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The Coptic Encyclopedia

.

OJ ,

Editors and Consultants Editor In Chief Am. S. Adya

University oll/I(I), EditOR William Y. Adams

U"i"cl'Sily of Kentucky Basilios IV Archbishop of JuuSIl/cm Picrn du Bourguel. SJ. Lo.."n Mwcum, Paris Rene.Georges Coquin Colle~

4e Frl:lnu:, Porn

W. H. C. F~d Gltugow Unil:cnity Mimi Bouuos Gbli Society of Copti.c Arch,u'oIOO. Coiro

Bishop Grqorio$ Hilher I,utitwc of Coptic Swdw. Cairo Peter Gl'O$Iirnann Gillmuin JI1SliIUIC

of Art:hllcolou.

C"iro

Amoin.. Guillaumonl CotltlC de Fu.ncc, Paris

Rodolphe " - r Unillm" 0/ Gent"" MllI1in KnoUSoe Wc$lf'tJ/ischc Wi/hclnu-U..ivusilw. Miinstl!f

Subhi Y. LaMb Kit! University Tito Orlandi Uoti"usl/)' of R~ Marian R~nson UUIII 5/"lc Uni"crsity Khalil Samir -fpnli/icllf Orlen/a! Institute. Rome

Co'mullanu Lablb Habachi Egypt/an DepartmcrJ(

0/

Antiquities, Cairo

J. M. Robinson /nSI;twte of Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont, California Magdi Wahba

Cairo VOlivers//)' Edllorlal Ma_glng Committee S. Kent Brown BrigJtam YOllng University, Provo

Fu.ad Megally Polyw:Jtl1ic of Central London

The Coptic Encyclopedia

Aziz S. Atiya EDITOR IN CHIEF

Volume 4

.

"' Macmillan Publishing Company NEW'lORK

Collier Macmillan Canada WRONTO

Maxwell Macmillan International NEW YORK· OXFORD· SINGAPORE· SYDNEY

Copyright @ 1991 by Macmillan Publishing Company A Divuion of Macmillan, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book rna)' be reproduced or lranmlit~d in any form or by any meaM, electronic or mechankaJ, including pholocopying. recording. OC" by an)' infonnalioo slOrage and relrie~-al $}'$tem, wilhoul permiwon in wriling from the Publisher. Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 Eglinton Avenue East, $line 200, Don Mills, Ontario M3C )NI library of Congress Catalog Card No.: 9().23448

Printed in the United Stales of America prinling number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Library of Congre55 Cataloglng-in-Publieation Data

The Coptic encydopeofuo I Azil. S. Atiya, editor-in-ehief. p. em. Includes bibliographical references and indCll. ISBN. 0-o2·897025·X (sel) I, COffic Church-DIctionaries, 2. Copts-Dictionaries. I. Atiya,:Azi1. S" 1898BXlJO.5.C66 1991

281'.1'03-dc20

90-23448 elP

The prrparation of this volume W
(continued)

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES (continued).

SAWIROS (0. late eleventh century) Siiwiros was immediate suc(:e.. o~ to his maternal unde, AbUlia Fiqlor, who had reared him ill Ethiopia, The episcopate of &iwiros was distinguished by a series of events, which are recorded primarily in the Hiswry of lhe Palria'ehs. After Fiq\or's death (c. 1077), &iwiros went to Egypt, where he was conseeTated as metropolitan bishop by Patriarch CYRtL II (1078-1092), To aid him in this undertaking, &iwiros had obtained preliminary consent from the ,",werful amlr aHu}-ush Badr al·Jamall, vizier (1074.,.1094) of the Fatimid caliph al-Muslan~ir, by promising him gifts and im· proved treatment of the Muslims living in Christian Ethiopia. Immediately upon his return to Ethiopia from Egypt, howe\'er, SAwirO!l was opposed as bish. op by the Coptic monk 'AbdulI, who, under the name of QOrll (Cyril). had earlier tried to USU,>, the epi""opai throne from Abuna Fiq!or. &iwiros emerged victorious, 'AbdOn being forced to flee with whatever belongings he could collect. The fu· giti>'e monk sought safety on the island of Dahlak Kebr (Gff the coast of Mass,3wa), but was arrested there by al·MuM...k (first of the archipelago sui.

tans), who stripped him 01 all hi. good. and sent him to Cairo, where the vizier ordered hi. execu· tion in H'. 80l/A.D. 1085-1086. SAwiros, h>'ing been pan of his unde's entou· rage, knew Ethiopia well and enjo}ed considerable prestige. Thus, he was able to undertake a number of rdonn., distinguishing himself aboye all hy his fight against polygamy. Even the king (unnamed in the Hi.lOry of In" Patriarchs) renounced all his women, s,3ye hi. wife and one concubine who had borne him children. In October 1088, &iwiros, via hi. brother, RijAl, .ent a present to Badr al·Jamal!. But the yj~ier ""orned the gift and complained to Rijal-before the patriarch and many Coplic bishops, who had been urgently summoned-that &\",'il"05 had not fulfilled his earl} promises, in panicular, his prom· ise to build four mosque. for the Muslims of Ethio· pia. But Rijal replied that, on Ihe conlrary, hi' brolher had even been imprisoned by the king of Ethiopia precl~ly because he had agreed to Ihe construction of seven mosques-mosques lhat had been rapidly demolished by the Elhiopians. Thereupon, the vi~ier commanded Patria~ch Cyril It to wrile to the Ethiopian sovereign, urging him to respect the Muslims. A delegation, led by two Coptic bishops, carried the patriarch's lener to Ethiopia, along with a letter from Badr al·Jamall, in which he th
1005

1006

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

if the king did not sat;.ry hi. demand., The king. ho__'et. ans_..,d m., viLier Wilh an e...,n harsher ~r. "'herein he- threalened all Idam. including Mecca. wim .even repriuJs. The HUiDry of w PDlri",d.. elves DO ru"her in· fonnstion :>bool Abuna S40.,.iros. bul lhe E1hil>pian Synaxarion relales thaI after len years. he kft Elhiopia to ""Iurn 10 Egypt. Howevet, lhis return was probably" prudent recall. agreed upon bet'o<'«n the Coptic pauiatcll and lhe Eahiopian king, as " result 01 deterionli", ..,blions bet","" Ecn>t and EtlUopia. This could .1"" ~pbiD ....Ily eenain tr'lIlditional liSl$ of Elhiopian melropolitan bishops !!late lhal SAwiros was "...il«l by Alexandria," The Elhiopian Syna.larion funher nOlel thai SAwiros died in Egypl aDd was buried al lhe Monastery or Anbi. Macari"" (NYl ......&1 flW)l,R).

II is prolloable (t...t not ~enain) lhat Siwir06's 11K' ceSlOr ...... Abuna Giyorgis I.

regard 10 this request so thaI Ihe new bishop could depan I'or Ethiopia wilh tM retumina mc»enger. Michxl chose and <:<>rt:lKmed a monk by the name 01 Jirjis .,..hoD c.amt frotn tun .u<M >UOU ill w},pf ':'AlIa. Ho.........e •• Ihe ne.... puble, who Idt for Elhiopia immcdialeiy. remaine-'JlI, and aped thaI tM offendina bishop l>e punished. III Cairo. thc "izier had Giyo'lli. CUI imo prison, where he remainelrilltdu &iva nll further iofonMtion about Ihis pn:laie. II is probable, but I'lOl cenain, lhat IUs imanedi..e Sll<:C~ ....-as Abuna Miknl I.

BI8UOCII.I\rHV

Budge. E. A. W., lrans. Tire Boot oflhe S/linlJ of rhe £Ilriopitln Ch"",It, Vol. 4, p. 995. Cambridge, 1923. Gukli, I. "u Ji",e dei me!l'OfI'OIiti di·Abissinia. Bess.......... 6, xr. I (1899):8, n. 2. Renludot. E. Hi.,orio P"mo",11"'"m .4/£.O""drinorum }tlCOOiIO'"m, pp. 452-53, 462-64, Paris. 1713. Ronlni. C. Storitl d·Eliopi... pp. 287-89. Be-rpmo. 1928. Tadd=e Tam..,. CI...,d ""II Slllte i" EJlltopu. 1170-/527, pp. 41~SO. 116. 209. O>.foni. 1972. Teckschi, S. "Note Sforiehe sulle isok Dahlak," Procoemngs of Ille Thi,d Intern,,,i,,,,,,, Con/urn,e 01 £lhiopiQn Smdies /.4dd,'. Abobo 196tJ), Vol. I. p. 58 (n. 42 ref~rs 10 the dale of execution of ·Ab· doln). Addis A~, 1%9. Trimlngham, J, /w.m in Elhiopitt, JIP. 6)-65. Ox· ford. 1952. H

"

GIYORGIS I (It early twelrlh century) It il proNbl~ Ihal Gi)'Orgis (Jirjil in Arabi~) was

lhe immediate suc.:tssor cl Ahun. sa,,,,iros, Th~ only inlormation concerning him is found in the H ~ o{,lIe P.triudu (kenaudoc, 1713. pp. 47516). During A..IOI. 'Ill/A.D. 110 I ~ 1102, the king of E!hiopia (unnamed in the Arabi<; lUI) ~nl a m~lISen8er 10 al,Af church. The rizier IIlmmoncd "1CH.'l.El. IV (1092-1102) and asked him to act qulc:k1y in

BIBUOCR"PHV

Reoaudol, E. HislDriII Pdlrituch"rum Alutln4rim>""" },u;om'"",,,,, pp. 475-76. Paris. 171). RoWni. C. C. SIoriII "'£rlo,1;"" P. 289. 8cr'pmo, 19U. Serge", Hable ~Ilassie. Ancien' ",nd .\kdin>IJl EIII~ pi"" History (0 1170, pp. 250-51. Addi. Ababa. 1972.

MlKA'£L I (8. early twelfth celltury) It is ....ibk (Ihough DOl «ruin) WI be _ the direcl succ~ of Abun;o GiJ;orsii I. Chrislened l;Iablb al·AI[ihI, he ....umed lhe name Mikt'el (Mlkht'll in ArlIbic) upon his elevallon to lhe Seat

of E1hiopia by

N~RlIlS

1I (1102- 1128). Accordi,,& 10 Ihe HiS/Of'}' of 'lie p"ITian:!Is, Miki'tl's epCscopale ...... martrd by 1"'0 q>isodes importanl ID the hislory of Elhtopia. The Ii... oeeurnd durin, the ponti"'ale of GABRIEL II (IIlI_lIaS), ",·ben ,he kina of Elhiopla (unnamed in the Arabic lex') asked the Metropolitan MiU'tl 10 consecrale some bishops as coadjutorS in numbe'" 1.1'1:'" than thai pertAined by anon I.... In lhe margin ol!he Arabic .~.. a note of doublful val.... adds that II !he time. 'he number allowed In the CopIk: cbur"Ch ...... ",",-en. Ho_''et', Ihe melltlpolilan replied 10 the king Ihat he did noI have Ihe power 10 aceede 10 Ihi. requesl wilhuut Ih. palriarch's aUlhori'.:llion, ....herrupon m., kina made his requesl directl)' booth 10 the palrian:h and 10 lhe falimid caliph al·l:U~ (1130- 1149), ....ho like"'..... In""'pled tll influence

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

tho palriarch in this mal1er. The laller adroitly de~ed

hlmsoelf by "",-plaining 10 the a1liph ......1 if tho number cl bishops in A~n" .su~ the UI>Ol\kallimil. thft<' bishops could lJM,n el«llmir _.., metropolitan on lile, whidt "'"QU1d risk remoYine Cltristian EtltiopU &-om all influence eomine &om fcypt:. ~ caliph acO<'pled !his ......menl and did IlOl i/\list funJ.eo-. For his part, the patriareh !<>Ok care 10 ...n,e 10 lhe E1hiopi.t.n rult-r, e>.honinc ILim 10 deslA from his requ.esI_ Mean...ttile. linee EIhiopUo had been Arud by diverse disaneR. such as d.rou.ghl, !:amine, and epidemics, lhe kinl hastmed 10 rtI>OtInce his rtqUtSI, and Itis allegiance 10 the p.unar.:,h. Gabrill'l II then senl his blesiins 10 the Ethiopian king.. and all talamities ami! 10 an end. MiU't! I conlinued his epi>.copal rto,n in £lhiQpia during Ihe brief ponlifiult$ of bolh MICHAel V (1145- 1146) and lOON v (1147 ~ I 1671. Jl was during John's pontificate thaI Ihe second ""isodc: relaled in Ihe Hi,tory of Ih. Palriarchll oc· curred. Th" king of Ethiopia (unnamed In lhe Ara· bic lut) wrote a lener 10 Ihe powerful vizi"r al· ·Adi!. Ihat ;~. 'All ibn al·SalAr. vi'''''r 10 lhe f.timld caliph al·~r (IJ49_1154). in Ihis letler. which was nO doubl accompanied by an lrnponam Iill. the k1nl qi
.-.:,.,ed

1007

Tt
Budge, E. A. W.. IRRlI. The Book oI'lu Soinls of 1M E,mol'it". C"~rdI, Vol. 3. pp. lIOO-801. Cambridge, 1928. Rmaudol. E. Hisluri. AIU'Ufdrino-"".. J ~ pp, 510-511. 515~5U.. Pari.., 1713. Rossini. C. Sum" tl'Enopitl, pp. 289-90,303. Berp

'.""re,",,,,,,.,

100, 1928. Sergew Hable Sellusie. Ancient "rul MemnrQl E'hit:>pi... Hi3'ory 10 1170, p. 2
documenl conceminl MiU'~1 I). Tad
MIKA'£L II (ft, early Ihlrleenth cenlury) According to lhe His/()ty o! th~ Pa/.i«rch,. during Ihe pontificale of JOH~ VI (1186-1216) and under 1M ",ign of the AyyO.bid sullan Abo Bah. also known as al-Malik al··Adil. who had assumed power in July 1199, ;Ul Ethiopian delegalion wu .«ei,..,d in Cairo. rtqut$ling a n~"" metropolil:ln 10 replace lhe one who had juSI died. Hi$ name is unknown. bUI be was the .suCCl!'SoSOr 10 MiU'tl I. Sine" the arrival ill Cairo of this delegalion was also rttor<Jo,d by the Anob physician and ...Tit"r 'Abop of the city of Fuwa. Tra...,ling with the Ethiopian ddeplion, JQ\, Abuna MiIr.. "~l II. came 10 ElhiopOa, ""M", he reui'u1 with geal po:mtp and Ii'V<:ll large eodowmelllS in orde-r 10 mee1 his own needs and 1,-," of his. ""tou· ~. H"""",,,. h" years IllIer he "'''''; back in Cairo with Deither rtIinue nOt means- He told Jolin VI that ill Ethiopia he had run OOIInl",," 10 lhe lreacherous intrigues ploued by the queen, ...·00 had a brother nam~ JabrUn. If one admll5 a scribal <;orruplion of tJM, Arabit ltAl, 1M nlUtle may also be r<:ad lIS KhayrUn or f;lilrUn. She had thu. forced MiU'tl 10 consec,."te J.bnln as bishop, who lhen gradually ,,",urped many prerosall'e. of the aim". Becau.e Jabrun and his cohorla had dared 10 attack Ihe dwellings of Ihe mtlropollll
1008

ETH IOP IAN PRELATES

10 Ethio pia a pries t name d Musi , ""ho had In.. rue· lions to ""1m .. • leueT 10 lhe kin, and in''e5ligoole tloc afiai •. an.. yar btu, acco m... .icd br an Edtiopi.lon ""lep tion , MUsi ~urned 10 ~l't with an answ ,,' from the kinS and I~ nece ssary lnfen na· tlon. tltal h" lhe INe reaso n for Mild i'tl·. Illlhl _ had <:aU!o'!d a dign iwy of Ihr Ethio pian chur ch 10 be bt:alen 10 dcalh , a man ...-no had bttll po5le d 10 ......-d the tuas ure <Jl the archb ishop and whom MiU 'tl had " ...pec l..d of ha,..'i"l ,101"" a bar of lold, The ,..,Ia t;"« of Ihc dcad dillnilary had Ihe" "'tac k"" Ihe =;de n", of the metr opoli lan. who had Bed in fear. M for hbnl n, he had died two mont hs meT MikA 'tl'. 81.nt .and lherr lore DO Iona· er posed a threa l. funh crmo re. the king 01 Ethio pia had senl rins wilh the del"p tioll for both lbe pat'; ' ..oh and Ihe suit" ". and ,..,quested a new metr opol. illln. In the absenc" of al·Malik al··Adil. the king' s "'tier was li....11 10 the reg.", •. a1-M;r.lik·. son, al· Malik aIoK imil. who wrho rizcd the palli arch 10 car· ry out th" Ethio pian rcq...... L Thus . on Suno then IefI for E,hiopi.lo ...·i,b a ..<>hew oJ Ulib aJi and occu pied tbe ,hron e 1Ih.". his und" .~ befor e his cous in Yflb Inol) . I. adds lhat !he capit al of Ibis kinl was 'Ada&. (i..... Ada13). locat ed near d.e prnc :n, elly of Ulib ali, and thaI the origi nal coun tl)' of th. ru1in l Zigw e dynasty was calle d al,Bu \;na. cOlTe$pOltdinll\IO the ~ric l of Bugn i. 10 lilt south of Usta . The e data from the Arabic le~1 confi rm ohe histo rical bases and impo nanc :e of this epIs o.k BIBL IOGR APHY

PemJcl>on. J. "Ex".." de la vic d'Ab ba Jean . 14" palri a... he d'AJ nand rie, re1al;{ i I·Abyssinle. Revwe simif iqu.. 6 (Ucn );261 -1I, 366- 72: and 1 {1&99):16-811. N

Ren.... dot. E. Hi$lori.. Palri. .re,",n<m AlU" .. Jri",," n<m J.. aJlnlan<m. pp. 559- 63. Paris . 1113. RoI6tni. C. S~ 1i·E!WJvil<. pp. 301-308. Ber- pmo. 1928. ~,ew Habl e ~11as$ic. 04 ..<:1«>11 .... i Medi eval EII.iop;/ln ml/o ry /0 1170. pp. 268- 69. Addi , Ababa. 1972. Taddessc- Tamr at. Chur ch (,.,.1 Slate i.. Edtio pi.. 121()~1517. pp. 59-6 2. <>:'ford. 1972, Whk e. J. Ahlio/Ulriplri Hisio nae A.c"P ri Compot"lii,..... habi ee
YES HAQ I (fl. earl y thirt eent h cenl ury) He succ eede d Mild 'ell1...ito had been dism issed from his posk ion. At lhe reque sl of the negus. Uli· ball (c:. 1190 -123 0), John VI (115 9-12 16) chos e I""l) brolb ers &om amo nglh e mon b at "'" Monas-lery of saint Anthony. Y..sJ:1aq (1,,-,,,,, in Arabic) and his old" , broth "" y,hu f (Jose ph), Ve,!:,aq Was t1amed ""'l< opoli lan and hil broth er. coad julor . The C<>nsecntion rook pia<:" in Cairo on Sund ay, 9 Ramadln AM. 606/1 Mard t 1210. All otht r historical data are lackin.. The dir« t succ essor to VesJ:aq I " ... Giyorgis II, BIBU OGR AP'li Y

Pem. lcboo , J. "Exl nil .x b vic d'Ab l:- Jean , 14e ]'Ab yssl. le:' ~rtr iarc he d·Ak ..lld rie, rdat if i Revu " sJ... iliq,.e 6 (189 3):37 t-12: and 1 (1899):14. R"na udol. E. Hipioon Hi.It(ory to 117(). p. 269. Add... Ababa. 1972.

GIY ORG IS II (fl. Irarly thirt eent h cent ury) Near lhe end of the ",ign of th" negu s L:iJlbala. Giyorgi5 beca me;h e direc t ....C«S$Or <Jl Abu" " V.... i}aq I: hi!. name Itas been lnutSmiJted onl, Ihrot llh E1hiopia>t documen<s. menl ioned in a ~I acel dated Giyorgis II il 29 Mar d 1225 in conn eclio n ".,.ith a dona tion of land mad. . by Ulib ali. He is also m"nl lon"d in the colop hon 01 Krbr d N/lta st (Bez old, 1905. p. 1.38). a Ill,," ,ry .....rk ronla ioins the wrln "n V'CnK>1I <Jl the ....llo nal I.".,. .d of Ethio pia. TIlis colop /lon stale s I.... the work had fi~ be.,., tnonslat"CI from Copt ic into Arnbic in the year 1211 of the Ethio pia" cal", ,· dar (A,D. 1224~1225). durin g the .eign of Uliba lli .and Ihe metr opoli taruu " of Ci)'Of"gi5 II. As fur lhe History of lire Coptic- ,...tri tJuhs . al. though II doa DOl list thr nalm <Jl lhe ITl<'tropoli· Ian. it dor$ cons erve th" 5tOry of the circu msta nces

fi,..,

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

surrounding his election, Near the end of the pontificate of the Coptic patriarch John VI (11891216), the AyYUbid suhan al·Malik al.K;l.mil (12001218) received a messenger in Cairo from the king of Ethiopia (Ulibal;l.). This messenger had been commanded to announce the death of Abuna YesI>aq I to the sultan and ask him to send a new one. """"ever. an ambitious Coptic priest named Diiwiid ibn Laqlaq then went to al·Malik al·KAmil and. after giving him 200 dinars, asked the sultan to intet>'ene and have him (Dawiid) consecrated as metropolitan of Ethiopia. (This same D;l.wiid later became the COJIlic patriarch Cyril lit, 1235-1243.) AI-Malik alKAmiJ solll the messenger to John VI, who in turn suggested to the messenger that he tell the .ultan "that this one is not fit because his belief in God is conup!"' and that sending him to Ethi<>pia could distance the Ethiopians from the Coptic church and consequently from the Egyptian authorities as welL The messt:nger having followed these instructions, the sultan dedded to leave the patriarch complete freedom in making his choiee. Thus it was that someone other than Diiwiid was consecrated as metropolitan. Although the H;;IOry of the Patriarchs omits both the name of the metropolitan and the date of his consecration, it i. dear that this episode ",fen to Giyorgis 1], and thus. his election must be placed around 1215. The date when his metropolitanate ended is un· knnwn. It i. possible (but not certain) that he was the immediate p",decessor of Qerelos L BIBUOGR"PHY Bezold, C, Keb,t1 Nagas/: Die Herrlichkeit de, Kon;ge. p. 133. Munich. 1905. Budge. Eo A. W. Th" Quun of Sheba and Her Onl)' Son, Menyeld I, p. 228. London. 1922. Rossini, C. "L'evangelo d'oro di Dab", Liban",." Rend,""nt; ddl.. Reale Afcademia de; Lincei JO, ser. 5 (1901):189-91. ~, _ _ , "Aethiopica: S"lI"a"l1ore e .ulla data del Kebra Nagast." Rivista dqli $t~di o>ien/ali 10 (1925):506-503, . _ _. 5/0'-;" d'E';opia. pp. 309-310. Bergamo. 1923. Taddesse Tamrat. Church and Stale in Ethiopia 1170-/527. p. 64. Oxford. 1972.

Q£RELOS 1 (fl. end thlrteenIh cenIury) It is probable (but not certain) that Qhel", I

"'"as

the direct successor to Abuna Giyorgis II, The prin· cipal dala concerning this metropolitan comes from the Life of Abuna Takla H;l.ym;l.not (Budge.

1009

19(6). lhe Ethi<>pian saint (d. c, 1313) 10 whom is attributed both the founding in Shewa of Dab", Asbo (later called Dabra UMnos) and the establish· ment of one of the two great monaslie orders of Elhiopia. This Life reports thaI at fifteen years of age Takla Haymanot was led bl' his falher ll> Abu,,~ G~,.cl05 (i.e .. (}trel", or C)'ril), who ordained him a deacon. The text describes Q~relos as "bishop of Amhara at the time of the lAgw~ kings" and .tates that Abuna Takla H;l.ymlnot's ordination took place "when Benjamin was Archbishop of Alexandria;' a sUt.,. ment based on a misunderstanding, since the", was no successor 10 SainI Mark named Benjamin during the lhineenth cent,,')'_ Ac(ording 10 this same Life. oerel05 then conferred the priesthood upon Abuna Takla Haymanot and eventually named him ;;qa kdhniJ.t (chief of the priests), However. according to Cerulli (1943, pp. 230-31), the office of ;;qa kMm~/. which consisted in choming the candida Ie. to be presented to the metropolitan for ordination as priests. was in fact esublished only in the four· teenlh centu')' by Abuna Y;l'qob and assigned to Filel;'J;'OS' third abbot of Dabra Asbo. The name of this abu" is often missing in the traditional lists of tM melropolilans of the Ethiopi· an church. but there is !1{l doubt as to his exi.tence. He is mentioned ",.tably in an act concerning a gift of land made in 1210 by the negus Yekunno AmIM: soon after Itis accession to the throne. an act regis· tered in the Golden Gospel of Dabra Lib;lnos in Shim<'lzana. The date when the metropolitanate of Qe",lrn; I ended is unknown, He seems to have died near the beginning of Yekunno Aml;lk's Teign. for according to lhe Egyptian historian al·M~ott!zl. in a letter writ· ten to the Mamluk sultan Baybars (1260-1277) lhat was recei,'ed in ~.H_ 673!A.f>. 1274-1275, the negus Yekunno Amlak requested a new metropolitan. It would appear. according 10 certain Arabic docu· ments, that oe",lo. I had as hi. succes.or a Syrian metropolitan (unnamed) or even several S)'Iian metropolitans. According to one hypothesis (Weit. 1938, pp. 117-21), these Syrian metropolilans were Melchile, hul aecording 10 another (Taddesse Tamrat. 1972). the)' were Jacobite; however. tlte "'.-abic document.s are not .t all .,.plieit on this .ubject. According to tlte Life. the Abuna Yo!)ann.. II wished to consecrale Abuna Takla Haymanot "bislt· op over half of Ethiopia." Although the reality of lhis eonsecration i. questionable. the episode is important from a chronological point of view. for it conllnns that Abuna Yol)annes II was the direct successor of Qe",los I.

1010

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

i\lmeida, M, de. HislOria de Ethiopia a alta ou Aba,' $ia, Vol. 5 of Rerum Aethiopicarum Scrip/ores Occidentales Inedili, pp. 18t-87. Rome. 1'Xl7;,..,· printed as Hisloria Aethiopiae. Brussels, 1969. Budge, E. A. W. The Ufo of Takla Hdym&"or i" th. V",SiOM of Dabra Ubtmos, pp. 52-54, 68-70. 206208. London. 1906.

___ The Book of rh. S"i"ls of the Erhiop;a~ Church, Vol. 4 p. 1242. Cambridge. 1928. Cerulli. E. "Gli abbali di Dabra Lihanoo. capi del mona~hismo eliopico. secondo la 'lista rimala' (sec. XIV-XVIH)."· Orientali" 12 (1943):230-31. Guidi, I. "i.e liste les, Vol. 2. pp. 267-73. Paris, 1811. Renaudol. E. Hi.ldri>lomm Jacobi/amm, pp. 170-71. Paris, 1713. Rossini, C. C. "Appunti cd osservazioni f>Ui re zague e Takla H:iym.mol." Rendlcomi ddla Real. Accadem;" dei Uncei 4. ,er, 5 (1895):445-58. ___. "L'evangelo d'oro di Dabra LibAnos."' Rendl· comi d.lla RCllle Accademlll d..- Unce' 10, ser, 5 0%1):195-96, ___. Siona d'Elwpla, p. 321. Bcrgamo, 1928. Sergew Hable SCllassie. Andem and Medieval Ethio· pian History 10 1270, pp. 282. Addis Ababa, 1972. Taddessc Tamrat, Church ,,~d Siale in Ethiopia, 1270-/527, pp. 70-72, 11>0. O~ford, 1972. Weil, G. "l.es Relations egyplO·abyssines sous les suhans mamlouks."' Bull.rin de fa Sod'ii d'arch~ologie COpl< 4 (1938):117-21.

YOHANNES II (fl. early fourteenth century) The date of Yohotnnes' anival in Ethiopia is un· known, but in th. Ufe of Takla HAym:inol, the Ethiopian saint who fo~nded one of the two great mo· nastic orders of Ethlopia (Budge, 1906-1e~I, p. 84 and tmn•. , pp. 206-207), it is reported that loward the end of the saim's life there arrived in Elhiopia a metropolitan called Abuna Yol:umnes, This metropolitan wished 10 ordain Takla HAymAnot a bishop and give him half of the country; bur the saint declined the offer. In genemlthis episode is ~onsid· ered only as an imitation of a similar episode-lhe supposed assignment of the position of bishop 10 File{'J;'Os, third abbot of Dabra Lib:inos. Howe,'er, il is important from a chronological point of view, for

it shows that Yohannes II was the successor (proba· bly direct) of Abuna Q~relos rand lhat he arrived in Ethiopia just before lhe death of Abuna Takla H:,ym:inot (c. 1313). YoJ:lannes' prelacy is confinned by another Le'l. the Ufe of B¥lOla Mik:.'~1 (ROS$ini, 1962, pp, 2223; and 1961. pp. 20-21), abbot of Dabro Gol in Amhara during the firsl half of lhe fourteenlh cenlury. Here it is stated Ihat B!~lota Mik:.'~I, having 1l0ted that AbUlia YaJ:lannes was collecting contri· butions for administering th. sacraments and, in particular, for ordaining pri""lS, did nol hesitate to reproach him, all of which the metropolitan ig· no,..,d. Thereupon, the abbot dared 10 make his complaints known to the negus (unnamed in lhe Ethiopian 'e,', but doubtless 'Amda ~yon), who, howevcr, instead of giving credence to the abl:>ol, exiled him 10 Tigre, This aceusalion of simony seem, unU$ual, far il is well known thaI in Ethiopia the metropolitans ha\'e always been accorded reve· nues and lhat lhey collecled a conlribulicm from each candidate to lhe priesthood at the time of his ordination. This episode should lhus be interpreted in the sense lhat probably this particular metropoli· tan levied 100 large a contribution upon each can· didale, which would constilule an impediment 10 the increase of priesls just at a time ""hen th. Ethio' piao church was ha\'ing to fight in a ~ountry still rife with paganism. The date of Yohannes [I's dealh is unknown, bur it may be presumed thaI his metropolitanate un b. placed hetween 1310 and 1330, His ,ucceswr was Abuna YA'qob.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Almeida, M. de. Hisloria de Elhiopia a alit! ou Abas· ,ia, p. 184. Rerum Aethiopicarum ScriplO""S De· cidentales !nediti 5. Rome, 1907. Budge, E- A. W. The Ufe of Takla Haymimot i~ the Vers;"n of Dabra Ub
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

Tadd,sse Tamrat. Church and SiaM in Ethiopia. 1270-1527. pp, 114-15,178, Odord, 1972.

yA'QOB (0. mid-Fourteenth century) The nan" of this rn'tropoJitan is lisled in five IexlS in Ethiopian literature Ihal comprise the "Cy· cle of the Holy Monb in ConAicl Against the King."' These monks we", B"'J"Ilota Miki'el, abbot of Dabra Gol in Amhara; Fil,ppos, abbot of Dabra Asbo (subsequ,ntly known as [jabra lJb.§.nos) in Shew;>.; Ano... twos. founder (>f Dabra ~egAg;I in Shewa; Aron. abbot (>f Dabra DMtt in Bagemdir; and Sarnu'el, founder of Dabra Wagag in the southeast of Shewa. Despite tho differences and anachronisms. a comparison of the five texts furnishes a sketch of Ihe principal ",..,nts of n'qob's episcopate. Having arrived in Elhiopia toward Ihe end of Ihe long reign of 'Amda $eyon, Y~'qob was expelled and .sent back to Egypt soon after the emhronemem of $;
1011

BtBt.lOGRAPHY

Cerulli, E, "Gli abbati di Dabra Libanos. capi del monachesimo eliopico, secondo la "lista rimata"' (sec. XIV-XVlIl)."· Orien/alia 12 (1943);239. Guidi.!. "I.e liste dei melropoliti d'Abissinia."' Bes· sarion" S. se<. I (1899}:8. Kur, S. Aeres de Samuel de Dahra Wagag, In CSCO 288, PI', vii, ix, 7-9, 39. lam'ain, 1968, Rossini. C. Vila" SanclOrum Indigena",m, VoL I, Acla S. Ba~alola Mild'il tl S. Ano''''vos. In CSCO 29, Scriprores Aelhiopici 12. Louvain. 1961. Taddesse Tamrat. "The Abbots of Dabtii Hayq, 12481535."' Journal of Elhiopion Studies 8. no. 1 (1970):98-100. ___. Church and Slare In Elhlopia 1270-1527, Pl'· 117_18. 174_79. O~ford. 1972. Turaie". B. Vita" Sarleto",m lrldig"rlarum; Aela S, Aarorlls el S. Philippi. In cseo 31, pp. 114-19, t74_79, 201-205. Louvain. 1955. ___ Vit"e SarlclO,«m Indigen"",m: AclO S. Eu'1OIhil". In CSCO 32, Pl'. 28-29. Louvain. 1955. Zotenberg. H. CQla[og«, do> manu.crilS 'thiopie~, (ghee1 et amharique) de la Bibliolheque naliorlale, p. 263. Paris, 1877.

SALAMA II (d. 1388) SalAmi n was Ihe successor of Abuna YA'qob and served as metropolitan during the reigns of Negus Sayfa Ar'Ad (1344-1372), Negus Newaya M~ryAm (1372-1382), and Negus Da"'it I (1382-1412). The Libu A~umae indicates thaI he arrived in Ethiopia in 1341 of the Ethiopian calendar (A.t}, 1348-1349) and died in 1380 (A.t}, 1387-1388). According to the Ethiopian Synaxarion, he died on 20 Nal:ias~ (1380) (A.D. 13 August 1388). SalAma II necupies an important place in the hislory of ETHIoPIAN CHRISTrA1< UTF-AATlJR.E, having heen the promoter of a vast literary movement based on the translation from Ambic into Elhiopic (Ge'ez) of a considemble number of lexlS derived from the religious Iiteralure of Ihe Capts. 11 wa~ doubtless the intention of th. metropolitan and his coliabomlo!"S to strengthen the lies binding Chrislian Ethiopia to the Alexandrian palriarchate, but it is certain Ihat Ihi. great work of tmnslalion also .ought to counteracl, on the Spol. the menace created by the dissidenl ideas and movements then current among the Ethiopian clergy. Because of his prolific literary activity, Salama was gi,'en tile epilhet Ma1a~...e", (tmnslator). Although he is often .imilarly honored a. "Translator of lhe Holy &riptures," it is not known whether he was aClually inwl"ed in the lranslation of the Bible into Ethiopic.

1012

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

There Is considerable documenwion for the nu· merous lite",1}' l",nsIations dfecleo had been "'lqated 10 the south of the counll}' b,. the- king around 1346. dunAg the reqn of Abuna ,...~ ",me in!Ormation. Upon his arri~-.l in EthJo. pG.. Salimi I[ was ablt to sec"", from the kinl the liberation of Fil"J;'l.'O$ and his companions.. but a new quarrd IOOll (TUplel!he fony days precedin! Chri.lmas, Howe\'er, they do not fast on Chrislmas. ev.,n if this day fallt on Wwnos' day or friday. Following the advice of cenain prlesls at coun. the negus Sayfa ,\r'Ad decl~d Ihat ;l was also unnecessary to fMt on Chrlslmas Eve, tven if II fdl on WooneMlay or Friday. Dllrinl the same yur lhat Sallml 11 arrived in Ethiopia. Chri$t· mas Eve (28 nkhsb 1341/",,-D. U Dccem~r I)~I) kll on a Wedncsdo.y. The ACiP'S asked both the metropolitan and Abbot FJ1Cl'!"'" 10 ...tify his decl· sion. Salimi ...... not ngidly 0J'Pll'fC'd 10 this f"O)-.l requesl. but FiI'1'fOS and Ihr: other abbots cYi. ~nced a clear hoslility. Once ..ain they were CJ<. iled 10 a diltanl region. This episode confinns tbat Sal~ II arrived in Ethiopia 1O'01Iird the end of I}
n·qob.

~lty.

SO spane tNt ~ iM)' wotMkr if Saarna the t«:lesiaso:ic simply 5Cood in the ~ c=>ted by his brilliatlu 8IS a ITW1 of leuen. In panicubr. one may ask what _ his altitude in the areal ~ I around 1)30 whC'l'rin the tWO SOns of $;0)+.0 ~ ~ each OIher ro..,he posvnion of the throne and at lhe end of which Diwil eliminated his older brother, N~s N,..,."iya ~Urytim. Did Salimj, II a1i1n himself with lhe mon .... of Dabrn 1Lsbo. who condemned D6wil. or with Ihe mon .... of nobra J:IaYQ, wl>o supponed the new ""I"'? Salimi l1's successor was Abuna Banalom!wos, who arri,·e<;j in Ethiopia in 1)91 of Ihe ElhlGpian calendar (A.D. 1391-1399). S. Kur has recentl~ Su .... ml".,d lhat between the dealh of Salama II and the arrival of Banalomt,,'OS Ihere ma~ have been an· Olher metropolitan. Ab.",a FiQ!or. Fiq!or is men· tioned In ceruin Imitional lis15. btll in lhe Ulhl of

These flow his-lori<:21 daui

an!!

do:>ctun£nu available at doubtful-

pr~M.

his existence

oeelll$

81 BLlOGRAI'tIT

BudBe. E. A. W., I~ TIle 8t>oJt. of Ihe s.inu of Ihe hhiop;- ChiIJ"Clt, • ¥01s. Cambridge, 1928. Ccru.lli, E. 51""" della lel/mllU,. eliopic". pp. 6869. Mil..... 19S6. Chai"". M. "La Date de la man du metropo!ile Ahba SaIama.~ AelltiopS 1 (1922):33-36. Guidi, I. s-i4 kIt. let/e,IlI",. uiopic... PI'- 30-32. Rome. 1932. Kur. S. Acl.... de s.m..el de Dtlb,. Wagpic (1343-1)11), CI son role de uaduc· tcur." In Alii del Convcli1O irrumation"le dj stud; el;opici (Rom" 19j~l. pp. 397-<Wl. Rome. 1%0. Ricd. L "lA:neralul1I! dell'Etlopia." In Slori" d.Ue ICIt.raw'e d'Orie"'it:, pp, 817-19. Milan. 1%9. _ DocumentQ Ild 1I/"~lf.nd"m HiSlo,i"rn. Vol. I. Ubu Ax",,,.e. In cseo 58, p. 81- Lou.....in. 1954. Rossini. C. "Sui metropolita Salama d·Eliopia." Zcil$Chrifl f{i, AS$yriologi. 27 (1912):368-71. Taddcs5C Tamral, "The Abbott of Dabra l:Iayq, 12~1-1535." Jo" .....1 of Elhiopia." SI"d;eo I, ..,r. (1970): 102-103. Tedeschi, S. "a- Fils du ~gus Sayfa·Add d'apt"k un documenl antbo
BARTALOM£WOS (d. c. 14J.!I) Information about the epi$C'opate of BanaJo. ~ (BartAo1onew) is SC""t.....'Cn tf>oougtI it co.-e~ the !enpy period from lhe end of !he .--rign of Negus Dawit I (I380-1~12) though 11M: entire .--ri8n of Negus y ~ (1.13-100). Successor to Salim,. II. Banalomtwos a ~ in Ethiopia in 1191 of the Ethiopian calendar (A,D. 1393-1399). "",cording 10 Ihe dale lislw in a local chronicle (.4"".,10 of Add;' NeamirtJ. TIt.. was al a lime when Chrislian Ethiopia Wa5 undCf"ioinl a delkate crisis. DIlwit, ....vin. ..,izcd power by eliminatinl his older brother. Ne8us Newlya Mlrylm, wilh 11M: help of h .. sister, Del Stfli. had to face the opposltloo of ceTta;n e1emen15 of Ihe mililary and the monasleries of Shewa thaI come.ted hi, actions, Therdore. il was a dm<:n yeal"5 after the duth of "buna Salimi 11 before Ihe king wal able to have tOe patriarch ",nd a new metropolitan 10 Ethiopia. Bartalomhvot lILTived in EthiGpia with imponanl

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

inlomlalion for ~ nf&US: an atmosphe~ of ~ace ~ n Christians and Muslim5 IuId exls.ed lor _ thirty years ;n the Medi.e"",,, n, Ind Ihis was a<:«>mpanied by a ~msdabl .. tn I.. Imonl the >vlow Chriuian communiUu (Copts. CaIOOlies, Ind Credt OnloodoKl. Upon !he ..thic~ of 8uWom!!.- and "'hh the .... istance of the Coptic patriarch ~TTHEW I (1.l78-1409), the ""IUS soml ~ misslons 10 wr"OJ>" in S<"lU"Ch of relipo..s rdics supptllCti 10 atlest fa....... oward D6wi1 and consolida~ his Ihmne thereby, The first mimon reached Venice in 1402, and ~ otbtr arrived at Rome i.. 1404, II was the firs. mission, ....hOJ,e spo~n "'as" certain F1or<"ntin.... AnlOnio Bano> Ii, that broupl from Venice the ~Iics desired by lhe ..... gus. Howe~r, inside Ethiopia. BartaJomtwos became embroiled In • religious quarTeL eerUin monasle!" iei in the north of Ethiopia maintained thaI Salu!" da~ should be observ... d as the Sabbath. according to Holy Scripture, whereas olher monasteries, sup· port... d by Ihe metropolilan, defended the obse... Vllnce of Sunday, in confonnity wilh Coplic lradi· tion. Thos.. favoring Saturday ....'cre the monks of the order of tWOf!AtewO$ and, in panicular, FII.. p. pol. abbot of D
eli..,,,,,

00_. Durilll'he ... ip! of Negus Vesl;Laq, IIanalornl-wof. had .0 suffer AnOther dlllicu:ll ptriod. ~'ed or sympuhWns ....·;,h th~ ZamiU'~li~ ~rnent (a Ioereticlll curren, initiated. by a monk named lami"· l·tI), th.. metropolitan had to defend himself before • board of inquiry and finally was forced to condemn formally th~ Zamik;nlit~ doctrine. Soon af· terward, there aro~e the h~retical mo" .. menl of the Elyifino';tes (named after a monk called Es,lfinoi, or Stephan). which "refused to "ene",t.. Miry and the C1"O$I," but which was also inspired by political considerations. Th~ E'.s!if3nositn wer.. condemned Ind ~ne<:utoed during the fifteenth Century, but

1013

BanaIome..--os. who """ presoml al th..;r bC'g;nni"l5, docs nOi seem to havoc played ,. ...... in their persecution (sec El1iJOI'IAPI HEltlS.ES "SO ntEOUlGlCAL CONIllOVERSI£S).

It .t-.ld be noted .hat an IICI W\IS drawn up concn-nilll a dorwion of land (Arabic. """'1f) from Neop;us Dlwit 110 the Bethlehem Church (Btl MIJ)'" Am) olUiliba.li in ~ Wriu.... ;n ~k. this xt

carTiC'S an addoC'ndum for >-...rification and lqaIiza,;0" wrinen iII Coptic and u,ned. by Aburla Barulornn._; il is dated A.M... Paoni (Coptic:, Ba'unah; Ethiopian, Sant) 112/0 (l.D. 29 May 1110). ThO' edC' 'oll. H.. '"'as stilll;"inll when Zar'a YIi'qob ascended the throne (June 14J4). lOr h.. is fTW'ntioned in a ro)'llJ document 01. Ihis period. Howe>'n", li",n Ih~ fae' thai he i, not dted in the documents of 143/0. it may be p .... surned that be died around 1435. His succenors we... MiU'l\1 III and Gabr'tl, who ,.rrived In Ethiopia together. B1BLlOGIt~I'HY

Cerulli, E. Jlllbw uiopieo del MiMeol, di Maria, pp. 114-20. Rome, 1943. Kolmodin, J. T,,,diri01ls de TUlZUI" et H"v.ega: An· nale, el doc"menls, pp. "'23, A3O. Uppsoola, 1914. lantseht>Ol, .... "an. "AbbA Salj~. mttropolite d'Elhiopie (I J..48- 138&), ..I son role dO' I",due-'eur:' In Alii d~1 C""""f"O inlt",,,jonaf~ di ",,,tli erit>pU:i (Rom" 19S,). p, 398. Rome, 191\0. Monli della Cone. A. A. L<JUkI", pp. 136-39_ Ronlt, 1940. RoMini. C. C. ¥ll Cadla Filpos • il CadIa Yoha....... eli l);ol,Q Biun. ,41~ d...1hI Re"l... AendemUi dei ~i 8, wr. 5 {1901~65. _ _ ViI.e s.n.clOnlm Indite""""'" Ael" S. Ah 8. no. I H

-;-cc

H

(1910): 193- 105. -':::-0 Clt;'rclt (Jlld Slale. in Elltiopia 1270-1517, I'P. 213-19. 225-23. Oxford, J97Z. Tedeschi, S. "Lea Fils du n.. gus Sayfa·Ar'ild d'apti:I;

un docume'" {1974);5BO-83.

aralJo.c:hrili..n."

Alri."

