the loose sense; times used the expression expression "in-itself" in aa loose thus he he would times "in-itself" in sense; thus its truth for example, that science science knows nature say, example, that nature in in its truth and, and, he he would say, for the first add, following from the first Critique: "nature~in-itself." Compare the following add, "nature-in-itsel£." Compare the Critique: "When, therefore, we say that the the senses senses represent represent objects objects as they as they **When, therefore, say that the understanding appear, understanding objects as they are, the the latter latter statestateappear, and the they are, objects as ment is is to taken, not in the the transcendental, transcendental, but but in in the the merely merely to be be taken, not in that the the objects empirical meaning of the the terms, namely as as meaning terms, namely empirical meaning of meaning that objects must be be represented represented as as objects experience, that that is, is, as as appearances of experience, objects of appearances in they in thoroughgoing interconnection with with one another, and not not as one another, as they thoroughgoing interconnection to possible be apart apart from their possible experience (and consecons~ may relation to their relation may be experience (and quendy to any any senses), of the the pure pure understanding" understanding" Critique as objects senses), as quendy to objects of Critique trans. Norman Kemp of Reason, trans. p. 274 274 (A (A 258 B 314). 258 = B of Pure Reason, Smith, p. 314) Kemp Smith, ,

,

=

96

.

ETHICAL ETHICAL PHENOMENALISM PHENOMENALISM raised at the raised at the

end of the last of the last chapter: Does philosophy end chapter: philosophy suffer the same restriction Is philosophical science? Is as science? suffer restriction as philosophical truth also to to be distinguished from ultimate truth? ultimate truth? Is Is truth also distinguished as well science forever forever engaged philosophy as well as as science in aa philosophy engaged in therefore conconprogress which has no end? Must we therefore progress that philosophy, clude that like clude like science, apprehends appearscience, apprehends appearphilosophy, ance and nothing more ? Or, Kant's ance nothing more? Or, in in other other words, words, is is Kant's over the of huphenomenalism to to be be extended extended over the whole whole of huphenomenalism man knowledge? to be be absurd absurd bebeknowledge? This would seem to cause the distinction between science and philoscause the whole distinction between science philosbreak. down and, even worse, worse, ophy then break and, even ophy would then in no position philosophy thus restricted restricted would be be in position to to philosophy thus limits of of science. set the science. Consequently, set the limits the whole whole enterenterConsequently, the of as ethics would as well of ultiprise of epistemology as well as of ethics ultiepistemology prise are not mately be impossible. impossible. Yet Yet we are not allowed simply simply mately be succeed in to conclude conclude that does succeed in knowing knowing to that philosophy philosophy does or that the thing-in-itself grasped the thing-in-itself, the grasped by by thing-in-itself, or that the thing-in-itself for which is that that unattainable unattainable phantom phantom for the philosopher philosopher is the to search. search. Metaphysics continue to science must forever Metaphysics forever continue science must as its proper of the the thing-in-itself prior to thought of to Kant thought thing-in-itself as its proper prior object knowledge; Kant revolutionized revolutionized this this view. view. of knowledge; object of up such dogmatic metaphysics by recognizing such He gave dogmatic metaphysics by recognizing gave up the object that the whole relation relation between between the that the object known and the thing-in-itself. never includes the includes the thing-in-itself. the knowing subject never knowing subject solved is not Nevertheless, the problem involved involved here here is not solved the problem Nevertheless, it is a is a genuine by this negative attitude alone, and it attitude alone, genuine by this negative 97 97

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

problem because the relation between between object object and and subsub~ problem because the relation ject as as itit exists exists in in science science characterizes characterizes aa concept concept of of relaultimate the is then What finite knowledge knowledge only. only. What then is the ultimate rela~ finite tion between the pre-Kantian dogmatism dogmatism and and the the the between tion pre-Kantian ? thing~in-itself? Kantian criticism criticism of of the the thing-in-itself Kantian Whatever conception conception of of knowledge knowledge may may be be implied implied Whatever two by a theory of philosophical knowledge, two things are things are by a theory of philosophical knowledge, clear: first, first, such such aa theory theory cannot cannot deny deny the the validity validity of of clear: bescientific truth truth and, and, second, second, the the basic basic distinction distinction bescientific not must tween scientific scientific and and philosophical philosophical knowledge knowledge must not tween the be obliterated. In other words, the relationship between between In other be obliterated. words, relationship object and and subject subject must must be be maintained, maintained, but but it it must must not not object be applied applied to to philosophical philosophical knowledge. knowledge. The theory theory of of be between relation of the is aa theory scientific knowledge is scientific knowledge theory of the relation between itself must not the subject and object, but the theory not be be but and theory itself object, subject relationof this this same relation~ instance of understood as one one more instance understood as is It is of self-knowledge. ship but rather as an example as an self-knowledge. It example of ship but rather of itself an object of true the knowing that the true that subject makes itself an object knowing subject the very inquiry, but in so doing in so changes "object" changes very term "object" doing the inquiry, but of the meaning its takes of "subjecttakes on the and its meaning and "subjectmeaning meaning the identical. Thus, are identical. become~bject" in which both are the in Thus, become-object" sense the in thing-in-itself can no longer be an object in the sense of can no longer object thing-in-itself the old metaphysics. the old metaphysics. is always desense is The in the epistemological sense The object always deobject in the epistemological is thereby and is pendent the knowing subject and thereby knowing subject upon the pendent upon to is made if it even the if it is made to phenomenal, whereas the subject, even subject, phenomenal, whereas

ject

ETHICAL ETHICAL PHENOMENALISM PHENOMENALISM stand in stand in the the position position of of an object, object, is is not not phenomenal phenomenal is a in itself; but noumenal. In In aa way, way, the the subject is a thing itself; subject thing in as Fichte it calls it, in itself. is, as Fichte calls ego in itself. Is Is perhaps perhaps the the it is, it, an ego the subject? thing-in-itself nothing else but but the renothing else thing-in-itself subject? Kant refrom coils conclusion but coils drawing this conclusion but he he approaches approaches drawing this Fichte not it, and Fichte was not completely disloyal to Kant it, completely disloyal to insisted that the ultimate when he insisted that the of the ultimate conception the conception of thing-in-itself leads to to the the idea idea of of an an absolute absolute ego. ego. Kant thing-in-itself leads so far far because did not not go go so because he makes ethics ethics not not metametathe in the physics the fundamental discipline. The subject in the subject discipline. physics sense is true is the the moral person. person. The theory theory of of scientific true sense scientific the theory is overarched, knowledge is overarched, not not by by the theory of of philophiloknowledge or by of an absolute absolute sophical knowledge or by aa metaphysics metaphysics of sophical knowledge ethical that the moral but the ego, but by the ethical insight that the moral subject by insight subject ego, the phenomenal does not belong belong to to the phenomenal world world but but to to aa does not of freedom. realm realm of raised above is raised above the the level level of of natural natural Kant's Kant's philosophy philosophy is such knowledge as it science it understands understands such knowledge to to science inasmuch as be knowledge knowledge of of aa morally morally free free subject related to to aa be subject related it would be world of phenomena. phenomena. However, be wrong wrong to to world of However, it the insight this supremacy conclude insight conclude from this supremacy and from the able that that nature is only appearance that philosophy is able is nature that philosophy is only appearance to thing-in-itself. Although the term term "appearthe thing-in-itself. reach the to reach "appearAlthough the counteras its to require require the the term term "reality" as its counterance" seems to ance" seems "reality" part, and although one might might identify the thing-inidentify the thing-inalthough one part, in its ultimate sense, nevertheless, itself with reality in its ultimate itself with reality sense, nevertheless,