29

MIKA.'D. III (d. c,1450.) Contrary to the tradition which hdd that there could b<' only one metropolitan In Ethiopia, MiU'l!! (Michel) held thi. post simultaneO\lsly with Abuna Gabr'tl. Suecttding "'buna Sanalomewos. these two metropoliUms arri"ed in Ethiopia logether. With the cwodjulOr bishop Yo~anllC$. thC'y fermed a

1014

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

small group of Coptic prelates whe>, according to the Lib" A.8), the negus d~manded that they condemn th~ heretical trinitarian doctrin~ of th~ Zamika'elites (initiat~d by a monk named Zamilcl.'~l). This was probably ~. cause the negus remembered that Abuna Bartak,· mewo, had ~~n suspected of favoring thi, here,y. Cons~qu~ntly Mik.1'el and Gabr'~1 wer~ required to proclaim, "W~ ~Ii~v~ in thre~ p~rsons, hut one sole divinity." Likewise, in August 1449, at the request of the negus, both metropolitans suhscri~d to the verdiCI that Zar'a y,,'qob once again declared in the old disput~ of th~ celebration of t~ Sabbath on Saturday. In dfecl, th~ two metropolitans agre~d to the observ:ance of "the two Sabbaths," in conformance with Ihe decision adopted during Ihe reign of Abuna Banalom~wo •. Afterward, during the sovereign', residency at Dabra Berhan (1454-14l>8), the three EID'Ptian p,..,late. participated in Ihe tribunal that judged and condemned the Zamik.1'Hite., The exact circumstances f"r the joint reign of Mika'~1 III and Gabr'~l ... metropolitans are unknown, Probably when they were consecratee made ;IS 10 Ihe dates of the deaths of these two metropolilan•. The Life of 'Ezr;l, a contemporary Es\ifanosite monk. states that in 1475 'Ez"'; decided to go to EID'Pt in an attempt to have himself ordained a priest, "for, since the dealh of Abuna Gabr'el. Ihere was no longer a bishop in Ethiopia with the authority to consecrate priests" (Caquot, 1961, p. 95). This story is al.o confirmed by a traditionalli.t of metro-

politans found in an Ethiopian document, which .tates that Mik~'~l and Gabr'tl arrived together and that when Mikl'tl die I, Vol. 2, Pr. 35/>-57), tlte chaplain of the first Ponuguese mission to arri,,,, in Ethiopia (1520), reponed tbat Abuna Marqos I told him that during the reign of Zar'a Yl'qob, the church in Ethiopia had been witbout a mrtropolitan for twenty,three years-that is, unti1the arrival of Abuna Yeshaq 11 t".....ard the end of 1481. From these data, il may be deduce
Alvares, F. The Pr~ster John 01 the lndies, Vol. 2, ed, C, F. Beckingham and G. W. B. Huntingford, PI', 35/>-57. Cambridge, 1961. CeqUO!, A. "le. Actes d'Ezn de Gu",la·Gund~." An· nair. d'Ethiop;r (19/>1),95. Cerulli, E. r; libm ~thiopico dei M;racoli di Mari", pp. 109-120. Rome, 1943. Getatehew Haile. "The Letter of Archbishops Mi· ka'el and Glibra'el Concerning the Oooervance of Saturday," Journal 01 Semitic Studies 26, no, I (1981):73-78. Guidi, 1. "I.e liste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia. ' B...· ."rione 6 ser. 1 (1899):9. Rossini, C. "L'omi!ia di Yo~anne., vescovo d'Ak· sum, in onOre di Garill\l\," In Aaes du Xie Con· grt< inurnal;mtal des orie!1lalist<s, p. 142. Paris, 1897. Documenta ad mus/randam Histor;am, Vol. l. Liber Ammae. In cseo, 58, p. 82. Leu"a;n, 1954. Rossini, C. C.. and L. Ricci. // iibro della Luce del Negu. Zar'a Yl1'qoh (Mashala Buha,,;, Vol. 2. In CSCO 261, pp. 153-55. !.ou"ain, 19/>5. Taddesse Tamral. Church and Stale in Ethiopia 1270-/527, pp, 228-30, 235-3/>. O~ford, 1972.

GABR'£L (d, c. 14.58) Gabr'tl (Gabriel) arrived in Ethiopia in 1431 of the Ethiopian calendar (U). 1438-1439) with anoth· er metropolitan, Ahuna MikA'~1 Ill. They had both b~n consecrated together by the Coplic palriarch JOHN XI (1427-1452) and were the successors of Abuna Bartaloml: .....os, According to tradition, only one bisoop could be appointed metropolitan of Ethiopia. Consequently, it is probable that Gabr'N and MiU'N III were supposed to ""ereise this duty in successi"n (i.e., one after the death of the other). In reality, Ihey reigned jointly by dividing their territorial jurisdic·

•

ETHIOPIAN PRElATES

lion. By ordu of the negus, Gabr'tl look cha'"i~ of S/le\Q and Mi.k1'tl of Amhara.. for Ih~ MO$I part, th" inf<>nnoltion aYlliJabI" is Ih" _ cone"",i,,, these two metropolitans ("'" th" biot"'phy of MlU'tl Ill. aboo...,). il mwt he added thai: it: was Abuna Gabr'tl ",ho conf.,on()Ilk Abaker;t;O>'emenl l!w shook 1M E1h;..,pian church durinJl: the fiftftnth nn"'ry. AW:. lhe death of Aburaa MiU'tl 1II. Gabr'tl _ •he sol" moelropolitan unlil his death around 1458. The church of Ethiopia lhe:n remained wilhoul an .bun for appmxima~ly ~nIy-Lbrce)'UJ'5, unlil 1M ani ....1 of Abuna y"s.\Iaq II in thai cQUnuy. BIBI,.IOCIIAPHY C"'lUOl, A. "Les Aetts d'Emi. de Gunda-Gundt." An· It"l.s d'Elhiopi. 4 (1961):95. C"rulli, E. 1/ Ubro OI;opico do; mir..coli di Marla, pp, 109-120. Rome. 1943. Cotalchew !-laUe, "The It'lter of Mchblshops MI· ka',,1 and C~bra'ol Concemini lhe Obs"n.'anc" of Saturday." Journ.. ! of Somitic SI"di~s 26, ser. 1 (1981):73-78. Cuidi. l. "Le Ii",,, d"i mtlropoliti d·Abissi"I.," B~s· $ .. r;"n" t. ",r. I (1899):9. Rossini, C. "L'omiha di YoIpi"n.., vescovo d'Ak· sum. In OltOre di OlIn....." in kIlOS tJ
OS. _ \>p.

Church .>Id Suue in Elhiopia /210-1527, 228-)0, 235-}('. OUord. 1972.

YESHAQ II (d. c. 1500)

Aft~ the dauh ci Abuna;;Gabr'~ in 1453, neilb.,..

Nqus br'a yt,.qob (1434-14611) not" his lIOn 8;l'roa Mlryim (1468-1478) asked "'" Coptic patriarch In Aleundria 10 smd a new metropoli..... 10 Elhlopla, The nat't .... lt$(ln< fo.. tl>is are unkno",n. bul such an altitude lndic.. ~ lhe: ronnaliofl of an autono· mous current at th" hean <>f lhe Ethiopian churth. AccOrt!inlto ttw. We of Marro Kr.,-sIOS (Kur. CSCO lll, pp, vii, 76-61), nimh abbot of Dabra L1bAnos. during the ninth year "f Ba'e
1015

11Irbing I"" Coptic faith and 01 "a.ing food proKnhcd by Iaw_" The llC'C\lSCrs asktd lhal Ih" p....aaICS proceed to Ihe Imme<>3iCd this request, eonsiderin, i. to be COltlr.lr}· 10 tradition and eanonic:al Ia",'. He propo:K'd sending an eooplonlOl)' m~ to Egypt with the autborily. sJto.,.ld jt prove feasibk, 10 ask ioor a new metropoHlan. The ISSmlbly approved th" th.... m of oepam.i<m by fou.. hundred VOles 10 th~ hllndred; bul the nqus ~ ",Ih Marl)a Kreslos, 110 .here was no sch~. Hown..,•• Ihe lhe Coplic patriarch. Aware of some dang"r, the Coplic patriarch show"d his ,kill by sending '''veral Coptic prelates to Elhiopla, The first 8rouP comprised four p,,,.,,on,, Bishop Yeshaq (the new metropolilan), Bishop Mlirqos (destin"d to succ""d Yesl:laq), the coadjutor bishops Mil
an

or Acco
"".

Ethiopia in 14H of Ihe Ethiopiar> calendar (A-Do

urn"""

14M-lotS!). Other documents swe thai he n""" the end of lql. bu.t inl'ornwion abouI his "J'iscopoue to fntpnenlar)', He S«'IIU 10 ha.." pb.yw a pan e"en on a litenuy Inti. for 10 him is aun'but· eel :an Ethiopian redac..... oI.he Ufe of Saint ~!. alewon (on" of th" Nine Saints ;n the EUrlopiall lradition) and a h)mn in honor 01 the Vi~n Mary. According 10 the ute of Marl)a J{rutus, Abu"" YcsI)aq accompanied the n"JUS EskendeT 10 Dabra "'lwIos upon his visit t.o Ihi, mo.....ery. At this .ime. YcsI)aq Ofdainfll H',,,ral priests and prnettd"'" 10 the solemn ~oronatlon of Abbot Mart:>a Kre$-1011. Further, according to lhe Uf" of the Es!ifinoo-i", monk .~, Ye$Qaq retis movem"nt. The date of Yesl)",q', de"'lh is unknown. bUI it can b.. approximaled. Kur has proposed Ihal he must ha,'e died before Negus Eskender (149") becau$<\ in Ihe Uk of Mart:>a Kre5106, Yul)aq " no longer menlionw after the accCMion of Ni'OO 101M

1016

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

thrtl~_

Howe-.:r. then: ;,; .lonnaIlUllhat diomiss· es this ...... moenL In bet. ICco...li.. 10 the Life of "Ezri. ''while th.. monk reside
A1.....es. F. The halu John 0{ floe Indiu, Vol. 2. td. C. F. B«k.intJ-n and G. W. 8. Huntin,;!""..d. 1'1'. 356-57.

c.m~,

1961. '"Us ""les d'EDfo doe Gund.a-Gundl.'· ht_Ies J"Elhiopilt • {l96I):I06-I07. liS. CeNIJi. E. Enopi in 1'"lesrin... Vol. I, pp. 386-88. Rome. 1~3. Guidi, I, "le lillie dei melropolili d·Abissinia.'· Bu,arion. 6, se•. 2 (1899):9-10. Kur. S. ACIU d. MaF~a Krtslos. In CSCO 3)1. pp, vii. 76-81. Lou,'ain. 1972. Rossini. C. "Perpmmenc di Debra Dammo," Riv;'. la de,li Slud; Orienla/; 19 (19~1:51-52_ _ "SuI mdropolita Y ~ d'Etiopi,o..'· Rend;· COIlli d.lta lUale Acc"dcmicr. 8 (1946):7-17. Yi.-Ge s.."...-..m Anliquionom. Vol. I, Act" n,cJ el 1'.",,,I",,,,n. h. CSCO 27. pp. 37. SO. I..<Jo.rnin, 1955. T:oddnse Tam... Clwtclr a"d Suue in Etlliopia 1270_1527, p. 290. Oxford, 1972.

eaq...., It.

MARQOS I (d. 1530) He bclunaed 10 a group of Coptic prdale. Ihal had come to Elhiopia in 1481 wilh Abuna Yes!)aq II and \"as Sllppo$C'd 10 assume lhe dulie, of melropoliTan after Yesl"l;>q:s dealh. since he "''as his prln· cipal coadjulor.l1ats.f"hcn Yesl:*lll died near doc bqjnnina of Iht sW!'""'th Cn>lllry. rhcn was no YaCaOCY ;n Iht SC'e', for MUqos 1 ~ him imrtlf'dioldy. For a \one wtlile. h!slIorianl; did . underw.n<1 Ihls ..rocr 01 SUC«SSion. mainly because francisco Al....res. cbaplain of the lim POI1... gIlcse miuion in Ethiopia (1520-1526). did not uplain Ihill mallu clearly in hi> Kcounl. of which one phra$l' was lmn<1al~d inlO Engli$h as follOW$O "Whil" w~ wer~ here Ih~ Abuna Yi'qob died, 10 ",hom lhi, one who i. now IMng .ucceeded." Ros· sini, however. h... shown lhal Ihls phn>se .should In bel be UndeNlood 10 mean lhal during Alv,,~' sojoum in Ethiopia. the Coptie bW>op Yi'qob died,

who was coadju"'r to M:irqo5 and "''lIl5 .... ~d 10 succeed MJ.rctcx, bul d>d not do SO because be dif'd

,="Tbe-n:

is litde informalion aboulthis mr:lropOlillln in the EJhqNn document$. Accordinalo lhe ljf~ of Mari).a Kn5tOll (d, 1497). nind'l abbol of Dabra lj. bAnos, Mlrqos was p=enl al the tran.fen:nce of lh~ relics of Saint Takla HaymanOi. founder of lhi, rnon/l$tery, but lhi. occurred before Marqos acced. ed 10 the supreme throne. According 10 Ihe Libu Am"",e, M:orqOl' I died in 15H of !he E1hiopian c.alendar (&.0. 1529-1530). Th..., he liYed in Ethiopia half a Century and held the posinon of mcu-opoIilan lor approximalely three decades. 10 a ~ advanced ace. In bel, he C$ickred hi~lf 00 be more lhan a hundred yean old. Then: is, h-..er. man: information aboul MM'105 1 in Ihe account of Alvares. who Iw:I many meetin&" wilh him. While nOlin.lhe Inconvenienc· es caused by the facl that in all Elhlopia Ihe mdropoIitan alone had lh. righl 10 ordain deacon. and priests, Akares described Ih. ceremony durina ...·hieh Mlorqos i ordained 1.537 pri..lt all al the same lime .nd in which be was lhu, obligatel throne. Thit ,he achieved by ",""",inll all olhe.. who bad. claim lhe_o. On 11 January 1521, AI",r.. ",-w Marqos I althe ceremony of Ihe tnns(en:nce of Ihe benet of Nli'oo. On Ihi. occasion lhe m~lropolilan seemed 10 be 50 old Ihat lWO men had 10 ,uslain him by hi$ ann., Marqos i aho lold Alvares lhal before Ihe arrival of Abuna y .. t.aq II in 1481. Ihe church in Ethiopia bad remained wilhoul " metropolitan fur ""me I",,,,nly-Ihree yoeart. Alvareo. "'as acquainled ",ilh the ~ lhe titIc rescn"ed lor Iht abbol of Dabn liblnM, head of all th~ Ethiopian monks.. who rebled thaI be was a con""ned Muslim and had been Oposed an alliance agairl5f lhe Mamluk power in lhe

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

Red Sea. The leuer stated that this o.'enure had been made with the blessings of MArqos 1, and certain authors (e,g.. Jean Aubin) f,nd in this statement proof that Marqos I thought thaI he could resolve the problems besetting the church in Ethiopia by joining with the church of Rome. However, this view seems excessi'·e. for the metropolitan must have known of the doctrinal differences separating the two churches. It is therefore difficult 10 believe lhat in 1509. with no concrele threat present, Marq' os I was thinking of allying himself with the Catho· lic church. Second, in l535. Jooo Bennudez, the physician of the first Portuguese mission to Ethiopia. appeared in Rome, Ten years earlier, when the mission had returned to Europe. Bennudez had chosen to reo main in Ethiopia at the request of Lcbna Dengel. Now Bennude:;r. related that Lebna Dengel had asked Miirqos I, who was then on his deathbed, 10 name Bermode. "patriarch" (I.e .. metropolitan of Ethiopia). Marqos I complied with this request and even conferred all the holy orden; opon Bennudcz. who accep.cd the investiture, providlng thai the pope in Rome confinn it. lebna Dengellhen direct' cd Bermudez lQ go to Rome to make "an act of obedience" to the pope. According to Bermudez. Pope Paul III 0534-1549) .hen conGnned him as metropolitan of the church in Ethiopia. The subse· quent vicissitudes of Bermudez in Ethiopia concern the bishopric of Yo.ab t. but nonetheless it must be remembered thai .he supposed elevatioo of Ber· mudez by Marqos I is considered a fabrication. The third question involves Ah'ares' claim that Marqos I, a_fe of the vagaries of the church in Ethiopia. admired the faith of the Portuguese mi.. sion to Ihe point that he declared that, thanks 10 the Portuguese. the Ethiopians would not miss "return· ing to .he .ruth of the Gospel." From this, certain writel'5 have dedoced that M!i.rqos I had at Icast wished to have his own succession governed by Ihe Roman church. Howev'er~flas Lanfranco Ricci has ob~rved. while there are: Ponuguese texIS fav'orable 10 .he Catholic position. sucn as Alvares' ac· count, there are also E.hiopian texts opposing it, SIIch as the Jjk of 'EnMqom. according 10 which this abbot argued with i\.lvares and "converted him to the onhodox failh of the Jacnbile~." which most be read wilh great care. Thus. the successor to Marqos I was not Joan Bennude. hut ralher YosAb I, Ihe Coptic bishop who arrived in E,hiopia after the end of Ihe great Islamic invasion led by Gnli'iil. "the Left·Handed One."'

1017

BIBLlOGR.4.PffY

Alvares, F, The PreSler Jo~n of I~e !"dies, ed, C, F. Beckingbam and G. W. B. Honlingford, pp. 120. 243. 262, 348-51. 3S6-59, 361. 367-61\. Cam· bridge, 1961. Aubin, J. "L'Ambassade du p";m, Jean a D. Maou· e1," MQre Luso·l"dicum 3 (1976)'9-21. Caquot. A. "Les Actes d'Ezra de Gunda·Gunde,'· Annales d"El~lopie 4 (1961),115. 'Enb1qom, A"q.1~Q Qmin (LQ porle de /0 loil, ed. E, J. van Donzel. pp. 20, 21, 26. 28, 29, Leiden, 1969. Goes. D. de, Lega/io mag"i 'ndo""m imperolons Preslr;'leri loho""is ad Ema"uelem L"sitanioe regem An,w Domi"i MDXIJ!. Antwerp, i532. Guidi. I. "I.e liSle dei melropolili d'Abissinia," Bes· sorio"e 6. set. I (1899):10, n. $. Kur. S. "Actes de Ma~ Kresto.," In eSeQ 331. pp, vii. $0, 82. 94-95. wuwin, i972. Ricci, L "I.e v'i.e di 'Enhaqom e di YoJ:lannes di Dabra Ublinos di Scioa," Rosteguo di studi elloplci 14 (l955-1958):81~82; and 22 (1966):75-76. 83~85, n, 152. Rossini. C. "Sol metropolita YesJ:laq d'Etiopia," Rend/coni; della Reale Accademio del Lincel I. ser. 8 (1946):7-17. ___. Doc,,"',"'o ad lIIuslrondom Hlsloria",. Vol. I. Libu Ax"",ae, In CSCO 58, pp. 38. 39. 40. 82. Louvain. 1954. Tamral Taddese. Church and Stale I" ElhioplQ /2701527, pp. 290-91. Oxford. i972. Thomas, H. T~e Discovery of Abyssi"ia by rhe Porlu· guese i" /520. London, 1938.

YOSAB I (d. c. 1559) Yos;\.b I must be considered the successor of Mel· ropolitan Marqos t although this succession took place after a long v'aeaney of the Ethiopian episcopal throne because of complex circomstances. At Ihe death of Abuna M:lrqos I (1530). Ethiopia passed through a ""vere crisis that had begun in 1527 with Ihe Islamic invasion commanded by tbe imam AJ:lmad ibn Ibrahim. called al·GhilI (.he Warrior Champion) by the Muslims and Grliofii'i (the left-Handed One) by the Ethiopians. In 1525. Joao Bermodez. lhe physician of the first Ponuguese mission to Ethiopia. had chosen 10 stay in Ethiopia at the request of Negus I.ebna Dengel when Ihe mission re.urned 10 Europe. Ten years later in Rome. Ikrmudez recounted that Lehna Dengel had asked Mlirqos I, who "''''' Ihen on his deathbed, to name Bennudez as "patriarch" (i.e.. metropoiitan of Ethiopia. Mlirqos I acceded to this request by confening all .he holy orders upon Bennudez, who

IOlg

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

,"cce"ted doe inveslitun:, providing thai lhe pope in Rome «Infirm it. Leb"" Dengel then dir«led Be... mudn. 10 go finl to Rome 10 .......e an acl of obedienee 10 doe popt and then II;) l"onupJ. a counny wllh which Elhiopia had relalions. AceCJl'djn, 10 8cnrludcz, Pope l'aullll (1514-1549) did confirm him II!! n>e!mpol;tan of Elhiopia. The majoril)' of hiss0rian5 rrjttt Bermudn' 5101)-. firsc, b«;ous.e no Edool'"an mnmpolilan ew.- had the ~r to ~ his successor and. second. beca, .... no doc......,nt has CYn" been discovered 10 pro"" "'is ",pp<:IOICd el"':lllon of Bermlldo by Pope h ... Ill. Hawn..". INt may lit. Bermudez did 10 from Rome 10 u.. bon. wbtre bt $Olicill:d Poougue!e aid for Elklol'i. in ils fighl ..pltStlhe M..... ims. Th..... In 1540. 8er'Imldez joined "'ith the famous Pon..CU_ military e~pedition 10 Ethio""".......ich was to brine pian doc..m.....15.. The so-<:aIled Abridged Chronicle don O(lll menlion him :II all, whereM the chronicle of GalA~ ........ tions him bul once. _io, thaI loward Easlf'r in the eislnh year cI this roesus's rei&n (1$01.8). Yosib I blessed GaliwdlwooI. ""loa was doepaninr; 10 lead a miliuJ)' expedition . ~ the pllp" peeples living in the _ 01 the country, near lhe fronl;"rs cI Damn!. As fw the Ubu hOI· ",.... il ,eco,ds n;unco in III confim-.tion aet of a fief, donaled in 1546 01 the Elhiopto.n calendar ("-0. 1553-1554). The f.,i1N, Atuma.. iIso record$ one other impoclant fact. In 1551-1552, a Coptic bis/lop by Ihe narne of i;'~(OS arri."d in Elhiopia. A Portu'......e source confirms and add. thi. Infotmallon' i;'l:!ros ,...as. sUl'f'05'"d to be Y~b·. coadjutor and succeed him upon hi. dealh. The chronicle of Negus Min"! (1559-1563) In faci conlirms Ihat i;'~!rtlS did mc· ceed Yoslb I. However, the date of Ihl. succe.slon bI not kno.....n and can only be appru~lmaldy
Yd5

in which Y~'I name Is menlinned is daled A.D. 1S5J-15S4. "'hilc the first documenl naming Metropolilan fttros II datel from 1551 of lhe &bio~ calendar (A.D ISS9-156O). It may be deduced IMR'by that Yos;\b I died near lhe end of. Neg115 Gala s' reign and dial lhe episcopal throne ""as I.... mediately occupied by fl:!rof II. FW"ther. il mUll. be noted that Ye>s*b I .. ,.]so cited in the chronicle 01 Nqu. Sarp. Dengel (I~3 1597), who cOflsidered him as Ihe ~ of IIlC1ropo1iwl ~Urqos II. This. howe-....... is pmb.bly the J"C'IUII of. an error on the par1 of ohe chronicler. "i>o seems 10 confused Y"""b 1 wilh i;'epus n.

""w

818L1OGRAPHY Bermude1. J. Br.. ~.. rela(ao dll ..mbtr.WdIl 'lUe 0 Pmriarclta D. 1040 & ...."d..l ' ......... do /mpulldar do Elhiop;ll. pp. 92-%. U!OOn. Ig75. Conzelman. W. E. Chron;qu.. d.. Gllldwdiwos (C!ou· dius) roi d·E!n;Opi~. pp. 1~4. 153. Paris. 1895. Esleves Perda, F. M. llis!oria d~ Minds (A.d,mds Sagad), JYP. 44. 65. n. 64. Li.lxm. 1888. Guidi. I. .ole liSle del melropolili d'Abissini" Bes· sarione 6, ser, 1 (1899)'10, n, 7. Rossini, C. "1""0 Bermudez e la sua relazione .uIl"Etlopia," In Terce;'o cont"s:u> do ...undo Porluguis. Vol. 4. pt. 2. Pl'. 285-305. IJsbon, 1940. -,---,- Doc..",..n/a ad I/lus/randa... Hwona"" Vol. I. Libe, hu",,,... In CSCO 58, JYP. 51 -52. g2. Lou· ,-ain. 195".

-,--:; Hwon.

,..~

Sa'f" De,,~eI (Mil/ill Slll"d). In CSCO 21. pp. 41-68. Louvain. 1955.

F£TROS II (d. 1570)

fttros

was thc succeuor of Abtrna Yosib 1. after having been his coadjulO1. The Uh..-~ Aopill of • Coptic bishop named fttms in 15S4 oIlhe Elhiopian caleodar (A.o. 15511552). This information is confirmed by a Port,,· guese soun:e, ""hkh SUItes thai the Coptic ",<'!ale who a..m-ed. in Ethiopia in ISSI wu ... pp<:IOICd 10 be lhe coadjulor of Abuna Ye>s*b I and ohould succeed him upon his dealh. The ....act dare of this SUCCC!<' stan is unknown. but it mUll OCCUlTed near ..... end of Negus Gallwdl:wos' ,..,ign (d. 1559). for in the Libor humae the last document to mention Yosab is date5 n;ome
Ita,,,,

ETHIOPIAN PRElA.TES

in Ethiopian documents. The chronicle of Gal~wd· twos states that it was Bishop J:'t!ros (not yet metropolitan) who consecrated the ark (lclbOl) of the famous Church of Tadbaba Mal}'am during the twclfth year of Gal~wdtwos' reign (1551-1552), Moreover, the chronicle of Negus Minas states that it was AbuM J:'e!r
Almeida, M. de. HislO'ilJ- de EthiopilJ- a aiM 01< Abas. sia, p. 39(1. Rerum Aethiopicarum &riptor.,. Oc· cidental.,. Inediti 5, Rome, 1907. Conzelman, W. E, Chmn;que de Galclwdf-wos (Cltw. dius) '0; d'Eth;opie, p. 153. Paris, 1895. Esteves Pereira, F. M. Historia de Minas (Ademas Sogod), roi de EthiopilJ-, pp. 44, 65 (n. 64). Li,lxm, 1888. Guidi, I. "Le Iiste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia." Bessanone 6, ser. 1 (1899):10, n. 7. raez, P. His/om, Aethiopiae, p. 54. Rerum Aethiopicarum &riptoe.,,; O<;<:identales Inediti 3. Rome,

"'"

Rossini, C. Documenta od l/IuslrlJ-ndom H;slOriam, VoL 1. Llb~,Ax"mlJ-e, In C$CO 58, pp, 51,52,82. Lo""ain, 1954.

___ His/oria Regis S"fl'a.Dengd (MIJ-Iak SlJ-glJ-d). In csca 21. pp. 41, 68, touvain, 1955.

MARQOS II (d. c. l58ili There is linle infonnalion about lhis succ=r to Abuna t:'t!r", 1I in lhe Elhiopian document" but Ihe date of his arrival in the country is known. The chronicle of ~rsa Dengel reports that after tlte death of Abuna Yos:!b I, which occurred in the eighth year of Sa~ Dengel's eeign (1570), lhe ne· gus succeeded in having the Coptic patriarch John XIV (1570-1585) send a new metropolitan named MArqos (U), who arri"ed dueing the fourteenth }'ear

1019

of his reign (1576). The chronicleT adds that this was a very happy year, for Ihe negus had just con· quered Mul:tammad, king of Adal, a date confinned in Arabic soure"", and that after .eizing power in A.H. 980/AO 1572-1573, MuJ:l.ammad ibn N",~it ibn 'Ulhman, .ultan of Adat undertook a military expe· dition against ~~ Dengel in which he was con· quetcd and killed near the end of 1575 or the be· ginning of 1576. The date of Marqos' arrival is also confinned by an Elhiopiall codex ill lhe National Ubrary, Paris, whose fuplicl/ announc"" that the manuscript was eompleted during the seventh year of Ihe episcopate of Ahuna MA,,:tOs n and the twentieth year of Sa~ Dengei', reign (1582). Th~ arriv· al of this metropolitan in 1516 must titus be consid· ered as cenain. Although Marqos II is likewise mentioned in a document from the Liber Axwna~, there is no information extant ~onceming his episcopale, an omission probably due to the rather dishonorabi~ tenni· nation of his episcopate, Around 1624, afteT N~gus Susenyos decided to join the Roman church, he i.-ued a manifesto in which he set forth not only his reason, for joining thi.~ church but also re· proaches con~eming the deplorable ~onduet 01 cer· tain metropolitans. In particular, Susenyos de· clared: "The Negus Malak-5agad {i.e.. Sarya Dengel] has shown Ihat Marqos [!I] became guilty of sexual delights that neither the ears dare hear nor the mouth pronounce, deljghts of such a natur~ as to make God rain fire from beaven, Therefore, Malak· Sagad sUipped this metropolitan of his episcopal dignity, deprived him of his holdings, and sent him to lhe island of Daqq in Lake pni, where he died an evil death." There is no document indicating tbe date of this di.mis.ctwee" 1582 (the date contained in the aoo"e-mentioned manuSCriPI in the National Library, Paris) and 1588 (the approximate date when the position of metropolitan was filled by another Coptic prel· ate). The sucee.." ,r of M~rqos 11 was Krestodolu I. BIBLIOGRi\PHY

Almeida, M. de. Historia de Ethiopia a alia ou Abossia, p. 390. Rerum Aethiopicarum &riplOres 0<;. cidental", Inediti 5. Rome, \907. Guidi, 1. "Le ii.te dei metropoliti d'Abissinia." Bessariane 6, ser. I (1899):11, n, I. LuOOlf, I. Ad mam H;s/oriam A~thiop;cam amehuc eai/am Commen/arius, p. 510. Frankfurt am Main, Ib91.

ETHIOPIAN PRElATES

1020

Paez, P. Hi'toria Aelh;opia~, p. 54. Re",m Aethiopi~~",m Scriptores Occidentales Inediti 3. Rome,

,"".

Rossini, C. Doc"m~M1a ad l/IuJlra"dam H;'/Qr;am, Vol. I, Liber Axumae. In CSCO 58. p. 68. Louvain. 1954.

___ His/aria

R~gis Sar~a

Dengel (Malak Sagad).

In CSCO 21. p. 68. Louvain, 1955. 2otent>erg. H, Ca/alog"e des man"s(;rlts ethiopie>ts

(ghu,

eI

amharique) de la mbliotheque na/ionale,

p, 106, Pari•. 1877.

KRESTODOLU I (fl. late sIxteenth century) There is lillie hi.tori~al infonnation a"aHable ab-out the sll~~essor to Abuna Marqos II. probably because of the bre,'ity of his episcopate as well "" ac~usations of deplorable ~ondll~t made against him. Krestooolu I i. not mentioned in the Abridged Chronicle of the rule", of Ethiopia nor in the ~hronicl~ of Sa,¥ Dengel. However. he i. cited by the Libcr Ax"mae in the texts of two act.s of concession of fiefs donated by this negu'. In the first <><:t. K,..,.tooolll·s name is mentioned with that of the negus' mother, Queen Sell"s KhaylA, widow of Negus Minas. wllo lIpon Iler marriage had taken the name of Admils Mogasa. This furnishes an important chronological landmark, for, according to the Abridged Chronicle, tllIs queen mother died on 21 J:lamM 1586 of tbe Ethiopian calendar (A.D. 25 July 15~)_ ln the second feudal act. Krestodolu's name is cited with that of Tomas, ".bura .d (chief) of Axum, who is known to have held this post around 1588. TheTe is absolutely nO infonnation about his tpiscopate in Ethiopia, if on. excludes the accusations against him made by Negus Susenyos (Sellan Sagad) in th. manifesto that he isslled around 1624 to announce his reasons for joining the Catholic church. Among the reproaches dir""ted against certain metropolitans. Si:.enyos wrote as follows: "As for Abuna Krestooolu 1, succe",or of Marqos II. contrary to the customs of a metropolitan, he ktpt ""veral concubines. a faet thaI was well known by all those living at the time. of whom some are st;}[ ali"e," It is not known. howe>'er. if this accusation caused Krestodolu's dismissal or whether his episcopate came to an end with his natural death. BIBLIOGRAPHY Almeida. M. de. His/oria de Elhwpla a alta 0" Aba,sia, p. 399. Rerum Aethiopicarum Scriptores Occidentale. Inediti 6. Rome, 1907, BeguinOl. F. La cronaea abbreviata d'Abissi"ia, pp. 38-39. Rome. 1901.

Guidi, I. ··Le liste dei metropo!iti d'Abissinia." Bes_ sarion, 6. ser. I (1899): II. n. I. Ludolf, l. Ad s"am Ristor;am A'ihiopicam am~hac edi'am CommenMril<s. p. 510. Frankfurt am Main. 1691, Ros.ini, C. Docl<m,ma ad lllus/randam His/oriam, Vol, 1. Lib•• Axuma,. In CSCO 58. pp. 55-56. Louvain. 1954. ~£TROS III

(d. 1607)

J:'~!TOs

was certainly .he successor of Kre.tod"lu I. but in Ethiopian documents. information about his epi.copate is fragmentar;. and ,"~nt. perhaps explain"d by the fact that the annal. of the sO>'ereigns of his time do not sU!'live. Only the manifesto issued around 1624 by Negus Susen)'os (16071632) in an e\fon «) explain his joining the Catholic church gives a summary view of this episcopate. Denouncing the conduct of cenain metropolitans in Ethiopia. this negus wrote: Abuna J:'~!ros [1Il], who succeeded this metropolitan (Krestodolu I]. had relations with the wife of a Mekhite, and when this fact became publi~. he paid the fine levied against any adulterer who corrupts the wife of another; ceTta;n wilne...,s having knowledge of this aT<~ .till [i,'ing. such as Joseph and Marino. who are foreigne", not Ethiopians. Moreover, «) lhis sin the metTOpolitan added other misdeeds. In the seventh year of Negus n·qob's reign, J:'~\ros [Ill] issued a general excommunication which caused the people to depose n'qob, exile him «) Ennarya, and replace him with Za-DengeL Later, he [J:'t'Jros JII] issued a second general excommunication in order to persuade the Ethiopians to get rid of NegllS Za· Dengel, who was in fact killed [and replaced by Ya·qob]. And as if that were not enough. when we [Susenyos] decided to fight against Negus Ya'qob, the metropolitan [I;'e\ro. III] went to war with him and fell with him on the battlefield. The ...sential facts referred to in this passage from Susen)'os' manif"Slo mllst be summarized. Sa'¥ Dengel had had no male offspring hy hi, wife MAI)iAm $ena, but at hi. death he did lea"e some illegitimate sons. During his life he had de.ignated his nephew Zadengel (hi, brother's son) to he his ,"cce,,,,,r. bUI aft"r his death the coun decided instcad upon Ya'qob, who was Sarsa Dengel'. illegitimate son and only seven years old at the time. Guided by a regency council, YA'qob <eigned until Easter 1596 in the Ethiopian calendar (HI, 16(4). But becallse he showed a ceTtain independent spirit, Ya'qob ",a.s deposed and sent to Ennal)ia. and Zadengel was enthroned in his pl""e. It is (0 this

ETHIOPIAN PRElATES

dethroM'lllenl 01 yt;'QOb thai {'tin.. lim eJ;com....... nieallon mentioned by Su5enyOl rden.. A fC'lO' months !Mer. ZadeIJ!CI. in tum, found hirruelf In dil6cuhy. He was .wpecled of wWl.ing 10 introduce lOCilol ",form and of 1eanitll lO",..rd the Calholic failh then bftnl preached by the Jauil$. This pro¥
,_.

There a", no olher data concerning thil met"" politan, wJ>oo;e .uecessor was Abuna Scm'on. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Almelda, M. de. Histori.. de Bhiopi.. .. AI,,, 0" "/>ossi... Po 399. hrum AethiopicaJUm Scripto,," Qc. cido1>tale:s Inedili 6. R.ome, 1907. 1WKt, R. "Eludes ....r I'hisloi", d'Elhiopie." lou,· ""l.u.dq.." 18, MY. 1 (1881):120. squinat. F. L4 ct<>n"". llbbre.....". d·AbUsbr.... pp. 41-42. Ro....., 1901. Elte>'eS Peren, F. M. Chrrmic.. de S.......,..., rei d.

Vol. 2, pp. 63-~, 70-12. 359-60, L,S. bon, 1900. Cu.>dl, I, "Le liste dei metropoliti d'AbisliniL Buo Ja~ 6. $tI". 1 (1899):11, n. 2. LudoIf, I. Ad SIl"'" Hi.IOiIfi", hlJu·o~ ..'" .du.... ConI"""'"rius, pp. 510-11. Fnlnkfun am Main, 1691. PXz.. P. Hist"..;- Aemiopfue, p. 325. Rerum Aethloplcaru", ScriptOtfl Occidentales Inedili 1. Rom.., Elhio~,

R

,,,,,do,,..

'''''.

SEM'ON ld. 1617) The exact date of the 'arriVllI in Elhlopla of the ~uccessor to Ahuna p~!ros 1II is nOt recorded In Elhloplan documents, but from Ihe lnformalion av.tilable, il appea", lhal SweAy,," (Selpn Saga(!; 1601-1632) had him $tnl from Cairo, J10 doubt to fill tile vacancy left by the dealh of Pl\r<:" III.

1021

Sem'on probably arrivlC!d in Elhiopia around 1608, a dale thai senn. to be eonfinnod by lhe mel thataocowdingto lhe Jesuil Pero Nez. ",flo wu !hen in the coumry-Sem"oo _ the metr<JpOlitall ",-bo proceeded ",ith the solemn eoronalion of Susen}_ in lhe eathednl of Allum on 23 March tOO9. Thus, Sem'on mUS! ha'"e been choocn IlIld <:on!i«f2led by the CopIi< palriarch Marl. V (1602_1618). According to PXz.. in 161S the ~...fl Zawangll. riahleenth abbot of Dabl':ll UW- and head of all lhe regulaJ" clergy, asked Su... nyos 10 prodaim thai lhe power 10 ordain deacoRl and prio:$U be graoled to the C!~"V. whil. the ~ to CORst:el'llle lhe holy chrism (qedd"s ml'rott) ",main ",ith the mC!u'l>politan. aut this request could lun"e led '0 the sepa. mion of the Ethiopian church from the Ef.ypIian church, f<>t", aCC-Iaw, IT>'OIled apinsl the king and hif; ",liplous politiel. Scm'on allied hi""",lf ""ith Yol~ joined "',Ih lhe rebel lr00p5. whom he blessed and u~ 10 IiIhl, Ind issued an .....,hema apin.. the roy.al army. However, 'iclory WC!nl 10 Sustnyos, for on 6 GenOOI 1609 of. lhe Ethiopian calendaT (.o..u II May 1617), b<Mh Scm'on and Vol· )'OS died on the booulefield al ~ Acconlinl 10 lhe chronicl.. 01 Susenyos.. Ihe nei'U .inc......ly grieVC!d ov..r th.. m"lropoIitan·. dealh and orderC!d lhal hC! be buried in Ihe chureh wilh all honors du.. his. rank. Hov.'C!ver, in lhe rnanifC!5lo issued by Suscnyos around 1624. lhe negus crillciled Sem'on', ..mir.. conducl, blamin8 him nOI only for ha"ing inciled Volyos to revolt hUI also for havin8 led a d"plol':llble pri,'ale life beca..... he had kepI ""vernl concubines, According 10 a l'C!pon wrluen by lhe Jesuil Aloysi. us do AzevC!do from Fremona in Til'" and dal.d 8

•

1022

ETHIOPlAN PRELATES

July 1619, after Sem'on's death, Su""nyos hastened 10 ask the Coptk patriarch-doubdess John XV (1619-1634)-10 send a new melropolitan to Ethiopia. De Azevedo added mat the new metropolitan, a man of "a certain age" wilh grimed hair, left Egypl for Ethiapia but died en route. Since this Coplk bishop. whose \'ery name is unkno"m. never was able to exercise his duties, it is logical nat 10 in· c1ude him among the metropolitans of Ihe Ethiapi· an chun;h. After this initial request. Susenyos no longer ad· dressed the Coptic patrian;hate, In 1622 he publicl)' embracoo Catholicism and in 1626 he received Ihe Jesuit Alphonso Mendez as successor 10 Paez and .olemnly gave him the title patriarch of Ethiopia. It was only after the abdication of Susen)'os, fol. lowed by Elhiopia's official return to the faith of the church of Alexandria (1632), thaI the new negus, FA;;ilada•. son of Susenyos, could think of asking Ihe Coptic patriarchate to ""nd a new metropolitan. Thus. tile successor of Abuna Sem'on was Aoona MArqos 1II. BIBI.lOGRAPHY Almeida, M. de. HislOIia de Ethiop;a a alta OU Abns· ,;a, pp. 217-2[, 279-91, 296-303, 317-19, 399400. Rerum Aethiopkarum Scriptores Occiden. tales Inediti 6. Rome. 1907. Basset. R. "Eludes sur l'historie d'Ethiopie," Journal ",;a';que 18, ser. 7 (1881):123. lMguinot, F. l.
'''''.

Guidi. L "Le liste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia." Bes· saria"e 6, ser. I (1899):11. n. 3. Kalmodin, J, Tradit* de T.a=ga "t Haaega: Annales eI documents, :Vol. 3, p. A35. Uppsala, 1914. Le Grand, J. RelMion histori9ue d'Abyssinie du R. P. Lobo, pp. 253, 501. ,Paris, 1728. Ludolf. ]. Historia Ae,hiopira sive brevis el surcinrta dMrriptio regni Habess;norurn. Val. 3, caput 7, UI7-22, and caput 10, §§37-63. Frankfurt am Main, 1681___. Ad suarn His10riam Ae1Mopicam anlehac edi· lam Commenlan'us, p. 51 L Frankfurt am Main, 1691pae<. P. Histor!a AetMopiae, Vol. 2. pp. 126,370-80. 384-87. 393-94. 396-400. and Vol. 3, pp. 336, 355-58.495-%. Rerum Aethiopicarum ScriplOI"' es Occidentale< Inediti 2-3. Rome, 1905-1906.

Rossini. C. Documenta ad Jl/ustrandom HiStoriom, Vol. 1. Lib"r Atom"e, In CSCO 58, pp. 56-57, 90-91. Lou"ain, 1954.

MARQOS III (d. c. 1648) Marqos was the Ii"'t metropolitan to arrive '" Ethiopia after the abdication of Negus Susenyos and the subsequent restoration in Ethiopia of Ihe faith of Ihe churCh of Alexandria: thus he is to be considered the immediate successor of Abuna Sem'on, despite the hiatus ""parating his episcopate from that of his preduessor. He was designated and consecrated by the Coptic patriarch MATIHEW III (16311(56)AI the beginning of his reign (1632 - I 6(7). Fasila· , bUI according to the account af Peter Heyling, a Luth· eran ....ho resided in Egypt at the time and who was preparing 10 go to Ethiopia, Ihis first mission "came to nought be<:ause of the infidelitl of the emissaries." No details are given about Ihe infideiity, but Heyling's al1usian can probabl)' be related 10 the passage from the Abridged Chronicle (Beguinot, 1901. pp. 48-49) that states that toward the beginning of Fasiladas' reign. a false metropolilan named Rizqallah arrived in Ethiopia. where. however. he was discO\'ered and removed from office. Follawing a new request from the negus, Ihe Coptk patriarch consecrated a monk from Ihe Monastery of Saint Antony (DAn ANM ANTUN1Ylrs) named Ariminios, who {aok the name of M1rqos HI. The new abun left Cairo before the end of 1634 with Peter Heyling among his retinu•. Near Easter 1635 he reached Sawalin, a Red Sea port that. along with the port of Massawa, was governed by a Turkish pasha. Here he met the Jesuit Alfonso Mendez, fonner "patri· arch of Ethiopia," who had bet'n e~pelled with his fellow Jesuits bJ.' Fasiladas. Delivered into Ihe hands of the Turks. Mendez "..as waiting in Saw.1kin 10 be ransomed and to lind a ship for Goa. the Jesuits' headquaners in India. Since M1rqos 111 was awa;ting a ship to Massawa, he met Mendez and friendly relations were established bet""",n the lWO prelate,. The melropolitan pt. In this letter Ihe Capuchin introduce
ETHIOPIAN PRElATES

COlIn, and warned them againsl the propr.pnda plans 01 tIM: Lulhel3n PetCt" HeyJing. Near th~ ~nd of 1635, MjrqsIOtn of h:..ping sn-..r:o.l c~blnu. which .... 00lll1\lOtl, Mf>I'cial.Iy an>o<Ji tIM: nobillI)', H~ also tried 10 help the Catholics. who WfflI: suWenn. under .serious difficllllics, bill ptrccnin, the Etltiopivls' newtlun"nt against thoo",. MirQOS "-as obliged 10 k«p his sil~nc~. Fi5ilalLu lhen Ihoushl of U5~lnl the meln:>p>litan the task of preachln, the <:a~ apinst the JC5Uit bi>hop Apollhuris d~ Almeida. former coadiuwr of Men~ who had not <Jbq<ed lhe ....1"5·s order to lca'tt Ethiopia and was hidd~n In Ihe counlty$idr Egypt, ~nter~d Ethiopia. where Ihey were discovered and condemned 10 death (Jllne (638). M~r<j05 Ill, who had known them well in Egypt, waS powerle$ll 10 sa,e tlM:ir li,~s. ChicAy b-eealne of II.. ~rained lempcl3ment, this metropolitan was often in difficulty with the clergy as well as wilh lhe coun. II appears lhat with the idea of p'ni"ll the negus's hn"Or, Mirqos III .... ~alO'd to F~ilada. tlte plol hatclMNl by his brolh. ~r. Gal~ (Claudius) to...,itt po_r. Gabwd· twos ....as, in fact. "PPI""'MnMd and ~ in ...,d.... sion (NQVflnbe!" 1646), but il appcan lhat MArqos III nc->er pined the king's <:onfidcnc:e. Mor>eo.>er. in the theoloJical dl.pulcs that """re tMlI belinnin, w nxk the de'lJ'. this tndrOp<>I.iWl avoidoecltakin, al»' dear aand and. as a result. was disliked by all bcllons concerned- EvcnncaJly he _ openly at· taCked by the eff..rt of ~ra IJbanOl and head of tlte rquLar c1eID.....ho ~hed him for I~n. a licflliious life. It il; pO$sibl~. bov.~·cr, 1Iw this accusatioo> concealed other compbinta. He was dis· missed by .n ....embly of c<:<:lcsiastics, and Ihe negus CIliled him 10 a high mounlJlin. Accordin. to.n Etlliopian source. this occurrod in 1640 of In.: Ethi· op;an calendar ("-D. 1647-1(48). It is prnumed tll.t h~ di~d during this uile. Hi. "'CC~lSOr was Abuna MiU'tl IV,

BIBLIOGRAPHY lJ~t. ~al

R. "Etud"" sur I'hi$t(lir~ d·Ethj(lpi~." }(lu", aJ;aliJ;u~ 18, ...,r. 7 (1881):2ll'i-87.

1023

BeguinOl, F. LII .,..,.,"c.. abbo'nitll.. d·AbUs;";,,. pp. 48_49. Rome, 1901. Em.........,I. R. P. AhTiti H '" ~;e Ii dll .....nyr d~s RR. PP, ApthllnlC d~ V~"o:bn~ ~I CG.Uie" d~ Nlmla. ed. A. d'Abbadic. pp. n-30. IOS-126.

1]3-<10. Paris. 1882. Guidi, I. wDi due fnmmcnti rtwi.-; alb. sloria di Abminia:' R~"dtconti lidl" R~..J~ Ace"""",i" d~' Li"c~i 3. loC'r. 5 (1893):596. _ _ -U Ur.te dci meuopoliti d'Abiwnia-" /ks. SGrione 6, sc:r. I (1199):11. n, 4-S. Kolmodin. J_ n"dillo/"" Occidentale. lnedili 13. Rom", 1913. Perruchon. J. "Le R~8ne de Fasllad... (Alam-&gad), d" 1632 ... 1667." Re~u~ sb"i/ique 6 (1898):84-86.

MIKA'£L IV (8, mkl-sn~nle~"Ih century) MiU'tl_ the SUOC_ 10 Mlr"", III and musl h...e bttn comec...ud by lhe Coptic patriarch MAT· TIlEW m (1631-1~). Altilouih I,""re is no doubt about this mClropoliuln's exlst:eI\C". lhere is little infomwion aboul his epi-.:a,..e, because there are no royal unall rI Fbil"'" nile. Only lhe Ahridgftl Chmllicl~ of Ethiopia (Bi'Juinol, 1901, pp. 51-53) .--ecords the foll0'Will8 lor lhe sew:-nttenth »Ca' of his rcip (164&-1649): "AI the ti~ t"''O biohops arrivtd. Abb. MiU,'tl and Abba YoI]ann.... 0""' by way of Danbli and the Olher by "''''y of $tnnAr. Abba YoI:wlneo, ",110 look ,ht ti..... rou'~, waco !itl1t 10 sarti because h~ had comt at lhe l"C
1024

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

had just bu:n deposed. Thus. under these ~ircum stances, the details of which are unknown. it hap· pened that the Coptic patriarch appoinled two met· ropolitans, The first, requested by Gal.1wdewQS. arri""d in Ethiopia by way of the """'rt region Dankali, on the coast of the Red Sea. The other, Mik.1'el, requested by the negus, alTh'ed by the land route from the west. Sut the negus. reacting prompdy. sent YoI)annes to SArk:!.. on the frontier (Of Sennar, where he probably elected to return to Egypt, Consequenlly, only MiU'tl (IV) should be included in the list of the melTopolitans of Ethiopia, There is no information about his episcopate, the terminal date of which can only be appro~imated Since the Abridged Chronicle records the arn,'.l of Abuna Kreslodolu Il during Ihe thirty·second year of F.1siladas' reign (1063-1664), it may be presumed the episcopate of Mik.1'el IV lasted until about 161>0. During this episcopate, a Chri'IOJogical dispule arose in Ethiopia, one destined 10 divide the dergy for more than two cenluries. This was the question of union and unction, According to the thesis of those favoring union, supported primarily by the monks of Ihe order of Takla H.1ym.1nol, whose lead· er was the e~~agl, the abbot of Oabra UbAnos, the union between the Word and the Oesh made JesWl consuhstantial with the Father, while the Holy Ghost repre...nted Divine Grace, which restored to the Oesh the dignity lost following Adam's original sin. Conversely, according 10 the thesis of the Un~· tionists, supported mainly by tbe monks of the ot' der of £.wost.1ltwos, coming mainly from the mono asteries of Gojam and Tigre, Jesus did not become consubstantial with the Father by the mere union of th~ Word ",ith the /lesh but rather by virtue of the un~tion of th~ Holy Ghost. In a synod held during the twenty·second year of Fasiladao' reign (16531654), the Unctioni.t. seem 10 ha,'e prevailed, but in anotber synod, p"'ided o,er by the negus during the thirty-third year of his reign (1664-1665), the Unionists were able to have their doctrine acknowledged. With tbis·.tate of affairs, it is penni"i. ble to wonder iJ Abuna Mika'~l IV played any role in the first phases of thi. great controversy and if the end of his episcopate had any' connection with it, However, given the present lack of available data, these questions must remain unanswered, BIBLIOGRAPHY Basset, R. "Etudes sur i'histoire d'Ethiopie:' Jour· nala,;at;que 18, ser. 7 (1881):288-91.

F. U1 eronaca abbrevjata d'Abissin;a, pp. 51-53. Rome, 1901. Guidi, L "Le liste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia." 8es· ,arione 6, ser. I, (1899):12, n, I. __ . "Uno squardo di .toria ecde,iastica di Abissinia," 8essamm. 8, ser. I (1900)'15-17. Kolmodin, J. Trad;l;o,,, de T'Jav.ega el Hauega: Annales el do<;umenls, p. A36. Uppsala, 1914. PelTUchon, J, "Le Regne de Fasiladas (Alam-&gad) de 1632 a 1677," Revue 'Jimi/ique 6 (1898):88, n. 2: 91. B~guinot,

KRESTODOLU II (d. 1679_1680) Successor of Abuna MiU'1'I IV, this metropolitan was the second to bear the name Krestodolu, which is the equh'alent of tbe Ethiopian name Gabra KreslOS (Servant of Christ), An Ethiopian source, the Annals of Addi Neammin, provides as the date of the metropolitan's arrival in Ethiopia the year 1656 of the Ethiopian calendar (~.[l. 1663-1664). This da," is confirmed hy the Abridged Chronicle of Ethiopia, which records it as the thirty·second year of Fasila' das' reign (1663-1664). Thus, it seems evident thai this melropolitan was designated and consecrated by the Coptic patriarcb MATTHEW IV (161)0-1675). Some information about Krestodolu's episcopate has been conserved in the chronicle of Negus Yo· I)annes L During the month of MiyAzya 1661 of tbe Ethiopian calendar (April-May 1669), Krestodolu was called to participate in tbe assembly tltat decid· ed upon the e~pulsion into Sennar of the "Fnmks," the last descendants of lhe small Portuguese Catholic community that had been established in Ethiopia. One year later (April 1670), this metropolitan also took part in tbe council that had been con"oked to ""amine the questions raised b)' a throng of warrior-monks who had invaded the streels of Gonder. Wit bout doubt. it was still a matter of the disputes between the Unionists and Unclionist. that had arisen during the episcopate of Abuna MiU'.:1 IV, but this time, the difference. were aggra,'ated by the fact that the opposing factions anathematized each other and e~communicated all those who did not share their doctrine, indudlng both the negus and the metropolitan. Shortly thereafte., the metropolitan's situation did indeed become difficult, Negus Yohanne. I, who favored tbe Unctioni.ts, suspected Krestooolu II of leaning toward Ihe Unionists, Thus, he decided to get rid of the prelate and asked the Coptic patriarch Matthew IV to send a new metropolitan to Ethiopia. Matthew IV sent AbuM Sinorla, who ar· rived at Gonder on 9 Teqcmt 1664 of the Ethiopian

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

calenda. (A.o. 17 Cklober 1671). a dale dw undoubtedly marb the dismissal cl KrestOh only a f""" prudenl -..k 10 Ihill dismissal. iI may he presumed lhat lCrQlodoN 11 ....,rived proper It_menl lor lhe: r~ cl his lif~ A ~e ....,ension cl the Abridced Chronicle of Ethi<J¢a noles lNt he died durina u.e uuneenlh )""lIr oflhe rripI 01 yobannes I (167916801, by "'hich lime 1m ouan5<>/", Sioodi. had alread)' OC(Up~ the epi
,...,.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Basael. fl.. "Etudes sur I'hi'lloire d'Ethiopie:' Jo«,.. ,...I ..sI'''ique 13, SeT. 7 (U81):291-92. BegIIinOl. f. l.<J, ('0"""" «bbre"'/I'/1 d'AItini"I... "". S3-S'. Rome. 1901. Guidi, l. "t.e liSle dei metropolili d'Abi5llinia:' tks..."·o,,e 6, sec. I (1899)'12, n. 2. _ _, "Uno squarcio di i10ria e.:c1esiaslka di Abo iuinia," Bus.. ,;.."", 8, .er. I (l900},17. _ . A""..I",. Y..h.. ""i, I. Iyflsu J el B.. Jr.~ffll. [n CSCO 23. pp. 10. 12-14. Louvaln. 1955. Kolrnodin, J. Tr«dilkm. d. TS«=la " I/«=g«: A,,· "ales "'I documem•. p. A 36. Upp..la, 1914. Ludolf. I. Hi>Jori" Aelhi"pic" u"" bre~i. "'I s"ccincl.. ducripfio re,,,; H/lbeuinorum, Vol. 3, Capul 7. 125. fn.nkfurt am Main. 1631. p"'lTUChon. J. "t.e ~ de yon..nl\ft; roi d·Ethiopie de 1667 i 1682:' Ik.,... sbniliqu", 7 (1899):166, 173. 175.

'e.,

SINODA (d. 1699)

The annab of Ntgus Yo~ I 11667-1632) and Squ.s I~ I (I682-170t» reeord much hlslorical informalion aboul Sinoda (SbenU~l, who ass..med his dulies lIpOII the dismissal 01 hill prmecepor. Abuna KralOdolu II. a. m.miss.al WI resulted &om lht conlnhe"j 0 ..... unil?n and UftClioft. Negus YoJ:lanr>es I. ""110 r...vrw tt.jdoxlrine 01 the Uncllonisu (Ihe monks oflhe ordeo" of £~lt_), susp«IW Abuna KresIOOolu JI of Inning Io",....d lhe Unlonoo (Ihe monks of the o""'r of TUb ""ym· bol); Ihus. he Jl'qUeslt'd the Cepcic p"lrlal't'h MAT· TIlEW IV (1660-1675) Ie send a ~w metropolilan 10 Ethiopia. Sino
w""'

1025

Ihe EIhOopian calendar (UI. 17 Oclober 1671 l- KroesIOOolu II WIllI quietly dismissed and lhe ne'" rnelropolitan immedia<ely enlhroned. Sino<\;) ...... II "is.- and able metropolita.n. for he succeeded in avoidina makinC any incill;.... deci. sions in the dicct..ions Ihlll _re rocking lhe EUri· opian clergy. Near Eaoslet" 1678 he: convokw a. council 10 eumi~ disciplinary quations. btU ""me <:Jf the assembly i..ww upon d~"I the "prol>lems of faith" before IOUChinC thopia. bu, his oojoum in ,hal coonlry ...... blief- Nonethele$s. by a deci$ion of lhe MJtUS and ..i1h the """,obation cl.he melropollWl, lhe relic was 10 he kepi in th.. Chureh of the Sarioo" at Gonder. This action aroused wnemenl proce51S from the Union... mollb of the order of Tub Hfi,-wnOl, ..-ho "'en: difficult I<> appease. In)'UJ' 1672 oflhe Ethiopian calendar (A.Il. 167916lIO), t.,. order of the: nqus. Sinodi con.vked :another council for ,he purpose of examining an "impure" le"er addres.sed 10 lhe ki"8 from the clergy of LasIa, wllo v.iJhcd to "",intain lhal "the father had been incarnaled in lhe Vi'lin Mary:· The counci] condemned Ihis Ihesis, and Sinodfi th.ealenoed 10 .."communica'e all lhose who aCCepled il. Sinorti all-O had '0 Ime....ene In the conflicl be· Iween Yo!)annes [ and his son, Ihe future Negus Iyyi!lu I, SUSpeclinlllhal his father wished 10 apprehend and place him in seclusion. 1l'Y~u fled. find· ing asylum in Ih.. ,.. rrilory of the Oromo (who are also called GAlli). He refused 10 l'elllm 10 Gonder urnil his father 1Il.'e him certain gWlrant...... The negus had 10 promise nO! 10 dl-ny his $On fr-e<:dom.

1026

ETHIOPIAN PREL\TES

un82). I~ byored the monks of 'he order of Talda IUymllnot (Unionists), and from the lint yeal1l of his rule he thought of reque~tina aDOther (eplk metropolitan. Because he liked Sinod', the negus (old him <.>f hi$ plans and explained that with (h15 request he hoped not only to fadlitate the throne', ecclesiastkal politics but also (0 protect the metropolitan himself, y,.ho had Men pressured by the Ul'IC'tioni$U and invited to "light and die" for the dlxtrine lhat he hW helped to Mye proclaimed during ,he reign of Negus Yot:oannes I. The new Coptic bishop, named Mirqoo, ani,'ed at Gonder during the eiJhth year 01 In"isu's reiJn and _ introdllCed by Sinodf, hililSl:lf to the cml and eul~ siasllcal di3n1taries on ill Masbram IMI US s..-p. I(moo 1689). The "hfOfliocle tn lhat "Sinodi "'as not dismiso.ed. and M:lnros sent '0 SirkA. ..·......e he was inscaJled with all tI"", honon due him. lor two metropolitans could not reside in lhe ..me city.- In Olh.-r words, the nqus decided, for (he lime brins. to !«at MJ.rqo$ as if ..., "'ere the c~ jutOf' bisllop 10 Sinoda...ion thel'eby oolltint>ed '0 occupy his IUprcme 10.- a £e yean. Durina the elew:nth year of his re l)'Ybu I visi,ed Ttgn' and was rtteiW>d ... ith ,",al pomp on 6 V.kkilil lOSS ("'.0- 10 February 1(93). Accompanied by Abul\lll Sinod;i.. he spenl ,he day in ,he ntbed...l of the holy dty, near tbe ··Ark of Zion" (i.e .. lhe most famous liibo/ of all the Ethiopi'" churches. .Noio to be the tme Ark of the Co"ell~nt. containing the Tablets of the law. described in the Old Testament). This was probably the last grand funclinn in which the old metropolitan panitiJl'lt· cd. In fact. Upotl his ,..,turn to Gonder, the neMus convoked an assembly of dignitaries and prelates bd"ore whom he had ~ leuer publicly read In ...hieh

posjr

the Coptic Jl'ItrialTh John XVI ordoel'ed tNot Wrq... M enthroned in SinodJ.'J plate. nus OCCUlTed ... the I...... day of AbbA SaIimA, the lim bishop of Ethiopia. ~6 J:lamll 168S (A.D. JO July 1693). The ele\'alion of Marqos IV occurnd i........diately. Sinodi must have li,'ed • lew years IonCft in aeneral <:$Iftm. "-"con:ling 1O the AbridBed Chronicle of Ethiopia, he died durl(lJ: the month of IQ>cdN in the eiaht~ year fIl the l"I:iV' of 1»"3su I (November 1(99). This death is confirmed by the ..,.,.,..nl of the Frenc:h physic;"'n beque< Charle$ I'on<:fl (1113. pp. g2-84),"'ho ..-u then in Conder and "'he>, at the request of Ihe negus. .... ited lhe dying Sinod;j,. Pon<:C1 added one Interesting detail: Iyyisu Ioid him thai he ad creal .ffection 10.S;nodi beca..... SinodJ. ha;;l bftn his I,""ch,.... I)ll'lUOGRAPHl' Basset, R. "Etudes sur l'histo6-61, 7S, Rome, 1901. Canard. M. "u, Voyage de I'archeveque Hoyannes en Abyssinie."· In GuirlDnd. po"r Abba Jhome, ed. J. Tubiana, pp. 179-94. Pans, 1893. Cerulli. E. ''Cli abhali dl Dab... Lobanos. capi dd rnonacltismo C1lopKo, te<:<XIOO la 'Iisla rima",."" Oriemal",- 13 (1944);178-79. Donzel, E. ....... Fouig" lUlDtiom of EdtWp"'-, 16411700, pp. S3, 171-84, 216. n. 68-6\1. lstanbul. 1\119. FOSler, W. The Red ~a and Adjan", C....ntrics aE rh~ Clost: of the Seve"'ee.tlit Ce..,.,.,.. pp. 123-24. london, 1949. Guidi, I. "u, lisle del mnrnpolhi d·Abi"'nia."· Be.. ~ , 6. ..,r. I (1399):12, II. 3_4, _ _ "UDo squarcio di ~ ecclesiaKia di Abo issinia.- s.uu"'N1e 8, ter, I (l900):II-ZO. _ _ A",...In 1Diu>".<1s I. /f/ll" t et~' (1ranSLation), Vol. I. In CSCO U. Seriplons AuJtiopici 6, pp. 13-1', 2S,lIi, 39-40. 41. 43. S3, and 56. lo"vain, 1\161. VoL 2 In CSCO ~, Scriptotes tUlhiDpici g. pp. 61, 6S·66. 31-86. 90-92. \18, 105-106, 113, liS, 121-22, 126. 143-44. 162. 110, and 114_1S. lou""ln, 1961. rc""C1. J. C. VOYDge d'Elhiop~. pp. 82-84. Paris, 11H.

MARQOS IV (d, 1716) Because MArqos was abun not only during the last years of the reign of Negus 1111.u I (168217(6) but also during a turbulent period compri.· ing the reigns nf Takla HiyminOl: (1706-1108),

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

nwoflo& (1708-1711), YOOI!<'S (1711-1716), and DlwillV (1716-1721), fur "'horn there are no royal "h....,ides. w,e is much information about the ~rly run of hi$ melropo!iWlaI... ~d.ll)' in the chronicle of 1yyb.J I, but few ~ about 1M filial

..-.

MirqolI IV ....., the sue<:essor 10 AlluM Sinoodt.. ~ "Un"_ ",throneel

1 (lon-I6ll2), kad at lint bttn Fol'C'~ 10 Kqu:ill$CC 10 !he ,clip:....s politico of lbi. ruler. "'M openly kaMd l0W3rd the thesis of lhe Unctionisu (monks of the order of £ ~ ) in the Christolop;:a1 comroveTS)' f)W'r union and \lnd""'. a qualTel \hal had lOriM:n durini .he time of "buna Mlkl'll IV. N..... 1)')'iW t contrary 10 his father Yol:oannes. bvo~ the Unionists (monks of m.. onkr 01 Tub Hlymloot). and ",hu the negus d«:ided to r e _ his f.I~"'. ecde.iastical politics, SinodJ was placW in • difficuh position. Wilh Sinodl!'l concur....""e. lY)'l$U I thought il wi.., to ask the Coptic patriall'h JOliN XVI (1676-1718) 10 ..,nd *' new bish· op to Ethiopia. Thi. bishop, named Mirqot, arrived In Ethiopia via Senna. and was introduced by SinodA himself to lhe civil and clerical dignlta~ duro in, an auembly held at Gonder on 18 Mukal'llm 1681 of 1M Ethiopian cal~ndar (A.D. 25 September 1689). BullM ~hronicl~ .ual'"5 Ihal "Sinodi was nOi dismissed, and MArqos """" on>t 10 SlrU. WM~ he was Installed willi all Ihe bon<JT!I du~ him. for 1_ metropoliuons could nol reside in Ihe sam~ elly:· h may be deduced Ih~rrlrom lhal the n.. gus d«ided not 10 enlhrone M1rqos al chis lime. bullO consider him as Stnodi's coadjutor. Thus. he senl MMqo!lIO SkU. a .. ily near m.. fronliet- oJ SenN-r.....here lh.. ,,",we had 10 ..-..side. ""conlinl 10 one -.n:e. Mirqos JiYed there ;n cornpaD)' with his bthe•• mother, and bmthtr. He _ not ....... al Gondoe1" Joc- tome years. WhnI the neg..as risited d... calh... dral ofAxum on 6 Yallant 16l!5 (A.D. 10 febn.wy 1693). he ..... accompan'9! by lhe aged Abuna Sinodi. Upon II.. R:lum 10 -&nder. on !he ie~ <:by of Abuna Se.lAml I. lim 'bishop oJ Ethiopia (26 l:Iaml~ 1685/1l.0. JO July 1693). lhe ReI"S had a Iener read befor.. a large' .... emOly in whkh lhe Coplic pa.riareh John XVI, a( Ill.. nqus', ~Uftl. declared lha. he W3.'I deposing SinodA and ~I ...... tinl Mlrqos in his pl...,e. MArQ<:>S ]V wu emhroned im· medialely. 50 this date also marb hi. accenton 10 Ih ••uprem. thron•. In 169S, Abuna Mlrqos had to assill at. council wherein the Que.tion of union and unction was discussed an~w. Onc~ again I"" lhesis of lhe Unc· lioni,,,, wu rejecI..d. and il. adh..,..,n.. excommuni·

1027

<:aled. by M1rqos IV. Durinl hk to;oum in Gondf'r (July 1699-May 1700), the french physician JacQUes Charles Pone... abo had an intern..,..· with Abuou. MirQo$. ",'1>0 retti~ed him wilh unl coune.y. AI chat Ii""" the physician I'l':Iled the prestigf: accorded this m..tropOiluon by lhe kin, and c1"ru. In 1706, Iyytsu I had 10 le-ne lhe throne 10 his son Takb. lUyminoC and 10 the l/DctionisU, ""ho had been hoping for Ihis change. lnunMial<"ly ihe)' reopened eM conlroversy ...i1h lhe Unionists. but in March 1707 the <>boo.. reosponded as he bad before. H"",noer. in 1703 .hey ..... re wc«:ssful aft"r the .......won 10 lhe Ihron.. of Nqus T~, who "';11$ Ih.. prote<:lor of th.. order to which Ihey belonged Withoul con,'OIt.in, a coundl, T~woAos 'Ifl.,.".cd by proclamation the doclrine oJ unction. Dri,..,n by political con.idenuions. th" ncgus h.op5Mbit: tIw M4rqos IV approved lhis decision. Ah weeks Illter there occtU't"edine m Wa\q1)1. a """'('m di
_,,-ed

BIBLIOCRAJ'IIY

Basset. R. "ElUd.., IU. I'hi'loire d'Elhiopie:' Jou,"al a$ialiq". 18.I~r. 7 (1881):304-.\03, 31'>, 325. 3.>6,338. Beguinot, F. L" crO""C"$!";", pp. 66-68,73.87. 'fl, 9'9. ROlfle. 1901.

1028

ETHIOPIAN PRElATES

Donze!. E. ...... Fouign R~lations of ElhiopM, 16421100, pp. 95, 226-27, n. 69. Wanbul, 1979. FOSl~r.

W. TJu R~d &a aruJ Adj<Jc~nI C",,"/na al rlt~ Ciou of 1Jr.~ SnDf'~DUIt C~"I"ry. pp. Ill-n.

London, 1949.

(;eu,lChe--' Haik. M"1;IJeria\$ on . «~dmrs 0( th~ Sinh lmn=/ioflfll C_fe.-.u. pp. 229-32. Roo~rd;un. 1986. Guidi. I. Ml,e lisk dri mttmp<>I.ili d·Abissin.... Iks' urion~ 6. $U. I (1899):13 .... 2. _ _ "Uno squardo eli cectes;asrica di At>IM.Inla." Jksurion~ 8. ser. I (1900):19, _ A.....l/u YoIoa".." I. 111Jjfl 1 ~I <IJg•. In CSCO 2J and 25. pp. 143-44, 174-76, 199.242. Louvaln, 1955. "011<<'1, J. C. V""",," d'Et"jopi~. pp. 79-82. "a.u. 1713.

510"'"

KRESTODOLU III (d. 1735) Th~

Immediat. successor to Abuna Mirq(l$ IV, Krestodolu 1Il w ... requeSled by Negus Dtwil IV (1716-1721), protector of the monks of £wos· 111!wo$ (Unctionists) in Ihe long conlroversy Over l1nion and unclion, According 10 11'1. Abridged Chronicle of Ethiopia. Krestodolu III arrived in lhe Elhloplan capital during the firlb year of Dilwil's relgn, on ~ KhedM 1713 oflhe Elhloplan caolendar (A.D. 14 Novem~r 1710). Th.... he was comecraled by the Coptic patriarch P'EIER VI (17IS-1726). Upon tlis arrival In Gooder. Abu-na Krntodolu III forced b,< W,wil to take an officl-J su.nd in lhe ChrislOlogkal disp"..e. After uyina i" ,.. In 10 elude tho: necus'. request. KTcsIodoIu Ill. under pressure from a group of coun dignitaries. finally iNued lhc fol1oloi"g d«~n. dated 2 Miyjlyll1711 of ~ Elhklpian calendar (A.v. 8 April 1121): wBy unclion Jesus Is the nalun1 $On of God." This sre&l1y ptea...d !he Uncoonists. bul the Unioniw protcsled loudly, ....n.-nupon thc mftrOpOlilan iAued another dedanotion hOfHng t
"'*'

oro'"

agreement reached bet.......... K.rcsIrxHu 111 and lho: z....-.Ida Marybl. llw head of the monb of lho: order of Takb fU)'min01. _ his name again in·

cluded in their liIU'l)'. Krestodolu III c .....'T>IL'Il and bICS!Otd lbe new ~. gus. ~ma ~ called BakUla, aft.... his ","ces..... 10 lbe Utroee on 12 Gtnbol 1713 (olD. III May 1721). Likewisoe.......... lt11s ~p died on II Maskaram 1723 (A.o. 19 September 1730). iT .._ Kresto6olu III who adminis~ absolUTion 10 the rul· er'. collin and then blessed his suc<:euor. Nq;w; In""" II. In 1723 lhen a plot in Gonder 10 overthrow 1)'J'bu II and nopbc~ him ..ilb OM of his relaTives. The i.....f#n.. seiw:l Abuna Kreslodolu III and the .l?41I1~ Talda "Iymhol. and lon:ed lhem to ."com· municale lbe n.gus. WII~n lt1e rebellion was ....1'" prused. lho: lWO prelates tlad 10 justify Ttle;r acTion. They "'plained lhal "01 only were they imprisoned bUI al", they "'ere loid Iltat Calholic priests were hidden in The palace and lha! Iyylsu II intended lO favor lh. church or Rome. Thereupon. the negus. in a show of clemency, pardoned lhem. According 10 lbe ctlmnlcle of Iyy;bu ll. KreSlodolu 111 died On Salurday. 9 Nai)~ 1717 (A.D. IJ Augu'l 1735). His Immediate SU<:<:C5S(>r ""'S Yohannn 111.

"'*'

BI9UOGAA'"Y

8as5IL'I. R. "Eludes loUr I'hislolre d'£lhlopic:' 10llr· ...11 asidtiq.... 18. seT. 7 (1881):340-42, 345, 356. ~. F. LlI CrottllCII 1Ibr-evUl141 d·Abis.sini
YOHANNES III (d. 1761) Most informati"" abour Yol,tanne, comes from tho chronicle. of Negus Iyylsu 11 (1730-1755) and Negus Iyyo'as I (17.55-1769). According To the chronicles. six and a tlaU ye<1rs after the deaTh of lhe Abuna Kre~Todolu 111 (d, 1735). h..nce Toward I~ beginnin~ of lhe ~lr 1742. Iyyo·... II funned a delegalion cons;,!!ng of lWO Ethiopian prelaTe. aC'

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

companied by ihrft M",""im .......chants. prori6ed IMrn with 450 ounca of &Old. and 'em IMm 10 EBl..... in quest of a new melropolitan. Bul the pre. t;p, of Ethiopia in the Red Sn ana .... IMn in de<:line. SO much SO Ihal Ihe mi$Slon IUllered $(','er· al misadventures on the outward and ..,tum journeys, II wa$ fint of all delayed at Musawa by th. ",1',b, a local chief nominally depend"nt on th. Turkish aUlhoritles of the Red ~a. who hefore au· looriDng io. embarkalion rel;",'ed il of haif the a:old. On arriving al Jidda. the mission Found th'" lhe IasI .ship bound for Ec"JIl had already left. which compelled i1 10 spend len months in th.. port. MoTftl'ter, dunng this forced sc;oum in Ara· ~ one of tho 1_ Elhiopi:a.n p..,1atn be<=Y a MusJim; it was thus !he other p..,ble. Abba n..oo. ros. who rcxMd Cairo and ...bmilled the request from the negus to the CopIic patria«'h JOHS" XVII (1127-1745). On 22 M the .. ni ~l}ul. a11'l'O"""'rfullord 01 T,...", and ambitious ,--.I of I.... ")(.ina: of Kiftp." AI the
·w

,·w

wnu

Ad......

monu

1029

many churches and 10 ordain so many priests,; but the Nt'gUS remined Ibis penally. limiti.., himself 10 eIpelling him from 1M country (l'ebruar)- 1747). in 1750. Nqus l)')"bu II.•ogethe. wilh Quttn MeOiewwab. his mOlher and COre,enl oIlhe kinl' c\o .... decided to summon from abl'Olld some Cad,.,. lie missionaries. The e..ol purpose of this i. nO! known, only lbal Ihe negus asked for missionaries equipped wilb cenain qualities (Ihey had 10 be skillompUlloed 1»' Anlony of Al~... Syri· an who serwd AI their inte~•. Natun>lly u.e Fr.ano::tseans nourished the hope of r«onciling the coun of Ethiopia with the Roman church.. bul Abuna Yo/:Iannes III, supported by the Ethiopian clergy. inlerveno. On 2" Mi)'*z}'1I 1750 (AD. 30 April 1758). YoI)annes Ill. accompanied by lhe ~?agt H~ok, abbot of the of .he ordtr founded 1»' Abuna Takb. Hi)"IIdnol;• ....w. present al Gonde. al the tnMJation of the bones of Nep Ballilfi and Neaus 1)Ybl1l. orde~ by Quee-n Menlewwib; 1M remalm d 1M 1_ ~..,iP'S _~ l1'aJUferTed from lhe church 01 Abuna Tub HJiymlnol lO lhat of o.b", ~. m Ihe presence. and whh 1M ble$Sinlo of 1M met.... politan. In Ihe last months of hi. life, Yol)lnnes III had 10 lntel"o'ene in evenlS important for the ....ligious hi.· lOry of Ethiopia. A monk named E!ale formulated a new docl";"", lhal provoked "iok"l reactions among the ....... br derv (see ~low); the melropolitan condemned this leachinl at; helerodo>. and ocommunicaled Batt. a10,,& wilh his panisans. Those excommunicated look refuge in WiJllQ, when tbrir l
monu

1030

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

pasition of the Coptic ehurch and eondemn the new teaehing. H~nol: was then deposed by the dergy, but peace did not return to the eountry, where the new doetrine was to be the subjed of diseussion for a long time. The doetrine condemned by Yohannes III is that of Ya-faggd lei (Son by Grace). aeeording to which. sinee the IncaTTlation of Jesu. took plaee by \'irtue of the grace of the Holy Spirit, it would be right to say that Jesus is Son by Grace. Later there aro.., another do<:trine often considered as derived from the first-the doetrine of sosl ledal (three bil1h.), according to which Jesus had three bil1hs: 6rst of all the eternal one, which eame from the Father; then the human birth, which occurred through the Virgin Mary: and finally that which the grace of the Holy Spirit conferred upon him. As for the teaching recalled by the Coptic patriarch, it received in Ethi"pia the name of kMra (knife) for reasons that are not clear, perhaps because of the trenchant tcrms used by the patriarch Mark VII in his letter. The te~t of this leiter .eems lo.t, but one presumes that the Coptic patriarch then confirmed the traditional doctrine of the Ale""ndrian church, specifying that one could attribute to Jesus only two birth" the eternal one and that received from the Holy Virgin. Yo~annes III was pre,ent only at the beginning of these religiou.< controversies, for he died on 10 KhedAr 1754 (A.n. 15 No"ember ;761): in giving Ihis date, the chronicle of Negus Ino'as add. that this metropolitan was buried in the Quddu. Gabr'tl church al Gonder, He had as successor Abuna YosAb II, who arrived in Ethiopia eighl years later.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bruce, J. Trav~ls to Diseovu lhe SOlI. 2, pp. 642-47. Edinburgh, 1790 Cerulli, E, "Gli Abba4 di Dabra Libano" capi del monachismo etiopi<;o, ..,condo Ie Ii"e recenti (sec, XVIII-XX)," Orlmwlia 14 (1945):153. Crummey. D. P,ies!S and Polilic;ans: PrOltSIOMI oMd Calholic Missions Orlhodax Elhiapia, 18301868, pp, 20-24. Odord, 1972. Guidi, L "Le liste de; m.lropolit; d'Abissillia," Bessaria"e 6, ser. 1 (1899);13, n. 4. _ _. "Uno squarcio di storia eeclesiastica di Al>i"inia." Beuario"e 8, ser. 1 (1900):20-24. ___. Annales R~gum ly4sl< ff ellyo'oJ, In cseo 66, pp. 126-30, 147-50, 181-82, 195-96,207209. Lottvain, 1912. Kolmodin, J, TYadllio~. de Tsaa,ega el Haa,eg.: An~ales 21 d".:umOMI, 3, p. A44. Uppsaia, 1914.

I"

Maly, Z, "The \'isit of Mal1in Lang, C,-ech Fr~~cis, can, in Gondar in 1752." JOl<mal af EIIliopia" Siudies 10, no, 2 (1972):17-25. Raineri, O. "La breve rel""ione del '''"ggi" in Etiopia di R.medio Protk)' ~rilta il 15,12,1756." Q"o_ da'" d, 'Iud; ellopic! 3-4 (1982-1983):189-90,

vosAn II (d_ 1803) Yos~b'.

metropolitanate included lhe first part of the period called the Age of the Princes (Zoma"a Ma,alenl, 1769-1855). During this period the Ethiopian state declined to ils lowest level. The kingdom was from this time infiltrated al every poinl by the people of Oromo (or G~II~), Quarrelsome and plund"ring regional chiefs disputed the wreckage of power, ",hile the negus b<:longing to Ihe so-called SoIomonic d}'nasly declined 10 the rank of nominal so.ereign, a puppet king maintaining himself on thc Ihrone only with the suppon of a regent prOleetor. In this anarchy, and for want of the suppott of the Ihro~e, the exerdse of the duties of the metropoli· tan became arduous, and YosAb 11 had to suffer the consequences of this SIale of affairs. Yosllb arri.'ed in Ethiopia 10ward the beginning of 1770, in the reign of Negus Takla H~ymanol 11 (1769-1777), when the "Protector of the Throne" was the .,ls MiU'~1 Schul, <:hid of Tigre and effe<:tive masler of the kingdom. At the time of Yosab II's ani."I, the ras MiU'tl tried 10 induce him to fi~ his seal in Tigre, but after some time, Ihe metropolitan decided to go to Gonder, which he entered on 13 Sanf 1762 in Ihe Ethiopian calendar (A,D, 18 June 1770). From then on, during more than thitty· three years, Yo",b 1l was in,'olwd in the even" of the religious and political life of n state in decomposition, s.,.eral items of informatio~ about his episcopate survive, but the}' give only a fragmel11ary picture, for they come aoove all from the ropl chronicle of this period, an incoherent text wrinen by several different hands. Thus, there is a deal1h of information aboul the first part of his episcopale, which unfolded during the reign of Negus Salomon II (1777-1779) and the first reign of Takia Giyorgis I (1779-1784), a sovereign whom eircumsta~"'es were to bring 10 the occupancy of the throne of Ethiopia si, times owr. It is known only that the m.tropolitan took part in the CHemOn} that mark.d Ih. aece..ion to the throne of Negus Iy}",su III (l784-1788). In 1792, during the reign of Negus He"ley~s (1789-1794), YosAb II, suppol100 by the e\'qQg< Walda Iyyasu,. aboot of the monks forming the or-

ETHIOPIAN PRElATES

cItr of Takla HlymlnOl. and by certain notables. took lbe lead In a mo._en' of on aplnsl .M inllumce oJ Ihe Oromo. "too lad In'lIralN even inoo .IM: lillie ...hninislra.ion. This movemenl demandfmo. who -..., blamicized or ..U potpnS: bou !he lIIO"'emenl came 10 nothin, "'"""'..... 01 !he lack of cohes>on among its pmtTtO'l· en.. The inddenl ""as 10 end with a ruondliation bttwttn Chrislian. and Ommo. Toward the hqi"nin,l of 1795. during 11M: .him mp. of Tula GIyorp I (1794-1795), Walda Ca~ r'~. chief of Tilre and 50n of the ,4s MiU·t! Se~ul, anacked Ihc nCJUS i" his "cry palace: at COftder: peace could only be p",,"",n-ed by !he inle~nlion of !he mctropolilan. Shonl)' alierwan!. on 12 Gen· boo 1187 (.... 0. 18 May 1795) al CondeT. YosAb 11 crown~ Neaus Ba·e<J.a M~rylm II. ",ho how<:,..r reigned only a fe.... monlm (May 179S-De<:em~r 1195). When Negu~ Yon<\.< w~ deposed al lhe end of a very .hon re;fn (August 1797-January 1798), he look refugc in the house of lh.. metropolitan. a place .. njo)'ing th.. right of asylum ..... hlle N..gu. Tullo Giyorgls 1 r..occupied lite lhrone for lhe Gllh 11m.. (January 1798-May 1799). Shonly ahcrward. lhis negus was Ihreatencd~' a rebel named W.~d,,: a1lhoo.ah ..~communkal~ ~. Ihe metropolitan Yos.lb II and by Ih.. JII:W ..~~..J:C'. Walda Yon;\. WlI)du ~ to bnak in.o .ltc 111Clropo~lan·. 1'Iowoe to possess himKlf of NeEU5 YaNs. whom he coun~ on rqllacinl on I"" lhrone at his own d.isposal. He ..... """"ewr. 5llrprised 10 dJ$o,o,~ Uu.l Tub Go. yo,p I had pn'CM..d hi",: he had taken pon=;"n of !he penon of YaNs 00 lr.UtSpOr1 him e~. This vioIat.ion of I"" right of asylum. an in~o;:a.ion of I.... dn:adtnce of !he d}"na<>y and of oM decline in lite presliJe atlaching 10 th.. c~ of melmpoli&an. For his pan. ~ . Y~ II did all On h. powe-r to arresl .hat decline. and h;,. lOCuan ~ ICred oome$Ucc-. T~ the tndof 1799. dul' i... 1he finl rei&" of Nep·ne"'ejro. (Jun~ 119'9~h l&CIOt """,iii: Q_~. chief of a pagan Oromo u;~. adoia...,ed '''''.... d'COnder al .he head of his l~; In th.. g.. nenl disaml.Y. Yos.ib II Yen· lured 10 10 OUI to meet Amadt and addr~ 10 him a finn and very dlgnlfi~ spttch. ilS a resull of ...-hich Amadt rellOlJ""~ lhe plu~derinll of Ih~ c.p· lllll and ....lthdrew his lroops, Toward Ihe beginni~g of Ihe reign of NelUI Ea' dla $cyan. called Gwalu, a nominal s(,"crelan in. veited wilh lh" 1111.. King of Kinl' from Jun .. 1801 to Jun.. 1118. th.. Chrl~tological quanel blued up

onen

1031

anew. The ~~.fI Walda Yona adhered 10 lhe doc· lrine of sr>Sl "'d~1 (.hR:e birthe). and Y""'b II. failhlUI 10 the prindpl.Q of Ih~ CopIk chun::h. did not hesi""" to "U:O"'munical" him: .htn. in the hope of ..ndinC lhe quarrel, which cGnlinued to lear the E1hiopian ckrzy apart. the me.mpoIitan Iried. to impos.e the doclrin" of I".b kdlll (."", binhs) by IaunchinC a lC""ra1 "_m,,nication all those ",+>0 sh:a.>ld nol ha,~ adopIed it. But a I~ pan of the c1erJy rebelle.l and caulled Ihe l1>ClropoIitan to ~ WIed 10 an island on Lake T..... 0kI and weary, and n'COI"irins thai it ...... impossible for him to hrinll.l"nua1 reconcili3tion in,O d1CC1. Yodh II ended by .... lrac.inC lh.. e~communin.tion: "Sinc.. an .he world admbs In JeiUS • unique na· I"..... ..,. I admit m~lf. Ie. ~ach one remain in hi. "'•..., belief:' His episcopal ....1 ......,. Ihen restored.o him. According to Ihe royal chronicle. Abuna Yosa.b II di..d on I M..,karam 1796 (.... 0. II September 1803) and"""" buried at Conder In lite Ouddu. Gabr'tl church. According 10 some tradlllons. a w.... k after his death. towan! mldnighl. a h..av..nly light descended on hi. lomb. as If to confirm the sanctity of his long episcopale. As for lhe e?~~it Walda Yon;\. immediale1y aftor Yosib'. dealh h" in hi. lurn im· posere i. no lra<:e In olller docum ..." .., One of

"""'1

1032

ETHIOPIAN PREUTES

th<:!of; lists ..tds thai "Maqityoo: died en 1"O.."e, alie~ his disernbarking. bdore he had beaun 1o orcbin the prieots.. .. This is probably ~ metropoliun reo quesled by Walda Senw aboo, 180S, In any caw, $ince ~ neve~ bf.gu1 10 nereiw: his fum:liOflS, Maq1r)oo5 Cannell ~ counted :ornon,&he metropoli· u.ns of 1M chun:.h of Elhiopia.. The of Yosib II ...., Abo.>Illl atrelos II, ..i>O "'as likewi>e ~ed by rm Tb WaJd.I Set·

su"",...,...

.....

81I:1UOGaAPHY Abi~,

M. Elmop",: The t::... 01 flte Pri.. ces-The

CI.afle"ge oll,{"", a"d ,he Re.omi(k.tfo" of Ihe eh";'I,.." Empire. 17rSlJ_I~55, pp.. 31-32, 40-41. London, 19611. Blundell. H. W. The RO}'./ Chr,micle of Abynin"" /7rSlJ-/8>W, pp. 226, 275, 277. 303, 342, 357, 397, 421-22.431. 433. 448_54, 458. 460, 464, 466. 474_75.480. Carnbridge, 1922. Cerulli. E. "Gli abbali di Dabra LlbanOl, capi del rnonachismo eliopico. secondo Ie lIste re<:enti (sec, XVlII-XXj."' Onelllo/i. 14 (1945):155-56. Crummey, D. Prie.l. ana Polilidons: P",'es'anl .. "a C"lholic Mission. in Orlhodox £Ih",pio, /830/868, Pl'· 23-25. Oxford. 1972Guidi, I. "1£ li....e d",i metropoliti di AbifSin"'"' Bu· .orione 6,""" I (1899):lJ-14. Ross.inl. C. C. "La cro~ ,..,.Ie ablsslna cbl1'anr>o 1800 :dl'anno 1S40."' RePldiconri dell.. Real, Ae('IIde",ia
,..

Takla·JUpnar.ol do Menuih, A. "Vicer>ck deWEl~ opilI e dtll.. missioni olloliche ai lempi di .... Ali, depc ....... e re Teodondon, lS09,

,,,,,J

.