99 99

KANT'S there there

WELTANSCHAUUNG

WELTANSCHAUUNG

is something in between appearance appearance and reality, reality, something in This the is the to which this is the subject the objects objects appear. appear. This subject to not simply subject be interpreted interpreted as as being being true true subject should not simply be reality in aa thing-in-itself, although although in reality and consequently consequently a thing-in-itself, of the function of it takes takes on the sense, the function the thing-in-itself. thing-in-itself. sense, it the to does the subject Certainly appear does objects appear subject to which the objects Certainly the is a not itself itself appear but not a presupposition presupposition or or an aa priori priori appear but is world. Even so, the phenomenal of the principle phenomenal world. this prinprinso, this principle of is not not what appears ciple is not appears and therefore therefore is not ultimate ultimate ciple is reality. reality. In his his ethics goes aa step further; here here he he would In ethics Kant goes step further; as it it is say that the will inasmuch as is subject to the the the human will subject to say that is not moral not merely merely an appearance but appears appears to to moral law is appearance but ? Schopenthe thing-in-itself? Is the itself. the will will perhaps perhaps the itself. Is thing-in-itself Schopensuch a hauer proceeded proceeded along line, thereby yielding to to hauer along such a line, thereby yielding of the the the temptation temptation to to produce produce aa new metaphysics metaphysics of the ethical Weltanschauung which It is is Kant's forwill. Kant's ethical will. It Weltanschauung which fora step. take such such a it is is true bids to take true that that bids him to However, it step. However, or self, as conceived will in the will or self, as conceived by by ethics, ethics, points points in the direcdirecas tion the of the tion of the thing-in-itself. thing-in-itself. Just as the knowing subject Just knowing subject stands between the stands the extremes extremes of of appearance appearance and and ultiultito appearmate reality reality (certainly nearer to to reality than to (certainly nearer reality than appearso the the morally ance), and acting likewise self likewise ance), so morally willing willing and acting self stands between these stands these extremes but even even nearer nearer to ultiextremes but to ultia mate reality. reality. Consequently Consequently we must acknowledge acknowledge a truth in between the truth in the merely truth of finite and outer outer truth of merely finite and

is

this

100

ETHICAL ETHICAL PHENOMENALISM PHENOMENALISM scientific knowledge and the scientific the absolute ultimate absolute and ultimate knowledge science can never truth which science never reach. This truth truth would would reach. This as scientific scientific truth truth nor not be as as empirical nor as as metaphys~ empirical as metaphysas speculative ical as truth. It would be ical truth. It not be merely prag~ not speculative merely pragit would also also not matic, but but it not be be dogmatic; dogmatic; it it would would be be matic, critical and ethical. ethical. This is the the truth truth of critical This is of Kant's philos~ Kant's philosophy. ophy. Philosophy the middle middle ground between the the Philosophy occupies occupies the ground between two opposite of truth truth and is thus enabled enabled and is thus and opposite extremes of to entitled the age-old entitled to mediate between between the age~old antagonists, antagonists, physics and metaphysics, experimental and speculative physics metaphysics, experimental speculative Kant's knowledge. Kant's philosophy fully recognizes the knowledge. philosophy fully recognizes the truth of science science and acknowledges ex~ truth of acknowledges the of exthe function function of of metaperience in in contrast contrast to to the the premature premature claims claims of meta~ perience truth to claim that to physical systems which claim to possess that truth to physical systems possess which science can never attain. Kant thus thus assures assures scisci~ science can never attain. ence of its its highest highest aspirations aspirations (even ence of of the the fulfilment fulfilment of (even after him or before than any philosopher before or after than more surely any philosopher surely had done) by dethroning metaphysical systems. had done) by systems. On dethroning metaphysical claims to Kant's philosophy the other hand, Kant's philosophy claims to have trantran~ the other hand, to have scended horizon of of science have become the the science and to the horizon scended the as the the cuscus~ heir of regards himself himself as of metaphysics. heir metaphysics. Kant regards metathe todian that ultimate ultimate knowledge knowledge which the meta~ of that todian of physician pretends to possess, but which no human to possess, but physician pretends being attain. The realm realm of of the the things-inthings~in~ can ever ever attain. being can themselves remains incompre~ remains uncomprehended themselves uncomprehended and incompre-

101

WELTANSCHAUUNG KANT'S WELTANSCHAUUNG RANTS ethical philosophy hensible, although philosophy partly partly comprecomprehensible, although ethical

hends hends

as the the realm of it as of freedom and thereby mediates thereby mediates of appearance the separated between the realbetween appearance and realseparated domains of us and the is for that truth ity, between that truth which is merely merely for us the ity, to the the same antinomy truth in itself. truth in itself. Here we return return to antinomy of ethical ethical previously in in the the discussion discussion of which we met previously as dualism. Ethical dualism. Ethical phenomenalism phenomenalism interprets interprets nature nature as the will or the as and moral ethical appearance the moral will or the ethical subject appearance subject as the the ethical thing-in-itself. At the same time, the ethical phenomtime, thing-in-itself. phenomas constituting criticizes such enalism criticizes enalism such an interpretation interpretation as constituting of the metaphysical knowledge the thing-in-itself. thing-in-itself. In In the the metaphysical knowledge of it remains true that the realm of last freedom last analysis it remains true that the realm of freedom analysis cannot be fully understood or conceived because is an cannot or conceived because it it is an fully understood of the objective the moral will will and of of the the moral moral faith but faith but objective of of the not not an object the understanding. understanding. Some further further conconobject of be should in order siderations added to show that the the siderations should be added in order to that is what is finally an insoluble thing-in-itself presents an insoluble thing-in-itself presents finally problem. problem. note of take note of the the distinction distinction between between First, First, we must take the of the the incomprehensibility of the thing-in-itself and the the incomprehensibility thing-in-itself and of nature. partial comprehensibility nature. Natural Natural knowlknowlpartial comprehensibility of is always in edge the making; and theories theories discoveries and always in the edge is making; discoveries the whole which can be grasped grasped progress toward the can never never be progress because the sum total total of because the of partial partial knowledge knowledge is is no no subsubstitute for for knowledge seen from stitute knowledge of of the the whole. whole. Nature Nature seen from the standpoint the of knowledge knowledge is is aa restricted realm, restricted realm, standpoint of it