Q£ULOS II (d. 1828)

at,....""

be<:~

rne
menrary. this information Ii""" only an incOinplel" pklure. A new rnc1ropolitan had bc:c:n requesled by me r40 WaJid kft b)' I~ c1eath of ..... Abu.... Y(It suuHded. This loeCond anempl ha.d a &.w>~r resuh: in !he 00l.U'SC 0{ the )'UT 1815. !he Coptic patriarch I"£TU VI (1809-1852) named and oon5'" cralN fo~ Edtiopia a monk callilit': him... lf Qhdoo• ..-110 rmclled W-.... in NoYCn>b..r of the same yea,- and rJ'l&de his mIry to ta!aQot, ..... residence of Ihe,4o walda SelJAst, On J YaUlriI 1808 in ..... Ethiopian calendar 1"-0. 10 february 1816), or a Jilll", ~fore lhe death of the old Tils, .....hich wok pl::lce on 24 Genbot (JI May) of rm same year. 0tTekn. 11 bepn by reskli"ll in Tigre for about Ihree ~a1S. but withoul winning lhe hearts of hif, flock. Meanwhile. al Con'enollllho<. But his co.... iJIg launched al Cionde~ a revival of the ChrisloJosi'cal quarrel: the ~ y olthe monks of ..... capilal foIlOW'fd lhe doctrin. 0{ Ya-f'lUf kj (Son by Gnce) and &he doctrine of >CUI ledQl (lh...... births), bul when it ...., demanded of Qt",los; 11 thai he make knowu his ........ On rm sub;ea, be could not avoid. l'Oj«lin, these doctrines and ucommunicat· iIll Ihnse ..ito followed th.-m. Since !he c1erJY of ~ capiuJ pI'Otwed vigorously apinsr. th.. meded 10 submil the questions 10 a synod held u Gonde~ in the p .......nce of Nr-gus Iyy<:>'u II, toward ..... !>epninB of 1820. "The defende~ 0{ Ihe lheses conn~nn the doctrine of 1;4m1 (knife), whkh was Ihal prescribed by Ihe Coptic !",triarchate and had be.. n defended by his lwo p~ede<;e..or'l>. Harsh· ly attacked by the ad.'ersaries, the me
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

then asked to begin by ret""'ting the gene",1 «. communication he had launched, but as won as he had pronounced this retraction, he was himsdf excommunicated by Walda YonA and expelled from Gonder by order of the negus and the Protector of the Throne, Qhelos II retired again to Tigre, where from that time he resided until his death. In TIgre, the period of confusion that had followed the death of the r~s Walda Sellast came to an end when one of his lieutenants, the doii~Vf'IU: SabflgAdis, was able to seile the power. The majorily of the clergy of Tigre then .upponed the doctrine of unction, bm Sabagadis, acting abo~e all On political consideralions, decided to adhere to the principles defended by the metropolitan, that is, the doctrine of karT", This friendly underslanding proved advanugeous for both pani",,; immedialely most of the clergy of Tigre followed the example of SabAgItdis, The religious who did not allow themselves to be con~inced were expelled and took refuge at Gonder, On his side, the metropolitan obtained several material advantag"" from his suppon of Sabag, adis, But some time later, relations between the two men deleriorated, so much so that when the metropolitan suddenly disappeared, the rumor spread lhat he was dead and that his death was due to poisoning ordered by SaMgadis, The grounds for this rumor s""m questionable, Abba Takla HAym' 1001 of Memsah, a priest who, after ha~ing adhered to Catholicism, wrote a kind of history of this peri· od, recorded another version of the metropolitan's death, Qtrdos II is said 10 ha~c been poisoned by the awlt Taklu, a local chief and vassal of SabAg, ldis, because he co\'eted certain lando of the village of Addi Abun, a traditional fief of the metropolitans, and had experienced violenl disputes with the met· ropolitac, The e'act date of his death is not known, but since the royal chronicle ~tates thaI his episcopate lasted for ahout thineen ~,one may deduce lhat Qtrelos 11 died toward the,end of 1828. After his death, Elhiopia remained on'ce more without a met' ropolitan for about thineen,'years, until the arrival in 1841 of Abuna SalAm1 Ill,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abir, M, Elhiopia: The Era 01 Ihe Princes-The Challenge of fslam a'la Ihe Re,uni{ical;on of Ihe Chris/ian Empire, /769_1855, pp, 32, 35, 41-41, london, 1968, CelUlli, E. "Gli abbati di Dabra Libanos, capi del monachismo eliopico, secondo Ie liste recenti (,ec, XVlll-XX)," Orienlafia IS (1945):155-56,

1033

Crummey, D. Priests and Politicians: PrOleS/aM! and C"rhofic Missions in Orlhodor Erhiopia, 18301868, pp, 26, 34, 83, Oxford, 1972, wbat, S, Journal af a Three Yo",,' Residence in Ah"S$in;a, p. 349. london, \934. Guidi, I. "Lo liste dei metropoli\i d'Abi..inia." Bes· sarim" 6, ser, 1 (1899):14, _ _~. "La chiesa abissina." Orimle Moderno 1 (1922)'189-90, Halls, J. J.. ed, Tho Life Adwnlures of Nalht",!el PieFce Writ/en by Himself During a Residena in Abys>inia fmm Ihe Yeo'S /8;0 10 18i9, Vol. 2, pp, 53-78,129-32, 135-36, 148-49, 156-58, 166-69, 199-210,217,220-22,231-35,263-66. London, 1831. Rochet d'H/:ricoun, C. F, X, Second Voyage .,'ur les deux ..i ves de 10 mer Rouge, dans Ie pays des Adels el/e royaume du Chotl, pp. 222-23. Paris, 1846, Rossini, C. DtK:umenlO ad /IIuslrandam Hisw..iam, Vol, 2, Liber ,humae, In CSCO 58, p, 66, lou~ain, 1954, _ _~, "La cronaca reale abissina dall'anno 1800 a1l'.nno 1840:' Rendicom; della Reale !tccadem;o del Lincei 25, seT. 5 (1916):889-93, 8%, _ _~. "Nuovi documenti per la Slona d'Abis.inia nel secolo XIX:' Rend!conl; dei/a Reaf. Accodem' ia de! Lined 2, ser. 8 (1947):362-65, TaUa-Htorulnot da Memsah, A. "Vicende dell'Etiop, ia e delle missioni cauoliche ai tempi di !'as Ali, deggiac Ubi/: e re Teodoro:' trans, C. Rossini. Rend!canl! della Reale Ace4dem;a de; Unce! 25, ser, 5 (1916):444-45, 460-61.

,,,,d

SALAMA III (d, 1867) SaI~m1

served as metropolilan loward the end 01 the period of anarchy called Zom~n~ Mosdfenl, or Age of the Princes (1769-1855), and during the reign of Negus Uwodros II (1855-1868). "'ftor the death of Abuna O~relos II in 1828, Ethiopia re, mained without a metropolitan for nearly thineen years. The political power was then parceled out among various pretenders: in nonhero Ethiopia the dnjjJVf'Jc SabAg.idis, chief of Tigre, h.d entere
1034

ETHIOPIAN PRElATES

Web.': counted on availing himself of Ihe pr",lige atUlChed to the metropolitanate to supplant the he· gemony of the T'cry young monk named AndraWlls, who had frequented the Protestant school opened in Cairo in 1826 by the Church Mis' sionary Society of England, which explains the in· clination thi. prelate later had for the Protestant missionaries in Ethiopia. Barely a scOre of year:< in age, the new metropolitan took the name Sal;!.m;!. 1Il in honor of the first bishop of the Ethiopian church, Se,'eral Europeans were present at the first steps of this metropolitan in Ethiopia and have left accounts of the period, Sal~m;!. reached AdwA, the principal seat of Web{" on 19 November 184l; he was there receh'ed with pomp, but this first phase of his episcopate was ,'ery shon, in Febmary 1842, Web.':, accompanied by the abun, invaded the Bag~mder and marched on Dabra TAbor, seal of the rot, followed the doctrine of Ya'~aU
But WebCtrinal tendencies. The councH confinned the Unionist d(>Ctrine, which "'as the one defended by the metropolitan, and ,e· jected the comrary Ihesis. In conclusion, on 19 Au· gust 1854, KAsA proclaimed as official the doctrine adopted by the council. while SalAmA. ,olemnly anathematized all the contra\)' doctrines. Having thus restored unity to the bosom of Ihe clergy, KAsa prepared 10 combat his 13.
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

tilllt of his ....inning Ihe throne, Salimi ~ ob, tained from him the promise that he would suppon him in his Slrugde against h .. two pril\eipal ~,.,. sarles: the Irarist bishop Glust:ino de JKoOls eJlpellcd from Gonder, lOItMr Catholic missionaries; funher, he JUCc-.kd in pon,gdin, Tboiod.... to ~lcome ..'ilh good.... ill Klme l'rol:eslant missionarin. Bill Sallmf,'s hoslility 10 RomIon Calholic..", ....Iy rendered .none con· cr<1e 1M suppon furn"hed by F""nce to 1M Calholic missionaries and indirecli)" intensified Ihe !Ill>" pon fumfshed by Crt~'al Britain 10 Ihe Protestant missionaries and 10 SaIAm~. ThLl~, from Ihe hegin· ning of lhe reign of nwodTo~ II. Ihere arose a climate of lenslon between the negus and Ihe melropolilan. The relations between SalAmA and nwodros. ""'ich had never bee" perfecl, were nOI long in detenorallng because Ihe sovereiln's ,real polhical pLon COnlrtiled with the interest! of the Elhlopian church: nwodros, "..bo never concea.led hi. con· lemp4 for the cle'lD', dnamed o£ creal in, a p<.O"""1'" ful empiu, equipped wilh a llll"g<' ""'Iional army, ....hich would h..-e allowed him to subdue any adnrury and 10 repel Isbm once and loT all. He counted on ralizin& this plan by ulilizin, lhe raotITCti of Ihe church and T<:s Chanoclt<' of nwud.... contn"bul<'d 10 the creallon of a rupture bec...-een lhe negus and the mt:lropoll· caD. lhil rupcure became evidenl al the end of IIS6 III the lime of the visil "? Ethiopia by Ihe Coptic palriuch c·,aa. tv (lSS4~ 1.\61)This ..'as a visit 0111 of the ordinary on IWO I"""nds: fi~, because th~ was the 6.~ lirnOl thaI a Copt.., piluiarch had ~OOK" ~ E'.1hiopi:a and, second. because CyrIl IV already knew Ethiopia, for he !wi JOI>e lhere in 18SO when he was called only Dfowiid and WlllI no more lhan lhe superi", of Ihe MonasI..y of SlIinl Anlony (IMn ANM ANTtlNI'lilI5). On thaI earlier occasIon. he had been senl 10 Ethiopia by lhe palrlarch PtTER Vll (1809-1852) with Ihe aim of rc'ening Ihe effecls of a doclrinal order thaI had sel Sal'm' III in opposition 10 pan o£ lhe clerc and of askinS the n\'jUs 10 contribute 10 the e~pens' es that the pa,niarchate had 10 bear at Jenllalem to

1035

help !he Elhiopilln pilgrims. The de~b allhis first mission are 001 knO"Wlt, bul aPl»-renlly it ..... unfruitfuL The high Coptic prelate',..econd mission 10 Ethi· opia proved full of incident. The ~menl$ a\'llilable llTl' silenl in ... prd to Ihe prec:o.e aims of the mission, but !he hiw>ry of lhe Copes pennies some deduclions. The vkeroy of Ei)pt, So.1d Pasha (l&54~ IllblJ. was inclined not 10 ?"l'We in the south 1M policy of expansion adopted by his father, Mui}ammad 'Ali. He had IherefOre downp3ded the Egyptilln adminislralion 0V1!" Sudanese lenitory and ,..,.. duce:d his army in IhOl Sudan 10 the levd of a lem;bnn<:'rie. 1M$ policy presupposed a frif:ndly policy on Ihe part of Emperor Tlwodros II, who, bown-er, did nOl cease 1(> proclaim himsellihe enemy d lilam. Hence, Sa'id IhwJhI to send Cyril IV 10 TtwOOros wilh an oII"er of friendship. The Coptic palriarch accepted Ih;,s mi.osion. for he, too. Iuld II plan. In January 1856, wilh the aim of forming a nDlionai army. Sa'ld had decl'C'ed thaI all young CoplS, like younl Muslims, were 10 do military service. The Copts, who for centuries had been exempl from any milltary obligation. were gready disturbed by Ihls decree. In which they '"'w only an indirect ...·ay al pene<:uting lhem. Hence. Cyril IV acCepled lhe mission In Ihe hope also of inducing Tewodros to int"...... ne with Sa'id and ~I hUn to ..,.... k<: the decree, The t...'O objects of the mission were not altained: indeed. il had lUUhs opposite 10 IhOK hoped fur. FJOtn the lime of his iIlm.-aI in Ethiopia in December 1&56, the palriarch, in asree:menl with Aboma Safmui ill, dMed ill 1£(ler in ",'bich Ttwodros. ac· cep'lin& Sa'ld'. friendship, in\iled !lim 10""1easoe the younc Copts enrolkd by bee in the E,;yptian army and declared !limself disposed lnvinced of the justice of his _pidons.. Ttwodms had Cyril IV and Salim! III impriooned. Then he had Ihe patriarch'. bagglge soearched and plun· dered. Five days laler. on 16 January IS57. folic ...., ing Ihe inte....enlion althe Ethiopian cieri)', the,e w;IS a public Dnd S<)lcmn reconcllialion. Recogni~. ing thaI he had been too impulske, n ....odros libel' ated the t .....o prelales Md allowed Cyril IV 10 bless him, but Ihe pa,triarch ..... il$ K.rcely authorized 10 leave Elhiopia. In October of tIM: same year, f"Uo....-

1036

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

ing a new di&P\ll~ wilh n ...'Odros. &limi publidy ","commllnicated all 1~ ...... had followed the negus ,n his aclionJ conlrary 10 tM interests of lhe d~rp. h ........ C)'t'il IV wbo pill an end 10 IhiJ new crisis by raising lhe ~comm..nicalion, and litis. ;1 Is ~id. despil~ SallmA'J advice to lh~ conlrary. Sho"ly ahe ......ard, the negus _horUcd the patri. arch'l dcpa"u", (No~mber 18ST). and in bc:1 he rr:lumed 10 ECYP' in ISSS. SalIml'1 preslige con1inucd gnodually to d~d;n". Tewodros influibly pIll'SUed the ~lizalion of his gBnd ~ and especially his pbn aimed at re· duting lhe p~ige of the church 10 male it an insttumenl locally subject 10 lh~ JIak. Sioc~ SalmnI and Ih~ cktzy had long JII1ven aplmR the proceed· inp of tho: fWJUS. lhey -...ere accused of bcing !he oriJin d all rniIl:anc:~ 10 T ~ ' authoriwian rqime. Tbey "'Flied by often accl.lSinglhe " " p of acling "like a MuJlfm.~ This lension reached iI5 hi&heJt poinl i.. 1864: kl'K»'oing thaI Sallml ........ maintaini.., nl:Wionl with his llbqdaU., me fl><>U.nl;tin on wtUch 1M Klnl of Klnp was preJNri"110 entrcrK:h himsdf 10 .ellsl incrusinl difficuh.iel in bodt So,. eipl ami domestic: albin.. As for tho: clerzy of Gon· der. ic had to sund by powrrleos al lite plundering of !he capical (1164) and ils ~tiooo (1966) by ooW' of lho: negus himwlf. n.e drcumJla1'ICeo of the encl 01 Tho""'"", II, ...... eommllled suicide al Maqdali (lCI 13 April 1368 in !hoe fa.ce of a BritWt u.peditionary corps commanded by General Robnl Napier, ..... well known. 801 SalAmA III wa> not prcswi al mil evenl, lOr he had died In his prison al MaqdaJa (lCI 2S Oct<>ber 1S67 al aboul the. of foMy-lix yean., sorely lried by lhe privaliom und~l'I"oe duriog hi. imp~meol. Salimi III ...mainl one of the mO$! conlro~rsIa.1 ~'eI In lhe hlltory of El~iopia in lite oine~enlh ~~IU'Y. The i!UCCCl$Or' of Ihis mli'lropolilan was Abuna

snn....

AlnAt~.

Blanc. H. A Namulv. 0/ Captivity In Abyulnl", pp, 48-49.273-18. London. 1S68. Cerulli. E. Ellnpi in PaIUlirt", Slo,;a d.1I1l COotl.. nll~ eliop",,, dl &r"sItK'.1943-1947. Crummey. D. ,,.twod«K .. R~fonn~. and Mod~ml· ~r:' Jooo

lie llJusiofls in Onhodox Eflriopi
,n

rA"""".,

s......... •,

ATNAT£WOS (d. 1876) 8IBLI()(;lIAfflY

Abbadie. A, d'. Do.. tt Ans d~ siiour d",,. [" Ha .. I~· Elh;opi~ (Abynlm·~). Vol. 2. pp. 36-39. 42-44. 48, 54, S6, S8, 62-64. 90-92, 167. and Vol, 3. pp. 54-S7, S9-()(l. 63, 67, 80-83. 89-92. Valic"n City. 1980-1983. Abir. M. Elhlopi,,: Th~ Era of Ih~ Prince.,_The C""II~",. of Islam and Ill. R...."i/ic"llo.. of Ihe Christian Emp;r~, 1769-18S5. pp. 109-112, 12329. 134-36, 140-42, IS1-59. 180-84. London. 1968.

...as Ihe immediale IUoCccuor of Ihe A1>u~a SallmJi III, ",Ito died in 1867. On Ihe death of N~gus Ttwodros II Qn 13 April 1868. al Ihe ~nd of a military campaign conduCled against him by British troop". Ihe lwo principal riv.ls lOr Ihe Ihrone of Elhiopia w~re Gob""", Gab", Madkhen. WigSum (or lor
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

IioIl to Cairo 10 obIain from Ihe Coptic pmiarch Dm>ctrius II (1862-1810) Ihe election of a new 8WIropoliWt who could consecrale and "anoinl" tile new "I(ina: of Kin~" of Ethiopia. The deleptlolt formed '" Gol>az,e "'. .. II()( able 10 lcaw Ihe eounlll". for it was inlemcpt:cd and blockaded by Uot. In wulion. (;,r,I,"* had himself prodaimed Iin& of Kines by his anT»' ancI look !he crown _ Takb GiyOlp II. The 6cleplion formed by KJsi ...... able 10 reach Cairo. where iI handed (>Ocr I(> the Coptic pallial'chall! lhe ... m of si. thOU5aJKl Ilwcn in silver and ~cd the ~ding of the metropolitan. In Ihe cOUfW of September 1868, K..to.I rccciftd the i*ri· arch's ~ly by ICl:ler from his principal dcleple. Th.. re,lly was supposed 10 remain sccrel. but c.....ce all<1Wcd Ihe French I",,,der Aluandre Citvd 10 look inlO il. The palriarchale demanded lhe \*ymem of a ...pplemenlary sum and a peomise from KAsI lhal he wb. The new mCl:ropo!itan. who "'... called Amil!W06 (At.ll.analius). arrived in TIgre in Jllne 1869. and ~ tool: care 10 endow him with ri<:h lie&. The prelate began by ])b)i"" for tim",. probably ' - _ he had InsuuCtions ""'" 10 proceed 10 the cOf1JOK...• IiOfl of a Kins of Kings ~ the .trugk for pow... bet"""""n C<:>ba?+ and Kis:o had been KIlled. Two J""l'"' !aler. fecline sure: of his '1rength. <:ob-rl in· wooded n,rc .. the head of a larJe anny boll ".... clccio.iYCly defealed on II July U71 by 0sI. who immedialely proclain>cd hi",""lf Kin& of Kinp of ElItiopia: finally. """"" m
1037

11175 and 1871> p rise 10 two mililary cxpC'diI1<>Il5 of Ihe Khedin I nl in Ethiopia. both victl>l"iomly R"pIbcd by YoI;oantW5 IV. It SCem! dial in the COlIne of this eonftiCt Amlltwof. had leaning! to",...rd his land of onlin .nd $lb1i5hed contae15 ",ilb MC'oelik II. ",-t.o ""'" kin8 of Sloe",... and vassal of YoI:oan""" IV and "'M emerulncd ~ret ambiti""" ",ith reprd 10 lhe Ihrone 01 lhe Kina: of Kings. "",,cordinl Gu&lidmo MMn'a the repon ran through the counlry lhat Yol:>anncs IV, at the time of hi! 5eCOromi5ed dIC mCl:ropoli· lan. After his milllar)' campaign, YoI}ann... IV returned to Ad"" on 7 Juoe 11176 and ~n. it i. said. by getting rid of the fe.... pet'5Onage5 fonning the entour;lge of Abuna Atnit!W05; lhen il ",as thc ....etropolililn him.e1f who dl ..ppeared. and the rumor .prcad that he had been suppressed by order of the negus. The.... i. no formal proof of thi. reo pon. and late. cerlain autho.. even maintained lhal the "b,m died of the consequences of a wound suffered al Ihe lime of Ihe bailie of Gu",. The local llOurccs confine ,heIIl5eNe' 10 repo"ins laconically lhat Aln:.t:ewos died at Miy Gwil""i. nea. ""urn. on B Sant 1868 in the Ethiopian cakndar (A.D. 29 June 1876) and tha, he ....... buried a, AdwA. apparenlly ",'ilh""l pomp or any partkul uremony. The 5U<:eCS!lOl' of lhis melropolitan Abuna P~r05 IV.

'0

B1BUCJCL.\rHY

Emperor YoI!"''''u IY (lB12-~91. pp. 17. 95. 97. 127. YI"oest-lcn, 19n. Chaine. M. "Hi!roi.e 6u rtJne de Yokanncs IV. roi d'Ethiopie (116l1_1889).M R.ev,,~ sbttiJiqu~ 21 (1913); 178-91. COU....c. J. de. u Repe de Y"",,",",,'s (tl'"prtS lu p"pien salem. 181l. flouin, C. Jiiswi,e d.. r~pe d~ K"Uj~e Ismail, Vol . I. pl. 2. PI'. 299-307. 31(, Cairo. 1938. CiUU'd. A. So.."e,,;rs d'"" "Orate~" "'byui"i. (18681869;. pp. 136-45. ~Iro, 1813. Guidi, L "Le 1i.1. dei mctropolili d'Abissinla." B.s· sadone 6, .or. I (1899),14. n, 3. M8SSIlia, C. ! miei t,cn!ad"que an"j d; m;,,;one "eWAlla Et;op;a, Vol. 9, chap. 9. til; chap. 10. 1"6-11; chap. IS. U5. Rome and Milan, 18851895.

Bairu Tall.a. "- C"ronicf~

01

1038

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

Ricci. L "Un. cronaao b~ in arNlriro ...1 ~o di Yo/.>anne$ IV. '" d·Etiopia." Ri>iSl~ d~g/; l1"dl orl~nllJli 22 (1947):.7-59. Twe.chi. S. "Les Debuts. de 1.0. polltique religieuse de Yo!la"nt:s IV: 1868-1876:' Alii dd Co",ruso i"urJI"Von"/~ di Sl..di ..!rIt:"ni: L'A!rlt:d al Urn"; iii DlJnll:l~ Comboni {Rom". 19_21 Nawmb<~ IWJIJ. pp. 161-78. Rome. In3. Z"",dt: Gab"'·StIl~. Yo;Ju"'nu TV 0/ EIJI. ., A PoliJirlJ1 8>Opdplry. pp. B-~. ~. Oxford. 1975.

P£TROS IV (d. 1921) Ane. the dealh of Abuna Alnallwos In 1876. Ne· I'" Yo!.tanne5 IV (1871-1889). ailelllnl thai OM bi5hop "'as insufficient for h.. whole e.... pke. ~ed the Coplic ~triarch CYRI~ V (1875-1927) 10 send Ellliopia fo\ar bW>ops. Thus• .0.1 MJoqaIf. in We fall 1881. Yol:iannes r«rived • __ me1ropolita:n bello op. Abun. !'tlros IV. ,...1\0 was to sgy ..ilh him • rove. and Ih•..., coadjulO' bishops: Ml'fwoo. "'ho was become bishop of Shewa and all tenilorles governtd by Mendik. n"lus of Shew. (l865-1889): Marq06. des'ined for l~ bishopric of Bagfmd.-r • nd St.... ln. but who died SOOn after hiJ arrival al Dab.... Tlibor; and Luqis. who ...as assigned 10 all the I~ under N~ Takia Hi,-.NnoI and 10 G<>;am. wht:re he died around 1'l'O1. ~ IV :lei up .esu.wroce in the lradilional f;d of the bishops of Till"'. a' Addi Abun. near Aid.,.... He earned OUI his du'les lO. some e;gln yea... He accompanied Yo!.tannes IV in the E,hioplan e,pcdl· tion imo lhe Sudan allainl! lhe Mahdi~1S and was present when Ihe negus died from • WQund sulf"red during the banle d "'..... mlNo on 10 March 1889. I.lenelik. wboo lhen be<:a~ supreme rule. of all Ethiopia (lll8'9-1913). prompdy requested tllal "'alewoa he promoted 10 lhe rank d rnelropoliuln in place of !'l!ros IV. The bner tried in ,.. in to prewn. Ihis. but Menelik $UCC~ in <>b.... ininl • ppro" ..1 from ,he Copilc p;ltriarch In ~'Pt and ~e!ms IV was rep~ed. A' the .....me lime, Menelik repani.ioned the lerritories of lhese two prelaln, with mllwos re.:eivinll nOt only the grea••• p;>n of Shewa but ..Iso """;y 011.... imprKtall1 I....... such as Yaju. Battmder. and Dambra. al>d ~"'" beinl p,,,,n the nonhem pat! of the counlf)' rr>ve, Wi&. "ICo) and cenain cen"'lIl1 ,ern,o';"'" Aner ,he ballle of Matamma. Menelil conlined 1'e!ms 10 Shewa to prevenl him from consec"llin8 Il$ emperor lhe prince of Tigre, Rlb Mangotsha • .0.1· leged son of Yo!.>annu IV, and pretender 10 Ihe Imperial lhrone_ Howe."". once Mang;tSha w;ll5 de· lealed in 1899 and oiled 10 Shewa. 1'~''''' ...as

'0

allowed 10 'e,,,rn '0 T'llre and to the .esidence a, Addl Abun. Afle, len )'e.... he len fO<" DllMif....h....., he had been inviled to conseCr1lte Rlb Mik,'e) as nellus ofW.. J1o (31 May 1914). an offic" lhal Mi1<J:tl had <>b... ined Ihroogb his lIOn and "'lenelik'. suecessor. Lej 1))'Isu. When Lej Iyyisu was ....e. deposoed al Addis Ababa (27 Sepcember 1916). MiU'fl lOOk arms in his ""ppon. H" beued the axed ('l!ros 10 at:company him lnlo baul.. When MiU·fl "'.... d~,ed al Sagall On 26 OcIOber 1916. he and ~t1ros were .... k"n prisoner. ~e!f'O$ was granted his freedom soon thereaher. bUI only on condition tha, he remain in Bulg! (Shew.o.). where he died in 1921. Amonl lhe four COplle pn::lal~ .eceivtd by Yo!}amteS In 1881. only f~ and his .-:cOQSOr. M2.tlwos. ..uained lhe di&nil)' of m~ropolitan. MIrqos was dead al o..bra T " ;" ISB1. ,,'hile Luqls died in GojIlm around 1901 aher • rather insilnil>cant tpiscopo'". BIBliOGRAPHY

Ann.... 'one. C. In Abi,.i"w. Rome. 1914. B.1iru Tafla. A Cltronicle of Em~TO< Y~annu IV (I$7J-&9). p. 153. W~n. 1977. Fusdla. L "Abissinla e Metemnta In uno Krino de Bel.", He.uy:' 1n Ri du ",is d·£tJriopi~. tr.lons. Testa Sellassi#.. ed. M. tie Coppe', Vol. l. pp. 190. JOJ-306. and Vol. 2. pp, 627, 630. Paris. 1930-1931. Pollera. A. W $lato ttiopico .. la $Ua C~;Ud. pp. 165-~. Rome .nd Milan. 1926. Simon. C. en AJ,y,.ini... L'F.Jhiopit. $#~ """,,,n. $#S lrU
"""ore

""

Zewde Gabn::-Sellassle. VoIuuvoes IV of Elhiopi.... A Polilk.1 BiDgra.pJry. pp. lIla-I09. Oxford. 1975.

M,\T£wos (1843_1926) ....... melropoli",n durinll a $Iormy period in modem E1hiopian hi51ory. which co.ered (he rei8ns of Mt:ndik II (1889-1913). Lej InUl (19131916). and Em"""", hwdi,u (1916-1930). Aherlhe death of Abwta A,n*I_ (1376). Emperor YoJ.t.allMS IV. •Ilq:inll ,hat one bWtop "'as I'IOl sufficient for his whole e",pi.e. asked the Cop(ic palriareb Cyril V (1873-1927) 10 send Ethiopia four bishops. Thw, al Maqalt. in ,he lale fall of 1881. the E1hlopian 5OV<'",isn recen~ a new m~lropol" Wl bishop. Abuna fflros IV. who "u lO reside i.. M~I~"OI

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

~

province. Thr« coadjUlor bishop" came with him, MAttwos, who was to become bishop of Shewa and all lerritOnes g()verned by Menelik. negus ()f Shewa (1865-1889); Mark. who was to become bishop of Bagtmder and Semen. but "'ho died soon after his arrival at Dabra Tabor; and luqas, who .... to become bishop of Gojam, wbere he died in 1901. MIit!wos, who was received with great pomp and ceremony in his diocese. rapidly gained Menelik's confidence, and even officiated at the negus'. marriage 10 Taym at Ankobarr, in April 1883. Born in 1843 at Bani KhaJid, in the Upper Egyp· tian governorate of AsyU!. Matewos took his monas· tic vows in OAYR AL-MUl:IAIlRAQ at QOsql1im and came to Ethiopia from the Monastery of Saint Anton)' (DAYR I
1039

tion the church had alway, been re.ponsible fOT education in the land; and indeed, the first gm·ern· ment school founded b~ the emperor did ha,'e a corps of teachers lnd Soldm, the newspaper founded by Rfts Talari Makonnen, After a bout ,,"'ith pneumonia, he died in Addis Ababa on 4 December 192~, at eighly·three yeaTS "f age, having Tesided in Ethiopia for forty-five }'ears and having officiated as metropolitan for thirty·seven. Hi< dealh "ut an end to the biller accusations against him, but in widening the debate about his

1040

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

SUCCessoT, it also op
Baint Tafla, ed A Chronicle 01 Emperor Yo!}annu lV (/872-89), p, 153. Wiesbaden, 1977_ Cipolla, A. Ndl'impem di Menelik, pp. 272-77. Milan, 1911. Grunlield, R. Ethiopia: A New Po!irical Hisrory, pp, 138-39. London, 1965. Gu~bre Sellasie. Chmnique d" reg"e de MinMlk fl, wi de. mls d'Ethiopie, lrans. Tesfa Sellasie, ed. M. de COppel. VoL I. pp. 190-92,268-72,276-78, 303-306, and Vol. 2, pp. 440-42, 501 (n. 3), 530, 540-42,622,629, and pi. 16. containing a large portrait of Abuna M1tewos. Paris, 1930-1931. MAhtama $cHasst Walda Masqal. Zekra Nagar. Ad· dis Ababa. 1942 Eth, (1949-1950); 2nd ed., 1962 Eth, (1969-1970). Tedeschi, S. "Pro61o storico di Dayr ....Sultan:· )O"r"nO/ of Ethiopian Studiu 2, ser. 2 (1964):147. Zewde Gabre&J1assie. Yohannes IV <4 Erhiopia, A Politi<:a/Biography. pp. 108-109. Oxford, 1975.

Q£RELOS III (d. 1950) The metropolitaRate of Otrelos covered the reigns of EmpTess Zawditu (1916-1930) and Emperor Haile Selassie (1930- 1974), Ihe lasl sovereign of lhe Solomonic dynasty. This prelate is often called Otrelos V. but since the history of Ethiopia knows only two other metropolitans who bore this name (Qtrelos I. in the thirteenth century, and Otrelos II, in the nineteenth), it seemS p<eferable 10 call him Oe<e1os III. RAs Tafari Makonnen (lhe future emperor Haile Selassie), in 1916 named deputy 10 the empress and heir 10 lh" thron",,(but often called regent), had launched a policy <>f reforms: on the ecclesiastical level, he wished tt:.. Ethio~ian church 10 b..come mo.e independent' of the Coptic patriarchate, Hence, he allowed some individuals to raise in an Ethiopian journal founded by Tafari in 1925 and called Berhlm-enna Sa/am (Light and Peace) the queSlion both of the privileges enjoyed by Abuna M~~ and of Ihe tradilional principle according 10 which the spiritual head of the Ethiopian church had 10 be a Copt. It was clear that nothing could be chang"d ""hile Matewos was alive. but on his death, which look place al Addis Ababa on 4 DecembeT 1926, the question b..came a live issue and Ihe de-

bale won o\'er lhe ranb of the Ethiopian clergy. Bul lhe failing heallh of the aged Coptic patriarch Cyril V delayed the Openinll of the question for some momhs: the Ethiopian church, whose tmdi· tional secular head was styled "King of Kings:' could only lhink of opening negotiations with the Coptic church after the death of Cyril (7 August 1927) and the election of JOH" Xl;< (1928- 1942), at first designated as locum lenens and later as patri· arch of the Coptic church (enthron"d 16 December 1928). Meanwhik on 7 October 1928, Tafari had been l!nos_ John XIX replied thaI, in confmmity with tradition, both the new m"tropoli· Ian and the bishops dependent on him could only be Copts from Egypl. Tafuri repealed his request in a dispalch in which he added, "Our desire coincides with tha. of our people." This telegram was followed by the sending 10 Cairo of an Ethiopian delegale, who was able to reach a preliminary agreemenl at the end of March 1929. According to this agreemenlthe palriarchate, while con6nning lhal the ab"n had 10 be a Copt, agreed to consecrate five bishops to be chosen from among the Elhiopian prelaies. Four Ethiopian prel· ales were then sent 10 Egyp!. They were accompa· nied by an importanl delegation, which arrived in Cairo on 21 May 1929. On 31 May', after discussion with the Ethiopian delegation, the Coplic synod is· sued a decree 6xing in detailed fashion the powel"S of the fulure metropoiitan, as ",'ell as lbose of his bishops. This document specified that neither the archbishop nor his bishops. alone or united in as· sembly, had the po""er 10 name other bishops, whose consecration thus remained the exclusive province of the Coptic palriarchate. The nominal ion of the metropolitan was then proceeded .....ith. and the choice fell upon th" HEGU· MENnS (archpriest) Sidan:;s al-An!iinl. who was born at NagMmish (Upper Egypt) around 1880 and was the deputy of the metropolitan of Jhja. John XIX consecrated him on 2 June 1929, and al lhe moment of the laying on of hands call"d him Klrollos

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

(Cyril, or in Eihiopic, Qcrelos). On the same day

were consecrated Ihe four other bishops, who, si •. t""n centuries after the evangelization of their country, were the first Ethiopian. to be invested with episcopal authorily, The consecration of the fifth Ethiopian bishop, the etii;agt, who had not been able to leave the country, was deferred until later. The metropolitan and the four bishops went 10 Jerusalem on pilgrimqe before leaving for Ethiopia. Finally, On 21 ~. •ember 1929, John XIX himself left Cairo 10 carry out a pIltriarchal visit to Ethiopia. He was received wilh pomp at Addis Ababa, where on 9 January 1930 he proceeded to the consecration of the ei;;;agi, the finh Elhiopian bishop. On 2 April 1930, Empress Zawditu died, and on the following day RU Tarari Makonnen proclaimed himself King of Kings. His coronation took place at Addis Ababa on 2 November of the same year, with greal enemony; on this day he was blessed, anoint· ed, and crowned by (}trelos Ill. But some time later the metropolitan returned to Egypt for two apparent re"",n.: the health of the metropolitan (who, it was said, found the altitude of Addis Ababa hard to bear) and the renewal of the holy {'HRlSllt (the holy oil prescribed for the admini.tration of sacraments prepared in Egypt by the Coptic patriarch). It appears, however, that this joum")l had another reason: after lhe arrival of the metropolitan in Elhiopia, provision had been made for hi. mate· rial need.< and tho,"" of hi••uite by assigning 10 him 6ve important fier. (including SaHa !)engay and Mannigasha Marqos) and granting him a sum of one thousand thalers per month; bUl Otrelos had also asked that the property of his predec""""r, Abuntl. Mattwos (who, it was said, had amassed a ~ fortune) .hould be handed o"er 10 him. Since this demand had been rejecled (it was added, moreover, that John XIX him~lf had judged that he did not have to intervene in litis question), Q<;relos 111 took offense and relurned ;to Cairo, He was to rerum to Addis Ababa only in 1933, following a personal intercession from lhe pious Manan, wife 01 Emperor Haile Selas,ie. The war of 1935~1936, which ended in the occu· pation of Addis Ababa (S May 1936) by lhe armed forces of Fasci.t Italy, profoundly altered the gener· aI situalion in Ethiopia: the prestige of the metropolitan declined, and the position of tbe Ethiopian church became ....eaker. Certainly Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, viceroy of Ethiopia, began by proclaiming respect for all religions, bul in fact, fur reason, of imperial and international policy, italy fa.'ored the

1041

Muslims in Ethiopia Over Ihe Christians_ Uke the majority of notables, oerel", also hastened to pay allegiance, in his own name and Ihat of the Eth· iopian clergy, to the italian government (14 May 1936), while leUing it be understood thaI he e~pect· ed that Italy would recognize him publicly and offi· cially as the ,upreme head of the Ethiopian church. The problem was a delicate one: by tradition he was the spiritual head of his church, but until 1936 it was the emperor who was the aClual head . The italian government hesitated to take a posi· tion on Ihe i"ue, and in the meantime a difficulty arose: in the hope of inducing John XIX not to join the pro-Ethiopian wing of the Coptic patriarchate, the !lalian government invited Qerelos HI to write to tbe patriarch a letter 10 inform him of Ihe good disposition of Italy with regard to the Ethiopian church. The metropolitan declared himself read)' t<> do so, on condition that he did not ha"e to submit 10 the viceroy the text of the leller, The Italian authoritie, rejecled thi, condilion and hence aban· doned their overtures. Taking up his original request, O~relos wrote to Ihe italian government in July 1936 demanding that the Ethiopian church be exempted from any interlerence by the italian au· thorities and that official reCognilion be given to the right of the metropolitan to manage the affairs of his church and to carry out all the necessary nominations. The Italian government con,idered that in this leiter Qerelos was claiming wider rights than those that belonged to him in the time of the King of Kings, and chose to make no reply. A serious incident look place shortly afterward. Because of armed attacks by the Ethiopian resist· ance, the capital had been placed at the center of a vasl defensive enclosure, within which it was for· bidden to introduce or hold arm" but a group of armed "rebels" was captured on 29 July 1936 at Addis Ababa. Among the member,; 01 this group was found Abuna !,~!ros, bishop of Wallo (with his ,eat at Dassi~), In the course of the trial that took place the following day, Ihe bishop did not explain the reason for ","'hieh he had introduced himself into the capital, limiting himself to saying that he was defending his country. The military tribunal condemned him to be ,hOI, and the judgment was executed immediately. I.'~tros died a hero, aher blessing his judges. Graziani, who was later reproached for being unable to pardon the prelate, declared publidy that "this execution did not alter in any way Ihe respect borne by the Italian govern· ment for the Elhiopian church," An incident just as serious occurred some months

1042

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

hlltr. On 19 nbruary 1937 al Addis Abab.>, in the COUI"$t of an official ceremony. nine bombs we.., Ihro..... .o.' die viceroy. The.., wt'f'e ~eral WO\Indt'd. indudinl Graziani and Qlrd.. III (the fonner St'ri· ously hit by St'Ve.... >plinlet3. the Iat_ .Iip,dy ","ol.u,,;kd in the riVlt Iund). Tht' Italian polk.. decl.o.red WI il ...... a C3ISC al a pul cOllSf'iracy. b... could t'$lablibobly ""lIN! wilh the s.uppon al Ce~· lain monks ol Dabno I..iblItow. By order ollhe ,it... 1'01. the _ e r y was lIIltaeklNl.. and tm monks ..'ho li,'flI!htn:, killed. From this rnonlot'nt. Gramni cOMidt.... d u... dergy u... soul of the nosiluonce. He the.....o.., propootd 10 u... JO'"emmenl in Rome to delepte to Qtrd.. III the widest poIO'en over the ..'hole Ethiopian clet'gy and 10 break .11 liou bellOI«n lhe Ethiopi3n church and lhe Coptic palriar. chale. This was 10 demand St'1£'1",-emmenl for Ihe Ethiopian church. under the aulhorily of Of'relos, bUI Rome replied lhat "il ,,'as filling nO! 10 gel ahrad of the times."' Sh(lrtly afterward Qtrd"" a,ked permission 10 go 10 Egypl "for ~easons of health."' The ",vernm..nl in Rome Tefu..,d him permi5Sion. SU8~Slin8 Ihat he come to have himsdf anended to In h.o.ly. He left Addis Ababa on 21 May 1937. after entrusting Ihe interim care of Ihe archcpiscopate to Abuna Abraham, bi&onin. A. LcsIlOflL His health "!J then attended to. bu' tIM: ques,ion of !he regulation of the Ethiopian church was carefully avoided MuuoIini had j
Italian ,ide, Otrelos wen' 10 lhe Italian leption in I'.mJll.1O which 1M: p.a.enled hi. requesas. whi(:h ..., had m.e>nwhile ditauscd with lhe patriarch. He . . . . lbat IDe Ethiopian cbun:h be exempl from all Italian control and thac the mttropOlilan should ba,.., tI\e p:>\O_ to manAIt' and to dis+><- freel, of all ecclesiastical property. Aft.... a retreal spenl in Upper Egypc. Qtrelos presented himself afreo;h lU the itaJian Iqation on 26 No,nnbcr. He "",e""ed an e,....rve rrpl, WI his rcquesu .."fft' -unck~ ..... ami""tion."' In reality, Italy had already decided 10 sepanlle the ElhJopWt m,m the Eg)p1ian chun:h. and bad !oCt its choice on Abuna Abr.lbam. After Abraham had ""eeptlN!, a St'rico of nominaIions a.nd e1CYlllioM amona; Ihe Ethklpi.o.n del'lY ...... p""'ttd· ed ..-ith. Then a S)nod was orpniud; it declared the independence of the Ethiopian church. elccted Abraham as melropolltan with the rank of archbish· op (!iq e(te~Jdt). and named .is new bishop", This maneuver look Ihe Coptic palriarchate un· awares, but when Rome attemptcd te> induce John XIX to accept the fait accompli, it met ...ith a r.,n,. ...1. Even Ihe Egyptian government protested. bUI Ihe halian legalion In Cairo rtplieI~ by Abun. Yo!:-nnes. ..t.o in his tum COllXCr.ued £OUr titub.< bWoopo and two assistant bishops. Finally. on 10 July 1940. the Italian ...... emm..nl annlcd t" the Ethiopian ch u"'" a detailed constilUlional c~. confinninl tint and fore. mo!Il il$ autocepha}ous charxln-!hat n, il$ com· pkte indepc:ndence of any OIher church. Some m<>nths bIer. lhe Italian cnpirc collapoed. and on 5 Ma, 1941. Haile StWsie. esconed by Britioh ITVOpS. made his ..,tum to Addis Ababa. He had pl"e"iousJy rccel''t'd at Kbanoum a lelegram In which John XIX asklN! that ~rel,," be allowed 10 accompany Ihe emperor at the time of his return to Ethiopia, bul lhe emperor had n:plicba on l June 1941, and

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

Ohelos was able to occupy ooce agai" his old re,i· dence. He could .Iso lake up agai" his place i" lhe religious ceremonies, but no olher power was accorded to him. ~relos did nOI follow the Coplic delegation when it retumed to Egypl wilh the Ethi· opian l"Cpian melropolitan be empowered to conSC<'r:lte Ethiopian bishops; a"d (3) the excommunicalion IaInclled agaiosl Ihe Ethiopian clergy he lifted, .kIhn XIX died on 22 June 1942, and so it was the locum tenens in the Coptic patriarchate, AnM YOsAb (the future palriarch. 1946-1956) who, on 26 June, pronounced the lifting of the excommunica· tion "with regard to the prete"ded archbishop" and bishops, with the return of each of them'" the post which he previously occupied." But since this dedlion did nol answer all the Ethiopian request., it reeeived no publiCity in Addis Ababa. On the con· trary, the Ethiopian church declared that the power to OTdain pri~ls was the exclush'e province of the r~~~g~, so that oerel"" was io fact set aside. Any funh.er discussion had to he delayed because of the ~ry urious difficulties that thwarted the electio" of the new Coplic patriarch, so much so lhalthe patri· archalthrone remained "acant until the ele<:tion of lIIAUllltlPS til on 12 February 1944. After this election lhe Ethiopian clergy increased it:s pressure, It began by abstaining from in>oking !he name of the new Coptic patriarch in religious functions, as lradition required. In June 1944 a Coptic mission went to Ethiopia and returned with a document containing lhe requests of the Ethiopian church, the prindpal of which were the nomination of an Ethiopian archbishop and the creation of an Ethiopian synod matching the Coplic synod and having the power to choose the Ethiopian bishops, who wt:re to b. consec""ed by the said archbi,hop. On 29 January 1945. Macarius III convened the synod of the Coptic church,~IWlieh formed a special commiltee to study the EthiOpian requests. On 16 June the synod approved the' ....]>Ort of Ihis commit· ~, which, while welcoming several Ethiopian fC· quests. explidtly refu.-ed to assign to the melropoli· Ian of the Ethiopian church the right to name bishops and refused to name an E1hiopian metro· politan. The response was very badly recei"ed in Ethiopia. In addition, Ihe negotiations were inter· rupte
In December 19451he representative, oflbe Ethiopian clergy asscmbled at Addis Ababa. This ,,·as a stonny assembly. the majorily of Ihe speakers pro· claiming that from the moment the Coptic churcb

1043

refused to "'lisly lhe demands of Ihe Elhiopian church, nothing remained but to proceed to the separalion of the two churches. The emperor opted for a more flexible approach and so, on 9 January, sent to Egypt a delegation a!TIled with a lener in which he earnestly requested a new examination of the problem. On 31 January the Coptic s)'nod convened under the presidency of AnM A.hanasius, locum lenens in the patriarchale, and accepted lhe principle that after the death of Qfrel"" III the archbishop of Ihe Ethiopian church was to be chosen from among the Ethiopian prelate•. The synod also accepted Ihe principle of i"creasi"8 the num· ber of Elhiopian bishops who were to be consecral· ed by the Coplic patriarch. The demand for the power of the future Ethiopian archbishop to name bishops directly was rejected on the ground that in the church of Sai"l Mark Ihis power belonged only 10 the patriarch, The Ethiopia" church then sent to Egypl five prelales who were to be consecrated bishop. and it was during Ibeir presence in Cairo that the new patriarch YOS~!I JI was elected; he was enthroncd on 27 May 1946. On 20 June Yusalt II reconvened the s)'''od, which confirmed the refusal 10 g"'''1 the future archbishop of Ihe Ethiopian church the pow· er of naming bishops directly. In consequence, lhe patriarch attached a condition to Ihe consecration of the five Ethiopian prelates: Ihey must formally pledge themselves not consecrate either an arch· bishop or a bishop. This resulted in an impasse, for Ihe Ethiopian prelates refuseOlitan of Ihe Ethiopian church, in each case separately, Ihe power of consecrating an Ethiopian bishop, on condition lhat each candidature should be submitted for the prior approval of the Coptic palriarchale. Upon the announcement of this decisinn. ~reios III finally left Ethiopia and returned to

'0

""',

The Ethiopian clergy having approved the decree, YilsAb IJ ratified Ihis entente on 29 March 1948. and the agreement between the two churches was finally signed in Cairo on 13 July 1948. A subsequent agreement, which came about in Cairo on 25 June 1959. completed this very exten· sive process of achieving autonomy for the Ethiopi·

1044

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

an church wilhin d>e framcwoo1< of "I~ ~ of S.inl Mark.·' bul this Ia5I "Ireen>em Cllnnol be Do cribed 101M q>iscopllic of O&"des III, for M died in Calro on 22 OcllJblor 1950. This dalt Ihus marks lhc end of the cpiscopaIe 01 1M ItiI EcYiKbn mel· ropIl
A.lIuJna

Nnanu. ''The Elhq,ian Orthodox Church Becomo Aut<xtphalous," pp. 8-33. 8. A. diss. AdcIis Ababa Un"n'Sity, 1969. &occ., M. "Oualc £II I'mone iraJiana ncll'impcro por r",uO«'6dia del.... Ch.ico$a e1iopk.... RMsi.. ,.,....".6 (1959):1>0. &, 25-26: no. 'I, 28-31; no. II, 28-30. Ee~ d'om." 26 (1921):458-59: 28 (1929):360-62: 29 (1930);360-62; 37 (19]8):179_83. "LeI Elapcs ad, cd, 51'''1 al QlddlJ "I·belr "I·;l.nbd KI,,,,II,,,s "1·Khd,,,ls RoO'u Mdqi/ar "I KllnfJa ,,/·Alhi"biyya. Cairo, 1951. Mara. Y. Thc Church of Eth/opl": Th. N,,';on,,1 Church in Ihe M"king. pp. 27-36, Asmanlo, 1972. Marongui Buonaiute. C. PolitiC" • religlonl ne/ colo· nl"/l...." it"li""o (1882_194/), pp. 293-333. Rome. 1982. Meinardus, O. "A Brid" H410!)' of lho Abu..-e or Ethiopia.... WicnCT Zcluehrifl fU' dil: Kund. des MO'V,d""dos 58 (1962):59-61. MoIiIey, L H..1lc ,Ioc Conq.oeri.., Uo... pp_ 141-42.150-51.160--61,169,246,2&5. London.

,....

Scu.sm.

Murk! lamil. "La Df:ntien. phast dn rdatiom hi· 51oriql.on enl,.., I'.;g!ist eople d'fcyple lOt d'E!hiopic (jusqu'en 1952)." But/ell" de I. S<>cW~ d'A,dtl~ic copIe 14 (1950-1957):1-22. Orimle Jdodenw 1 (1927):37_38, 182-90, 244-50, 292-94; & (192&):48&, 589; 9 (1929):.24-25. 95, 141-42. 194-96, 134-86. 493-94, 57&-79: 10 (1930):3&, 94 ~ of Ec't'PtiaA and Ethiopian newap>Pft'$ c0"!fming the el«lion of Abuna OtrelOll ILl). • Perham. M. 11K Government of E,hiopi
,,,.n.

S~WATOkl! TEDESCHI

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church recognizes mosl of the sainll of the Univer· ",I Church before II>
and all Ihe saints of Ihe Copek: Onhodcu; Church or Alnandria.. about ,"'hom It has kn.....·kdge th..-ough the SYNAXllJOH. a«oWll$ of lheir acIS (giJd/; Arabic, sUM), OT Ihrough Olher mnns. 1'I>t Synaxarion of lhe Coplic chunh, which is the major source for the In..,. of "';1Il$ of the Ethiopian chun:h, ........ tru.slated into lA'a (mosl p~y for the second li~l in the ,h",«nlh cml"!)'. T1w Synaxarion, ",'hieh contains enlnes a1Jo ro.- ainu lTom lhc other non-Chalceclonian churcbcs, i:'I the Oflly 5OUIU' ahoul lhe lives of many $aiots. Howe,..,r. "nee'~ "K5IOO'1ltion" of Ihe So!Qmonic dynasty in Ino. I~ bmous _erles. such as J:l.ayq Es.!if· Inos in Wollo, _re aclively enpged in tnnS!aling ""'15 of sainu and manyrs from che A...hie hagiographical lilerature of the Copcic cburch. The SOUrCf$ cr~il particularly AbI1na SalAma II (1344H/lS) for .he lmportallon of Ihis genre of literat",.., to Elhiopia. In the courst of time, the tran.laled Synaxarion assumed an Ethiopilln chameler by being enriched ",ilh enlries for indigenou$ ""inu and for olher saints from lho lmnsJaltd hagiogr:>.phical Iileralure. A. a fe.ult. Iht Coptic and Ethiopian Syn;».aria dif, fer, at lell5l in deuoils in entri.. dealing ,"'ilh Ihe ...me saints. The Elhiopian church u<; holy men and women, bul the roads taken by lhese de""'" 10 sainlhood a,.., more or leu clear, although fol. .....·iOK them in any measure of Slricm... may 001 a1...,.}'S lead one 10 auaininl: sainthood. Thr fim Sit!' 10 $ainthood is aceeplinl: 1M monastic life. It can be safely cOOKIuded lhal. with the etteplion of the kings and queen•• especially cho5e of the l.if'W dynaol:y (1137-1270). the chun:h docs nol bYe indiI;c.-.. $ainu ...ho died leao:linl a family life. In 1M Ethioopian church unmarried a$ .....,11 ... married men a ..d _ e n eatI uoke lhe mo<'ll<Slic habil. AI· though monks; and nuns a,.., Cloard. Such eharilable deeds could gain fame and r""ogni. tion for Ihe monks and nunS from Ihe church, Iheir fame beginning in the mon..tcry or nunnery 10 ...hich lhey adhered. Following Ihe Coptic lradilion, members or a monaSllc community are commonly referred 10 as salms or holy men (qeddujllfl) and women (q.dd"slll), A monk deeply devOIl~d 10 Cod in pra}~.,; and "'ol"$hip and 10 the words of Cod in kaming and reading is soon .""ogniud by tht manast:1e com·

"""'*'

ETHIOPIAN SAlNTS

munil)' and its head . His know ledge of the li.~ ~ could reach a stand ard thai mabo $ his inler pregIion oi p-rob!elDlOUo; bibli nl paMOl<S di>in ely Inspi~d. In Ihe couJ R of .ime, admi rers. especl.ally _ipl es, slarl telling SIOries C>f rema rkabl e or mi· ....,..anus deeds: perfo rmed by such a perso n durin g his liftlirM. Onth a' the ~nds of non-<:hrisdans (ie.• M..... ill1S or paglllIS ..t.o suno unde d Ihe Christian kinBdom and were cons undy aI w...- ...i!h me ChrislianS) while preac hing Ihe Gospel or defen ding the B\Ol\ll5teries again st aMaullS could be Ihe nUl md final step 10 .saimhood. l1Ien . perh aps a younll child or an dtkr ly perso n rcsp eciN in his com .....· lIily mijh . sc>c a vision lhal lel1:l him .haI a new or an old fountain. usually in 1M neigh borh ood ....her e !he monk spenl hi!< life, is a holy sprin g flowing in Ihe name of lhe saini 10 heal .he skk. In a coun try ..tocrc the faithful are taeh l 10 t>e-lie,"" tha. all 1)PS of ailmenla ...., CMl$M by dem0rt5 and ",her e Ihe pl1lClM:e and use of mf:dicine is disco urage d by the teachers of the failh. Ihe heali ng powe r of Ihe boly spring is crod al In Ihe winn ing of fame and in pinin c nalio nal n:coc nilio n for a salOL Funh er.....-e. all founders of _er iItS and nunn eries an salr..s of .... ryins o.Ve e5 of re<:o pilio n in the urion . whem er or not lhey have hoI)' $pringJ. Saints are norm ally commen'I()"l.Ied on Ihe day of llteir dealh. for a very few salnlS, such as Abu.... Takla HJ,ymAnOl. daY' coll\JlWmoratinc othe r occa· lions (e.g.• binh or IDm latio a of relics ) are abo ceIeb.. ud. Un.il .he in.ro ducli on of mode rnlly in.o Ethiopia in .he Iwen deth cemu ry, mem orial days of the highly celeb raled saint s were nalio nal holidays. Ilut mosl nf Ihe ...inla are slill r~cred and com· dlCmorated in the rqio ru ..~ they li,-e
,..,,,'ed.

The acts and mirx les of !he:5<' Ainu , comp iled by imme diale or seco nd· or Ihird -gene rluio n followen. have beco me impo rtanl sourc es of the h;,lo ry md socioJo&y of Ethio pta.- ¥anr rqio nals ynau ria bavc ~nuies of vary in,lc ngth , 'hou&h \l$U..lllly shan , frII" saints who 1IouI"i:shtd locally. Since over lhc COUl 'K of time t:"I~ry day of lhe year in the Syna ur· ion has been Laden with enlri es of &e¥e,."J pints . the saints
.....

Mo5l of !he saint s who maO. a Iasli n, con.r ibu· tion 10 Ih~ cbur ch or Ethiopia arc menl ioned unde r

IlTHto",.N MON.osrJClSM, How ever, special enlri ts for a ~ IftIly be in orde r. Jrtnowled&e of .be Nine Saints. abo men. ioned in lhe enlry !or Ethio pian _ic ism . Is in its infancy. 'lbcy will be lisiN he'" wi!h dales
1045

uBA NOS OR MATIA' 1..ibirM>s is Ihe- eart~ for~n sainI (prgb ably af· .er Yoha nnl. abou l ....· hom ''Cf)' liule u; know n) ip reco rd;d hi!to ry who laugh ., died. and was burie d in Elhiopia. UndefSU,ndabl)", Ihe exacI da.es In his life ",ma in udce nain . He 1I0u..w.ed durina: the reisn poIit ;u> £Iy;\s heard abou t him. M in'ile d him 10 hif res>do:nc:e in MUm . Hh: lime in Ihe cily "'ail nIX long, howe,..,r. The king asked him to lea,'e when he heard Ihat he had .ecus ed the m~po lila n of simo ny. A monk by the name Adhe nnan i or Adhani finall)' .....e ftde d in brinc inc peac e bet.......en Ihe .wo ",IIginus leade rs after UbI",," had spen t .hree years in a ca,'e in seelu sion. Subs eque nlly, the tWO mon ls UbJ.nt)l; and Adk:benanni beca me assoc iales in lu,d· in, their spiri lual liVft.. They foun ded a mona slery in Ha -" (in rtg'C ) and buill a chur ch lhal lhey dedk aled in Ihe nlIntoC of lbe Holy Cross, ~ Masqal. Ubio os lived sever al yean after Ihe dealh of hi. associale, heal ins the Sick and prayi ng for the peac e.and safely of lhe chur ch and perha ps playing 50me role in lhe lransIa.Oon of Ihe Gosp els from Gnd 10 Goo'cz or Elhio pic. Befo re he died, LJ"blnos strue k a rock and brou@ht fonh a holy sprin g by .... hich his heali ng powe r eonli nued . He ito comm emor aled un ,; Ten (Tiib ah).

mE NIN E SAIN TS The 5O-<:ll1l~d Nine Saln '" We're monk s who "'.... nl to Ethiopia in the earl)" hi~lory of Ihe Elhio pian chur ch. The- eucl dale omd reaso n for their gnin , 10 EthiopU. from lhe Hdle nisti c world . inclu dinl Eto'pl and Syria, art' not knm m. n.e Ethio pian ",ler at thai lime ..."M Al·amb:\i. 50n of g.,·.ldobbto.

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

1046

"''''0 was succeeded by nun!.

f.lI~r

or Kaleb. When Kilf'b. 1M EthiopiJon kin,. M1 oul 10 campIlign in An>bia. in 527 '0 rescue .~ Christians there from the pcnecu1ion of their J"".-is.h ruin-. be JoOlicilfillht pra)'er of Abb. fan.... le-won. one of the Nine Saints. Hislorian< J'I'OPOIW' lila! thc am.... of the Nine Saints in Ed',;opia "''liIIS related 10 the sc:h"m and disturbance in the uni\'efUI church ~ tIM: nab.lre of divinity and humanity in Chris, ., and ann !he Coundl of tlt.ltCEOOS in 4$1. Thi$ '"KW.rose in a considenlioro of ,his da,,~ and ocher drcumSGnccs, such as \be •• rugle for Nubia (now Sood;on"'" """lhem ~'JlC) between !he Chalcedon' laos. led by ."" emperor of lhe Ea4t. and I.hc nonChalc«!onians, led by his """prns.1HEOO(IllA. The .....umplion is thaI il . . . non-Cru.lccdonian monu who rus~ 10 Ethiopia 10 protcc, ,he Iota! ch ..",h from the ,eachinll of ,!>ost, il i. plau,ible that II ICalil some of them came separately at different timel. A"Clwl or Zamlkl'tl. His nanl" arl! Ce'"". the fir"Sl meaning "The Elder" and thc ~und "of Micll:ael," an indication that his nati~ n:>...... h_ nc>t been Pf'CS'On-ed. Ac<:ording '0 ,radillon. Ar;opwi ..... the leader of ,he croup durinl ,he j<><>mey from f.&ypt Il> EthJ0pi3, a JIO$i,ion bcfill; his name. founding of Ihe cdebrat~ Dab... DAmo is allribut~ 10 !his Wn•. It was at Ihis monastery 1M 1)')'a'lU5 Mo'a of 1;\:a)"Cl f.s!ifl",.os in Amba... and Abu"" Tak1a Karmil101 of Dlob.. Ubinos in Shn.... ~ ck>thcd ...ith ..-...1><: habits al the hands of Y~nni, a spiritual dtsc.-ndanl rJ. An&lwi Thc laint ...... s.aid 10 Ita.... US«! a lone serpen' to ~ the lmp~hle summit of Mount Dimo, where M' buill his m<>rU:Slery. T<>
n.e

,ha,

ItCW'r slq>l or sal in i', C\'eIt Ibou.gh he ne\",r lell i. aft.... he entered i1 fot1r-he years before his dealh. His cell. which was nonh 01 ""urn and was known irs! b,- the name of o.bn ..w.o, later deYeloped mil> a famous mollMtery carryi"i his namr, Dabra J;"a.nta1f...-.::m.. r-o?l~ io cornn>em<>ralM on 6 Teqemt (JW.h). Yes"'" (laaac) 01" CarlmL Both names sa non· f.thiqMan. (';\"C11 lhoup his hajpographer attemplCbi and ~, belonS 10 One 1. Aloof£. His It'dl repeatS ",hal has been ""riuen about .h.e resl of his colleagues-lhat lhey came locether '0 Ethiopla, seltled temporarily in tht pal. ace, and di.peneUs monastery Oabra H~Il~ Luya is bdieved tu have been founded by him. His name may be related to the name of the first leuer in the alpha· bet. The feall of A1ff is celebrtllM on II Maggibi! (Ba....mhalJ.

ETIlIOP!AN SAINTS

V_'ali.. Sornot "d",1ar$, including Dillmann (1880. pp. I-Sll.• '""~ Ihat h~ is aho called M..!.Ii'. This could be .. conli.o5ion ..ith anocher gim. Abbe "-!!i', who flourished in J:UWZIeII many )'Un beJou I~ comins of the Nint Saints. ibe f~ of Ycm·" is celebrat"<:l on 28 T~.. ml (Blbah). ~ _ n... "';nl·" g"dJ. thousb mo.."1l 10 ulsI.. . . lMlC rached the Iund!I of ""hol.lus. Al lhe lime 01 the dispemon of the saints. Uqinoo ...... ed 10 IIOrth of hum and found...! a moUSIei)', Oabn ~t k _... by its Iour>def'" .... me 10 this His Iuol is celtbnted on l8 Khedar (Matdr) and 4 TnT (Tllbah). fd!aI. Abba ~ma i. bdie\'ed 10 ba,~ .-etlled IIOUllleasl of Ad,,·.Ii. Uk" many of his colll"al"ft, no p& for him h.. yC"t corne 10 light. Nor is lhc-re any m ~ center carrying his name. l1>ere it, ho_w· C"t". a ITgion of Tigre named E~ Abba !;ic~ma. The mosl of Abba $eJ:>mA i. cdebrat.d on 16 Terr (Tob-

da,.

'"

~ or ~ Thi. is mOM probably another name eilher AI
of

vAa£D (JARED)

".ry

Yirfic:: .. wdl as the IJal pan of its hymns. III this JU:SI sainI. Yi1td Rouris~ during the ""... or Qlbn Ma$'" ~ (e. SS3-SSS). ~ ""'5 a IIOI'I of an Mumile pictl:1y rami!)· of Yes/:Iaq and Kr..,nini (Isaac and OuiRina). ",hen his rather died ..ftilc the ton ..... Itill a C'hild. iii. mother "?Ok him 10 ~'On (GidfOlI). a bmOUl' hiblical or .... liml" who abo ll.ppened 10 be a ""laJi,..._ ,II soon l>ccamC" clear 10 .... child and thl" leachcr lhat Ylir
""\tf:br

1047

Commandments. When he I"CKhcd Ihe age <>f mao luril)'. he married and became both a rather and an Kcamplish.cd pries<. His marriaJc was, tto.........,r. not withoul "",blems. When hI" diacawrcd !hat his wife ~ a lover. he planned 10 ambush and "ill him. He abandoncd m.. plan only when lhe mCSIICn· &<,r of God ~ 10 him in m.. fonn of three bmls :llId """,inded him thai JMo lhwld ralhcr .~ his priesthood. II seems thai III this litnC" YArUI left Allum (or c ....... EdOOpia) and ~bly wmllO IJMo Holy u.nd and lhc nc-.ghborins coumri... whc-re Cbrislian worship had dc>"Clopcd. Acoordins 10 his hagiographer. s'nsing in church;n a loud ¥Oicc ,,~ nol "n"",,, in lhe Ethiopian chun:h al IMlliml". BUI in Jerusalem he hean:! song'S <>f praise- to God in a loud "oicC". One or lhe birds appearcle for the compoihlon of lhe nudeus of the D~ggwa, Ihe texl Ll well IS lhe melody. But the DeUwa w... sreally cnl"'1ed by the inclu.ion of hymns for Ih~ sainll ... ho li"ed a1ier Ihe duth of YArlc- libeenlh 10 .....cnlttmh centuries. Af1cr sen·inl al the chun:h in "-~um for several ytan. YAdd d,..,ided 10 abandon his homl"bnd and 80 "'1"$1 10 SC"m
LAuB,uA OR GABRA MASOAL U1ibal;}, is 0..., oi the aimly kings of thl" ~ d)"TIaSI}. thai rulc-d Ethiopia from 1137 10 Ino. SJnc~ its contribulion and dedicalion w !he EUtj.,. pian chun:h has no equal in the hi,,",1')' Qf lhe cOlIn· lIy, it i. IUber curious IMI lhe cle'iY collahontcd ,,'ilh a rebel. Yekunno Amltk (1270-1285). 10 replace it with a ne... dynaillY. Tribal polilics may haw~ bor:n a factor. Tl1~ wnSlt'1Ktlon <>f th~ mont>m~ntal rock-l'l~wn chun:hc-s of UJtl is ascribed lo thi. dynast)". and specifically 10 UlibalA. In fact, the name of Ihe capilal dty. Roha. and its .urmundingl where Ihese cht>rchl"s are loc81ed hu been changed W Ulibalii. Ulibalii w... born alVUnd 1150 10 a princely Ustii family of l;ln (or );In or Z;lhn) Sen-urn and his ...ifl". whose name .. nol menlioned in Ihc :,,<11

• 1048

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

of !he sainI. Ii .. reponed that when !he child ... born. bets nu;irded him, fore~lIm, U>a' he "'OO.dd become and M QCOfted by the national army.

n.e

kin,

pnlpheqr ... not ""..,komtd ~ hi, bl'Olher. ruler of.m conn,,)' aI !hal lime. Hatboy, who _ In &ct, Harboy allemplcd 10 ba.., U1ibaIJ poi.-

~'" E...,n

bdore Ullba~ tool power. the aniI'I of God appeared to him in a Tmon and lransponed him to the :<eo'en,h ~a,'en. whe..., the Lord was enthroned. There. the Lord said to him, "~n the ears of your mind and comprehend what I Shall show you, ;n order Ihat you may build my temple on ranh whe..., I $hall dwell with people Bnd where I shall be sanelifil'd by the mouth of my ptOple," Ha'ing said Ihls. the Lord describtd for him W "",hitecture and Sf)eCifications of Ih., ICti nxk·he".., churches. Today n><>t' archit<:aUf'I! dQQ not rtKn1ble any of the churcheoo or- otbtr buildings in neighborinl countries, " ..hieb mian! be e:o.pecled 10 ha...., wielded cult.. ",] inRuence. Apparently ~2Ji", tht "'ling monarch. LlIibala ldt Ihr: city and livftion 10 God in his own way comes lhrough dearl}' in his gQdl. For example. amonl Ihuse who resent.d his e>'emual reign was one who gave this reason: "If thl$ man reigned, h. would exchange me ror incen~ (or Ulle in the church," His judg· menl ",as not IOlally wrong: Ihere is a Il'2dition IMI U1iball indeed 50Id his own ""'" ",hen he had noth· ing to &i>'e 10 lhe poor. Whil. in hiding. U1ibl1lj. married Maoqal Kebri, who is abo commemoraled u a!MlinL His baa>oIBpher clainu lhal UJibloli had risited ~JlI anll the Holy Land before he -=ended the thmne. He "",pc:owdIy rttri>'ed hi$ other~. Gabr.o ~t:as4al (Sef,.--ant of the Crou), in a revelaliOC'l while he .... in lhe Holy UIld. P'il,nmage to Iheoe places Is "n atpi'-'lion of ...."er)' ...,lip,us EthOilpian. There are cues wheft hagiographeR lake the liberIy of indu.dinl pil,rimage $Iories in the xu of lheir ....inu. regardless of the Klual facts. According 10 his hapovaph.",. the end of Ulib
all oYer Ihe COuntry flock 10 U1ibali iJI Sanl year 10 panlclpale in the celd>ndon.

~ry

IYYASUS MO'A

Iyyssus Mo'. is the founder of the famous monasDIlbra l:'ll)'ll, abo called [)aIm Es!il'i.... be· ca.... of the chuKh buill in the mon.te')' in the name of Saini b!ilat>m (Slephen) lhe Prolomanyr. Hi. life was composed centuri.. after his dealh. As a ' ..ull. It offers ~.ry liule of hislorical imponance. Iyyasus Mo'a Came from a religious family of Za· kre.t{)$ and Ep.i' Kebrl. (In fact, one of hi. Iwo brothetl'. Gab... ~on, died from harsh asceticism.) He received hi$ call 10 monastic life when he ""'" thirty )'<'ars old while Ih'inS in celibacy Wilh hi. pa...,n... After spending an allJUishrd n.... in praytr, he tel 011 the lIC3It monlina: .... th another man 10 Dab.. Dlmo 10 devote himself 10 God un· del' ilS abbo1. Abba Yo/uonni. Abba YoI:w1nl, ....·be left !he ~ e of tht palace and his ..ife, the daup.te. of lhe king, eamreved ,hat ooly mOSt ....ho can ",dune physical ... lferings sIloukl be :admil~ (0 monasticism. He .. best remembered kl. his being lhe spiril,,",1 father or Abuna Iyyuus Mo'" and Abuna Takla Hayminot. He c10lhed 1JYl'SU" Mo'a in monaslic plb aher tM latter completed se...,n years of hard work and rigorous fas'ing. Afte. a ""hill'. around 1248. lyya.us Mo'a '001: leave of his spIritual father and returned to his homeland. AI !:laY'!. he .taMed as one of the under· lings servin, at the local chuKh dedlc.led 10 Saint. Peter and Paul. The original cOOKh that Sl'rved lhe enlire community. men as wdl 16 women, was buill II1(IIOt probably in Ihe ninlh celllury on a site whe..., sorrprnts "'..,..., ....,nhiped. As soon • lhe oommunily di!<'O<'e.ed the g-ealn_ of lhe monk. it requested ""'1 tht king appoinl him lhen' abboc It .... dunns the time 1n-->5 Mo'a .... abbot or IbbI'2 I:laY"l lhal Yelwnno Amllk. the founder or the SoK>monic dynasty in 1270, cant<: 10 lhe monas!try '0 study under the abbot. The ""... made ..,ver· a! peelS lhal Yekunno lunlak aveed 10 observe if he bf:(:ame klnllhlO\Jgh lhe pr:Il)'en and $upporl of Abuna l))'tills Mo'.... On. of the promises Yekunno Amllk made ,,"'as to fulfilllhe wish of l)Y3SuS Mo'a that women should leave lhe island and lhe place be de$ignaled.o. monastery for men only. The worn· en W"e obviously disappointed when lhcy had 10 leave ,he Island, even though the new kinll had in>'iled lhem 10 live at his coun. "We brough' lhis monk in." lhey complained ....'hen lhey left in lean,

te.,.

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

"holdi", his hand. and he look us oul holding our

..........

The monaslery Oouri~td dwing 1M Iony ynors of his leadership. Many important monastk lea;Ibn Gol in Amh ; Abuna Gab.... Endercyi$ of Qou., in Shtwa: Abuna Gab,.. NIzrl...-i in r.,.e: and 1M ~ Aton of Diril In Amhara. Since the hip priesthood d the church, the o~ of '&qqIIW was promisM 10 th., followtn of ~ 1010'. by Ihc ntw king. lhe monastery main· Din.cd cloiSe Ii.,. with the ""r..ce fur """.,ral cemu,.. ia. For this and OIher reMons, the moRtitery "''" richly enQle rellgiou. educalion at lhe monutcry and, apparently, III dau&hler moltllle,.. ics. Many Ecl>tian monks ",,100 hdpocd in I...... SW· iD& Ecpl_n rdig;ous books. especially acts of ....15 and H'rv1cc booU, 1i..N &I Dahra l;b.yq ",iIh thrir ElhOopion broIhcn, Although iu e ~ .....p d ,old and pr«ious cloth.,. was plundered by the fon:cs of Grtoflti in lhe sixleclllh nnlury and i15 libr.o.ry -.. Iooled at dlfferem Ii",", Dab.... Hayq (or Dabra Nag...... dg.o.'id) is "ill 0...., of the ,cry re..... impo"ant cenlers lhat hss a library of rare manu· scripts. 1)')'ll5U5 Mo'a's Own copy of the Gospels i. Rill prcsotl"'od !here. I~ Mo'a himH'lf Spt'1l1 Ihc \asI years of his Iifr in sijcnt seclusion. He is comn>l'moralcd on 26 kMdiT (H1I\ir).

sa'."

TAKLA HA,VMA,NOT Abu"" Takla H~y"""01 is the greate", Ethiopian saint and Is r~ognized 115 lUch ameng all Christians of the COUntry. He was born in i?clalesh, in Shew., under the Ugwe dyna5.l1: (1137-1270). The people in the area of his binh .Jere <:
1049

coming "",Iisious and poIi,ical leaden.. In bet, be-fore Tak.Ia HJiymlnol'. binh. his ITIOIher Sari (Sar· all) or £il:i' Kharaya, .... M taken captive by Motalom;, the ruler of Darnol, who fiercely opposed the spread of Christianity in his realm. By the help of the archangel Michael, she was rni ...culously brou.ght b.ael, to her husband, the pries! ~gp za·ab...nile he .... cdebnting the mas:s in lhe church of hi, vitiate. As a boy, Fdkl)a ~ (Taitla Hlyminot', name at binh) sen..,d in Ihc church _ a deacon, COtlSCerated for the office II,- Mctropo!ilan 0tmc05. When he reached !he &ie cI maluriry, hi, parcnu ....meI!yon ",h.,,, he W;l$ On a huming trip with his seIVanl" "Fear nOlo my be· 1o'ood one; as of now Ih<>u s.halt nOt be hunter of animak bul fisher of soul$ of many 'innet$. Lellhy name be Talc.. Htpn&nol [i.e... PIanl of Faith]. for I have chosen thee from the _I> of oy maiM and sanctified thee like Jtremi.ah !he Prophn and John the BapWl:. Behold. I have giveon th« lhe aulhoriry to heal. Ihc sick and w ~ .\011)' evil "Pirils from all plac...... Cirded with such an authorily, Talda Hiymlnol disl1ibuted all his propeny among the poor and set OUl 10 spread lhe word of Cod. He successfully conv"ned n>any regions in Shewa and Dim01 to Christianily, and he endureUS Mo'a of 1:f.aY"l and lhe hich« Slq<e by Vol;\anni of

...... mmo.

Equippocd with Ihc .,.,....... to consecrale n>ook•• Takla Hayrninot relurned to his homeland In lhe south a"d, with :s<"veral (JUo......,. ntablished the famous Monastery of ",sbo, renarne
1050

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

helpW Vekunno Amlal< in wlnnln& the suppon 01 lhe c1~ric..1 establishment when he ""enhrew Ihe U~ dynZiy in 1270. In fII'1Ilillode for the suppan of !he c1.. rgy in ....a:oblWlin, his dYf""Cy, y.. knnno Am.lilr. is reponed to ...."' p'"flI 10 lhe chun:h a thini 01 his annwl revenue from Il~ lands ci the COUIlI,),. Ho...·ner. Talda HJi)minoI.'. rok in the ovenhrnw ci the ~·t dynuIy is noI wry d ...... The foIkwr."eB of bolh Talia HI)'IIW>oI and I)~ Mo'a 0Il:h)'q f.s!.i~ chum that it \$ !heir falhetwho reprKeRled the cburch in helpin, Yekunno Ambk 10 e!IIiIblish !he Solomonic dynasIy in 1270. Takla HJiyminol spenl the Iasl years of his life in iKlusion, 5landing for pr:tl)"er 10 the poinl ...·here one of his kgs gave ......y. TM.... is abo lhe popular belief IIw he gnow six wings (th~ on dlher side) to Oy like lhe angel•. Talda HJi)minOi died durinll a pestilence lhat dedn"'ted his community in i\5 in· Fancy. He i. commemoraled nalionwide on 22 n· khUs (Kiyahk), hi. nal;"ily; 24 Nah,,", (Mi.r1i), his death; and 12 Genbol (Bashn.). lran,lation of his

bod, B1BLIOGIlAPHV

Budge. E. A, W, Tire Life of Tdta HdymdllOl in rlre V...si<m of Dabra LiMnos. alld lit.. Miracles of Tdla HIlymlmol in II,.. V..rs;"" of Dab.a Lib/mos, alld Ihe BooI< of lire Riche. of Kill's. London.

...

,

Gelalehew Haile. '"fhe Monastic C~ncalocY ci lhe Une 01 1llldlI. H;>yrnanOl of 500.:· Rass..,.... ai Stwa; "Ropid 29 (l912~193.\,:7~31. Ros.ini, C. C. "11 'Gad\a Ta1.Ia HaymanOl' secondo l.a ndarione ......w.-bbana-- MtmOri" d..lI. R#:lJ1" Ac..ad_ia d..i Lilfcei. CIas&e di scienu moraJi, Jloric:he e phildogiche, 2, ser. 5. pl. I (11196):9114.\.

twosTATtwos (Emtathel.lt) £woo!Jiltv._ .... b>ooo.n as the champion of lhe k\l.iJh Sabbath il the Ethiopian Onhodox Chun:h. l-le ....... born Ml'~ Epi' (TNJt oflhe lord) loa noble £amily of K<esI05 Mo'a and Sena !:ley....... a family known lor ·galhering lhe elderly poor I<:>ceth. er and providing Ihem ...~th Iheir needs. Their faith "'. ... Jlrenglhene
Dabra MliryAm in Miy Owenlwcr (Tigre). Ml'eqaba Egri". inclination 10...... rd the religious life bepn as soon as he .....ned Khool. He 8"""" up pll.y:i.,. no altention 10 his bodily comfort. Mi'eqaba EgD' ......... SliJI a YOUIII boy .... het! Abbo. Dine'tl agreed 10 clothe him with !he monastic gam. and ",named him£~

Aft.... "'" onlination lIS a prieA. £ ~ relt the eall 10 CO 001 and teach: '''Sow the ",'Ofd of God, leach and make the Ia.... 01 lhe God ci IJUth be heard .",'tn as )'OIl "''fie eommandnl befon.:' H......

he .._ bad 10 his mo~e')' regularly for retreal and seclusion, a prac1i« thai ga~e him 0<:. casion 10 study his holy boob. £....... lOOn became a prominem monaslit leader ""lh many foll~rs, including Abba AbsAdi. his successor and a mO'-lic leader in his own righl. ~wo5"t~ lei rul~ for his followers, in· cluding lhe punish.ble prohibition of speakinl again.. olhers, He alw advised them not to be e.· ger 10 be ordained priest,_advice wlrh far·re,""h· ing cons.. qu~nces for rhe communlry. As 10 th .. gen· enol publk he admonished them againM slavery, murder. robbery. and fomicalion. £wosJit~wOiS ...... amonl Ihe monastic leaders who ehMti.eer. When 'Amda ~n banished him, £W05!;1o. !twos allempled 10 oYtnhrow him by enC"efSy. one Iltal fon:ed the monk 10 lcav~ Ethiopioa for cood. emued from the questions ci lhe Salurday Sabbalh. According 10 the 5ynodicon, one 01 the c_leal boob of lhe Ethiopian chu«b, both SatlUuay and Sunday,,", da)'S 01 rest 10 be ~ by II~ faithful. The m"lropoli· lam comi. . from Aleundria made it known. t>o...~ ......., that Salurday is not obser...ed in the Coplk cburch. In raet. they .,.....,. IaIIght thai Eibiopians should abandon J.,..~sh pnctiees. inct..ding Ihe obo ............e 01 Salurday as a Sabbalh. This c"'ated :a great schism in the Ethiopian church. MallJl :agreed 10 obsen"e only Sunday. 8ul a few. led by £"'OS!J. r~ refuM,d 10 violale rhe eommandrnenl& of lhelr ScriplUres. Ihe New and lhe Old Testaments and Ihe boob ci canon law which command the observance 01 Saturday. The feuding panl", came to rhe king's coun look· ing for a ",Iinll. Tho ... WIS apparenlly no melrop"l· iran in lhe country at rha' lime, However, $In<'e Ihe king w... 1'101 in a position to pa.. any judgment On ""deslll51ical m"lt~rs and feared lhe implications of t:W'r.

'11........,.

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

schism for his kingdom, he askod the two parties to go 10 Egypt and sellle their differences before the patriarch. Before £.wos!Al~wO' left for Egypt, he or· dered his followers never to aswdale themselves with those who did nat follow his teaching. This order created an independent community within Ihe church and the Slale, which became a real problem for the political as wen as religious leaders of the countl)'. Some of his disciples accompanied dleir father as ra, as Bogos (in whal i5 now Eritrea). ",he,.., he asked Ab,adi to return to the monaslel)' and ....ke charge of its adrninis\mlion. Only (we!>'" of his disciples 'tayed with him 10 continue the journey. Predictably, twOS!AI~w",,' joum,,)' to Egypt wos not a sueee", as far as his cause of obsc",iug Satur· day as a Christian Sabbath was c<mcerned. According to his hagiographer, Palliarch BENJAMIN II (1327133\1) was symp"thetic 10 hi. cause, bUI he is repone
lOSt

the issue. The Council of Dab", Melm<\q (1445) declared Ihat according to the books accepted by the Elhiopian church, Saturday was a Sabbath 10 be obscr.'ed by all Christians, f.\Vos!At~wO$ is commemorated on 18 Maskaram (HII).

GIYORGIS OF GASECHA The idemity of Abba Giyorgis (George) is far from certain. Two or e.'en Ihree prominent personalities in the church of modio.'al Ethiopia may ha,'e been confused in the lradition. One of Ihem, possibly Abba Giyorgis of Dabra IUhrey, may have flour· ished during Ihe reign of ·Amda ~)'on (13141344). He must ha>'e been a disciple of Abuna Iy· )-asus Ma'a af Dabra ~ayq. The Olher, Giyorgis of Saglt or Gase<:M, died between 14Z4 and 1426. The "",,umption now is that Ihis i. Ihe Giyorgis that the tradilion refers ta as Abba Gi)'orgis the ,,-riter, the preacher, and Ihe musician, The .ingle eslant copy of his gadl is preserved in the Monastel)' of l;Iayq, Giyorgis came from the noble family of l.lezba ~n (probably from Tigre) and Emmena Seyon from WalaqA (in present·day Wollo). Giyorgis mu", have inherited the zeal for learning from his falher, who was widely kn(lwn as "a comprehendcr of Ihe Scriptures lik. Salalhiel [Ezra]." The Slan, howev' er, was not smoolh for Ihe child. His father took him 10 the Monastery of l;Iayq, the cemer of Elhiopian church education at Ihat time. BUI Giyorgis was so slow in learning that his teacher lost hope of leaching him. A person who did nOI pes",," the faculty for memorization could nol go far in the traditional Ethiopian system of Mucalion, where education was mostl)' oral preservation of knowl· edge. Faced wilh this problem, Giyorgis w"m daily to church, where he prayed with tears and IOtal concentration to God and the Blessed Virgin, One night, the Blessed Virgin appeared to him and told him to be diligent in his learning, forgoing e>'en sleeping by night. The diligence recommended to him proved to be >'ery effective, A hymn composed in his honor says il all: Rising from lhe region of Sagla like a bright .un, buckling Ihe sharp sword of faith ahout his "siS!, Giyorgis swam the depth of the sea of the Scrip' 1l.lres, He built his castle upon a firm rock, its foundalion does not shake to right or left. The power of the wind could not make it fall.

1052

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

Abba Giyorgis i. a ocholar saint without e<jual m Ihe Elhiopian church in the qualily and quantil}' of original literalUre he produced. Howe...er, he is mostly remembered for two importanl works' a book of hours called S,,'aIM (hours), and M,,~e"afa me.(ir (The Book of Mystery). Before Girorgis, lhe widd}' used serllice book for Ihe hours was Ihe Ge'e, ...ersion of Ihe Coptic HORn· LOGION. For unclear reason•. dilferem monaslerie. compil.d their own book< of the hours, Uhimatdy, howe.... r, that of Abba Giyorgis pre.'ailed, even Ihough many churches continue 10 use the Coplic Sa'aIM. The distincti.... characleri.tic of Ihe horologion ascribed to Abba Gi}'oTgi< i. that it con· tain. the doxology of beaulifully composed ....Iulary hymns to many of Ihe saints ac~epted by the Ethi<;>pian chu.ch. As a musician, h. pro...ided Ihe melody for his lyrics. His original horologion, probably in· tended to be. used in .hift. in hi, mona
M~F"afa

me.(ir to the defense of the practice. Hi. wish to be clothed with the monastic gam at Dabra libinos was fru"rated when he saw Ihat Ih31 community was in the opposite camp. In
ZAR'A YA'QOB (e. 1399_1468) Strictly speaking, lar'a n'qob (Sced of Jacob) is nOI a saint. Bul he is one of the "ery few thwlogians who ha...e left memorable traces On the life of the ~hurch of Ethiopia. lar'a Vli'qob was hem around 1399 to Emperor OOwit (1382-1413) and Oueen Egzi' Kebnl. from Tigre. He grew up in monasteries. with little hope of ascending hu falher', throne. because he had many olde. brothers. His years in the mon/ll;teries were ... ery fruitful. He was abl. to study Ge'e~ and its literature Ihoroughly, stayiog away from pala~e politics and the struggle for the crown until his brothers reigned and died withoul leaving ~apable .ucee.son;. The throne was left empty. and after a few turbulent years. the army di
ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

For some event in his own personal life, Zar'a Yli'qob became indebted 10 Ihe Blessed Virgin. [0 gratitude, he expecled exlreme reverence 10 her and her icon, more even Iltat whal was Ihe praclice in Egypt, One of his tasks was, therefore, to .ettle these differences wilh Ihe melropolilans, who did nOl dare 10 challenge Ihe Synodicon before the em' peror, He summoned severa! councils to rule on the Iheological i.sues, but he dictated his own views on Ihem, Through persuasion, persecution, and sometimes acceplance of O1her views, Zar'a Yl'qob finally achieved a certain degree of success in uniting the church and hence the Christian population. 'I11e number of the Miracles of Mary, which first appeared in translmions from Arabic commissioned by his father, grew considerably during his reign through the translation of additinnal miracles and the composition of new miracles, incorporating 10" cal evems. He or his prie.ts composed collections of homilies 10 be read in Ihe churches on holy and feasl days. These homilies are mostly refutalions of heresi.. and expositions of Ihe position of his church 00 cenain ,issues. Colleclions included Ihe IIl4fel1afa milad (Book of Nativity), dealing with the theology of the unity and trinity of Cod aod th" Incarnation of th" Word; Ihe Ma~elJafa hunAn (Book of Ugh!), dealing with s""era! Iheological issues; and TomAra leshe'/ (Leiter of Humanity), ex· plaining the evils of magic and idol aIry. One of th" doxologies of the Ethiopian church, a colleclion of hymns, is also ascribed to him. These writings, in· eluding the Miracles of Mary, are part of Ihe service bo<>ks in Ethiopia ewo today. Sev"ral books, in· duding the Jewish history ascribed 10 Joseph Ben Gorion (Josippon), were also lranslaled imo Ge'", by his priests. lar'a Y~'qob inlroduced his refnrms wilh force. He did not hesitate to have religious offenders exe· cuted. He even ordered 'tat all Christian. bear a tanoo of the cross on th<;ir foreheads. Rda",ing violalors of the order to alt'end religious instruclion on each Salurday and Sunl!ay had their properties con6seated. Holy days for the angels, Ihe saints (thirty·three a year for the Blessed Virgin), and maTty"" were reordained. He ordered the reading of the Miracles of Mary to be pan of the service in CV<'ry church. Zar'a Y~'qob also had great success on the politi. cal front, He successfully repulsed a raid from 'Adal, killing Its king, and the n""" king of 'Adal pledged to he submissive and peaceful. The emperor suppressed palace coups, destroying e~eryone he

1053

$Uspected of cOllspiracy. He wrot" a strong letter of prote.t 10 Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-1453) when he heard of the persecution that the Copts suffered under the rule of his predecessor, Sultan Barshay (1422-14381· He cried billerly in public mourning when the news of Ihe destruclion of DAVR AL-MAOH_ 11S in Lower Egypt came 10 him and immediately set out to build a new monastery that carried lhe name in Ge'ez; Dabra Me!miiq. He recei\'ed with great honor the Egyplian delegation Ihat came to his palace 10 infonn him of the "nd of Ihe persecu· tion. H. himself had also sent envn}'. 10 Ihe Middle Easl and Europe, including a delegation of observers to th" Council of FI.ORI'.NC£ in 1439-1440. lar'a YA'qob is commemorated on 3 Pagucm~n (al.Nasi).