I02 102

PHENOMENALISM

ETHICAL PHENOMENALISM ETHICAL the ultimate of whereas the the thing-in-itself thing-in-itself as as the ultimate objective objective of is beyond all restriction and detherefore is all restriction therefore dephilosophy beyond philosophy mands an equally unrestricted knowledge. ultiequally unrestricted knowledge. The ultiare mate is is without boundaries, boundaries, except for those those which are mate except for as Inasmuch science of of sell-imposed. as philosophy philosophy is is the the science self-imposed. the phenomena of the in so so far the ultimate far the ultimate and not not of phenomena only, only, in the essence essence and not concerns the as it it concerns as not the the appearance appearance of of to the extent to things, and to the extent to which it it desires desires not not aa fragfragthings, of the ment of the whole but but its its totality, totality, it it cannot cannot even even apapas natural its goal as natural can. is an There knowledge can. There is an proach its goal knowledge proach absolute between philosophy philosophy and absolute incommensurability incommensurability between in speaking of contrast bethe thing-in-itself. bethe of the the contrast thing-in-itself. Even in speaking its goal is the opposites tween tween the philosophy shows that that its opposites philosophy goal is since the the of not attained, not since the very meaning of the thing-inattained, very meaning thing-inexcludes all mean What we itself itself rigorously rigorously excludes all opposition. opposition. is precisely an absolute absolute unrelatedness; by thing-in-itself unrelatedness; by thing-in-itself is precisely it as in as reality reality in in contrast contrast to to appearance in regarding appearance we regarding it relation. are introducing are introducing a relation. as contradistinguished apthing-in-itself as The thing-in-itself contradistinguished from apthe subjective, pearance, the finite, or from anyfinite, the anysubjective, or pearance, from the condito itself a a finite that else, is to that degree itself finite concept condithing is else, concept degree thing this way condiessence is is condiIn this way essence tioned by by its its opposite. opposite. In tioned tioned by by contingency or existence, totality by by partialpartialtioned existence, totality contingency or substance effect or or consequence, ity, the by its its effect consequence, substance the ground ity, ground by so forth. these concepts concepts are are finite finite by and so forth. All All these accident and by accident to the they do not not grasp grasp the the unrelated unrelated the extent extent to to which they to

10 703 3

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

is the unconditioned. or unconditioned. But But this, to Kant, Kant, is or the this, according according to as human situation. We as ethical situation. just our logical logical and ethical just from the beings progress by by moving the appearappearmoving only progress beings can only the the toward the essence, ance to ance to the from the part the totality. essence, totality. part a we that in last analysis is the is a goal that The thing-in-itself in the last goal analysis thing-in-itself our whole being can never never reach. reach. Indeed our being is is aa moral can we to are always are what we we never goal; never are ought be, are always ought to be, goal; as knowers. Phenomas in the in the making both as agents and as knowers. agents making leaves the ethical leaves because its its perspective is the enalism just because enalism just perspective is ethical in that that metaphysical thing-in-itself in twilight which metaphysical twilight thing-in-itself the borderline marks marks the borderline between between knowledge knowledge and ignoignoessence and existence rance. Appearance and reality, rance. Appearance and reality, essence and existence correlates have in similar correlates connotation in and similar have an ethical ethical connotation lose their Kant's Weltanschauung their meaning if dedemeaning if Kant's Weltanschauung and lose of connotation. prived of such connotation. prived refuses to definition of to give give aa definition of freedom When Kant refuses calls freedom an inscrutable inscrutable power power and he he speaks (he (he calls speaks of our to explain our inability is possible; possible; see see of inability to explain how freedom is the Fundamental Principles Principles of the Metaphysics of Morof Metaphysics of within the als, and Religion Religion within the Limits Limits of of Reason Reason als, idea that that freedom the idea freedom cannot cannot be be known in in the the Alone) 4 the Alone) as the natural phenomena same way way as the natural phenomena can is uppermost uppermost can is in his measures philosophical in his mind. Thus he measures philosophical comprecompre4"

4. Greene and Hudson, 4. Hudson, op. op. cit., cit., p. p. 158 n.; L. Beck (trans.), 158 n.; L. W. Beck (trans.), Foundations of of the the Metaphysics Metaphysics of Morals, in in CI·itique of Practical Practical of Morals, Critique of Reason and Other Writings in Moral MOI·a! Philosophy Philosophy (Chicago: (Chicago: UniverUniverWritings in

of Chicago sity Chicago Press, Press, 1949), p. 113. 113. 1949), p. sity of

10 4 104

ETHICAL PHENOMENALISM ETHIOAL PHENOMENALISM hension standards not hension by naturalistic standards, not to to be be standards, standards by naturalistic is at stake. Neverapplied of freedom is at stake. Neverapplied when knowledge knowledge of drift of of his his argument can be theless, the main drift argument can be justified, justified, theless, if we could fully understand the for if for the realm realm of of moral moral fully will and we would also able to also be be able to grasp grasp the the relarelawill action, action, tion so that our natural that our natural tion between freedom and nature nature so cease to to be knowledge then cease be merely merely natural. natural. knowledge would then the philosophical However, the philosophical incomprehensibility of However, incomprehensibility of ultimate truth the the ultimate truth implies implies that that the the ultimate ultimate relationrelationbetween and nature cannot be In known. ship between nature freedom cannot be In ship cases the the restriction restriction of does not both both cases of knowledge knowledge does not rest rest free the theoretical upon theoretical impossibility of combining combining free upon the impossibility of ethical neceswill natural causality but upon the ethical neceswill and natural upon the causality but It is because of to nature. It is just because sity of opposing freedom to nature. opposing just sity the in that culminates ethics philosophy culminates in ethics that the opposition beopposition bephilosophy tween nature nature and freedom ought ought not not to to be be trantrantween scended, that the the domain of of thingsthingsscended, and consequently consequently that as of the realm to conceived the be is to be conceived as the realm of the in-themselves is in-themselves of pure moral or of pure practical practical reason. reason. Inasmuch as as will or moral will Kant tries tries to to give give an ethical ethical definition definition of of the the essence, essence, Kant the appearance, in contrast to of things, he feels feels logicalto the in contrast logicalthings, he appearance, of of freedom the realm that ly compelled to conclude that the realm of conclude to ly compelled essence of is the the ultimate itself as IS ultimate essence of inscrutable as is as as inscrutable itself is things. things. Should by the the same token, token, conclude conclude that that Should we not, not, by so in less than freedom is incomprehensible in so nature no is than freedom nature no less incomprehensible

10 5 105

KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG

WELTANSCHAUUNG

far it is related to the unknown and unknowable? is related to the as it far as to call of Kant to Is it not not arbitrary on the the part part of call the the objects Is it objects arbitrary on the of nature phenomena, phenomena, while he speaks free will will of nature speaks of the free as thus a causa as a causa noumenon, as thus designating appearance noumenon, designating appearance as essence as natural and essence natural as moral? If If the things-in-themthings-in-themselves asserts, would it it all cognition, as selves surpass cognition, as Kant asserts, surpass all as nature include freedom as not be be consistent not to include as well well as nature consistent to of argument line of under the the title title of of appearance appearance?? Such aa line argument of view a merely formalistic basis. basis. Such aa point point of rests rests on a merely formalistic a superficial sense; sense it is logical only in is in aa deep it sense; in deep sense logical only in a superficial of ethics ethics the centrality is because it it neglects centrality of is illogical because neglects the illogical to the and assumes aa perspective perspective neutral neutral to the ethical ethical cause. cause. that he does not the greatness of Kant that fall It is is precisely greatness of he does not fall It precisely the a speculative victim to for he he flatly to such such a victim formalism, for speculative formalism, flatly of any trans-ethical philosophy. It denies the possibility possibility of philosophy. It denies the any trans-ethical that the the contrast of appearance his studied studied conviction conviction that is his contrast of is appearance of the contrast and essence, the contrast of phenomenon nouessence, phenomenon and nouas an ethical ethical contrast should be taken as contrast and nothbe taken nothmenon, menon, should else. ing ing else. His His philosophy philosophy thus thus gets gets beyond beyond aa knowledge knowledge of of apapit is philosophy and not because pearance just because it is not science, science, pearance just philosophy but it it falls short of of aa knowledge knowledge of of essence just because because falls short but essence just it is is an ethical ethical philosophy it philosophy and not not aa dogmatic metadogmatic metaof physics. Kant conceives of nature as a phenomWhen conceives a nature as physics. phenomenal realm, his intention is so enal his intention is not so much psychological not realm, psychological not as ethical; nature is IS (and not even epistemological), even as nature ethical; (and epistemological), 106

ETHICAL PHENOMENALISM PHENOMENALISM

phenomenal because because it it is is nothing nothing but but the the material material of of phenomenal is phenomenal phenomenal not not because because man the moral moral will. will. Nature is the eyes or or through through specspecit only only through through his his own eyes tacles; such such an an epistemological epistemological phenomenalism phenomenalism would tacles; a evidently lead lead to to a metaphysical, metaphysical, and this this means metametaevidently nature is is phenomenal ethical, phenomenalism. Instead, nature ethical, phenomenalism. Instead, phenomenal because as a a moral moral person person is is never never permitted permitted to to because man as derive his his ultimate ultimate ends ends from nature; nature; on the the contrary, contrary, derive he is is required required to to subject subject nature nature to to his his own ultimate ultimate he is destiis merely merely phenomenal phenomenal because because it it is destiends. Nature Nature is ends. of an ends and of of ultimate ultimate ends tute an absolute absolute meaning; meaning; both both tute of the moral connected with are finally end and meaning with the finally connected meaning are as a uses nature nature as a means and thereby thereby superwill which uses will which supernature. of The term imposes the realm of freedom upon nature. the realm upon imposes in its full full significance thus gains "appearance" only in significance only gains its "appearance" thus ethics. ethics. looks looks at at

it

10 7 107

vV the Practical Primacy oj Practical of the Primacy

IN

AN PREVIOUS chapters the chapters the moral from the nature was of knowledge of nature distinguished the distinguished knowledge to their their relation will the basis basis of of their relation to their objects. objects. The will on the we have attains its object, as knowledge of nature, as have seen, attains its object, of nature, seen, knowledge forever separated while while the the will will remains remains forever its goal. goal. separated from its this distinction that Later, however, we observed that this distinction could Later, however, the pursuit of scientifscientifnot be be fully maintained, since since in in the pursuit of fully maintained, is always at ic knowledge knowledge the the knowing knowing subject is the ic subject always at the Science is same time time aa willing willing and acting acting subject. is not not aa subject. Science of the timeless possessor truth but but rather rather aa temporal temporal timeless possessor of the truth undertaking proceeding toward truth, although it it truth, although undertaking proceeding truth in never never reaches reaches truth in an absolutely absolutely satisfactory way. satisfactory way. of knowledge fusion within the the scientist scientist of This fusion will knowledge and will therefore external is not not merely merely of of aa psychological psychological and therefore is external but also also of of an epistemological character character but It epistemological importance. importance. It in the is grounded in of Kant's is the subjectivism of Kant's Weltansubjectivism grounded in turn this subjectivism schauung; but this of ethical ethical turn is is of schauung; but subjectivism in is the origin and is part of the ethical phenomenalism with of ethical part phenomenalism with origin which we have been been dealing. dealing. Thus we must understand understand that that it it is is the the ethical ethical 108 ID8

PRIMACY OF OF THE THE PRACTICAL PRIMACY PRACTICAL which prompted Weltanschauung Kant to to discover discover the the Weltanschauung which prompted Kant method of his peculiar method of his philosophy, a method best called a method best called peculiar philosophy,, because Kant "analytical," because Kant analyzes the several several func~ func"analytical," analyzes the tions of of the the subject and separates tions them from from each each subject and separates them other. Even the of subject is an other. Even the separation and object separation of subject and object is an outcome of of this this analytical method, outcome a method dictated a method dictated analytical method, an ethical consciousness by an ethical consciousness which finds it finds it necessary to by necessary to distinguish and means, distinguish ideality ideality and reality, means, pur~ reality, end and purand essence and appearance. pose The same same action, essence pose and action, appearance. ever reaching or method prevents re-estabprevents Kant from ever reaching or re~estab~ of these lishing the "whole" of these contrasting concepts. lishing contrasting concepts. Philosophical would be be wholly satisfied Philosophical speculation speculation wholly satisfied if this restitution were possible, if only it succeeded in succeeded in only if this restitution possible, if it the ultimate .finding ground from which which these these concon~ finding the ultimate ground trasts trasts arise. arise. Only Only then then could could philosophy philosophy succeed in dede~ succeed in riving the the opposites opposites from aa primordial primordial One and and in in rere~ riving uniting them by by means of of it. it. But But the the ethical ethical consciousconscious~ uniting ness ness and and the the analytical analytical method (which (which are are mutually mutually interdependent) preclude preclude this this ultimate ultimate solution. solution. HuHuinterdependent) man reason reason can can understand understand the the world world and and man only only by separating separating them; them; this this restriction restriction characterizes characterizes Kant's Kant's by entire entire Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. Earlier Earlier we we had had to to acknowledge acknowledge the the fact fact that that the the ethical ethical dualism dualism cannot cannot be be transcended, transcended, now now we we have have to to acknowledge the the fact fact that that the the ethical ethical phenomenalism phenomenalism acknowledge cannot be transcended transcended either. either. Were Were itit possible possible to to comcom~ cannot be I09 109