ESTIFANOS Es!innos is commemorated by his followe"" on 18 nkh~s (Kiphk). For the Ethiopian church he is still a founder of a herelical sect, known hy modem ..,holars as the Stephanite Or Es!if~n06ite mO""· menlo Hi. father, Bernana Masqal, a chief of the Gefmal. district in Tigre (east ofAxum), died befor" his son, Harlga Anbas.1, was born, After the birth, his moth",", SAnl (Sarah), gave the child In his uncle and married another man. Growing up with· out parent5 mu.t ha~e caused th" child 10 ask many qu".tions concerning life and encouraged him 10 reject the world. He himself says that he bceame Cod's follower in gratitude to Him who became his p;>.rent. He first weill to a school attached 10 a church called Bela Iyyasus (Church of Je",s), wh"re he diff"red from other children in that he had an inquisiti~e mind. AI school they called him Es!ifAnos, a name lhal his hagiographer considered ominous for his laler martyrdom. Es!if.\.nos took Ih" monastic habit in the Monas· tery of Abba Samu'el (apparemly in Qwayya~) at the age of nin.rcen, From thaI time he refrained from ealing meat and
1054

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

righill' accused of challenging Ihe ""tablished tradj· tion of monaslic life, The melropolitan of Ihe lime, Bartalomewos (Bartholomew, 1398-1436), w"" supportive of Esjif.1nos' view. It soon became apparent that &\i11.no, could not live in peace in Ihe monastery if he """ not willing to go along with lite established lradition of a rda· tively comfonable life. Organizing Itis followers into groups of twelve, he left lite Mon""le!)' of Abba S:1imu'tl and established his own. His obje<:tive was to be independent of the government by receiving no land grants, unlike the rest of lhe monasteries in tlte empire. The members of his community depended entirdy on Iheir own work. Es!ifa.nos' fame reached places far and near, at· tracting more followers and alarming olher monasteries, which felt lhe dlllining of their "mook p¢w· er" 10 his. He was accused al the court of lhe go\'ernor of inciling unresl. Allhe hearing, the case was intormiogled Wilh p¢lirics. When he was de· fending his position, one of his opp¢nems said, "We ask you by the [authorily of Ihe] king 10 keep si· leot," Es\if;\n<>s answered whal he believed, but apparently unwisely, "I spoeak the words of God The words of the Heavenly King cannot be stopped by the earthly king." The opponent went further: "I call him [the king) Israelite," a reference 10 the widell' accepted lradition Ihat the Elhiopian royal family proudly descends from Solomon, king of Israel. BUI the stubborn monk retorted, "And J call him a Chrislian," implying that ISBellle, are Jews. The governor found Ihis controversy beyond his jurisdiction. He sent the parties to the king's coun. The king, mosl probably l:Iezb Niififi (1430-1483), dismissing Ihe political accusation, as unrelated 10 the main issues, found the accused innocent. In fact, lhe king and the council of one thousand participants summoned to hear lhe case allegedly of· fered him the monastery of his spiritual falher, Abba S:1imu'el, who ~ an ardent opponent of the new movement. E4ifanos de<;lined on the grounds thai if he accepted, he would be dependem on lhe government. Unfortunately for Es!i11.nojl, the new king, Zar'a Yii'qob (1434-146-8), allhough well versed in Ethiopian church affairs, """ unable to disassociate poli. tic, from religion. He 'could nol excuse Es!ifflnos and his followers for Iheir refusal to bow 10 Ihe monarch, wbich according to him was a mere expression of respect, a tradilion pervasive in Ihose regions since lhe time of the Old Testament. I'..~!ifii· no., however, considered bowing an expression of worship due "only 10 God Ihe Falher, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit." There is nothing in his

gad/lhal could be considered 10 present an in", ... mountable Iheological difference belween Eslifflnos and his followers, on one side, and Zar'a Yii'qob and Ihe established church, on the olher, Like Zar'a Yii'qob, who represented lhe established church, 8!ifflnos belie,'ed in Ihe lrinitarian theology of "three suns, Ooe light"; he accepted the Synodicon as canonical; and he hooored bOlh the Salurday and Sunday Sabbalhs. However, he refused to ac· cept the undue reverence of the HoI)' Cross and the icon of the Blessed Virgin; he rejecled the fast· spreading Marian lilerature (Miracle, of Mary aod Ihe different apocryphal pra)'ers ascribed 10 Mary, e.g., 8lars' courage in challenging the king who ruled wilh an iron list brought him further fame and encouraged others 10 follow their conscience. The king and the religious leaders were dearly Ihreatened. No fono of coercion-Hogging, imprisonment, hunger, or the like-cOt1ld change Es!ifa· no.' views. The emperor banished him and his fol· lowers into provinces populated by his Muslim subject•. locked up in prison in the village of Wsurema, Es!i11.nos died in Gw5lr, a region adjacent 10 lfat and Da"wtiro. At firsl he was buried near a church in Gedem. However, when hi, followers were caught smuggling their teacher's body from the grave, the emperor had his body cast inlo the open al ~kr;j; in Daww,aro, where by orders of the governor, lhe people piled stones on ii, $lkm is the place where Ihe remains of Ihe ruler of 'AdaL Bad· lAy, were buried under a heap of slones when his rebellion ,,'as crushed in 1444. The cily of Ihe king's residence received Ihe name Dabra BerMn (Mountain of Light) from the persecution of this sect by Ihe emperor. It was reo ported lha, in approval of lhe perseculion by Ihe emperor, a light in lhe fonn of a Cross appeared over the city for several nights. The movement of Ihi. eXlraordinary monk survived Zar'a Ya'qob and his successor, but by Ihe end of tlte fifteenth cenlu1')' il was gradually integrated into the established church. Their center, the Monastery of Dab", Gamn in Tigre, is reported to have a libra!)' wilh v'aluable manuscripls, but some

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

01 the important ones have ended up in the lumd. of travelef!l and exploref!l.

GABRA MANFAS QEDDUS Probably beeaus" Abuna Gabra Manfas Qeddus (Servant of the Holy Spirit) doe! not belong to the early period of Ihe Ethiopian church and because hi!; hagiographer knew very Iinle about hi!; palron, $Ome scholars have wondered if the saint could have been a European. But there is no evidence supporting such a hypothesis. According to lradilion, Abuna Gabra Manfas Oed· dus went to Elhiopia from a monaslery in a district of Lowu Egypt called Nehis.i. The lime of hi. arriv· aI is not certain, but there are $Orne wurces that indicale that he died in 1382. Abuna Gabra Manias Qeddus can truly be catled the saint of the people, a man who probably never visited the courts of any of the political or spiritual leaders of the country, He taught in the area of Mew-.. Kabd and Zeqwili (in Shew,,), about 28 mile. (45 km) $Omh of Addis Ababa, and died there. He is popularly known as a saint who had the mi· raculous power to spHt a cliff in two as one would split a stem of a grass, TIt" e""gg"rated evenlS in hi!; life preserved in his acts could indicate that he was then. as he is now, highly popular among the ordinary people. The name of the saim's family is preserved as Sem'on and Aqltseyi, which could be Egyplian. His native name is not p.eserved, He is reported to have grown up in a monaslery rrom the time he was three years old. Either Ihere was some real reason for this 0', as Ihe hagiographer hints, it was just an imitation of the tradition about the lives of the Blessed Virgin and Ihe prophel Samuel. The saint started a harsh ascelk life at an early age. The Lord covered ~im with hair when he re· fused to protect himself f')m cold with clothes. Hl~ dark beard became an a,Jded cO"er to his body. especially when he celebraled the mass. His main prayer was to see and hear God 'himself, and to have those who were in judgment resurrected and pardoned before the Last Judgment. When Abuna Gabra Manfas Qeddus came to Ethiopia, he found lhe physical environment of Medra Kabd very agreeable. He praised God quoting Mat· thew 11,25: "I thank Ihee, 0 Falher, LoTd "f heaven and eanh, because Ihou hast hid these thini" [i.e" Ethiopia) from the wise and prudent, and hast revealed them unto babes [Le., himself]." The fim people he met in Ethiopia in the wilderness of Medra Kabd were the wandering hermits. Soon wild

,

1055

animals became his friends, and lion" and leopards offered him their services, especially 10 carry him around. His evangelizing activities were supported by mirades of healing, which he performed among the people. People who heard of his healing power carne to him and received his blessing, and he turned Ihem to God. 11 is not ,'ery clear whether the pagans in Ihe region where he taught were in the majority, but there were churches and several other hermits whom he met there. On his dealh On 5 Maggibit (Ba",mh;l.t), all who knew him in the neighborhood, including angels from heaven and the sixt)' lions and sixty leopaTds, attended his funeral and mourned him, His monas· lery. near the crnter on the top of Mount ZeqwAla, though unimpressive, is a center for pilgrims, especially on the day hi, death i!; commemornted, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bezold, C. "Abba Gabra Manfas Oeddus_" Nach· richten Vhand/ungen der Konig/lehen Akadernie dec Wi.· "~$chaf/en W Berli", Phik>sophisch·historische Klasse, I (1880):1-51. ___. "iJber die Regierung, insbesondere die Kirchenordnung des Konig> Zar'a·Jacob:· AI>ha~dlr",gen dec Koniglich.,n Akad~rnie de. Wis· .en.chaften w Berlin, Phil<>sophisch·historische Klasse. 2 (1885):1-79. GeLatchew Haile. "A Prelimina!)' Investigation of the rornarii Ta.ba'/ of Emperor Ziir'a Ya'qob of Ethiopia." Bulle/in of Ihe Schoo/ of Oriental and African Swdies 43, ser. 2 (1980)'207-234. ___ "On lhe Wrilings of Abba Giyorgis &iglawi from Two Unedited Miracles of Mary." Orientalia Chris/iana Periodica 48, ser. 1 (1982):65-91. ___ "The Cause of the &!ifanosites: A Funda· mentalist Sect in the Chun:;h of Ethiopia:' Paid· euma 29 (1983):93-119. _ _, "The Homily of Abba Elayas, Bi-shop of Ak· sum, on M~!!a':' " .. aleCla BoUa"diana lOS (1990):29-47. Getatchew Haile and W. F. Macomber. A Catalogue of Ethiopia~ Manu$cripI$ Microfilmed for the Ethi· opian Manuscrip/ Microfilm Library, Addi. Ababa,

1056

.nd

"

ETYMOLOGY

/or the Hill Moot.wc Mo:Inwscripl Lih<"'rj.

Col· k,cvil/c. Vol. S. pp. 10·1).3)9-41. Collqnoilie. Minn.• 1981. H.. ntinder
_ _ us CIt"""i4"u dc z.,r. ~

y".~qOb

c/

d~

&l'cd" Mobyoinl. ",is d'Ei1tiDpi~ dc I4J4 .. 1418. Paris. 1893. Raineri. O. ~'Gadla SIdqin' 0 'Vila dei CiuslI' Missionari ~1'Erih,.. s 6 (I en8): 143-63. Rouin~ C. ~L'omilia di Yohannes. ve5C<>'<'O di Aksum, in <>nO<e eli <>'rim1.'" In Adcs d" ~ COt
'"

SCrip/OTU Aelhiopic:i 9: CSCO l7. Script"". A,tlt· iopid 10. Louvain. 1955. &rx<'w Hablc &lIa5Iie. And"ltt and Mcdi,w./ Elhio· pian Hislory to /21Q, Addi. Ababa. 1972, Taddesse Tam""t. "Som. Not.. on th. Fifteenth· C.nllU')' 51.phanile 'Hen:~y' in lilt Ethiopian Church.'" R4SJ,,..n d; Jfud; .. lJIinpici 22 (1966): 103- lIS. "'The Abbots of OObrtI·Hayq, 124/1-15)5." Joum"J 0/ Elhi.aiMn Studies /I. seT. I (1970):S7117. _ _ Clwrr:h ...d m E»Uopia 1170_1511. Odord, 1971. .. Tur;oj.ey, B. Acu> S.nlti Eusl.rJrii. In CSCO 32, Scripl.arU Atllriopi.cl'lS. I.ou>-ain. 1961.

51.,.

CETAlU\EW HAU..!

ETYMOLOGY,

s.c Ap~ ..du.

EUCHARIST, on. of llevcn

""crament~

In Ihe Coplic church. Althoullh all sacram.nt, conlaln and impart grac., Ih. Euchari't carri.s Ihe m051 sub· lime g"""e of all. In IlAl'T1SM. for .xamplc, ......tcr remain. "'alcr,ll$ doellillt holy chrism in conlinna· tion. lhe .i.ible elen'tent of the s.acra~t thou un·

de~,,&

no c"*",,e, In the Euchari
oIJ,,"

The lnalltullon or the Euocharlst Chrisl, hning Nlislieo o;:an liYcn 10 il!' lhey ..ked (In. 6:60). Christ comitn>ed in the same vein ex· poundinl 10 them the lJI)~ery tha. He was shortly 10 institule, aft.. which they ~eiYed it ..ilhoul a ~ 01. doubt or funher questioninl. n".. bread and wine, following IDe IeaChi. . of Chris. and .he e:x.antple He set on the .... of His passion, are.he .km.....u of the Eucharist: Iea.ened "'.....1 bread atld wine. n.. wine is unfermented and milled with a linle waler, in memo.,. of Ille water which iuucd wilh Christ·. blood when His silk was pi.rced with a spear (In. 19:34). The Expreilion and Manifestation ofBell.f 11 i. the finn bellef of tilt Orthodox <:hurch Ihal after the <:on""cratlon of the oblations and lhe de·

EUCHARIST

scent of the Holy Spirit upon them, Ihey become the Body and the Blood of Chrisl. Hence the declamion by the priest: "The Holy Body, the Honored Blood of Jesus Christ the Son of God. Amen:' followed, for the second time by 'The Holy and Hon· ored Body, and the Vel)" Blood of Jesus Christ, the Son of our God, Amen," and for the third time. "The Body and the Blood of I'.m.manud oUr God, This is in veoy truth. Amen." Each time the congre· plion responds "Amen," before the priest finall)' utters Ihe profession of faith: "Amen. Amen. Amen. I believe. I believe and confess till the last breath, that this is the life-giving flesh which Thy onlybegotten Son, our Lord and God and Savior Jesus Christ, took from our LIdy, the Queen of us all. the Molher of God. the saint. the pUr<:' Mal)". He made It one with His divinity. without mingling, without confusion. and without alteration.... 1 helieve, 1 believe, I believe !hat this is in vel)" lrulh, Amen." He kisses the ahar thrice, while Ihe deacon reo spond. "I belie,'e, 1 believe, 1 believe. This is in ul)" lrulh, Amen, This has always been the steadfast. unwavering faith of the church. While olher doclrines of belief were subjecl to heresy during the early ceOluries of Christianity, the Eucharist continued to meet with universal acceptance for at least eight centuries. unti! a bishop of Antioch called Abraham threw doubl upon the efficacy of the sacrameOl. Patriarch Oityaqus of Antioch (793-817), together with Patriarch MARK {] of Alexandria (7'W-819), asked him to recant. but on his refusing to do so. a council was con.'eoed thai excommunicated him.

The Writings of Ihe Early Church Fathers This realistic interpretation of the eucharistic bread and wine as beco,"!,ing the Lord's Body and Blood ""'" strongly main~ed in Ihe writing of the early fathers, from which ,,",'e cite a few excerpts. tGNATIUS. bishop of Antioeh (c. 35-c. 107) writes: "I have no task for corruj>lible fOOd nor for the pleawJ"C$ of this life. 1 desire the Bread of God, which is the f1e.h of Jesus Christ, who was of the seed of David: and for drink 1 desire His Blood. which is love incorruptible" (LelUr 10 Ih~ Rom",," 7.3), Saint Irenaeus (c. 13O-c. 200) wril"": "BUI what consistency is there in Ihose who hold that the bread o.'er whkh thanks have been given is the Body of their Lord. and the cup His aJood. if tlley do not acknowledge that he is the Son of Ihe Cre·

1057

ator of the world. _. :' (Advers". Om"", ho"r~s"s 4.111.4), In the Mysl"gog;a, Saint CVRIL O~ JEll.USAL1lM (c. 315~386) writes: "'4t uS then. ,,"'ith full confidence, partake of the Body and Blood of Christ. For in the figure of bread His Body is given to you. so that by partaking of the Bcdy and Blood of Christ, you might be<;ome uniled in body and blood with Him. For thus do we become Christ-beart''"' His Body and Blood being distribuled lhrough our members. And thus it is that we become, according to the blessed Peter, sharers of the divine nature" (My5lagog,ia 4.3). "00 not. therefore. regard Ihe Bread and the Wine as simply that: for Ihey are. according to the MasteT's declaration, the Body and Blood of Christ. Even though Ihe senses suggest to you the other, lei failh make you finn. Do not judge in this maner by taste. but be fully assured by the failh, no! doubting that you have been deemed worIhy of the Body and Blood of ChriS!" (Myslagogia 4.6), According to Saim lOHN CHRYSOSTOM (c. 347_ 407), "When Ihe words say. 'This i. my Body: be cOll\'inced of it and believe it. and look al il with the eyes of the mind. For Chrisl did not give uS something tangible. but ",'en in His tangible things all is intellectual. ... How many now say, '[ wish 1 could see Hi. shape, His appearance, His gannems, His sandals: Only look! You .ee Him! You louch Him! You eat Him!" (0" Mmlh,w 82.4.) and: "Take care, then. lest you 100 become guilty of the Body and Blood of Christ. Tbey slaughter",,- His mos! holy body: but you. after such greal benefits, receive Him into a filthy souL For it was nOI enough for Him to be made man. to be struck and 10 be slaughtered. bUI He even mingl"" Himself wilh us; and this not by faith only. but even in every deed He makes us His Body. How vel')' pure, then, oughl be not be, who enjoys the benefit of this Sacrifice?" Saim Ambro.e. bishop of Milan (c. 339-397) writeS' "Before it is conse<;rated il is bread; bu! where the words of Chris! come in, it is lhe Body of Christ. Finally, hear Him saying: 'All of you take and eat of Ihis, for this is My Body: And before the words of Christ the chlice is full of wine and water; but wher<:' the words of Christ have been operati,'e it is made the Blood of Christ. which redeems the people," Similar teaching about the eucharistic sacrifice is to be found in the writings of CLEMENT OF ALEXAN. DRtA, Tertullian. OIDNYStl!S THE GREAT of Alexandria, BASIL THE GREAT, Epiphaniu., bishop of Salamis. CVRIL OF ALEXANOtUA. and many others.

IOS8

EUCHARIST

The Nature or the mvlne Tran.ronDllllon Unlike O1her chun:hes. lhe apostohc churches hold the unohabble belid" tlUIl the elemt-nts are completely t.....funned InlO the ~ry flesh and blood of Je5t1£ ChrUt~. belief b....,d on the pledge gi"en by Christ in .....hich He csJled bread Hi. body and wine His blood. Saint Plul c1arilie. this lrans· formadon in I Corinthians 11:23-25. Confirmation of this belief recon in key passages in the liturgy as mentioned earlier. and also In the ~ for the descenl of the fIaIy Spirit: "We pray Thee. 0 1..0«1 """r God. ",-e Thy sinful and unWOtthy ...,n... nlS. We _rSIUP Thee by the pleasure of nay zoodnes. tlw Thy Holy Spirit may descend upon us and upon 1he5oe oferinp placed here. 10 purify them. m.nsub_miIIte Ihem and manifest ,hem holy "nlO Thy Saints. AIId !his B.... d. He makes inlo His Holy Body. And Ihis Cup the honoured Blood. unto the New Testament." Heocefonh. the bn:ad and wine hning .It-eady unftl H., inMituted the: sal:ratn"Ill On. 6:51; U. 22:19. ~). Heoce lbe lelIl;hing of th.. apostle hul (I Cor. I
rro...

of t-u. and I will not aeeepI an oft'mn« from

)'OUC"

hand. For from the: risinl of Ihe JUIl to its ""'tina my name Os lreal among tbe nalions. and in .,..e-ry place Incense is offered to my name. and a pure offennl; for my name is crell among the nations, say$ the Lord of hosts·· (Mal. 1:10. 11). This prophetic text carries a clear implication of the perfection of Mosaic sacrifice in the fullne.. of time. This one ....:rifice ,annot be that of the Gn:d oblations. lor our sac:rifu::es. and for tI>osOI re)ect us as _lay our hands on Ih;,; awesome and bloodl .... s"l:[;6c<". 3. To.....rd the end of the consecrMion the prie5t ~'S. "As .... comm<:morate HiI; holy passion. His Resurrection from the dead. Hill As<:.,nsion Into heaven. His silling at Thy right ....nd 0 Father ... w., off.,r Thee Thy oblations from what ;~ Thine...." •. In the Fraction prayers for the feasts of th.. Angels and the Virgin Mary. the priest sayo. "Today on th;,; ,able Is p""",nt "itt. us Emmanuel oor lord. the Lamb of God who carries the: .;1"1$ of Ihe "itole world. ... Holy and full of ,lory in this sacri· fice ,,-ltldt has bent ola1n for the life of the ~ world. Amen. Alleluia. ...5. On Holy Thunday. the Frac1ion pea)"'I' for lOll of Abnhaon. ineludes this .Ie'CIion: "0 God ...Ito lC«'PIed th., off.,"nc of our falher Abl'l' ham. do accepl from US this soacril1c
ha,..,

H

1_.

EUCHARIST

JUSlin Manyr (c. 100-(_ 1(5) Py5' "Accordingly Cod, ""tid"".;ng all lhe ....,,,fK:es ..·hieh we offer through His Name, and which Jesw the ChriSl cn~ \IS to otrer: Le.., in the EucharUt of the Bread lOlld 1M ""p. and "'hi(,h are p...,..,o,d by ChriMians in all places throughout the ,"",<,Tid. bon witnes tlrat Ihq arc welJ-plezsing 10 Him" (ow,/DfIU "jill Trypbo 117). According to Saint Irft>U:US (c. 1)(1-<:. lOO}: '10k [Christl rau&hl tM new """,rifice of 1M ne'" co-'eo nant, oI .... ich Malachias. one of 1M I"''d~ propb_. had sivJifi«l bdord\and. "'You do not do My will," Jays the Lo«l AJrnighly, Nand I ..ill nOi aceq>! • AlI:rlfK:c al your hand!.. For fro.... !he rlslnl of doe sun 10 lIS setting, My name is glorified amc>na

lhoe ,cn_Iln. and in <"Very place incense is o~~ 10 My name. and a pure sacrifice; for veal is My name altlOl'll 1M ,.,miles;' oars the Lord A1m1lhty' [Mal. I:l{l_llj. By these words He maku it plain ...... the former ,",oplc will CC8$C to make offerings to God:

bu. lhac In every place sacrifice will be offered 10 Him, and Indeed. a pure one: for Hi, name 11 glori· lied among lhe gentiles" (Adv~,...us Ol1m .. hute"s 4.17.5).

Saint Cyprian. bishop of Carth.ge (d. l58). writes, "W~"Ill:" II aW<'ars that the Blood of ChriSI is not ofI"red if lhere be no ",inc in the cup, 1>00" lhe Lord'. ~rifice celebr.lled wilh a legilim.I" eonse· cmion unlns out" ablations and. sacrifice respond to His "-ion.... For if JtsLIS ChrUl. our L«d and God, is Himsoelf!he chief priCSI of God til<' Fath.-r, and has 61'SI ofI".ed HillJS<'If a ucrifice to the Fa· Iller, and. hao commanded thi. 10 be done in COm· mernonlion of Hirmdf, ""nainly thN pries! tnlly disch:arza !he office of Chris!, ",'1>0 imitales thaI "'hich Chris! did; and he lhnI offen a In>c and full _rifie" in m.. Chun:h to God the F..n..r, ..hen t,e pnxeedo 10 off".- it a<:eordina: 10 .....1 he we. Christ Himself 10 t.:."" ~fend" (JEpisll. 112.9.14). Saini GnJOry of N)"_W;c.. JJO-c. J95) sa)": ...... offered Himself for us. '{iClilll llnd Sacrifice. and p""" as well. and ~b of God. who tabs y the sin of lit" "",rid. W~n did H" do Ihis~ W n He """"" His own Body food and His O"o'n Blood drink for His disciples for Ihis much 15 ckar enough 10 any<>ne, lhal a .t>e"p cannot be "alen by a fMn unlns ;1. being calen- be pree"""d by ils being sla..ghtered. This giving of His own Body 10 Hi. disciples for uling clearly indicales lhal lhe sacrifice of the Lamb has now been complcted" (Se""on Cm III. R~surreclion of Chrisl). And accordin&: to Saini John Chrysoslom (c. 1470407): "Wh.l Ihen? 00 w, nOt offec dai1y~ Yes, ,,'e offer, bUl making "",""mb",n"" of His
1059

Ihis; remcmbr:ll>C<' is one and fI(lI .......,y. How is il one and nO' many~ Bc'C'M,ISC Ihis Sa.cri6c" is 0"........ on"", like thM in lhe Holy of HoUe•. This $acrifie" is a type of thN, :and Ihis rem"mb~" a I)l'" of lhat. W" offer a.h.':l)'S the same. no! one sheep now :and anoIher lonsc>ml'W. bul dIe same thina a.J-ways.. Thus !here is ""'" $acri6ce. By Ihls ~in,. ,,;nee lhe Sacri6cc is olfcred ""'eTY"'here, ar" thcTc. Ihen, a ...... Itipl;,,;!)' of Chrisl~ By 00 .... ans! Christ is on" "''CIY''t...n:. He is compkte hen:, OOIJlplcle k God's forPvc"""" for sins comm;lled by those 00 whose bdla.If the: oxrltic" (obl.ationaj is bcina o&red, both the and !he dead. S. The sacril>ce OIl lhe cross ...-as alicnd 0"""N Golgolha-....t...r"as lhe tucharislic sacrifice has been J"'I"PClually olfened sine" its instilution by

Ii"..,

Chrisl_

n.., cha,"""l"ristic

~al .. re

of lit" Eucharisl as an 'XPres!lkln of ,"'tilUde has its oriain in t..... preteoknl esbhlished by Chrisl ....h"n He inSlitulM I..... sacramen" "'He look brud .nd ....hC'n h" had gi,'en Ihanks. _:. (lk. 22;19; Cor. 11:23-24). The liturgi"s us<:d by lbe church arc ime"'p".-scd wilh expression. of lhankfuln"S5' al the beginning, following the petitions, in lhe ",pielesi" before lhe fraclion. during the co",",union. The Eucharist is also a sacrifice On behalf of lhe !i,ing and the dead. According 10 Jobn Chyrsoslom, "For nol unmeanlngly ... ~ lhe... things been de-

106
EUCHARISf

'fIJed, nor do we in vain make men.ion 01 the d.,. pelted in Ihe course oi .he di~ine mysterYs, .nd approadl God in th.,ir hehalf, brs«ching lhc Lamb who ;s bcfu~ ......-ho uoletll .....y .he sin of Ihe world; DOt in "";n doth he Wt standeth by lhr altar cry OU' ...... n lhc tJ'C"",,"dous mYSler1e arc cel.,. brated. 'For a1llhat ha~e fallen ~ In Christ, and for lbo»e ",ito perform comrnemonl>ono in their !>eftalf: For if lhere WCf'C no com..... monuions lor

them, .bftt thi"p ........M DOt ba~ b«n spoken.... Let US IKK IMn be "'"eafY in &i"inl aid 10 11M: deput· ed, both by oIfering on their bcbalf and obtaininl pnyen for wm: for the common E.1
The Coplic Liturgy oi SainI Basil includes litis s«tion following the commemoralion of .he sainl$. which is • prayer for both lhe <:1m .nd Ihe livina: ''''TI>t;I$e. 0 Lord. whnse """Is ,",OIl hN! IlIken. n:. pose in the PllOldi$e of GJ'3Ce. in the land of elemal hfe. in the h..avenly Jerusalem, And we, who an: pllarims ill this place, k....p us in Thy faiLh, atld annl u. Thy peace unto Ihe .,nd:'

uanned, Not Unlca~cned, Bread ror the Eucharist

TIM: t""",ilion followed by lhe Coplic and ollt.,. Orthodox Ea.lern churches. and by all East.. rn and Wes'ertI churches in the 5O'-er: ''the Lamb of God, ",ho Wet ."'. .y dte "",01 lhe world" (In: 1:2<J). TIM: Roman CaU.olic church cor..inued 10 follow the same lradilion, usinl lcavene
it on the e"", cltbe fifteen.h day of Nffian, which is the fint momh of Lhe )'CaI'. Till th., end of lhe founeenth day, ltll•..,ncd. bred ...-Id still be in ....., and would not be talen a"'3)' umil just before the J>IIS!IOver mcaI which, in memory of the hUJried departure of me Israelites from the land of Eg,l"I, had to be !he ~ lamb willi bill.,. herbs and ....lca,·encd bread-lhe bread of aIiIiction (01. 1603). The da)'ll of unln.'cncd bread wou..Id be -le:a;;iS nf 1M Lord~: -In lint month, on the fou.rt«nllt day 01 the month ;n !he .....,n;n" is tM Lord's pIMO"'tf'. And On lite fifteenth day of the same mon.h is !he feasl of ..........'Cned bread 10 Ihe LonI; ..,""'" day$ you shall cal unleavened bread. On the fi... \-er... :' If we turn 10 the synllpllic Gospels, ...., find 11...1 !he accounl is dif(ercnl. Mallh..... begiJl$ ... i.h Ihe woro., "Now on Ih. Ii... day of Unleaven ..d Bread,.:' (26:17·28); Mark t>e&in. with "And on th.. linl day of Unlea"ened Bread.....hen !hey sacri, ficed the J"'$SOver 11mb,.:' (14:12-24); and Luk. begins wilh ''Th.n came Ihe day of Unl..avened Bread, on which Lh.. passover lamb had to be sacrificed .. :' (22:7·20). It is an estahlished fact, as we have pointed OUI earlier, lhal Ihe PlL5SOver

m..

EUCHARIST

lamb canlIOl ~ bUM on 1M Passo.~r fusl i!Self. Biblical scbo!"", "",h profound knowledge of Crnk, Heb~, Aramaic, and other relennt Ian· guage., of whom the German Jewish'Chri"ian loachim Jeremias is one of the mo", prominent. ha.'e brcuiht '0 hgh, ceruin inaccuracies in tM Creek tnnslJoliQn of ,he Hebrew 'ed, and Pl"Cn'td. rather con.incintlY, thai the ....... Suppoer "'as nOl a pas5' (fI'tr meal, bu, ~ lhal look place lwenty-four houn earlier. How could iI have bttn, ..... en il ..'as complaely cIevold ol the ritu.loI thai mUSI ~ dilo. l'C"!Iy and meticulously oOeyever brnb.!he bil'eT herta.!he Passoyer haaadah, lhe hal/d, IIIII' ne<:essily ol ,iYinl every pel'$On his own pl.. ~ and cup (a<:tually four cu",), Most important is the total inadmissibility of doinll any ac,ion or holding any mcetinl On .uch a sacred feasl
The Rllht 10 Officiate al Ihe Eucharist This riihl was primarily Ii...,n 10 bishops. as suc-

e""",,," 10 the aposde. who received il from Chri5t, and who, In turn. pused II on 10 priests, "For I reo;eived from lhe Lord what I aho delivered 10 you, lhat the Locd Jos.us 'i' the night whetl he ",as bw-ayt01 cntilled to ~ at the ahar. As to parukinl of me holy sacnomcnt, this is open 10 every Chrislian baplized beliC\-er who has fulfilled the preliminary requi",mOnlS. namoly, fasling and confession. ,"ccordinllO JU"i" Martyr. "this food i. call.d amonS u. the Euchari51. of which nO one i. allowd 10 paruke but the man who believes that the mi"" which Wf' leach lOre ~, and who h... been ......... ~ ..ilb the washing lhal is for the ",mis·

1061

sian of sins, and unlO ~nrliQn, and who is 50

livinl as Chrise has enjoined" (Fint Apnl"D 66). Tho Eucharist must be denied to unbelievers, Ih. unNplized, and belie,,,," who .'" impenitent Or unpreparw to ",ceive Ihe Sacrament. "Whoever IMrefore eats the bread or drinks the eup of the lbrd in all unwonhy mann.r ...ilI be guilty of probnilll the body and blood of the lbni ~I a man .""""inc himself. and so .... of ,he bread and drink oflhe cup_ for any 01lC who eals and drinks ..ilh· out disceminl the body. eats Mol drinks ;udcment UIPOn himstlf" (I Cor. 11:27_29). 1k Ap<J$lol" CQlUtir...ilmJ inslsl lhat lbe Euo:ha· rIsI should be give" 10 all, including child",n 1m· medialoly aher baplism and cOllfirmalion: ",""d a(· ler that, let the bishop partake, lhen th. prc$b)1el'$. and deacons, and sub-deacons, and the readers, and lhe .inlel$, and lhe ascetics; . , , ,hen the children; and then "II the people in order ..... (eOllsrilulio/os ()/ 1M Holy ApoSlJu 8.13). Dionysius Iht Areop3gile abo ",ccssed !he imp«W>C
Jl.edempth·e Frulls of tht E"chartst Put<Wnl wonhily of the AoCr&ment brinp about: (I) 01tll'Dll'SS and communion ",ith the Lord; "Ht ,,'ho ,""IS tn). Bah and drinks my blond abides in mt and [ in him" (In. &:5(»: Saini Cyril of lerusa· lem says, " ... thus do we becomo Chri.n·beare"" Hi. Body and Blood being diStribut.d Ihrough Our membe.... And Ihus it is that "'f become ... sharers of the divine nature"' 4.3); (2) &r'OWlh In spiril\lal lift in Chris! Jeow: "As the li.inl F.11>tr sent mo, and I liu boca...,. ol the Fall>tr, 50 he ,,'ho ,""IS me ..ill li.'C becau..e of ...... (In. 6:57); and (3) a p1edct of eternal life: "n. ..i>o eau this brud will li--e for n"tr" (In. 6:58).

(My.,,,,,,,I,,

BIIIUOGRAPlIV

l.lablb Jirji$. Jlsr4r al·Ka.ds..h ~1·SQb'ah, 2nd ed., pp, 75-120. Cairo, 1950, Ibn Sihi' Yilt>ann4 ibn Abl zabtfy;t. Kit4!> a/·Jawgl-Ngfisah fi 'Ulftm g/.K"nls"h, M. ViklUr

""_all

1062

EUCHARISTIC BREAD

Cairo, 1902, Trans. inlO Latin as Pre/iosa margarita de seierltiis ecdesiastlds by Vincentio Mislrl~, Cairo, 1961), Jurgens, W, A" ed, The Failh of the Early Falhers. Vol, L Collegeville, Minn" 1970, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, Collegeville, Minn., 1979, Perck,l, H. R. "E<cursus on the Worship of the Early Church," In A Sel~CI Library of th, NiceMe aMd Post·NiceMe Falhers of th~ ChriJtian Chur~h, 2nd ...,r., Vol. 14, ed. P, Schaff and H, Wace. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1956. Tadrus Ya'qOb Malan. ChriSI iM the E,,~ha,ist, bk. 1, pp. 34-4(); bk. 5, pp, 268-74, 306. Alexandria, 1973. Man~Or.

ARCHBISHOP BASIUOS

EUCHARISTIC BREAD, one of the two visible element, ~onstitUling lhe eucharistic sacrament, lhe olher element heing the eucharislic wine, The bread is leavenesS consisting of twelve linle squares, each of which is marked with a diagonal cross, The four central squares fonn lhe despotikorl (the bread of the Lord), Along the circumference runs a sacred

Eucharislic bread. Courlesy Lola Aliya,

legend containing in Coptic lhe words Holy God, H"ly Mighly, Holy Immortal. Such crosses arc engra,-ed on lhe ;nside of the wooden seal used for .tamping the eucharistic loaves before baking, An old wooden seal was found in DAYR ADO 1;I1NNIS in lhe Easlern Desert that had lhiny,si, small cro5lles around its inner rim, this number being the thiny,six signs of the cross made by the celebrant prie
EUCHARISTIC VEILS

1I111L1OGR"PHY

Burmester. O. H. E. The Egyptian Or Cop/ie Ch~'ch, Cairo. 1967. Cummings. D. The R~dd",. pp. 5. 650. Chicago. 1957. Tadros Ya'qub Mala;i. Chrisl in Ihe Eucharis!_ bk. S. pp. 304-306; bk. 7. p. 657. "leundria. 1973. ARCHBISIIOP BASI LIaS

EUCHARISTIC BREAD BASKET. See

li-

turgical InSlruments.

EUCHARISTIC BREAD TROUGH.

SU Eu·

charislic Bread.

EUCHARISTIC FAST. The Copts rigorously ob· serve comple,e ab!ltinence from food or drink from the previous evening until Holy Communion is cel· ebrated, This i. not a regular fast in the sense of abstaining from cenain categories of nmritious e1e· menlS. but a complele rejection of any solid or liquid material from lOuching the moulh. On ,he same principle. this fast i. equally observed on Ihe occasion of baptism, ordination, dedication, and penitence, SOZO.UEJ\I stales that Ihe early Elgyptian Christians sometimes celebrated Holy Communion after eal· ing. but adds that that was not a general practice and was probably followed in lhe case of the celebration of rna.., twice in the morning and in the evening of lhe same day. The D1lMSCALlA, among canonical works. pre· scribe. lhi. category of fasting in lhe Ea.l. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Deanner, P. The Trmh ahom Fas/ing will, Special Reference 10 Fasting Before Comm,mion. London, 1928, ~~ Frochisse, J, M. "A prop"'; des origines du i<'iine euchari.tique." Revue d'h'islOire tcclcsiaslique 2$ (19n):594-W9. ruller. F. W. Co"cerni"g Ihe FaSI before Commu"ion. London. 1891. AZIZ S. AT1Y~

EUCHARISTIC VEILS. ~uchariS1k

Th~re al"<' fi>'~ types of

veils used in th~ Coplic church: altar veils, chalke veils, mals, palen and chalk~ v~ils, an
1063

right prot~ction and veneration during the lilurgy. Aner a church has been consecrated, the ahar should at no tim~ ~ l~n uncovered, Three doth co"erings are requir~d: (I) a tight-fiuing cas~ (Ara· bic. kiswal a/·rnadhbaJ.j) made of linen or cotton r~aching 10 th~ lIoor on all four sid~5; (2) a 5econd covering u.ually mad~ of silk wilh ~mbroidered crosse. on all sides; between these two coverings is placed tbe aharboard; and (3) a third and smaJler co\'ering to be placed o"er the oblalions immediately aner th~ pray~r of thanksgiving umil th~ end of th~ prayer of reconciliation, when it is lifted b)' the priesl and the deac(m, This covering i. called Ihe prospherein (from th~ Greek tenn prosphoro.. offering), and represent. the .lone Ihal wa., rolled away by th~ angel from the sepulcher al ,ne resurreclion, Th~ canopy over the altar. upheld by wooden, .Ione, or marbl~ pillars, used to be sun'Ounded with cunains hanging down from rods. as may still be seen in lhe ChuTch of AbU Sarjah (SainI Sergius) in Old Cairo. These curtains were drawn at certain times during th~ liturgy, for exampl~, al th~ desc~nt of the Holy Spiril and the Fraction Prayers. In moo· ern times, however. such curtains no longer fonn part of the altar co\'erings, sjnce the curtains on lhe konostasi. doors provide th~ n~ce.sary protection. Th,,"~ coverings. which ar~ also cons~crated by means of special prayers, help proteel the oblalicms in the pat~n and chalice (see EOC"AR'STIC "rSS~LS) so that .• hould any of their cont~m. inad"enently fall, it can Ih~n b~ properly dispose<J of, in accord· anc~ wilh church ritoal. In the earlier days of Christianily, when churches were open to heathen attacks at times of persecution, pri~.1S used to I"<'mo\'~ these coverings. logeth~r with th~ altar vessels. and tak~ them to a safe hiding place. Chalice Veil: Thi. is a mat similar in shape and color to the paten veil, used to cover ,he chalice in th~ ark on th~ altar. Mar: Litorgical mals au squar~ or circular pi~ce, of fabric. white, pink. or blu~ in color, with a cross embroidered in the cenler, They are u.~ for >'ariau. purpose" 10 wrap the Lamb (the Body of Chri.t) and th~ cru~t of wine (the Blood of Christ) during lhe offertory prayers at Ih~ ~ginning of th~ lilurgy: 10 cover the Lamb in Ihe paten. and Ih~ WIne in the chalice. befo.e both are 10 be eoverc:
1064

EUCHARISTIC VESSELS AND INSTRUMENTS

thai thfcy an cove~ Ihrir mouths al1er ~etciYinlllle Body. But they have 10 .... laid Mide bdo..., rKlCi... ina Ihtc Blood. Palen ..nd ChiJlic" VriL: This is • rectanlUlar sn«1 made of silk. _ r i n l about 6 f«t by • feet (180 by 120 cml. usually ",hite or nd In color, wilb • b.-,e c...... rmbroKloered in !hl' center and smaller oMS ... lhe come.... At the belin ....... of the edebra!ion <>f lhe liturgy. this veil ~rna.i"" O''U the obI~ions 011 thtc altar until the pnyerl of reconcili· ... ion have ne.n WeI. ah...- ,,'hich it is ..e.no>'ed by thtc celrbnnt and • cktton. II is lhen nfeally folded and piKed on the altar until the end of lhtc lilUra· Then. lifter Ihe alta~ "'cswls ha,'e ~n ellrdully ..1Oshoed and wiped. il is unfolded and sprad once .pin (Wfcr th" rmpl:y vessels on 1M .l\.Ior until the n<:Xt celeboolion of tt... lilure. p"ttn V"i/: This i, a square or circular mAl. white or red In color, ..ilh a crOSS embnHdered in Ihe etcnler. used 10 cover lhe Lamb in Ihe p.o.l"n, A. lhe bfcslnnins of the liturgy, after the c.,ltcbl1lnt hlU !'lid the 1'11I)'<:r of reconcilialion. htc remoy" Ihis yeil wllh his ristll hand and. holdinl it. makes the sisn of thtc cross m·e. lhe people. then Ihtc dtcKons, and 1.0..<11)' him$Clf. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burmesler. O. H. E. The ECPti,m Coplk CII.....,II. C.im. 1967. Buller. A. J. Th A"cie"t Coptic CI".;c'us 01 ECfPI. Vol. 2. pp. la-32. Em>< and 0xI0rd. 1884. AltCHBlSHOl' BAstUOS

EUCHARISTIC VESSELS AND INSTRlJ. MENTS, lhe chalice. palen. a51tcTi$k. spoon. and ark uo.ed al lhe altar ill the cdeb••don of I.... Divinl:' Uture· In lhe Old Te!lta(ljtent. God c:om .... nOed Moses 10 .noinl Illtc uobem.o.o;le of lM cooS...,plion. the arlt of the tesli.......)'. 1M table and its vessels. Ihtc candl_kk .nd its voe$Cb. Ihe allar 1100 its v_Is. el Ctcttc,.. (Ex, 30:26-281_ Similarly lhfc wcharislk W'$' N:ls·h..... to he eonsecrated ~ thfc)l .I...., fim used in the chul'Ch. These ve~sds. thoulh usuall)' made of iil,,,,r. ..'tcrtc .1 time. made of more precious mrtals such WI sold Siudded ",jlh pred<.>Us stonleS, and were pre· senled as lifts from wealthy ",.mbers of the con· g.elation, On the olher hand. vtcssels made of glass, wood, or eanhenware were also u.sed in EcYPtian church", al limn of perwCUlion. whfcn the church· es wertc threatened by plunderers .nd .... nuders.

Tbf: ark is a WOOolkn boll measuring approximale-

Iy 10 by 10 by II inches (25 " 25 " 30 em). which al,,-ay5 MaIld5 in the middltc of thor alGle. The top has a wide round hole. ..,d ronsists of 1'1,.., foldinl I"",,,,,, througtt ...·hk:h I.... d..:Jictc is placed durilll the 1itutJ:Y. Tbf: four sida caT1)' paintings of the Lasl So.tpptor. the vtrPn Mary. an angtl. and the saini in ...-ltOK namtc I .... church "'U e<>nse<:ratN. The ark is tM tcmbodimenl of varicw s)~ical anal~ It is iOfllfc1iTnQ ullcd • throne in reference b) the majIst)' ollhfc crucified Christ. I...iI~nanl. But. whrR2S the old ark usod to hold the tabln of thtc law. thr newark holds thtc chalice of Chri~rs Blood. Cod's new leslament with maD. the fulfillmtcnt of the scriplures of the proph· ets (M\. 26:5•• 36); and while the old ark included Aaron's rod which buddtcd (Heb. 9:4). the newark symbolizes the Vil'iin Mary who gaVtc birth to God. th. Word. manifesl in the aesh (JD. 1:1; I Tm, 3:l6). Finall)' th. Qld ark containtcd .he goldtcn pol <>f manna (Ex. 16:32-34). whereas the newark holds lhe lrul' htoa"tcnly Mania ,,'hleh lives lik evert""I' ;nl (In. 6:57. S'I· It mlJSl: be slrnKd here lhat. in accordance wilh the praccice of lhfc Coplic church. the art is to hauSfc lhr chalice onl)' during the Iinug}' pnlyen. a.i.d J10l lO hold 1M P1'u~ Body ....d Blood fol· Io...-illl thrir COfUoKraliol'l. 1-" the ease of porwna wishinllO panaktc of Holy Communion ..ito eannOC atltcnd !he [)jnne UlUra rithe. through illness or foe- oc}m ...,as-... lhe I'l'O'cious Body. ~trncd ...ith dropo <>f the Precious 8100d,. rnay be ~.m and cOll,eyed 10 lhom m a spuia1 sih'el' pp:. called the .rl<>phorion (ATabic. IJuqq .1.JMkhir"IIl. 10 .... administered to I.... m by Ihe prifcOl. ,,-hile they an: still fastinK- immedialely after the lilUTJY_ The box is Ihen retumord .....pty to lhe churdt.

Artopborton The ...Iophonon, literally "Ihe bo~ of the [HeM)'} Communion." is a ~tcSKI usually made of sil~tcr. or thick glass in pool' churches, circular in shape .nd having a lid measuring aboul ) inches (7 em) in diamet~r. Its htclghl Is about 1.5 inches (4 em), l! is used 3$ a comalner to cany Ihe Holy Body. sometime> moistentcd .....ith a fe", drop5 of Ihe Pre· dOllS Blood, 10 those ",ho are eonfined 10 the hoUSfc or hospital by ill Ittalth o. infirmity. and to

EUCHARISTIC VESSELS AND INSTRUMENTS

the prisoners in their cells, and in cases of real necessity, to all who wish to communkalc without being able to allend lhe Di"ine Liturgy. It resembles the circular siher pyx now used in the Anglican church for the same pu'l'""e, but the Anglican priest suspends it by a cord around his neck while lhc Cop lie prieSt carries lhe ",topnodo" in his hands.

1065

and waler from Christ's side .....hile on the cross (In. 19:34).

In the Coptic church, communicants ",cdve the Blood by means of a spoon following the administering of the Body. whereas in the Roman Catholic church. Ih~ reception of the Blood has ~en reo stricted to the clergy sinc~ the twelfth century. a cuSlom later confirmed al the Council of Constance in 1415.