KANT

KANT'SS

WELTANSCHAUUNG

WELTANSCHAUUNG

prehend or to to intuit intuit the appearance appearance prehend of an underlying of underlying essence, essence, and were

as the appearance appearance it possible, moreit possible, more~ or intuition this comprehension over, to express intuition in in aa over, to comprehension or express this claims to fashion dialectical discursive, dialectical fashion (as Hegel claims to do), discursive, do), (as Hegel be ethical phenomenalism ethical phenomenalism would no longer be ethical, ethical, longer the innermost motif serve the and it it would no longer longer serve motif of of the speculative Kant's Kant's Weltanschauung. Weltanschauung. In In the of speculative system system of be is allowed to absorbed ultimate the Hegel the ultimate duality by duality is allowed to be absorbed by Hegel of appearance the contrast contrast of an ultimate One, because because the ultimate One, appearance of phenomenon and essence, phenomenon and noumenon, noumenon, of of thingsthings~ essence, of for-us for~us and things-in~themselves is no longer ethically longer ethically things-in-themselves is is but instead it understood determined and interpreted, but instead it is understood determined interpreted, logically, ontologically, cosmologically, and theologi~ theologilogically, ontologically, cosmologically, essence is is no cally. in Hegel's the essence cally. Consequently system the Hegel's system Consequently in to the the ideal as the ideal to to the the longer the appearance appearance as opposed to longer opposed or as to the the real or as the process or as the "ought" to real or as the goal goal to the process "ought" to are and both the "is," but both are inwardly absolutely united in but the united in "is," inwardly absolutely called Idea it is is called ultimate One, Idea (as the whether it in the ultimate One, whether (as in the Phenomenology or Mind (as Hegel's Logic) Logic) or in the Phenomenology and and (as in Hegel's One This itself and the with the Encyclopedia). Encyclopedia). This by itself with itself itself by all the all distinctions; unites is finally unites all the opposites and all distinctions; it is it finally opposites of Concept of Idea the unity unity of Being, of and Reality, Reality, of of the Idea and Concept and Being, Will. Such a be anathanath~ Knowledge a solution would be solution would Knowledge and Will. ema to to Kant. Kant. Ethical phenomenalism Ethical phenomenalism denies denies the the possibility possibility of of such such since the an absolute the moral will will denies denies its truth. absolute system, its truth. system, since lIO /JO

as the

PRIMACY OF OF THE THE PRACTICAL PRIMACY PRACTICAL There isis no no ultimate ultimate reconciliation There reconciliation in in Kant's Kant's WeltanWeltanbecause there is an striving and schauung schauung because there is an everlasting everlasting striving and There is no no intellectual acting. There is intellectual intuition that could intuition that could posacting. posbe at man's in sibly be at man's disposal; in Kant only the idea of Kant the idea of sibly disposal; only God's incomprehensible of knowing is God's characterincomprehensible way way of knowing is characterized in this Since no no one one of of the ized in this way. the basic basic metaphysical way. Since metaphysical can be overcome oppositions the opposioppositions can be overcome by by thought, thought, the opposition between natural natural science science and critical tion critical philosophy philosophy can never never disappear; there is is no place for can a "philosophy disappear; there place for a "philosophy 1 1 of nature" nature" in Kant's Wdtanschauung. of Weltanschauung. 1. It It is is true true that the Critique of 1. the oppoCritique of Judgment Judgment by by uniting uniting the oppo sites of of nature and mind, of necessity sites at least mind, of least freedom, provides necessity and freedom, provides at of such a philosophy. In aa measure of the great CI-itiques this last last of of the philosophy. In this great Critiques a certain to a certain extent, Kant, be aa metametaKant, to to be extent, accomplishes accomplishes what appears appears to physical the products products of of analytical thinking. physical synthesis synthesis embracing embracing the analytical thinking. The The beautiful beautiful and the the organic organic represent represent this this synthesis. synthesis. Kant Kant deals deals with with both both in in the the Critique Critique of of Judgment Judgment from one one and and the the same same point point of of view. view. It It was was this this work which inspired inspired first first Schelling Schelling and and later later and Hegel and encouraged them to to create create their their synthetic synthetic systems, systems. WithWithHegel encouraged in in the the frame frame of of Kant* Kant'ss Weltanschauung, Weltanschauung, however, however, even even the the Critique CI·itique of Judgment Judgment does does not not alter alter the the primacy primacy of of ethical ethical thought thought and and the the of triumph of of the the analytical analytical method. method. It It was was Schelling Schelling who who abandoned abandoned triumph the the ethical ethical phenomenalism phenomenalism and and tried tried to to replace replace itit with with his his naturalisnaturalistic tic aestheticisnx aestheticism. The The idea idea suggested suggested by by Kant Kant that that works works of of art art as as well well as as the the creatures creatures of of organic organic nature nature represent represent the the unity unity underlyunderlying the the contrast contrast between between appearance appearance and and essence, essence, or or between between object object ing and and subject, subject, found found in in Schelling Schelling an an enthusiastic enthusiastic and and original original defenddefender. er. He He was was fascinated fascinated by by the the possibility possibility of of unifying unifying the the two two spheres spheres of of Kant's Kant's Weltanschauung Weltanschauung by by means means of of aa speculative speculative philosophy philosophy of of art, and and he he dared dared to to articulate articulate this this bold hold metaphysical metaphysical vision. vision. art, Kant, on on the the contrary, contrary, never never yielded yielded to to any any such such temptation. temptation. AlAlKant, he though he agrees that that the the masterpiece masterpiece and and the the organism organism provide provide aa though agrees bridge between between the the separated separated realms realms of of nature nature and and mind, mind, he he insists, insists, bridge

III III

KANT WELTANSCHAUUNG KANT'SS WELTANSCHAUUNG o include both final truth truth would include The final both the the truth of the truth truth of science and the science of philosophy, philosophy, but but no human far as is so far it is ever obtain obtain that knowledge that truth. truth. In so as it knowledge can ever to the it is the ultimate conceived as conceived as the ultimate truth, opposed to the truth, it is opposed it is is contruth proximate truth which we can know, know, i.e., i.e., it proximate a separation of a ceived only ceived the standpoint separation which standpoint of only from the to the of moral life and to facts of conforms to to the the facts moral life the horizon horizon of the the moral consciousness. consciousness. of its own ultimate Philosophy accomplish its ultimate task task Philosophy would accomplish if it could get only it could get beyond all the the analytical analytical separations; separations beyond all only if in that ethics it would go beyond ethics but in that case but case it itself, someitself, go beyond thing is both both ethically logically prohibited. prohibited. ethically and logically thing which is of the phethat passes the opposition An Idea Idea that passes beyond beyond the of the pheopposition nomenal and the the noumenal sphere be conceivable conceivable nomenal sphere may may be ;

that this nevertheless, this bridge bridge does does not not really unify them. them. Instead, Instead, art art nevertheless, that really unify in and nature and and mind in are themselves themselves separated the organic and the separated from nature organic are that they third realm realm distinct distinct from the the other other two. two. Although Although a third that they form a of the the asethetics of the beautiful the asethetics beautiful and the the teleology of the the organic teleology of organic do in science of what is offer a synthesis is separated separated in science and morality, morality, this this offer a synthesis of the to claim has neither the nor synthesis has neither the power nor the right to claim metaphysical power synthesis right metaphysical still stand as the stand as truth. dualism and phenomenalism phenomenalism still the final final truth. Ethical Ethical dualism word. nor life life enables \vord. Neither Neither art us to the hidden hidden ground ground of of art nor enables us to know the ultimate essence essence which which would explain explain and and nature and mind-that nature and mind that ultimate artistic work produce its own appearance. appearance. On the the contrary, contrary, both both the the artistic produce its and the the organic to the world of phenomena. organic being being belong belong to the world of phenomena. The Critique in spite of Judgment, Judgment, therefore, the new vistas vistas it it of the therefore, in Critique of spite of opens and and the it offers, limits the the horizon horizon the number of of suggestions offers, limits opens suggestions it just where it it was was limited limited before. before. The final result is is the the primacy primacy of final result of just ethical ethical thought thought and moral moral action; phenomenalism proves proves ethical phenomenalism action; ethical permanently victorious. is not organism but but the the moral moral will will victorious. It It is not the the organism permanently and moral freedom wh.ich which must must be be regarded as the the absolute purpose. absolute purpose. regarded as

II2 112

PRIMACY PRIMACY OF THE THE PRACTICAL PRACTICAL Idea but as an an Idea real counterpart, would be as but its its object, its real be object, its counterpart, human reason. It would be neither beyond reason. It be neither phenomenal beyond phenomenal is no third third possibility possibility which nor noumenal, noumenal, and there there is either experience or understand. sciwe can either understand. Natural Natural sciexperience or ence would the appearances ence be perfect perfect only only if if the appearances could could be be known as as the effects or manifestations of the effects or manifestations of an an uncondiunconditional ground, tional but this this ground ground can never never be be known ground, but of its its very concept is its and its opposed to to the the concept concept of very concept is opposed of object consequent. the duality object and subject is duality of consequent. When the subject is mind ceases the to in the given up, the thinking ceases to operate in the thinking given up, operate manner of the sciences. sciences. We cannot cannot even even imagine imagine what of the also subject that is an object be that is also subject or or what aa subject object would be subject reach the that is is also also object. object. Here we reach the absolute absolute would be that of human knowledge. limit of limit knowledge. are now fully to understand understand what we mean We are able to fully able of the essence the concept absolute essence think of of the when we think concept of the absolute of the and of the thing-in-itself: thing-in-itself: we mean something something amthat either biguous, something that we cannot comprehend comprehend either biguous, something abfrom the the ethical perspective or or from aa meta-ethical meta-ethical abethical perspective therefore from an altogether solute, problematic, solute, and therefore altogether problematic, view. This ambiguity of view. point ambiguity generates generates the the apparent apparent point of of the the contradiction according to the sphere to which the contradiction according sphere of things-in-themselves is is impenetrable by human thought thought impenetrable by things-in-themselves ideal is conceived by Kant as as the the realm realm oof the the ideal and yet is conceived by and yet the moral If we and the goal goal of and of of the moral person. person. If of freedom and and the enan absolute we yield to the temptation of an absolute solution, ento the of solution, temptation yield

I Ij 113

K.ANTS KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

danger ethical ethical comprehension; comprehension; if if we stick stick to to this this comcom~ danger prehension we thwart thwart perfect perfect and absolute absolute knowledge. knowledge. prehension It is Kant's Kant's conviction conviction that that philosophy philosophy can can grasp grasp the the that and limits of within the thing-in-itself only within the limits of ethics, and that ethics, thing-in-itself only it it therefore therefore can can never never grasp grasp absolute, absolute, i.e., i.e., meta-ethical meta-ethical does not not deny deny that that the the ethical ethical truth truth trantrantruth. Kant does truth. to it scends scends itself, itself, that that it points points to something beyond itself, itself, something beyond and is not not ultimate ultimate but but only only proximate. proximate. and that that this this truth truth is of the But But the the ultimate ultimate demand of the thinking thinking mind inincontradictions. The demand, unavoidable contradictions. volves volves us us in in unavoidable demand, if to a demand, is conceivable we as a even as is conceivable only if adhere to even demand, only the separation of an ultimate ultimate and aa proximate proximate truth, truth, the separation of in addition addition that if we maintain maintain in that we are are moving moving and if other. from one one to to the the other. in this this way, conceive the the demand in If, however, we conceive way, we If, however, it is is just the of such its meaning since destroy destroy its meaning since it negation of just the negation is actually demanded. Within the the aa separation actually separation which is a proximate to an absolute truth no movement from a absolute truth proximate to is meaningful. Consequently, the ultimate knowledge is ultimate meaningful. Consequently, the knowledge in an insoluble involves the the mind in insoluble very itself involves very demand itself even as cannot fully as a a prob~ problem, fully grasp grasp even probproblem, which we cannot we cease to do cannot so. lem, cannot cease trying so. The lem, although although trying to of an of all Idea absolute unity all oppositions, Idea of an absolute unity of oppositions, necessary necessary unavoidable though it is, nevertheless and unavoidable it nevertheless contradicts contradicts is, though is worse, itself the ethical itself and, obliterates the ethical meanand, what is worse, obliterates of it destroys the the the ing of the oppositions. Thus it very oppositions. destroys ing very meanIt is