A6teri6k One of the inslruments used during the celebration of the liturgy, the asterisk is usually made of silver or white metal and sometimes of gold. It consiSls of two half·circles in the fonn of a dome. intersecting at right angles. and riveted together with a small cross at Ihe top. It folds so as to be con,'eniently pUI aWa}', During the liturgy, it is set over Ihe consecrated oblalions in the paten to pre-vent the veil from touching them. It bears a mysli. cal significance to the star of Bethlehem lhal led lhe wise men to the infant Savinr while he was lying in the manger. According to A. J. Butler, Ihe Greek church "makes use of a corresponding inslrumen, lermed the 'star' ... said to have bun introduced by St. ChrysoslQm," He adds, as a footnQle. that E. Renau· dot, in Liturgi",um oriemalium collectio, is wrong in assuming that "tbe Orientals, including lhe Syri· anS and Egyptians, do not """ the A-~ler,"

Chalice The chalice is the wine cup used in the celebra· lion of the Eucharist. It is now usually made of silver, wilh a long stem and a circular ba,<e. In earlier limes. il was customary to engrave On lhe outside of Ihe chalia Ihe figure of a lamb. in refer· ence to lhe Lamb of Cod. Al the celebration of tif Eucharisl, after the pri~SI has poured wine inter Ih~ chalic~ from lhe cruet and poured waler into: the empty c"'et. from which he adds water to the ,wine in the chalke, he places the chalice in5ide the ark on the ahar. Ac· cording to Ibn al·'As,;al (c. 1205-c. (265). Ihe conten,1S of th~ chalice should not r~ach the brim. for fear of spilling, and the prOJ>Ort;on of water should nOI be less lhan one·t~nth and not more lhan one· third of the quantity of Ihe wine. The tradition of mixing Ihe chalice wine wilh waler follows Ihe leaching of lhe early fathers. SainI ClEMEJ.'T OF Al.EHNDRtA (c. 150-c. 215) refers to "watered wine" (Paedagogos 2.2.20). This mixture of wine and waler also ref~rs 10 lhe flow of blood

Paten The pat~n i< a flat. shallow, drcular dish, with a turned·up edge. measuring about 8 inches (22 ern) in diameter. II is used to hold Ihe eucharislic b",ad which is consecraled during the celebration of the liturgy and is lransformed into the Body of Christ. The paten, now normally made of silver. used to be made of glass Or earthenware, particularly dur· ing lhe ages of persecution .....hen the Egyplian churches were plundered by invading marauders. The paten has double symbolism, It represent' the manger in which Chrisl was born as well as the grave in which His body "'as laid.

Spoon The spoon is used for administering lhe Precious Blood 10 Ihe communicants. It is usually of silver, but rna}' also be made of gold. and has a long straight handle on which certain biblical verses are inscribed and ending "..ith a small cross, The spoon bea... a symbolic analogy wilh lhe tongs .....ilh which the seraphim took a Ii,.., coal and louched lsaiah's lips to purify them (Is, 6:6-7). Hence the leXl u..,d in the Coplic church in the procel;S of consecrating lhe spoon, "0 God, Who made His servant Isaiah the prophet worthy 10 look at the seraphim holding the longs .....ith which he look the live coal from off the altar and laid it upon his moulh: do now, a Cod almighly. spread Thy hand on Ihis spoon with wbich lhe Sacred Body and the Preciou. Blood will be administered:' In earlier times communicants used to partake of the Precious Blood .traight from the chalice, bUl later lhe spoon came imo use. and is now the method established in Ihe Coptic church. Priests laking part in the liturgy, ho.....ever. are given the Body in the spoon while il is placed on Ihe paten, unlike laymen, who re<:eive the Body in their mouths from the celebrant prieSl's hand, followed by Ihe Blood from the spoon. It was also customary in bygone days to adminis· ter the Sacred Body into the communicant's righl

1066

EUCHARISTIC WINE

hM>d while he pbced it O>Itr tht 1m hMld in the fonn of a en>t:lo. Accordinc1y Sain. CYltll- Of' JEl1.J$.O.. 1Dl (c. 315-3861 JUllei. "When thou IOeIl to ..... eei..., communion 10 not ...ith thy ...·risb utended. not with thy finaers 5tJW1dtd. t placing thy left hand u a .hrone for thy ri&hl, ich i$ 10 _rioe 10 veal a kina. and in lhe hollow of .he p<>lm I"ttei\.., the body of Chris!, ...)ing 'Amen'" (Ca'.... chetical Luturu 23.21). Appa~n.I,., tome wnlthy ptrsom, ~r""ps mo:xe o.H of ~,'erence .han os.enta'ion, Slarted '0 brinll .heir own iolden or ill"er yo"",,l. in.o Ihe ahar, inlO which Ihe prieSt would place the Bod,. for .hem partake of, un.ouehed by Iheir own hands. Su<:h a practice led .0 50~ unease on the part of the poorer members of lhe congregation. Comequently lbe Council In Trollo, in 692, b.ld 00..'0 Dttue 101 canyinl the followini dlt'K,I,..,: ''Whe~fo~, if anyone "isba 10 be a P"'nicipltor of the nomaculate Body in lhe Lime of the 5)'I'Ui&, and 10 off...- !lllmdf lor the communion, let him drzw near, arnl'Iina his hands in tht £ann of • ct'OU. and 50 let him recei..... he communion of IJ'KC. Bu. weh as. insttad of their hands, make of IOId or othtT ~trbls £or the rr<:qMion q/ the divine gift. and by tllest r ei •.., l:tle communion, we by no mea allow 10 COmt, •.. But if anyone sh.1I be found impertini the Immacu· late c(>mmunion '0 .hou "'ho bring """",,ls of .hls kind, Ie. him be cut off as well "" Ihe on", who brings .hem:'

.0

"_Is

B1BLIOGRAnfY

·A......p1lah ManqaryQs 'Awadallah. Ma,,'rat ai· "",dtV; " Sh.rlt TIr1imt or Copri<: Ch"rch, Po 26. Cain), 1967, Bu.Ier, A. J_ TIu ~it'''' Coplic Churcltu 01 ECJ>I. O>;foo-d. IM4. Cummings, D. TIu R.ubler. ChicaBo, 1957. Darin, J. G. ~Pyx'" In A Dtclio"...,. lJf UJ"'I1 and W""hip. London, 1971. Jurgens, W. A., t!d. T1u. FG'ilh 01 rlrt: EG',iy FS,I%1. Neale, J. M. A Hi,wry of Ihe Holy EG'.lem Chu""h, Vol. l. PI'. 350. London, 1850. Renaudot, E. L!llIrgl
WaIlS, W. W. Cat.lope 0/ Chtdius ...11 Ollrt:r Comm ....io.. VUSO'Is, pp. 39-46. Vocto;wU. and 1Jben Museum, 1912

EUCHARJSTIC WINE, among Copts kno"...

by

lhe Arabic Itrm a""rilah, rr'IOCaning "new wine" for use in Hot,. Communion. 1M "bark.1I is prepared from dried grapes O' rai.in•. Afte. beini washed ....i .h "'ate., .My are placed in an ta"henware pol and covered wi.h water. The ralslns are .hen left '0 soak for .hree days, after whleh Ihty are laken oul and squetled by hand (nn'tT trampled by f.-j, and .he juice i. poured inlO vessels that are not complettly filled;n ordc-r to allow honncntation. The ju~ is left lor forty daY"'. after .....id i. is fil for sac""mental use. The 10"leT tilt juke is aJl~ .0 remain. tht betItT is W wine. SomClUnes a little "ine from a lorrnn" brew is added to each bottk of new wine. The pnXedure is the same when frQh If&pa are used in""",,, of raisins.

roc

BIBUOGllArHY

BunnesltT, 0, H. E. The Egyptian", Coptic Ch"",h, p. 82. Cairo, 1967. BUller, A. J. The ,4rrcielt/ Capric Church" of EVpl, Vol. 2, pp, 281-82. o>;ford, 1884. Dro_r, E. S. WeIer into Wine, p. 64. London, 1956. King, A. A. Tlte Rires of easurn Christtndl1m, Vol. l. 1'_ 406. Rome, 19-47. Worr<:ll, W. H. Coplic TexiS, p. 329, Ann Aroor, Mich., 1942.

EUCHOLQGION, originally a compn:hensh.., now confined 10 the IQ)'CTS.-d in .he e.ifl\;"1 and mominl: offerina of inc:enae, ancl oras of BASil. Ill" CtlUT. CUGOlY TIf[ pra~ bu.

TlII'Dt.OC1Ofl, and CTUL THE CltEAT, the last belns.he liturzy of Saint "'ar\:. the Af'O"tle. The first bilingual (Coptic and Anobie) euehologion, named .be Great Euchologion. was prinled at Rome. II consisted oI.wo perts: Pan I, primed ill 1761, con.ained, among other .hing:!, prayers u..,d in the ordina.ion to .he ,'arious gradns of the c1er· gy, the ordlnallon of monh, .he C(lnsecra.ivn (If bishops, the consecra,ion (If new churches, and the consecration of Ihe holy chrism. Part 2, primellowina yur, comprised prayers for .he con-

EUDOXIA

secration of church ,'~Is, the baptismal fonl, and th~ altar, th~ order of lh~ S<'rvic~ of foolwashing on Maundy Thursday, the sen.'ic~ of g~nufiexion, Ih~ servic~ of th~ prayer of Ih~ basin (on th~ sev~mh day after th~ birth of Ih~ infatll), and Ihe blcssing of the betrothed on Ihe fortieth day after marriage. It also included the readings from Ih~ Gospels for ralm Sunday and Ih~ two f~asl days of Ih~ cross, ARCIlOIS>IOP BAStUOS

EUCHOLOGION STAND, a small

movabl~

desk of wood for supporting Ihe euchologion on Ihe altar during Ihe service of offering the incense and the divin~ liturgy. It is similar 10 the Lalin missal stand, and is call~d in Arabic qarrayah, Its use is not gen~ral and appar~mly began in modem limC$ only, sinc~ in early and m~dieval times, Ihe priests used to memoriu their liturgical prayers. Many priests prefer to plaee the euchologion directly on the altar, sometimC$ pUlling anoth~r book as a cushion under th~ euchologion, EMtu: MAilER [$IlAO

EUOOXIA, name given to a fictilious

sisl~r

of

Constantine in a Sahidic Coplic l~g~nd, which cr~d· its her wilh the discO\'ery of Ih~ Holy &pulcher in Jerusalem, The legend is preserved almost intact in a sing[~ papyrus codex in the Egyptian Museum of Turin (Cat. 63,000, codex Ib, lois, IOv-4Ir, s~v~nth to eighth century), A small £agment from anOlh~r papyrus cod~x, cotllaining parts of chapters 47-49, is pr=rv~d in th~ John Rylands Library, Manchester (Coptic Supplemenl 20, a, se,'enth century). The legend is made up of two parts: (I) Ihe ovenhrow of P10CtErlAN and accession of CONSTANTtNE. the peace of th~ church and bapli.m of Con.. antin~, and a war belween Constantine's forces and the Persians, broughl to a mipculous conclusion by Constantine (chaps. 1-32): i'nd (2) the Slory of Eu· do.ia (chaps. 33-105), • According to the story, Elldoxia, the virgin siSler of Conslantine, i. admonished by Jesus in a vision to go to Jerusalem and uncover Hi. tomb, which (at the insligalion,of the Jewish authorilies) for 365 years has been covered wilh the refuse of the city. Eudoxia, encouraged by Constantine. obeys and goes wilh a large entourage to Jerusalem. The Jews refuse to lell her where the tomb is, but under torture a scribe named Joel refers her to a kinsman of Christ, the aged Jacob, a d~scendant of Jacob, the brother of the Lord. Jacob shows her lhe sile of

1067

the lomb and Ihe ,,"one begins. Th~ tomb is ~v~ntu· ally uncovered, and in il are found the bodies of th~ two thieves who had been crucified with Christ, as w~ll as the inscription that had been nailed to the cross of Cbrisl. Eudoxia r~mains for a lime in Jeru· salem, supported by the king and his nobles, direci' ing various building projects at Ihe hoiy places, She and her company then ",tum to Conslanlinople, where they ar~ welcomed by Ihe king, Thi. story has been modeled upon a number of previously existing traditions, especially the story of the discovery of Ihe cross by Constant;ne's mOlher, Helen, and lbe endowments and building project. in Jerusalem camed out by' the Empr~ss Eudocia, wife of TH£ODOSlUS II (408-450), Constantine had a sister Con.tantia, known for her piety, bOll the name Eudoxia is clearly based on lhe name of the Em· pre.. Athenais·Eudocia, whose nam~ also appears in late sources as "Eudoxia." The same name is given 10 the sister of Constantine who accompanies him and his mother 10 Jerusalem to build the Church of Ihe ReSUlTeClion. This is according to a Coptic encomium on Saim G~orge of Cappadocia attributed to Bishop TheodOlus of Ancyra (see Budge, 1888, p, 325), a story that may also ha"e contribuled 10 the formation of the legend of Eudoxia. A imperfect lran.cription "ith Italian translalion was made of the Eudoxia legend by Rossi (1886), but the legend has r~cei\'~d linle notice until 1980, when it was published in a much·im· proved edition, with English lranslation and histOl;' cal analysis. Drake's extensive historical analysis suggesl' a lime of compmition for this legend of c. 640 to 650. Whether it is an original Coptic compo' sition or a translation from Greek is debatable.

'''''J'

BIBUOGRAI'HY

Budge, E, A, W. The Mattyrdom o"d Miracle.< of Saint George 01 Cappadocia. London, 1888, Ontke. H. i\. "A Coptic V~rsion of the Disco"e!)' of the Holy Sepulchre" Gr.~k, Roman. and Byzantine Studies 20 (1979):381-92. Orlandi. T,; B. A, P~arson: and H A. Drak~. Eudoxia and Ih. Holy Sepulchre: A C"'lSIantin;an Legend i" Coplic. Te.. i e documenti per 10 studio dell' amichitA 67. Milan, 1980, Rossi, F. "Transcrizion~ di Ire manoscrilli copli del Musco Egizio di Torino con traduzione italiana." Memorie della Reale '!'ccademia delie Science di ToriMQ, ser, 2. Sci~nZf mora Ii, .!

1068

EUGNOSTOS THE BLESSED and THE SOPHIA OF JESUS CHRIST

EUGNOSTOS THE BLESSED and THE

SOPHIA OF JESUS CHRIST, interrd;ll...! G_tic tnctales. They ~ bOO> found in Coptic': "ersions ;n Ibt' NAG HAIIDolADI UlIMa,.. "'1Ieu there a~ ""'0 copioes cI E..prrwos (Eut) (Ill.) [70:190:131 and V.l [1:1-17:IIIJ) and one 01 Sophi12 0{ JQo<j CItrisI (SJC) 011.4 190:14-119:1')). In add;I;"". a oop)' of sx: (abo ;n c.ic) Is cootalnfll in l'''I'1'us Be~nsiJ llS02 m:'-ll1:ll). A ft-q. menl of SIC In Gceek (th.. languase 01 composition) _ d~rd al (1)Tttync:hU$ (1'''f1Y"'S O~1ryn. elruJ 1011). II pu;dlds th.. NiI& Hammadi CocIeK 111 (97:16-\19:12) and I'a~ BeroJine.uis (11502.&1: 1.-91:ISj. E"i"ostos is :II religio-phik>sophical cOnlrtWersy dis-ooune in lhe fonn of an epistle wrill..n by Eug. llOiStOS. who ;s otherwi"" unknown. The scribe of th.. colophon of tJ><, Co.~t of the Egyplia'l$• • 1so called Euanostos. i. almosl c,,"ainly not the same "",rson. II ;s direcled 10 "Ihose who are his" (111.3 only: in V.l lhe ""clion i. moslly In lacuna). "His" may refer 10 Eugnoslos or 10 a deity. In Eug 111. EulJlOStos is given the honotific lill( "lhe Blessed,'" perhapl Indicaling lhal he """ de<:eased. The discO\lne of Eut is divided inlO lWO J».rts. Pan I {1ll.70:3-11S:9 and Eat V par.1 consists of a description of Ihe "Iroe"' IUIllure oIlhe JUpercele,.. tial lq:menl of the co....os. "Jhe desctipllon Is based on the theory of 1)'J""S, that is, that tM ~bIe _rld ha.s been patterned on Ihe ""rnlitie5" in the imislble .."Orld. ~ rta!ities. il "-as belie..ed. could be kno..... by eUJll.inins the visible world. which reflects the realiti... only i "",!fudy...i1h IItt- help 01 a divine prineiple II...! ~I (Greek. ~"...,..,) 01L74:11-19 and E~C V pu.). The invisible ...:wId is undftstood 10 have oritinatal ,.'ilh • bein«: " .... simply b. call...! -UnbeJoc· ten. ~ He is the!KlUrce- 01 all menu! ......."t:rs. Subsequ.. no .eaIilin come into beine throuch self· objeclification (Sel{o~uer (Alltop""'] and 1mmonal Man), spiritual ,..,gende"nl by androgynous \»oirs (Son 01 Man, Son of Son 01 Man, eu:.) and direcl creation (~ns, fumam~nts, .... c.). These realities pro>-ide the types lor the temporal asp<'cl$ 01 "'our ~n."· It ohould also be noted t ....l. in addi· lion, Self·Brgetln io the originator of a lpecial trOUP of poople-pre,umably Ihe Gnosllocs-and Immortal Man is tk SOlJrce of 1nsi~ dif!erenlia· Iioni. Pan 11 (IlLll~:9-90;3 and 81'S V par.) Is a desotip· tion of Ihe highest level of Ihe .isible portion of the cosmos. which is called "chaos."' Althouah three aeOnS are .poken of inilially, allenllon is focused on

the third. nam...! "'_mbly.'· 11 is the sotIrc~ 01 diYine beings and S1f\lo:tUra. and 01. the Iypes for the reS! of the >'isible COSffiC15.. Eug concludes with a ...-ediction of the com;n.. 01. one who ,.·m interpret or simply repnu. the words of&t· JheT1, is nO s.ignifiam t'\ident:e 01 Christian influ. ~nce in the composition 01 Ewe. a1thwe. there .. ~,idrn« 01 Christian influence in its bl<1" editifll (e.K-. lhe modification 01 the concluding pmpheql in CuC Ill). Then: is alJo m\l(;h t'\'idenoc of Jewish """,culation on Genesis I-S In bot:h pam of EuC. Moreover. Ihe first ...n .. SU1>n&ly influenc...! by Neop)11tag0rean number speculation. These obw:r-....tions point to an early dale for Eut-probably in lhe ~nc cenlury A.O. E.., tm.. .......Id likely be thoughl of as an eomple of the kind of "peculaliv~ activity thaI was involved in Ihe origi"" of gnosti·

".m.

The pro"enance of Eug in all likelihood was Egypt. Thi. i. suggesl...! by Ihe refe.ence in Ihe teU to "Ihe 360 day" of Ihe year."' Only in Egypt in late anliquily was the year thought to be of thaI lenglh. It is now generally Il(:ct'pled tha, Ihe wtiler of SiC used EUl: as • source. Mo.! of the dida<;tic material frolS of Christian goos.tlcism. The non·E.., m'uerial also has refe.ence-s (albdt incomplete) to such t)l'ic.l Gnostic theme. . . the rail of Sophia, Ih. male>'Olenl ~""8tor god Yaldaba· olh, 1M .~il of sexuality. and the qualitalive differ· ence belween Ihose whose knowledge is "'pure" and those whose knowledge is "'defe<:li,'.:· All these themes can be seen as elements in a mythological worldview focu.ing on wletiology. An early-secon
EUSEBJUS, SAINT

by the reason ju", di.ctl5S<'d for ilS composition, by the lack in its frame material of allusions to the controversy with orthodoxy (as one finds. for exam· pIe. in the ~POCnPHt).. Of JOHN), and by the lack of influence from the Gnostic systems of the mid-..,cond century ~.D. Earlier auempts to date SiC in the late .econd or third centuries did not conoider these points. SiC. then. i. probably to he seen as an earl}' example Wilhin gnosticism-if not the first-of the combining of a highly speculative cosmological system and soteriologically oriented m}1hology. Although references to either Eug or SiC are lacking in the church fathers. th"y both app"ar to have enjoyM considerable popularity among the Gnostics. if one may judge from the number of copie. that survive and the fact that the two copies of Eug appear to have had quite different textual hi
1""9

EUPHROSYNA, SAINT, fifth-ce:ntury holy )"'rson of Alexandria. Since her father. Paphnutius, wished to betroth her, she cut off her hair and, di.guised as a man (Patlagean, 1976), Red to a mon· astery. the location of which i. not indicated, She took the name of Smaragda. After thirty-eight years spent in this monastery.•he died at the .'ery mo· mem when her father, having searched eveT)where. finally found her. She expressed her wish that .he n()t be washed in the customary manner. and before her death she recounted her story. We ought not to confuse her (feast: 4 or 9 Am' shirl with her namesake, a mart)'r in Syria who.e hiographical notice has PM.~ into th" recen.ion of the Copto-Arabic $YNHARrON from Upper EgJ.-pt at 12 Tubah. 11te Luxor manuscript that gives the complete notic" is unpublished (Coquin. 1978, p. 361). IlrBLJOGRAPlIY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Foe"ter, W., ed, Gnosis: A Se/eerion 01 Gnoslie TUl< 1: Coplie ond Mandean Sources. Trans. from 1971 German ed. by R. Mel. Wilson. Ox' ford. 1974. Volume include. translations by M. Krau .. of Eug III and SJC t11, employing materi· al from the other copies to fill in missing pages. Robinson, J. M .. ed. The Nag Hammadi LibMry in Engli,h. New York, 1977. Includes preliminary mmslations by D. M, Parrott of Eug t1t and SlC 1II, using panllel passages from the other copies to fill in missing pages, The pre.entation is in parallel column•. Till, W. C, and H. M. Schenke, cds, Die gyws/isehen Sehrif/en d.s koplisen." Papyrus Beroli".",i, 8502. Texte and Untersuchungen ~ur Ge.chichte der alterchristlichen Uteratur 60, 2nd ed. Benin, 1972.

.,

DouGlAS M. PARROlT

EUMENIUS. ,eventh patriarch (130-142) of the ~e of Saint MARl(. He held the office for twel.'e years and three months during the reigns of emper· ors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He """,laid to rest on 10 Babah near the remains of Saint Mark in the Church of Bucalis at Alexandria. 1I111UOGRAPHY

Atiya, A. S. History of EaSlern Chri'tianity, Mill· wood. N.Y., 1980. Azr~ S. Ann

Coquin, R. G. "le synaxaire des Coptes, Un nou· veau temoin de la recension de Haute Egypte." "M/or/it &lIandiana 96 (1978):351-65, Delehaye, H. Sy"axarium Ecclesiae Constanlinopolila"ae. Brussels, 1902. Murad Kimi!. La Vie d. Sainte Euphrosyni, pp. 235-60, Tome commemoratif du mill"naire de la BibliGtheque patriarcale d'Alex..ndrie. Alexandria, 1953. Patlagean, E. "l'Histoire de la femme degui'''e en moine et l'evoiution de la saintet" feminine a Byzance." Studi Medievali 17 (1976):597-623. RE,;£-GEORGES COQUIN

EUSEBIUS. SAINT, a fourth'Cemury martyr from Antioch who was killed in Egypt (feast day: 23 Am.hir). The Passion of Eusebios. written in Coptic, is related to the Ba.ilidian CVClE.. It is almost com· pletely concerned with even," related to SasHides, a general and dignitat;i at the court of D10ClETJAN in Antioch, to his son Eusebiu., and to his compan· ions Claudius. Apater. Theodorus Anatoliu•. and Justus (of all these there are the relative Passions). It al,o dwells somewhat on the martyrdom of Eusebius. It i. reported in two ninth·century Bohairic manuscripts (M, Hyvemat, 1886-87, pp. 1-39). l1>e !ext begin. with a war in which Eusebiu,. Claudius. Apater, Theodorus Anatolius. and J",.rus take part. During this war Basilides remains at Antioch. aware that Diocletian is renouncing the Christian faith_ He wam. hi. son Eusebius and his corn· panions. who after the victory come back to

1070

EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA

Anli«h: Ih..,. stop oul$id~ <Jl the dly and inform Basilides. H~ co".....IIs ",-ith VICTOR (ble-r abo a mar· Iyr) ancl decides nOC 10 Iea,~ I~ cily so that D ~ tian ~nCH be masteJ" of the SIl.... lion. Romanus. Vil;lor'. bthc-r. an apa.llOl~ himldf M>d cwncijlor to Dioc:lelian. fnfonns th~ e-tnfOlOTOI'". who Knds b&sllides. When ~ reru.e. 10 rome. Dioo::le-llan u..,15 1M pies of the 1_"Il, but EuKbiu. and his coml""nions $UoCcud in «,,!ting in.. WseOi\>s 100b for Olodelian 10 Ihrow him 001. bUI the lall~r lias tal~n n:fua~ ,1It Roman..... Ibsilides, in an Inl~"" $il'l spuch illt lhe young men, asks for -...... ances thaI IMy will no! UStlrp Dioo::le1ian's lIt,o,..,. TMn h~ asks Diod~lian 10 show himself In publk. ""hleh M finally does. Eusebi"" and his companions d«ide" 10 becom~ manyrs. Diocle-lian i"",", his Infamws ~ict; Basilides conf..- his bohh in lhe law coon and is 'Kil.tn die in Africa. Euseblus. also a confessor. is sen! to die in Em>'. wh~re h~ Is m.any~d in Copt"" after havlnil been kill~d and resurrected lhree limC!<, BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Us ACIC> des ""'ny'S de /"EiYpl~ riris dn "..." ..senIS copus d' 14. Bib/ioIJI~q .. ~ V..tlc....c er
HY"~rnal.

T1To

EliSEBIUS OF CAESAREA

(c.

ORU.NOl

260-c. 340),

aUliloJ" of the HIS1OIlLO BOC1.E5UlS1'lCA The aUlhentic bio&nPhy of Euscbius, recorded by his disciple and ~ ACMJU5.. has bom lost. Historians ha~ to aswmble the s<:a1~ details 01 hh rich Ilk and the immense heritage of his lhertl)" J>f'O'" duc.ions from contcmpoc.nry authon such .. Soc. . lei and Sozomen. in addi.ion 10 wrilinp of ccl,.. brated pcrsonaIities of his .Utt.o. such as A'fH.VlASIUS and IU1 Bi of <e-Illious schol· arship. Howcv.r, Eusebi...· Fame mu$l principally rC51 on hi. immortal Hi.srori4. uc!tsi"stie". which righdy ~amed for him the tille of "Farher of Church Hlsrory:' N.hher the dal. of hi. birth nor his binhplace is known wilh precision. His life is a:!I~ocialed mainly "'ilh C_rea. where his parents ~ided and of. fered him a lroly Chrislian educallon. Thls was compl'l~ under rhe sU[;'eillance 0( $I.l llluslriow a menlor &i p'.ulPHrws. wbo him..,lf had .Itendcod the

""'"II

under OR1GEH. ..m.-: worts he had 'Bfl~ated aod many of ",hich ~ had lramcrihed. As e-ca became a <:e,Her of pe~ulion of ChriSlIan•• Pamphilus ...:as rnanyrcd probably in .309, when Eusdma. decided ftce 10 Tyn. &om which he _m 10 ~pL Tl>ere he watched the 6eI"CesI of perseculion> and was hi",self imprisoned foe lhe falih. I~ nOC mar1)'Ted. ShonIy ah.. rward. t.o-ver. fOlOnec:UIK>m so"""'-icd and pcac~ ...... ro:slond. enabli", &&schUH in 313 10 rcNrn 10 ~. when he ....... unanimously eleeleerJY "'. . demon.nated by IUs conlin..... dorIS al thc .synods of Cacsarca, Tyn:. JerusaJc,m. and CooSlantinoplt O
.0

.0

Inc

""",.

This universal conflicl. however. caJl'H;' 10 an ~nd wilh Ihe death of Arlus In 336. when Eusebius was relieved 10 devol~ his remaining few years to the comple.ion of his lile",'}' works and especially hi!; Histo"~ ud.si4.stlc4., which he ..... abl, 10 bring up 10 dale. h is amazing 10 Ihink lhal in lh~ mid5l of his

EUSIGNIUS, SAINT

enorm<>u< ecclesiastkal activitie.. Eusebiu. was able to produce so much wriling. In facl. his pro· ductivity encomp,,",ed all depar1t1l"nts of ecclesiastical literalure. In the field of hislory. however. his creativity is immortaliled by Ihe fi~1 serious history of the church from the apostolic age to hi. own time. Though occasionally described by critics as poor in style, this work deal. with Ihe main events in the history of the church, supplemented by documenlS that he managed to preserve in the courM' of his discussions. 11 deals mainly with Ihe Easlern churches. including the patriarchate of Alexandria. and hardly touche. the West. It consists of ten ,",clion•. of which the first ,",,'en were probably writle~ before the Coundl of Nicaea. The remaining three sections dealing with Ihe evenlS of his own lime, of which he was an eyewitness, must have been appended 10 the pre.'ious seclions at a later period in his life, This work proved to be the beginning for subsequent hislorians such as Soclllte. and Sowmen. whose works were supplemeni5 to the initial attempt made by Eu,",bius, The wark has sum,'ed in Greek as well as alher versions in Ullin. Syriac, and Armenian. In recenl limes. it has been translated illlo olher languages, including Arabic, by Marcus Dawud (1960). Another historical wori< by Eusebiu. is The Marty,s of PalOSline, HeTe he was an eyewitness of persecutions in the countries of the Middle East and of the manyrdom of people he knew helween 303 and 310 in Ihe reign of the emperor DIOCu:TlAN, His Life of Co~sl"min. i. a panei)'I1c full of prai,", for a friendly mMter. Eusebius funher compiled a Chron· ic/e of universal history thaI he supplemented with chronological tablt:'$ of some value. Qui5ide the realm of history, his contributions co\-ered a number of vast theological terrains, of which an unknown number bas perished. Of his apologetic works. the best known is a treatise ad· dressed to the pagan gove91or of Bilhynia entitled AgainSl Hieroc/es. which is 1'n eloquent defense of the Christian faith. On Ihe ~ew Teslament, Eusebius wrote several works of 'which two stand out, These are Pr.paralio~ /0' Ih. G(Js~1 (Prepa,,'lio Eva~gelica), which consists of fifteen book•. and Demons!m!um of Ihe Gospel (Demons/ralio Evangel1<:a) in twenty hooks. Through excerpts from Ihe Old Testament. he establishes the prophesies 10 the coming of Christ. His trcatise Againsl Porphyry in fifteen hook.< refutes the ntmt formidable of the healhen onslaughl. agai"'t the Bible. His work emiliI'd Theophania in five books cited by Jerome was wrinen against Marcellus of Ancyra and con.i.", of a ddense of Ihe revelalion of God in the incarna·

1071

lion of the Divine Word. The heathen idea Ihat Jesus was a sOrcerer who acbieved his aims by simple magic i. discuss<:d and refuted. Eusebiu. eompo,",d numerous works of exegetic character on several biblical texls_ Prominent among them is his wori< on the harmony of tbe Go.pel" where he .tarts with the plan of the Diales$aro~ 01 A.mmonius of A.lexandria by dividing the Gospels inlO parallel ,",ctions and the construclion of a table of ten canons, all wori
Cross, F, L The Oxford DiC/ionary of Ihe Christian ChuTch. pp. 473-74. London, 1957, Useful bihliography included. Lightfoot. J. B. "Eusebius of Caesarea:' In DCB 2, New York, 1974. A:!.IZ S. Ann

EUSIGNIUS, SAINT, founh·cenlury martyr (feast day: 5 Tubah)_ A. manuscript of DAYR ANU SHINOOAH of which a few leaves remain at Paris

1072

EUSTATHlUS AND THEOPISTA, SAINTS

L.ibrary, 1lClOI. 129.1. fol. 99 and 129.16. f<M. 105) contains 1M lescnd of Saini Eusl&ni\ls. !be"" are lwo sources of this le,end: Ol"Oe COl'!M'S Ibrnugb lbc Coplo-Arabic S.l"'«" 638-640); the notke In !he Synanrion clearly ....Ies whal is aloMlmts _ already feeble with . . ~ is • parallel here 10 lhe I"Ok of Blohop tusebius in lhec 510ry <Jl Julian lhal h.a been p~",ed in Syria<:. Thus !be penon. involved in the conversion <Jl CoJt5ll1Ultine are recalled to life to Intify apilW Julian. From tales about ConslJlfltine, lhe Gree" Passion dr;oWll On a 510ry of the Emp"," Hel.na·s haYing been .nalched OUt of a life of debauchery by Constantius Chlorns. the falher of COMtanline. and of her child being promiwd lhe impenal purple Ihrough the prolecllon of God, Here in summary Is Ihe slory. Julian goes from Anlioch 10 Ueo.area in Palesline: for the """r agalMI lhe Persiam and .ummons Eu,j,ignius 10 him. Previ· ously he had already lold his ""reIM)' Dion)'5ill5 10 ignore.be proceedinp againsl lhe Chri$lianf.. A ",1· ative of Eusigni.... a oenain Eus!ochi.... a man of plOperty and a God.farine man, follOW'S old £usla:. nM in secnt. Eusit9hts recommends thai Dlon)"'· ... sJ-lld secretly make ..... 01 a taclI)'lI'l'lltter (ohonband wriIer) 10 conserve the metnOI')' of Eu· ligoi...• desliny. the btaI ... teome of ""'''ich he is no. IOwan:: 01. Euwxhi... the deacon assures him lhal all !he ~nsary peps ",ill be Iaken. (Suidu menlions 0"'" Euslochiu. <Jl Cappadocia who was" achclar and hisloriographer under Constandl'lC, The choice of lhis nal1M! would lhus be explained,) The compo$ilion is certainl)' literary in the u~ual S1yle of lhe Passions. In the ....inl·. le'llmon)' on Con.tantine·. vl.ion. the laller is wnn-n b)' Ih" slars according to what Philostorgos lhe historian and his gene ... lly """'n sources say. COn.... nline·1 campaign again5lllle P.rsian... P""'erut
in I........ of ...opovaphy. wfticl> played a ''flJ iIl__

100us role In lhe Coptic tndition. Ckarly. in sIlowlnj; lhat Constantine ""... Yicwrious thanks lO his faith in the CroM, whereas JUliall ...-as 10 be COli' quered by o coIleclC
Coquin, R. G., and E. L.ucchesi, "UIH! Version copte de la passion de saint Eusignio!l:' Anal.cra Bol· la"diaM 100 (1982):185-208. Devos. P, "Uno: Recension nouvelle de la passion grecque BHG 39 d. Saim Eus.isnl05:' A"al"cla Bolla"d;"nll 100 (1982):209-228. lalJie:v. V. T. "0 tiliah sv. vdikomuaniku Evsig· nija:' turn.' MmWe..1WI Nvod.. ~ Prowd-

t.,,#<> 2 (1915);131-91_

EUSTA.THIUS A.ND THEOPISTA., SAll'I.'TS, a """band and wife ...no were ......rtyTed In Ih. 5«:ond cenlury (rnst day: 27 TUll. They are "'"ell known throughout boIh Western and ~Iern Chm. tendom. Thel. PNoSion h..... rvived in a greal many differenl languages and ven;ions. ",hlch would ultimalel)' appear 10 ha.'e lheir sourc. in I los. Greek ,·ersion, similar 10 one of Ihe three le~IS ulant. The definilive ....'or.. On this que~ticn, after quile anum· ber of othe. monograph. of differenl I)"pCS. is lh81 of H. Deleha)'e (1919).....,ho diSiingulshn lhree Gree" versions of the Passion: lhe premclaphrastic .-ersion. which is clOleSt 10 the original; lhe mcIa-

EUSTATHIUS OF THRACE

ph~ic

v,."ion; and the veniDn of Nie,.laS of Paphbconia. An~1 tran.... lions in ~Iin, Syria<;. Armenian. and GeorJi.an abo uist. Tbe Colptic version has su....n"lOd In 01'1,. one maJ)uscripll (British l..ib-rary. Or. 6783, ed. 1914. 1'1'. 102-117). The cootenl dOfS nol dilfn- substan· tially from Ihlll of the Glftk ori&hW. The on,inal nan>IO cl Ewathlus ..;as l'bcidus. and he _ OM of Tnjan', ~s. In 1M coune of a hunc.. lhe mi· fal;U1<:Ua apparition of the bmoU'I 5UJ willt llte cross ~ hint. ~ w!lh his wife Theopo 1m. Ntd lhelr who'" family. '0 ~ booptittd. Tbe~ follows an account of his rna",. mlsfo... IUnell. h" Iqlaration. from 1m ...·ife and children, and finally lheir mi"""ulous reunion in the courH of • war aplml lhe Persians. He .. recogniud ;a.s Christian. 10nured. and. wilh his bmily. pul 10

Btl"',..

1073

fered al the hands of the t!el;il by Ihe failhful wom· an 110 d ......,.ed 10 Michael. From a lilentl)' point of view. lhe prologuor is greatly ~mbel1ished. The lisI<:ners are invi'ed 10 a spiritou.l banquet where dancen and musicians mlenaln the guest!o. who are themselves ficu..,.. fTcm llte Old and New Teota· merits. Nal follows lite a<;coun' of Euphemia. a member of the senate and ittNbitant of Thnce. &$ _0 as the wife of Gene..l Arislm:hus, "'-hom the Emperoo- H............ has da;,.wed .. admintstralor of the rqion. Euphemia and Aristan::hus haw bttn cat.echittd by John ChtySOstom. and Euphemia promiws her husband Iltal should he die linl• .he will POt remany_ A•• his point Michael is invoked 10 be: Ihe custodian over her promi:sor. Aristarchus dies. and after his death. Ihe devil. di!guised &$ a monk. appears to Euphemia and Ines 10 convince her 10 many Ihe eparch Hen-e1i u s. a pTOt~l of Honoriu .. However, Euphemia. slren,theMrl- The homily finally concludes with praise for John Chty5" OSIom, """- d:i~1"!IQ ar,. copied "in an the world, ""cep! in th.".,. rqioru occupied by

lII8UOGRAPHY

Delehaye. H. "La Lqende de saint Eusurclle." In &Ileti" de rAc• .u.... fW).-!,. de !Jdtiqu,.. d _ de (1919),17S-21O.

"'ttret

EUSTA.THIUS OF THilACE, a ficti.ious per· Crftl:ed during the period of 'he CYCLlS, he appean In panicular in the. Cy<:le of JOllt< CH..VIl). SIllM. nUeT Thrace was no island. There. John conse<:rales Ihe finl bOshOf' of lhe new communilY, named as Antimus in the homily described below, along w;,h IIOme presby· ters. Amonll Ihe latter stands Eu~talhiUli who will evenlually become Antimus' SuCCeSSor 8$ second bishop. The homily anribuled 10 Eustathius. In Miel,oe',.", ~f'Ch~ngelum. Is devoled almOSl: enlirelj' 10 Ihe siory of EoJphemia. II recounts lhe many lemplatlons suf· IO~

This .rftI:ise has $UT\'i''ed In Coptic: In lour Sahid· it: mal1uscripu: one a complete codo (Pierponl Morpn Library. ~ York. J,lS92. no. I).:and thmr in fn&mrnwy codi.<:Q (one fronl 11I\'fIt Iolr....... YUH &lid two from DA'fIt el SUl.«JD.ul). Aloo lltn1' is ""~ comp~ codu: i Bohairic: (British lJbrary. Or. 3784; ed. Budce. 1394. pp. 93-13S). The Sahi· die tctt has been puOlished in a crilical edition by "- Campagnano (1977). The lil<:rary qualities of Ihls oomily in rela.ion 10 other Coplic lextS are co...dudve loward daling lIs redaction in Coptic 10 .he middle of Ihe eighlh cemul}'.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Budge. E. A. W, S~iHl Miclr~e/ l~e Arch~Hgel. Lon· don. 1894. Campagnano. A.: A. Maresca; and i. Orlandi. Ou~r IrQ Qmdu. copte. P!'. 107-172, Ml1an, 1977. TIro O!UANDl

1074

EUfYCHES

EUTYCHES, fifth..:entury archimandrite in Con· stantinople whose Christological vi........ had a con· siderable influence in molding the Christology of the Coptic·Monophysile church, Born perhaps as early as 370 (he tell. Pope LEO TH~ ,""-EAT (440-461) that he had lived a monastic life for seventy years). he was head (If a m(lna.'tic house in the capital by 420. and at the time of the First Coundl of EPHESUS was known as a staunch supporter of CYRIL OF ALEX_ ANDRIA, Thereafter he enjo)'ed honor at the coun of Thw-dosius 11. He wa.< the godfather of the eunuch Chrysaphiu•. who in 441 became grand chamberlain te the emperor. His hostility toward all teaching that h. regarded as Nestorian did not mellow with age, and on the renewed outhreak of Christological contrm'ersy in the East following the election of DlOSCORUS as patriarch of Alexandria in 444, he quickly th<ew in his lot with the extreme ami·Nesterians once more dominant in Alexandria. Whether or not he was the opponem of "Onhodoxus" in Theodoret of Cyr-rhus's pamphlet Eean;.'''' is uncenain. but by 447 he was .uspected by Domnus, archbishop of Antioch. of holding Apollinarian views concerning Christ and to be wonhy of con
be acknowledged "in two nature."' (of godhead and manhood). However, he lackef human beings. In either event, the incarnate Christ would be divorced from humanity and could play ne> pan in its redemption. Not SU'l'ri,ingly. lhe He>me Synod Ce>ndemned him as a Valentinian (Gnostic) and/or Apollinarian here· tic, deposed him from his status as archimandrite, deprived him of priestly fun"tions. and excommunicated him. Thirty·two bishop$ and twenty-three archimandrites signed the decree_ Eutyches did not accept the semence. During the latter pan of the debate, he had made a telling point. He pointed o"t to the president of the coun. Florenti",. that "Cyril and Athanasius speak of two natures hefore the union but one nature after the union:' Cyril had done so. but the works to ""hieh Eutych" was refening were Apollinarian writings that had been placed undel' the name of Athartasius, Pope Julius, Gregory of Nazianzus. and the titirocentury pupil of Origen and missionary. Gregory the Wonde,viorker. Some of these writings had been accepted, howe"er. at the Council of Ephe.us in 431, and this was te> prove Eutyches' tlUmp card agairtst Fla"ian and Eusebius of Dorylaeum in his next trial of strength. also held at Ephesus, Eutyches at once appealed his sentence, not only to Rome b"t also to witat he called "the councils" of Re>me. Ale
EUTYCHES

us' court swung steadily in favor of EUI}'ches. Chry· saphius had a grudge against Flavian and inAuenced Theoodosius supported Eutyches' appeal to Pope Leo. appointed a comrnis· skm 10 reesamine the cbarge against the monk, and finally, on 30 March 449, convoked a judicial episco~l council 10 meet at Ephesus . condemning EUlyches and sening oullhe Western vie,,' of the recognilion of the incarnal. Chrisl in two natures (perfecl godhead and perfecl manhood), By Ihis time not only the coull but also the majorit}' of clergy. monks, and a"kulate laity in the eastern provinc.s of Ih. empire had sided with EUI}'ehes. At the Second Coundl of Epbesus. Eutych.s was vindicated. To the rapturous applause of the hish· ops. he produced his "proofs" from the Apollinarian forge
1075

compare 110 and 119), and no one was to attempt 10 ov.rthrow thi. decision of Chalcedon. "Eulychianism" quickly became a tena of abuse. Patri· arch Analolius of Constantinopl. (450-458), the archdeacon replacing the strongly pro-Chalce· donian Aetius, was d.scrilx:d by Leo as a "Eulychian" (Leiters III), while Eutyches' supporter>; among Ihe monks in Jerusal.m were brand.d as Manichees (uller$ 109). In th. East, Eutych.$ also se!>'.d as a convenienl whipping boy for those who disappro,'.d of Chalc.don, but not $ufficienlly 10 demand its compl.t. rejeclion. Thus, the encyclical of the usurper Basiliscus (475-476), while accept· ing both coundls of Ephesus as well as th. doctrine of Cyril and Dioscorus as canonical, castigated Eu· tyches alongside NeSloriU$ (see Zacharias Rhetor Hisroria ecclesiastica V.2), In th. HenOlico" of leno (July 482), Eutyches was anathemalized with Nes· torius, though Cyril's twelv. anathemas w.re pronounced canonical. In the sixlh c.ntury, SEVERUS OF ~"""OCH was careful 10 distance himself from any all.mpl to rehabililate Eutyches. He accepted Eph.sus II nol because il vindicate
BIBLIOGRAPHY Camelot, T, "De Nestoriu, a Eutych.s." In Das Ko,,:11 von ChalcedoM, .d. A. Grinm.ier and H, Bacht, Vol. I. PI'· 213-242. Wlinburg:, 1951. Draguel, R. "La Christologi. d'Eulyches, d'apus lcs acles du synode d. Flavien, 448." Bywntlum 6 {l931):441-57. Fr.nd, W. H. C. Tire Riu of Ihe Monophys;/< Movement, 2nd .d.. chap. I. Cambridg., 1979. Fulle., J, M. "Eul}'ches." In DCB 2, pp. 404-412. Repr. New York, 1974. Jalland, T, G. Saint Leo Ih" Grear, PI'. 205-300. London, 1941. Lebon, J. La Chrisrologie du monophys;sme syrien. Lou""in, i 909. Schwartz, E. "Ikr Prozess des EUlyches," In SIl eungsbf!richle de. Mi
1076

EVAGRIUS PONTlCUS

Selle.... R. V. 1Jr.e Co.melt of CIl"leedon: A HiMorl· e,,' ond Doclrirtal Su.-..ey. London, 1%1. Van RU't)'. A.. -EulyChes." In Pie'iott....i.e i/'hWoire el de tlov"phie ueliwH';q..es, Vol. 10. cok. 8791. Paris, 1967. W. H. C. fREND