II4 114

PRIMACY PRIMACY

OF THE THE PRACTICAL PRACTICAL

of philosophical o ing of philosophical truth truth and of ing

scientific truth scientific truth as as between well. Here the the ethical and well. the antinomy the ethical and the the antinomy of Kant's Weltanschauung religious elements of Weltanschauung once religious this time in again to the fore, in the the guise of the the fore, this again comes to guise of the ultimate antinomy the proximate proximate and the ultimate antinomy between the truth. truth. is not soluble within Kant's philosnot soluble within Kant's philosThis antinomy antinomy is it is is its limit. Earlier said that, for its necessary necessary limit. Earlier II said that, for ophy; ophy; it in itself itself must always remain the ultimate ultimate in Kant, ultiKant, the always remain an ultithis for us, not be the case case mate for and yet this should not really be the us, yet really as it is an ultimate "in-itself." Now we can inasmuch inasmuch as it is ultimate "in-itself." can structure of Kant's thesis. grasp clearly the the logical of Kant's thesis. grasp more clearly logical structure is of Since his of ethical ethical origin origin and imimSince his phenomenalism phenomenalism is the the contrast between "in-itself" and the "for port, the contrast between the "in-itself" the "for port, is itself it is us" contrast us" is itself to to be be ethically interpreted: it is a contrast ethically interpreted: for us us only. that is, subphenomenalism is is ethical, ethical, that is, subfor only. The phenomenalism is not not pospos-jectivistic. A meta-ethical phenomenalism. is meta-ethical phenomenalism jectivistic. of essence sible of essence and appearance, of sible because because the the duality and appearance, of duality the phenomenon, the phenomenon, would then then no the noumenon and the in no sense meta-ethical is is in longer be tenable. The meta-ethical sense obobbe tenable. longer is subjectively injectively in-itself in-itself any any more than it it is subjectively injectively of alternative "in-itself" and it is beyond the alternative of "in-itself" itself; it is the itself; beyond the opposition "for us," beyond beyond the opposition of of object "for us," object and subject, subject, of nature selfas it is also beyond the opposition of nature and selfthe as it is also opposition beyond is beyond all freedom. It It is possible hood, necessity and and freedom. of necessity hood, of beyond all possible distinctions therefore beyond beyond all all thought distinctions and therefore thought and

lI5 1/5

KANT'SS WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG KANT

knowledge. It It is is not not an absolute absolute Object, Object, an an absolute absolute knowledge. Being or or an an absolute absolute Substance, Substance, because because these these categories categories Being of objective objective thinking thinking are are not not allowed allowed to to enter enter into into the the of ultimate problem problem since since they they cannot cannot solve solve the the final final ultimate antinomy. antinomy. meta~ethical must not not be be comprecompreMoreover, the the meta-ethical Moreover,

hended hended

as as an absolute absolute Subject Subject that that would objectify objectify ititis be it to nor in nature nature (as Schopenhauer asserts), nor is it to be self self in (as Schopenhauer asserts), absolute as an regarded as an absolute Mind or or Spirit that conceives conceives Spirit that regarded the material itself material world world (as (as Hegel Hegel itself and thereby creates thereby creates the definitive barrier asserts). Instead it it represents a definitive barrier even even asserts). Instead represents a in it the at represents, in the lanlanto to any solution; it represents, attempt at solution; any attempt of our Neither the of guage of religion, the mystery of God. Neither our mystery religion, guage of knowledge own nor nor any may imagine knowledge we may imagine can any kind of of possible this mystery; the grasp possible knowlconcept of very concept mystery; the very grasp this tries when to down this breaks edge thought penetrate this thought tries to penetrate edge breaks is no longer of truth is ultimate truth Unknowable. The ultimate longer of cognicogninot a a truth truth which any is not tive understanding tive value, it is value, it any understanding even the because even the distinction between can because distinction can comprehend comprehend is no longer valid truth valid understanding and truth is when we longer understanding is no longer "in-itself." The ultimate ultimate truth truth is the "in-itself." reach reach the longer in the science and philosophy; it is truth in the sense sense of of science in no it truth is in philosophy; It is is at truth. It at this this point that way be it it way aa logical point that theory, logical truth. theory, be or physical, physical, metaphysical, metaphysical, ontological, ontological, or epistemological epistemological comes to the moral faith of the to an end. end. Only the moral faith of the ever ever striv~ strivOnly can embrace it. it. ing seeking man can ing and seeking

116 II6

PRIMACY THE PRACTICAL PRACTICAL PRIMACY OF THE final truth The final truth is is meta-philosophical, meta-theoretimeta-philosophical, meta-theoretino conceivable method can cal, meta-theological. By conceivable cal, meta-theological. By be apprehended or comprehended. consuch truth truth be apprehended or comprehended. The conof the the Absolute is is self-contradictory diacept cept of self-contradictory and no dialectical device can solve this final contradiction. contradiction. Kant lectical device can solve this final the paradoxically agrees with the mystic in this this respect, respect, paradoxically agrees mystic in fact that that he is is otherwise otherwise opposed to mystimystidespite the fact despite the opposed to final contradiction cism. This final contradiction once cism. once more characterizes characterizes ethical and critical critical line Kant's Weltanschauung the ethical the line of of Kant's Weltanschauung Plato in in a a definitive definitive way. ends As Plato ends in myth, ends in way. myth, Kant ends of these It is the glory in moral faith. faith. It is the these two thinkers thinkers who in glory of the totality of experience by to comprehend try to by their their totality of experience comprehend the try is beyond the not violate thought that they violate what is beyond the they do not thought that and to is able to assert of Thus power of thought. Kant is able to assert to power thought. not the intellect but maintain that maintain that not the intellect but the the moral moral will will (and (and the reaches to faith based upon the moral consciousness) reaches to faith based consciousness) upon ethics of human existence. existence. He holds holds that that ethics the very limit of the very limit the medium neither through is related ultimate truth truth neither the to ultimate is related to through that of of metaphysics nor nor through that of religion, religion, but but by by of metaphysics through virtue of its own ultimate ultimate validity validity (just as the the natural natural of its virtue (just as of truth by to their sciences related to their relative relative truth by virtue virtue of are related sciences are of is the is the rationality of the an immanent rationality which which the an rationality rationality empirical objects themselves). empirical objects themselves). of moral moral reason, reason, Even autonomy of and autonomy the dignity Even the dignity and however, do not entitle the thinking to assume entitle the do not however, thinking mind to cannot be what that this reason actually performs cannot be perperthat this reason actually performs

IIJ

j/7

KANT'S KANT'S

WELTANSCHAUUNG WELTANSCHAUUNG

at all all by human reason. formed at reason. Instead, Instead, moral reason reason by scientific understanding. is as limited is just just as limited as as scientific understanding. In spite spite of the of the of the sovereignty the moral self-dependence of sovereignty and self-dependence it points to a reality sphere reality that that begins begins exactly exactly where points to a sphere it the reality If we could human reason ends: the reason ends: reality of of God. If could as God wills, will also know as will as could also as God knows. knows. wills, we could But will and our knowledge But not not only only do our will dwindle knowledge dwindle in the the face face of of God, but are we in the in but are not even in the position God, position to truly truly understand God's God's knowledge as knowledge knowledge knowledge as or to as a a will. to understand or understand God's will will as will. A creative creative and productive intellect and an omniscient productive intellect omniscient are self-contradictory self intuitive will intuitive will are concepts. intel-contradictory concepts. An intelcreates its contents is is no longer an intellect lect which creates intellect lect its contents longer as we experience as it, and aa will will which contemplates is experience it, contemplates is as will; no longer in neither neither case case do we will; in longer what we know as meant an intellect conceive what is and conceive is by an intellect and aa will will in in by as means for God. These These terms terms when we use use them as for ununtranscend the of our derstanding the capacity capacity of our thought. thought. derstanding God transcend

IIS

118

of

Index Index of Names J., 15 15 n. n. J., Kemp Smith, Smith, Norman, Norman, 96 n. n. Kemp Kroner, Richard, Richard, vi, vi, ix ix Kroner,

Kemp, Kemp,

Alexander, Samuel, Samuel, 78 Alexander, Aristotle, Aristotle,

27 27

Augustine, Augustine, Baillie,

J.

St., 52 St., 52

B., 47 47 n. n. n., 35 35 n., n., 45 45 n., n., 54 54 n., n., n.,

Baillie, J. B.,

Beck, L. L. W., W., 21 21 Beck, 104 n. 104n.

Lask, Emil, Emil, 91 91 n. n. Lask, Laotse, 16 Laotse, Leibniz, G. W., W., 26 Leibniz, Lessing, E., 22 Lessing, G. E., Locke, Locke, John, John, 69

Bergson, Henri, Henri, 78 Bergson, Berkeley, 69, 75 75 George, 69, Berkeley, George, E. A., A., 36 n. n. Bowring, E. Bowring, Cassirer, Ernst, Ernst, vii vii Cassirer, Cohen, Hermann, vii vii Cohen, Hermann,

Marx, Karl, 78 Marx, Karl,

Descartes, Rene, Rene, 2 Descartes,

F. W., Nietzsche, F. W., 12, Nietzsche, 12,

Natorp, Paul, Paul, Natorp,

Driesch, Driesch, Hans, Hans, 78 Erdmann, Erdmann,

vii

vii

16 if.

Plato, Plato, 117

n. J. E., E., 38 n. J.

Feuerbach, Feuerbach, Ludwig, Ludwig, 78 Fichte, 37 n., 58, 66, 74, 66, 68, 68, 74, Fichte, J. G., 37 n., 58, J. G., 85,99 85,99 Galileo,2 Galileo, 2 Goethe, von, 25, 25, 36 Goethe, J. J. W. von, Greene, 23 n., 41 n., 57 n., T. M., n., 41 n., 57 n., Greene, T. M., 23 n. 59 59 n., n., 96 n., n., 104 n. n. Haldane, R. B., 15 n. Haldane, R. B., 15 Haller, n. A. von, von, 57 n. Haller, A. Hegel, F. von, 74, 110, n., 74, 110, von, 47 n., Hegel, G. W. F. 111 n., 116 116 llln., Hudson, 41 n., 23 n., n,, 41 n., 57 n., Hudson, H. H., H., 23 n., 59 n., 96 n., 104 n. 104n. 59n.,96n., Hume, 69 Hume, David, David, 69

n. Rickert, Rickert, Heinrich, Heinrich, vii, vii, 38 n. F. W. J. n. Schelling, von, 73,95,111 73, 95, 1 1 1 n. J. von, Schelling, F. F. von, Schiller, Schiller, J. von, 20 J. C. F. ff 19, Schopenhauer, 9, 12 if., 19, Arthur, 7, 7, 9, Schopenhauer, Arthur, 25,27, 100, 116 25,27,100,116 n. Sinunel, Simmel, Georg, 6, 19 n. Georg, 6, B. de, Spinoza, de, 26, 26, 27 Spinoza, B. Strauss, Strauss, D. F., F., 78 .,

Tertullian, Tertullian, 52 n. Vaihinger, Hans, 37 n. Vaihinger, Hans,

Windelband, Wilhelm, vii, vii, 6 Windelband, Wilhelm,

PRINTED IN U.S.A.

(Continued from front flap)

(Continued from front flap)

Cohen Cohen and and Cassirer, Cassirer. which which considered considered him him aa

thinker primarily primarily concerned concerned with with epistemolepistemol-

thinker

ogy.

ogy.

RICHARD RICHARD KRONER KRONER is is Professor Professor Emeritus Emeritlls at at

the University University

the

of

Kiel, Germany, Germany, and alld at at of Kiel,

Union Unloll Theological Theological Seminary. Seminary.

He

Permanent Permallent Visiting Visiting Professor Professor

at

is also also

is

at Temple Temple

University and at the University oj Bern;

University and at the University of Bern;

has taught at Preiburg, Dresden, and Ox-

has taught at Freiburg, Dresden, and

ford; af/d deli!lered the Gifford Lectures at

at ford; and delivered the Gifford Lectures

the is the St. Andrews St. Andrews in ill 1939-40. Dr. Kroner Kroner is 1939-40. Dr.

author of a mOllumetltal two-volume study

author of a monumental two-volume study

German idealism, the development of of idealism, of the development of Gennan other his other Kant bis Von Kant Among his bis Hegel. Hegel Among

Function of are The works works are The Religious Religious Function Faith Imagination; Primacy of Faith Imagination; The Primacy

(Gifford Lectures); How Do We Know (Gifford Lectures); Faith (University God? and Faith Culture and God? Culture of (University of introduction an introduction and an Chicago Press, 1951); 1951); and Chicago Press,

and in Heger s Early and translations translations in HegeFs Early TheoKnox T. M. Knox logical Writings (with T. logical Writings (with

[University Press, 1948]). 1948]). of Chicago Press, [University ojChicago is Assistant Assistant Proftssor JOHN E. SMITH SMITH is of Professor of JOHN E.

Philosophy at Yale Yale University. University. Philosophy at

hp 11111 12626944 1111111 944 ~~

II ~;

~~