EVAGRIUS PONTICUS (~5·399). monk and writer ...'itlt Oril"'"is( v~....... The life of E,""&'ius is blown &om the- chapter N' P.u.uotus devo,ed 10 him in his His'cruz /.aIlS'"e.. (chap. 38). He ...-as born about 345 al Ibon.;n the p.ovince of POOIUS, In his )'OUlh he was a disciple of the- lwo CappaOOcUln lathers. BAsiL OFCAESAJ.FA and lC$ptCially GnGORf 01' NoUWlZU$. O.dained duc<>n by the !alltr. he Irvesta"tinople In 179-381. Following an amoroos adventure. he had 10 leave die Imperial chy and "'"en! to Jerusalem....·here he was wel· corned by Rulinus and MellOn;" the Elder. Melania advised him to go and lu.d the monastic life in E!iYP'. whel"t' he went around 383. After a sojourn of IWO )-eal'! at NlTRIA. he e51ablished him&elf in the dcscl'l. of the I'1lllA. where he .emained until his death in 3\1'9. With A.\Ild.ONIUS. 0"" of the "Tall Brcuhen." he was the soul of the communily of monk.s whom the-ir advtrSlries called "0riaenr..ts,'· bKatIK of Iheir S)mpalhy for lhe opinion. of ORJU..... judged heterodo.x. Beca"... of his death he acaped tM uile imposed on the Origenisl monb the inlen"ention of the p.alriarch rn[(lPHlUlS. Bul • cenlury and a half after his death he was analltcmalized. ~I" Ihe sa....., lime as Oriten and D1DVNUS. by lbe fifth ecumenical. council ,.....mb\ed at Cort$laItlinople in 553. At the Kellia he wrat.. nUIneR1U5 books. \he Iran)miuion of wlticlt suff.. red from h.. COlldemnation in 55). Only tome ha"" bC'en Prae'l'\'ed In Greek. the ori.~ I.an~ sometimes under lhe name of Saint Nilus; """'til ""'"e co.... dQoo.·n 10 us in Syria<: venions. The books of which Ii", Quk lexl has M...vived are especially lhose in ...hkh Ev;togri... deals with lhe mona5llc ideal and wilh ascetkbm; TJoe FOltnJ..ticru of IJoe Atond.
.fte.

inspired by lhe demons. has been prrsel'\-ed in ~"t'i. ac (Frankenberc, 1912. pp. ~72-5.5). In the$.e boob. E~.us professes 10 transmil the leaching he ucei«nb wI><> had been discipks of Saint rA.WBO of Nluia. In his boob he M$<:I iI:>es .. lenp....ith ~"I pl'}-cholosic:al ~ nesw. the lernptatiotts undergone by the monk at the hands of 1M MmoM and the remedies by whkh he ...ill contriw 10 overcnme them. It .. unain thaI the$<' books owe much not ""Iy 10 his own pC'1"5<>Jt.3l monastic upetience bu1 .lso 10 lhe lea(hing thaI in the dosen ...-as lransmitted orally from """Ier to disciple. and that he was the fi~t 10 put into wri!ini. But he lranslaled lhis teaching imo the languall" and wilh the concepts lhat he owed to hi. greal philosophical culture, and he in· corpo....ted it inlO a system of thoullht all his own. Asceticism. which he calls p'4ktil<e. ha, f<>r its aim purification from the p.uJ-ion.I &nd ...hal he calls by a Stoic term impanibility (4pKh to the k:novo'ledge of Gnd or ~theol"IY." 10 ",hieh man can only attain by ~ in ~ work! In the ang:etic stale and lhenc:e rdum 10 !lis 6m cOllditinn befoT'C' the &.lI, 10 the SUit 01 an intellec1 free from an)' oorporali.y. Of lhis stalt the &Jl'O'lk may sometimes calch a giimpse' e\..... in this life. In prh'ilq:od mnments of "pure peayer," when he hM the vision of h.. own intellecl iI1umlnlutd by the li8ht of the Holy Trinity. This metaph)'$kaJ ")'Slem. ""'ida o:no-es 11iU(:!l 10 Origen. is SC'I out in esoteric laniU"lte in a Ia,¥, wort made up of s1:< "Cenluri.." and entitled the Keph"/4id gnoSlib (IWO Syriac vcnions. PO 28). Sew... l of lhe an!i·Oligenlst anathematisms of 553 were ,ullIcled from this book. rela1ing t<> lhe pre· existence of souls. the plurality of the worlds. lhe salvalion of all crealed beings includinll the de· mons, and above all Ihe heterod<J~ Christology ;>C. cording to which Christ is a crealed intellect di,lin· guished from the others solely b~ the fan lhat he remains uoited to Go
EVANGELIARY

In addilion, an im]>Ortant corpus of about sixty' five leners has survived. wve",1 of Ihem adrlressed 10 his friends in Jerusalem, Melania, Rufinus, or meml)(,rs of Iheir circle (in Syriac, Frankenl)(,rg, 1912, pp, 564-635); Ihere are also commentaries on some biblical hooks (Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiasles, etc.) in the form of ",holia anrl reSling on allegorical exegesis and .ome othcr writings of less· er im]>Ortance. D""pile his hetuodox doctrine and Ihe condemnation that discouraged the memo!)' of him, Evagrius exercised a considerable inAuenee in Christian tradilion. It is Ihrough his work as much as through Ihe APOPHTHEG.IlATA PAIR"", (which pre· served several apolhegms under hi. name) and through the hooks that were wriuell under his direct inA"ence, the Histo'ia lauslaca of Palladius. the HrSTORIA "'OSACHORU'" IN AEGVPTO, and Ihe I~sli· lules and Confu<~ces of John CASStAN, lhal Ihe monks of Lower Egypt, of Ihe desens of Nill"ia, Scetis, and the Kellia, and Iheir ascetic teaching became known throughout the Chrislian world, Translations of the majority of his books were made n"t "nly into Syriac bm also into Armenian (Sarghi· sian, 19(7) and Arabic. On the eontra!)', il seems Ihat few were translaled inlO Coptic. II is known, howe,'er, from the evidence of ostraea that one of Ihem, the treatise On the Eighl Spirits of Malice, circulated among the Coptic-speaking monks (see Muyldennans, 1963). A paraphrase of Ihe Lord's Prayer under Ihe name of E,'agrius is extant in Coptic in an exegetical catena published by P, de Lagarde (1886),

IUBLIOGRAPHY

Draguet, R. "L'Hisloire lausiaque, une oeuvre ecrile dans I'esprit d'Svagre." Revue d'HlslOlre ecclesi~s/iljue 41 (1946):321-64; 42 (1947):5-49. frankenl)(,rg, W, E"~griu!I,'panlic,,s. Abhandlungen der Ktlniglichen Ge.eltst'haft der Wissenschaften zu Gallingen, Philologisch·hislorische Klasse, Neue Folge 13.2. Berlin,.1912. Gressman, H, N,,~~.nsp;egel und Monchsspiegel des Euagrios Pomlkos. Texte und Untersuchungen 39.4. Leipzig, 1913, pp. 143-65. ___. Les "Kep!'oloia G~ostica" d'Evogre Ie Ponli· qu. et I'hiswlre de I'arige!,is",. chez les Grecs el ch_l. les Syriens, Paris, 1962. Guillaumont, A, and Guillaumont, C, "E~re Ie Pontique." DictiO
1077

___. Evogre Ie POnlu;ue, Tralle Protique ou Le Moi"e, Sources chretiennes 170- 17 L Paris, 1971. Hausherr, '- r..e rraile de I'oraiso~ d'Evagre Ie Pon· lique (Pseudo·Nil!- Toulouse, 1934 (extract of Re· vue d'Asdlique el d< myslique 15, 1934, pp. 3493, 113-70; reedited in Ln le~ons d'un conlemplallf_ Paris, 1960), Llgarde, P. de. Catenae In Ev~ngeli~ Aegyptiacoe quoe supersun/. Gattingen, 1886, p. 13. Marsili, D. S, Giovanni Cassiano ed Evogrio Po~l;co. Rome, 1936, Muyldennans, J. Evogriona. Paris, 1931. _ A travers la tradilion mo~"scrit. d'Evagre Ie Ponriqu •. Lou.'ain, 1932. ___ Evogrimto Syrioc". 1.o""ain, 1952. ___ "S'agriana Coplica." Le Museon 76 (1963):271-76, Rahner, K. "Die gdstliche Lehre des E\agrius Pon· tikus." Zell,chrifl fur As;:..e und Mys/lk 8 (1933):21-38, U~ VOIl Balthasar, H, "Die Hiera des E,'agrills." Zeitsch,;fl liir kal~oli5Che T~eologit 63 (t 939):86106, 181-206. ___. "Metaphysik und Mystik des E:vagrius Ponti· cus." Zeilschrlfl lur A.<;:ese und Myslik 14 (1939):31-47. ZOekler, D. O. Evogrlus Pontlkus. Munich, 1893, -'tnOtNE GutLUUMONT

EVANGELIARY, a manuscript or book containing Ihe t,~t of lhe four Gospels, or, more usually, the ,"cl;on. from the Gospels meant 10 I)(, read in lilurgical .eIVices, arranged according 10 the iitur· gical calendar. The e~tant medi"al manuscripl evangeliarie! of the Coptic church (the oldest being of 1249/1250) conrain Gospel pericopes (hiblical passages) "'ilh Ihe Arabic version facing the Coptic or in Arabic alone, followed by douhl, men%g;a. One, like the Greek mwo!ogum, lists saints, for whose commemorative days Gospel pericope. are indicated, and anolher, peculiar to the Copts, lists $;lints whose commemorative days have no proper Gospel reading, These two I~S of ",e~ologlon taX· en logether are valuable for reconstructing the he· onological calendar (a calendar for feast day.) of the Coptic church of Ale~andria. In modem limes the readings from the Gospels for use in Ihe morn· ing and evening offices of incense and in the eucharistic lilurgy of the Coptic church are included in the printed edilions of the LECTIONARY, together wilh liturgical readings from olher biblical books. The Coptic Catholics have twice primed an evangel· iary as .uch, one for Ihe entire year in Arabic only

1078

EVANGEUST

1930) and""", for Sundays and ",~jor kllStS only in C"",ic and Arabic (c..iro. 19J1). (~iro.

BlBUOGRA,,"r

MUU. H. "l..es Lines litu ...iQllf$ de l·t&l~ copIe." ~ilan~J &.ginc TUJUdm. Vol. J. Studi ~ Testi 2JJ. esp. pp. 9-12. Valican Cny. 196<1.

.us

Nau. F. Lu Mbwlorn i ...1tgI.Iii:irf,J "'J>Iu· .ra1>cs. PO 10. pl. 2. Paris. 19U. ~Coo,..O.S.B.

EV.4.NCEUST, nne who prt><"laims ala<"laim the mesuge of the ~l. SainI Mad. the palmO gillt of the EcYPtian chuKh. is known in ecclesias1ical rec:ords and in lhe dipt)"Chs as ··the bd>older of God. the E''&llgelist Mark. the holy apo,de and ....rtyr."· The Coptic ehuKh eonlmem0r3les hi. ~ on 30 Bara·

""rve

_.

IUotltSHOl' a..su!t)S EVELYN.WHJT~HUGH GERARD (1814-

1924]. EngIw, arc~1ocis1 and Coptologist. He ..'as educated at Kitig-s School. Ely. In 1909 he joined !he Melropolilan M....,um 01 New Yo....·s o· pedition 10 Egyp1. reinaininl With them und! 1921. ~~eept for a period when he oervcd in World War I. AI first he worked with H. E. Winlock at al·Bagawit in the Kharph Oasis and then at West Thebes unlil 1914. This"""" followed by Ihe explor.uion of the Coptic Mon"'tery of Eplphanill~ ar SH~YKl! '~B[l ~l.-OURN~H, His major undel1akinll was making an architect",."l and arch~logkal .un'ey of rhe mono asreries 01 W;\.di al-Na!n:in. which resulted in rhe

publication of his th~volume 11te Monasterie. of the Wadi'" N"!rlm (New yo..... 1926-193S). Arnone his Coptic contribulions ialM Mcnwslef"J' of EpiphtJnUu "I Thebe•• with H. E. Winlock and W. E. Crum (New yo..... 1909-1911). 81BUOCltAPHY

Crum. W. F. ~HuP Evelyn·White (a rnen>Oi.). ~ 10"...d1 of ECJHi".. ,v,,11"""'zlr 10 (1924):331_

"

Dawson. W. R.. and E. P. Uphill. Who w... Who Dr E.c!prDIoD. Londoll, 1912. Kammerer. W.• compo A Cdptic BiJ>liogr,.phy. pp. 101-101_ Ann Arbor. Mich .• 195<1; .epr-_ New Vork. 1969. AZlz S. ATIU

EVETTS,

BASIL

THOMAS

(lllSll-?). English historian. E~etts

ALFRED

educated al Oxlord'~ Trinity College. gr.>duating in 1881. He authored seve""l impol1anr works on CoplS, including Ril.. of lite Cupric Church (London. 1888). He edited a three·volume study entitled History of lite Paln"re'.. of ,he Coptic Church 01 AlrX<>l1driQ (Plri•• 1907-1915).

EVODIVS OF ROME.

wall

~ltM'O"'","

of Peter

at

Rome" and author of thrw homille$ of special inten':Sl. t""nsmiucd in Coptic. I. De JHluione. This it; a homily directed prim.... Iy against the Jews. who. IICconling to the author. must bear lhe pit of !he murd... of Christ. It be· PM with praise for RnmatI justi<:e. law. and ordtt. swn.,; tho. the Romans might be panially ex.cu.sed fOr thei. pan In tlw lemllk crime aga>l>S1 Christ because- they were JIIPlt. Hen. the author..Jfirms be~ all unbel.iewrs that be himself has witnessed the risen Chrisl; thus he disc-.. .....daDo,," be:tween the J.... and Aleunder the Gaal.....n cit· inll the sibylline predicllons before followinl m.. argument wilh a Ie"/lthy and detailed slatemenl of Christ·s lrial and paulon. concluding with an ac· counl of Ihe Re$ulTe<:lion. [n the midsl of the homl· ly proper. another person (a "reporter") ste:ps into the piclure to relate how rhe nlmtloT. EvodiU$, was interroptw durillil his sermon by Jews pr01e>ting againsl hi, words, This work survives in an incom· plete code~ al Tur;n (EJyprian Museum. cal. 6JOOO. XU: ed. Ros.i 1892). and ;n anorher cooex from

EXCOMMUNICATION

New Vorl (Pierponl Morgan library, MS9S), which is comple'le but is as )"to unedited.

1. &comium i" ApoSlVlw. This work ~ SUI' .;..nI In three vel)' fnlgmcnlaly manuscripts from me White Monast:~ (DAn ....,lIA !loHIN(IOAK) Ih3t haY<: ~"eumined In .. ~unory TniUlI1n bl&1 as ~I "'......in .I....... cornplecely W>Ccn CO<\'WS an accounl of the J'CSIlJTe<:tion of 1.azaros and .. narration of the passion, ..ith characlers de· n-! bolh from the ap<>cJ)1>ba, web .... CariuI (a Roman proco-..J). and from tbt Go5pf:IJ, ttK'h as Jofotph 0( Ari""'the.. and Nicodemus. f'tot", pia)" an Important role in these .,..,nlS and hence is pro· claimed head of the aposlles. The author also pro· claims ,hal he hlmsdf is a disciple and ..dtneH 10;> some of the lnciden1$. 3, E~co",iu", i~ Mariam. This teet begins wllh praise for Mary and a polemk against the Jews. A~lually, II merely repo'" the well·known apoery· pNlI work Dwmirio Man"., making. however, .some very interCSllng variations con~ernlng Mary'l as· somption (on this ,en end question. see VIRCIN JlARY). In the Encomium. Evodius identifies lIirnsdf and I3)'S he is at Rome. Tills work lias be<m I ..m· mined In Iwo prindpal redao;o-ilons.. whi~h in tum may be claMified into subredactions. In 1lI1, "'e can COWIt at leasl richt manuscripts of ilS I<'lU. Seven ~ in Sahidk and one is In Bobairic (l1oprde.

IUl). Tbe fi&ure and lrwlition of Evodius art pttrt in· vmoon, nude b,' the authon from the era of the CTClD. and thus E,"OC!ius' "'vrU <:aJl be dated froOl the se-venth cnuury. Such a condusiofl ma), be redy proved by tht COlIt~ms of the thrft leats. all 0( ""'iclt shAre similar ~""""'Inislic,Iynthesilltd in the anlHtodaic po!elll.'a'and;n Ihe ree>'llluation of the EcYPtlan J>05Wre t....:!d Rome, Illal it, its aui· tilde loward Byzanllum. ~ing this ltit item, there are in lbev manuscripts many quOUlliunl of '~heosophlc" nalure (d. Van den Brock. Inll), very rare in rnost Coptic te~lS, thaI bear wilness 10 the sevenlh<enlury remain. of Chrislianlzed pag< ~ullur~ In EJypt;. In fact. tllese hommes were probal:>Iy wrinen as ami·Islamk polemia masked by lhe aUlhorily of an ancient and venenued ~rson, It l~ .'ery probabl~ lllal in creating "Evodi~ of Rome," Ille Copts ",,~r. ;nsplr~d by the Evodius who .uc· ceeded Peler of Antioch. and of whom very Jillie is

1079

really known apan from one remark in the Ecclesiastical Hislory of Eusoebi,", 8IBUOCRAJ'HY Brock, R.. ,.. n den. "four Coplic F...mems of a G
IUl. Rossi, F. "Papiri copti " •." Memorie Aceadtmia di Ttwirro, ser. 2,.2 (11I92):l07-252. TYro OJltJLt,-nI

EXCOMMUNICATION,

ex~lusion from com·

munion. The Copt;lc chur<:11 canons conlaln lists of offenses lhat lead to exclusion from communion. The exlant osl"'''''' from around 600 show how bishop. executed llle punilhmenl, As liOOn 1Io1 a bishop received Information of an offense apin.1 the church's Canon. or th. CllriSllan rno",1 law, he no· tified the penon concerned-after Ih~ Infonnalion had been .laled in evidence-of his exclusion from communion. If a rnembo:=r 0( the deCl)' was "ffectM, hi. superior also wlK informed of the punishment. Fo. the avoidan~e of funhe. offenses that mighl lead to excommuni.-tion, lhe bishop com· posed cir<:ular lellen in ",lIleh, suonlnl from a concrete C:Me, he threalened eacommunicatiOn to all whoo made themseltt$ guilty of the same olfellSCIn Ihe con-esponden~e 0( Bishop AIlItAItAM of HCT' OlOnthis, the rollowin, are named as grounds for exclusion from ~ommunlon: disobedience.:II IKtstile disp>sitIon toward one's nrichbor, the doi"l of in· justice. blasphemy. bo-.~h 0( the duly 01 residen~e by one of the cleraY. makin, )'OUn, men drunk, desecmion of a church cw mollMlery. damag~ to ch.....,hes and monasteries. the 1"""""""1 mixing of ....It!" and wine ;n lhe cornmunion chalice, " breach 01 the p.-."ept 0( sobriety OIl tile Lord's table. the lIindenn, of poor men in Ille calching of fish, ill treatment of the poor, and olfenses against the marriage law. Among .he tallt!" offi,nses are marriages forbidden by rcason of .he kinship of ,he partnen (marriqe of brolher and sisler. marriage to nephews, Or marrying IWO sisten), Ih~ di,,,,,rc;ng of a ""ife wilhout her having broken the marriage vow, the fo.....king of a husband b)' a wif~. lhe writing of lenefll of divorce, III. giving of communion 10 ""ople who have knowingly commilled these offenses. and fornicali"n.

IOSO

EXEGESIS ON THE SOUL

In addition. eJe ~hop in C35e!I lhal include failure 10 cany oul injunclio"f 01 the b"hop, dislribmion of commu· nio;> excludes from com",..nion. n.e ti1ular heads of c""",hoes and monasteries appointed l". him can, in cue of dUobedj· ..nee. C'iCluck those under them from communion. Such ~rso", are acommunic:llllcd until IJw:r C(lme 10 the bishop, who then inwsliplel the bets in a triaL If he conti"'" the: puni.hment, the perwn punished can plead ,"crl:>ally and in person for ,..,ad· mission 10 communion. This pica i$ 5ubmilled In writing only ,,'hM the person punished ca,u>Ot conic 10 !he bi5hop bec:ause oloidnef,S.. If the bishop lihs the p"nW"nent, the pe"",n ~dmined 10 communion decbns in ..."riIing that he: will not l'<'bp$e. no.. wnncn declaration may tab the farm of a ~cmenl of obliption or a prnonaI pl~. <W senral penons ......y stand 5«Urity befo~ ,he b~ op ,hal ,he penon readmined will nOI ~Ia....,. If .. member of Ihe clerlY ~lapses, he will be plmi.hed wilh lhe nex' highec ~nahy, exclulion from lh. clergy, The bishop can link lhe readmission to .. condition, such as lhe memoril.3.llon of Bible lexlS, Clel'8Y ,hem.le...es will be .... cluded from commu· nion if lhey a~ nOO willing 10 :xl in lloCeordance with a .... 1'dK1 srill awal,ing decision. [See a/so; PmaJi.,ulon.j

8111UOCllArHY

'Abd al·MMih. Y........ "leuer from :10 Bishop of ..I. F:Ioyyum," B,
1M £opl ExplormW>o F""d. rhe Cairo M...e"''' and 0111.... london. 1902_ -::-:c Calalogue of ,he Coptie Ma'....eriplS in Ihe BriJi"" M".....",. London. 1905. -::-cc Caralope of 'M Copti£ "'a""scnplS ;" 'M Co/la'IIO" of 1M John R,yumli. Lihrtuy. M.ltdlu· ler. Manc:hoter. 1909. kinWd,. K. "Eine anbisch-koplisc'" Kirchen· bannutkunde:' In Aevpriaea. Fesllehrif! filr Coorg Ebe" <.. m I. M~Tl /897. Ldp1lg. 1591. Slein
£XEGESIS ON THE SOUL. an

imaginative lale. from Codes; II of ,he SAG IIA)IMADI UIlRAIlY. dncribinll Ihe adv<.lIIl1rcs of Ihe SOII1 po....,.yed in the guise of a woman. The .10')' 10 highly animaledroo'1101.1! wh..., she .....,." alone wilh Ihe Father. When b ..... on she r.-Il inlo a body and inlO !his life. t.hc became coowninaleOn (I3S.29). Thi. story is enriched by eharact"riSli<=, of Ihe Hellenistic novel. Thievell and robbers are broughl Imo Ihe n"'
"'e

'0

EXOUCONTIANS

imposture. of her lovers. The soul is funher de· scribe
1081

women who pass from Ihe stale of prostitution to tbe state of virginily through repentance, and tbus become an example for the people of Israel. The storie. of Ruth, Tamar, Rahab, and Bath.heba should he compared wilh the Exegesis on the Soul, of which they were no doubt one source of inspiralion ($copello, 1982). The soul's journey, from prostitulion to virginily through repentance, is supported by quotalion. from lhe prophet. and from Homer. It h.... been shown that these quotations were drawn from an anthology (Scopello, 1977). The introduction of bib· lical and classical language inlO this Gnostic trea· tise .hows the author's concem 10 make himself comprehensible through the medium of lwo Ian· guages familiar to lhe .pirit of hi' age (probably thc """ond century A.D.. al Alexandria) for the better communication of the difficult message of gMo.is, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baenelink, G. "le. D
'L

___ L'ExJghe de fame: inlroduetion, Iraduelio",

commenlaire. leiden, 1982, MAOELEINE SCOPEll.O

EXOUCONTIANS,

one of the more extreme groups of Arianis.. that surfaced during the last he years of lhe reign of Constantiu. II, at the time of the third e~ilc of ATHANASIUS (356-361), So<:rates Scholasticus' Ecclesiaslieal UislOry, (2.45), wrinen about 440, i. the main source for information about this group of Arians. They as..rt· ed that the Son w.... altogether unlike the Father, "nol merely in .-elation to his 'ssence but even as il re.pected his will." In panicular, th"J" emphasized thaI "he ......., made out of nothing" (ex auk 0"10") hence their name E~ouconlians. They .....ere strong in Antioch, but George of Cappadocia, Athanasius' supplanter in Alexandria (356-361), leaned toward their point of vie...... His theology was olltspokenly suoordinationisl. He believe
1082

EXlJPERANTIUS, SAINT

"aceordin, lo the Scrip.ur'C$" "'t're added LO lh.. drafl of ,lot c...... d (of AriminumlScleucial. ThO' houcontia.... died oo.n ... a rorce ""th,n a fC'W )'elU"i of AlhanasiU5' rclurn 10 Aleundria lQI. loIIlin, tht death of EmpC'ror Julian in J.6l W H C. flIEt.V

EXUPERANTIUS, SAINT. a mcmbC'o" of lIw Jll£8.Uo, L.E<:.I05 3lld 0 .... 0111", wnrs manned ncar the Roman fonrcss Turinun (Zurichl in the third e .... lurY (r.._ da~- 1 Tu')_ Accordi .., 10 I........d. ExuJlC'l"'ntn"s. his fellow lqionary FEUX and the Lan.....s 5istcr. Regula. ""ere bnolal1v lOI1ut"Cd and behudcd al the hands ci DECJU!i, in'P<'rial lO.... mor of this ....ion under EmpC'.-o' ~b.,imian. Af,er lheir de<::lp,.alion. they a.-...e and. ca ......·inelhelr hnd. in ,h..l, hand•. walked fom ell. to a ,pot ,ha' bC'came th..l, rcstin~ pl.c... Along ",llh FC'!ix and R.. gul•. E.'uperamius occupies. 'p<"eban ban~r (sipi(u). "....., 0fIC' and tht sune P<'BOn. H.....·C'Ycr. th.. ol-deSI manuscripts scan co refu,.. SIKh opinions, The cal' lies! SOUrcc:s (c.l-. Cock< C 10i. Cen....l Ubran ol Zurich) al .....w "'anion !he compMiom (SM") 01

East Portal (die Z"'inglill.lrc) of thf" GrQ>.SmUn.,cr;n Zuricll ,,'i,1I rcprCl-Cntation oIthc thre<: risen wnlS "ilh hcad in hand (lo"'cr Icli). c,.... rt...... MOU>l" F""·l.,vG~.

Fclix and Rtgula. "1100, uUP<'r:anuus is sprctfically named in tht AfQm-rolo&7 01 E rrJ (ninlb CC'JltUTY). AI.oreo'"er, E..upC'J'1lnliU5 ..as ",th F..lix and RC'pda. in dill't'renl docum u_k>r instancc, .hf" ccssm ollhe W_""i .... he 10 tht Can....• Founda.ion in April 1256 and the confirmalion ol thts cn. sion mucd b. Bishop Eberhard ol Consoancc on 21 January. 1257. Accord,...lv. &'upcrll.ruius ""'" linkC'd to boll! Feli~ and Rcl"la befor-c ~le>'er of Ricdcn 1I"c the Canons' Foundation all his poMCSSion5 on condilion lhat E..upcranl'us bc mcruioned and commcmonloo ",Ib the' ",lotr twO salnts during their colleclS and pr:a~rs (I2M)_ As to the confu.soon or ElIu!'<'ranliu. ";Ih ElIuperi· u. of Allaunum. thi, SCC'm, 10 bt ref"tcd b)" the facI Illat the ea,'Ii""!I IoOUrces rccoTd Iltat when Dedu. was questioning Ihc lhre.: Thebans, hc specifically asked if ,hcy had b..--en companion. of "Mauri,i"•. 8.upe,iu., Candidu., and Victor." Such a que,), In the 1"""CtiCC of bupet""1tiu, e"narning the dis· tant £.uperiu. would indicate tltat Iwo different men werc ;n,'ol.·cd.

IW"

Sc~1 th~

of the Parlia",,,'" of Ca'''(lI' Zurich l'cpre~ ,ui "II th,~... risen sa,m. ,,;th head in hand. COflrtesy rhe

C"d>lceliuy of IJoe SM" of C.. Plum Zuriclt.

EXUPERANTJUS, SAINT

1083

BIIIUOGRA.PIlY

Egloff, E. Wu h~1 d~s Chri'I"""''' nach Zijrich ge· brach" Zurich, 1948.

___, Der Sw"d"" de. M"na5leri"ms L"dwigs de~ De"lschen ill Zurich, Zurich, 1949 ___, D.. A"jfi"d,mg der Zijrcher fleilige". Zurich.

Ea'l Portal (die Zwinglillire) of lhe Gro"munstc' in Zurkh with ,cp,escntaiton of the three ri.en sainI' ,,>jth head in hand. Detail, COl"'es)' Mmmir FawlS

Gi.-g's.

"'

1950. Muller, I. "Die friihbrolingische Pa"io de' hire· her Heiligen," Zeilschril' li,r Sdrw
FABRles. Su Tutil .... Coplic.

FAKHR

AL·DAWLAH

ABO

,r.>ndfalhcr wilh all his names) and al-Arnjod Ab" al·Majd al·Rashid (d. A,,-'Ild al·'A~I). He may have had other child,..,n, but the,.., is no record of them. Fakhr al-Dawlah'i enviible positld a fourth (a1'Arnjad) a high 0fficial. "T1wy we,.., meai .... &Cencs 01 the Coptic. ~ ais:sano:e in lhe thirteenth century. FUh. a1-Dawbh _ ,ellCrous 10 thase ill need. This is attested by a1&rT1j aj·WarTAq, a Muslim poet who dic:d in 1196 and ,"'he composed a poem of eight WT$C$. In lhe poem he sinp ,he gencrosily of tht 'AM:lIids and of AbIl al-MIIfa44a1 in particula. fa. his discretion in airing, This $Il8£CS1S that Fa.h. al-Dowlah ..... .
AL·MUF-

A~J;)AL IBN AL-'ASSAL (b. c. 1170). falher of the Coptk wrilers of the beginoin, of t"" thirteenth century. He is I;nown ... Awlad al··A$$I1. His hono· rific title FdJ,. ~1.[)Qwlah (p.-ifU.n<:e. He ClUTht from a rich CopIic family in Cairo thaI distin*"is~ I~lf in lhe service: cL tht Falimids and the An'Ublds, as lhe lillu, b •..,..." hum.une), and nicbtamts of cenaln 01 his ancest"'" indic.aled. He was Ihe JOn of MU'\8m8n al·D1w1ah Abu W:>iq IhrihIm. IOn of Abo1 SaM Jirjls, !JOn of Abu 8ishr Yuhannf, a)·Klolib al· Mip'l, whMc fathu ...:as nic~ aI·'~. Fakhr al-D1w\ah's h.lf)'f'h requires _ explana· tion. Occ_onally the spdJin8 Abo. al·Fa4) can be lIou.od ~ in Coptic nI8lIuscripu of the thirttallh century (wch as in rbe Nation.al l.ibr3ty, JOaris. An>bt 201. and VMican Mabie 103, fol. 1!Y, Ia.!t line) In the Inl of tht M
.nown

JlIBLIOGRAPHY GnU. G. "Die koplische CielehrtenfamHie der Aulld al·'As.aL··OriemQlIQ I (1932):l4-5~, 129~48. 193-

""

Ibn Fac;!laliah a1-'Umarf. MQSdlik QI·... b~M. Ii mamMik QI-Q"'~dr, V"l. l. ed. Al)mad Blshl Zakl, pp. 369-71. Cairo, 1924.

1085

1086

FAMILY L\W

\ ibn a/-'An.!/. Brf/l ~1I"pllr"'s SUr It> Tnni'f f' f/ncllnUUU;m. PO 4~. fasc:. 3. nO. 1920, pp. 10-12. TurnhoUl, 1985. Sldanas. Adel Y.lbn "r-RlJhibs Lt!bfn .. nJ Wfri. £1" iopliscIJ..,r"biscltt!r EmyllopJidUJ d~ 71IJ. J"hr· h..ndtl:rls 1sIamhondlicht! l!nlefSuchunlen 36. Fmbu... 1975. YilAlb, bishop of Fuwwah. His/oaf (...... uteript of DII).. a~ryb). In KitMt Tbfh\r _.J.dIM'it &r{. I,;i,,/ "Us!Il"JJ>nyy.lI .J.Oihf. ~. Klno,l ~i~ l'lakJllah. p. 47.... Cairo. 1943.

Khalil Sam'r.

AI~a/l

KJ.uUl Sull'- SJ.

1bt children in llot anclenl Egyptian family were lhe focw. of bmily life. 1bt ancienl Eg)p11aM gave mIlCh C:IITt! 10 I""'ir children and 10 their education. The bt/ott Ir::aintd his children '0 5UCCt!'Cd kim in his fields• ........uhop. or office. In one of llot :ancienl ItJ:!£, a man """" cn-m 1M folIowinS:ad\ice: "Tab to thyself a wife when Ihou an a )'OUIlo, !hat w may P'~ ~ • son. Thou s.t!o..lo has much people. and he is re:spKted because of his children" (Erman. p. 235). An"" • bwr died his wn inherited his rtIl1mlonJ. but lhe dead -.. conaKle<ed :alive in the penon of his son. who carried on llot responsibililies of lhe falhrr. Th", sons wrre aka held responsible for lheir aged. parenlS. Some of lhe charac.eristics of the anci~nl Eg)vlian family ha,'. uisled in [gyp. down to Ih. p"". ent. ""pecially in lhe Egyptian villagn_ The woman in the E.J>l'tLan ,'Hlage works side by .id" with h<:r husband. lhe Ii~ MII"een husband and wife and between parents and childr",n are Slrong. The r~· .ponsibilily for the family is dl",..,d among all lhe m"mbers of Ihe family, Onc", &rown up. lhe W
.-...w

FAMJLY LAW. S""" Pfrsonal Slalus u ....

I'AMILY LIFE. COPTIC.

Egypl has been de·

sc:riMd U lh", oldeSt folk-nalion In the Wo.tsd>oI.d, and low: thy wife at home .. it ~mtth. Fill ...... beUy, clothe hn bac"; u... pnt to W <Wlfdy for hrr limbs. Gla.ddeo hn heart. aa lonl ... " ..~.y..-eth; aI.e ia a goodly field ro.her lord" (Entun. 1%6. P. 61). Monopmy "'_ the prc,... i1in, pall",", of the ancifnl Ea,yptian family. B_her-si$l:t1" and blheT<;bu""",r marriagn might .... v~ ""is.ed alllOl1g Ih", ancioenl EWian I'"'"""nl$Th~ WOman in ancient £CPl enjoyed equal Iithts 10 Ihe man in mOllI aspects of liFe, She was nOI yeiled or immured and was giyen lhe ",ducal iOn Sl,lil.ble fur Ihe rol~ she p"rform~d. Some wum"n b",cam", queens and ",t on lh~ Ihrone of Egypl. a.> did Hatshepsul; olhers ",ere women pli",sts. and atlll olh",rs wen: goddesses. Neyertheleu, lhe m051 impon.nl role for Ihe Egyptian ....om.n was perfonntd in htt home as wif~ and mOl her.

Chrktlan Toohlon In tM Coptk Home

Wbt!n lhe Ec;ypIians became Christians,. their fam· ily Ilk ....... rr:shaPl'd accordinll 10 the principles of Chrialiani'J. Os-ymynchus-the ~t:al of the P">". ince in the' Fa)')'l1m walley, sll"",ed about 120 miles (200 kin) from the banka of the NiIe-f1OU1'isM.d .. a mOnaslk center and as a I,adin, Chrislian cilY in Eg)'pI. The noolilerary papyri found wre oR...- a pio;lure of priYllle lire of lhe people :III1d llot social Tdatio"", amons .hem. 1bt (1)Th)'TtCbus papyri in· clude leU...... uchansfil among parents and chil· dren thai demonStrale the intimate ..,Ialionship and mutual concern amonl lhem and ..,veal tbe solidarily of family life among th", E.iYP'ian., Coptic women found theIr ld"'al lif", in Ihe ",'am· pi"," of pious WOmen memion",d in lhe New T","a· ment. such as the VirgIn Mary, Salome, Manha and MaD', and Mary Magdalene. The hiSlory of lite Coplie church has supplied Coptic women with stories of heroic ¥i'lins and devoled mOIn.:rs. of ....' hom

FAMILY UFE, COPTIC

Saint DlMyAtiAH AND HER FORTY VIRGINS who were martyrenally Ihe center of religious life in collabor;>tion with the church. Coptic parents nurtore their children in Christian faith and life and nourish them in the love of God, Acquaintance with the Scripture, and ....cre
1087

tion. Through the centuries, the means of recreation for the Coptic home were also religious. The occasions of the celebration of the feasll; of the saints served a, reminders 10 the COplS of Ihe exam· pIe of Chrislian life gi""n by the saint whose feast was celebr;>ted and at the same time 3$ an opportunity for ,..,creation and meeting friends and relalives.

Influence of MuslJm SocIety on the Coptic Family The similarities between the Copts and Ihe Mus· lims in family life and social cuslOms may be atll;b· uted mainly to the common social and cultural context in which thC)' live. Although they follow two different ,..,ligions, both religions have interact· ed and integrated with Ihe total Egyplian cnlture. Under Arab and Turkish rule, the Copts lived a .eparate life within their own community with few social contacts wilh their Muslim neighbors. The mWel syslem, which was established by the OtIO' man empire, gave the heads of the millels, or reli· gious minorities. the right to adn,inisler their own communities as autonomous entities in their spiritoal, personal, and administrative allain. The Changing Structure and Functions of the Coptic Family The responsibility for personal affairs of marriage. divorce. and inheritance bas shifted from the church to the stale, For centuries, marriage and divorce among Ihe Copts were conside,..,d entirely religious mallers for which the Coplic church was held responsible. Under Arab and Turkish rule, the palriarch. Ihe bishops. and Ihe prieSts of the Coptic church conducled Ihe marriage and decided about divcrce according to the canon laws of the Coplic church. When the Coptic millet councils were established in 1874. one of Iheir major tasks was to organize millel couns and maintain ,..,cords of marriage and diverce. In 1955, the ERvptian govem· ment replaced the miller coun, by civil courts, which took over the responsibility for marriage and divorce casl'$ among all citizens-Muslims, Copts. and other religious minorities, The principle ()f reHgious commonily laws. however, wo-s prese....'ed in the civil courts, Hence, the Coptic priests. as well as priesls and mini'lers of other churches. are Ii· censed as registrars for marriage on behalf of the government. The task of the priest end, wilh his filling in the registration forms and the liturgical celebralion uf the wedding. When problems later arise in the life of Ihe Family, concerned panie.

1088

apply for

FAMILY LIFE, COPTIC

di."O
in the ci.il COUIU...,hkh Innl dlvon:~ 10 Coplio; coupI~ for reMOIlS olh~r than aduheT)". Comequemly. the number of divorces _ I the Copts has increased. 1M Family is l\oadt>aIly !:leinl dq»i~ed of its U1Hii. tional functions.. 1M eeonomic. educational. <elipo..s. <ecf'eationa.l. and pmlCCli•., func1>onS of th~ blnily are ll1lnSlerred to spuia.l2ed insciwtiont in the eommunity. Until th~ end Ielher. Thi$ pattern of family life has liven ""'y to lhe p;lll<ml of th~ nud family In whkh th~ ne>w. Iy married couples I ve their pllrents' homes 10 SIan a new family life ill a ""p;lrau home. Th~ socioeility belween the weial daiSes and migration lTom vil1aac~ lO t"Wn' and cities and from one city to anQlhu. The devel· opment of lIgricuhure, industry. businesll, and g"v· emmem employmen' has reSldtefe opponunitiel have bHn opened 10 bu. She has takell off her .'eil. found I\eor pl:a<-e in ~ducalioll, and C(lmpe~ ..,;u, men in many Iioclllo.- Many _ n _ occupy pc.ri....... in the ptcf iora as docwn. teachers, La..... l""rs. and mcincers. They abo ...,rIr. as HCl"Clarin in ol6c4S and as laborrn in factorits.. Womm have been gr.>mcd political riV'ts. Ttwy ba•., hem cNcn !he rlJht to VOle; ~me " ...men have been ~lected as repraentatives in lbo!Nation'. Counell and lOIIIe have be<:o..... mlnisten of ....t~. The q.. esI>on <>I the ~lfect of W ne>w lUI... of the woman in Egyptian lOC'ioe:1y has 1101 been ~I Mud· ied. Howe•..,r, it may be said in ee'ICral that the educated .......rnan be<:omes mort independem of he. Iamlly. She does not ",,,it for a husband Cholell for her by h~r fllmily, but .he bc<:Ometl lhe One .....ho has th~ final deci.ion. The workin, wile ..1$0 be· comeS a .....lI-.:'e of family .uppon and consequently gains mOre ""y in fllrnily deci,ion m.aking, The h\l$' band'. authorily in the ""me may be weakened and more conflic.. bct....'un the h....band and the wife miJht be expected The mother'. employment 001· •ide the home might have an effecl on the chi1dr~n.

The l1U5S media haw lito had a n<>liceable effect on F.gypo..ian bmily life. Th~ bmily and the Khool an" no longer the only basic sources al infomunion in the life <>I th~ child The role of boIh the ,,",ren' and the teacher is cbanainl with the growth of m.... media. TeIO'Yi$iotl, loo'.'ever, bas a ~~ dftcl bet __ of its poonicular anracllon in the oon'>C'. It has become an In
11loe CopIIC' Chun:b .nd Family Lire Educ:allon The changing p;lllem of family lire in E8:l'Ptian ..xiety raises KnouS qucslio,," conc~ming th~ rrllgiou. function of Ih~ Coptic horne and the re· sponsibi1it}' of th~ Coptic thurch toward the Coptle family. The tontinuity of ehri.. ian lif~ in the Coptic home depends upon the awarene•• and maime· nance of the religlous and spiritual function in lhe home. In 1973, th~ Family Life Education Prognom (F1.EP) was esu'o1ished. By 19&4 twemy"fiv~ Inlelrale
IUBUOCllAnn

0Unncs(...... O. H. E. Tlte £DPriG" (J'I" CopfU: C/uw:h. Cairo. I96Y. Erman, A. "1M A"""~1t/ EV"n.m: A So
I"". Goode, W. J. "ChaRgine Family Panems in ""'bie b1am_" In WOIld A£\IOlulioIf ""d F"mi!y Patlcnu. N..... Ym. 1963. Je/fcry, Anhur. ''The Family in Islam." 11I11r~ F"",~ /y: II> F,,"c,i(m ""d DeJ';ny, ed. R. N_ An:sh~n. New York, 1959. Lerner. Daniel. 711£ P"ssi", '" Tradition,,1 Soci~ty: Moderni.i", Ih£ Middle E"JI, Glencoe, III., 1958. Muhyi, I. A, "Wom~n ill Ih~ Arab Middle East:' In The Modern Middl. £aJI, ed, R. H, Nolte. New York, 1963. Shenouda, Anba. Sharia' al·Za"" ai·Wahlda Ii 411· Ma~~iyy"It (Mon. .amy ;n Chri5l:lanity). Cairo, 1967•

FARAMA, Ai.-

Whit~,

loIln Manchlp. Ev~rydG)' Efypl. New York, 1%3.

Lif~

;" A."C...."I

MAUKlCf AS-All

FAN, S~~ Ut"!"ikal lntlrumenu.

FARAJALLAH AL-AKHMIMI, ... thor of a law rqW~r (NO~IOCA".oo...). C. Cnl thal fanjallih ..... from the cit)' of A.t.:loI/Ilblll in Upper £cypc and lived bonweeD t~ middle of the Ihlneenm .nd lhc middle oIm~ foIllU'ellth cemul'}. Th~ evidencc for mi< datinS i$ the fact I~I his law replcr is mosdy borro\o,'M from lhe 8001: of Spiril..l.l .. pIagiarnm. has lnlrodocrory chaplet'S oIlhc &01: of Spi"/>ltU Medic;"•. then cite! lhe ""'rees 01 church ....... and in the remal~ preseau lhe de ... BY .nd tht rituals In correspondence with u.osr -...en, bu. in altered order. n.e KCOnd part. ...;m fiity chaptet'S. COI'Cemi rnond .nd ;..dkial INlten. repratin« for the _ paI1 tite corresponding tal of !be BooI< of Spirit.. ,,1 Mt.ic/J,e, with the Clltq)lion 01. tht pan on conl"eision. whcne ~ and d.il I.o.w are lIollo-.d.. The onl)' $O\lrccs oarrtM for inht'riWOCt law .... the ""•••iu: of OnIr""
loa'"

the._

0'

VINCI!H'T

f1IfJ)UIC~

FARAMA, AL- (Peluslum), city localens of Chrlstlanl1y In Peluslum in the Byzantine period arc num~rous. The Melitlan bi"'· op KatHnikos was In office In Ihe cily as early as Ul, 32S. SO~OMEN cepons Ihat the palliarch Al.£:UNDER I

1089

(312-326) brought Kallinikos ,mo Iht office of bish· op and. thaI ATIUNASlUS (326-373). Ihe nut palrl· alt'h. e~=mmunicated him and replaced him with a man named Marl< (His/oritJ ucksitJS1/cG 2.25). "The name of Kallinlkot;. ho_~r, does nOI appear In the liSl$ of pattiCipanlS in .he Council 01 "'lCAtlO in 325. Instead.. the !iSIS show thaI Bishop DoroIheus rq>!'estnltd Pelusium aI Nicaea. Nonalteleu. around 335 Kallinikot; atlended a S)lIoo In Tyre as biW>op of Pdulium and in 351 he wb$cribrd lhe ~ of the Council of s.rdlc.a as bishop of Pel\!' sturn. The successor of Dorolhe~ or prtbaps of M.rk, was Panbalius, who .igD<:d the a.nons of the Council 01 Sinnlum in 359 ... the bishop of PelllSi..m. In HI &hop Eusel>ius of PcI....m anendrd tl>c C<>w>cil of EnllSUS. In the middH: of tl>c si!uh cm. lUry a Chakcdonlan biUMlfI named George " .. In oftKe in Pell&Sium. He had bern a Ptlpll of SIlbA. lhe blItrT of monks, and was oMained blshC9 by lhe Chalcedonia.n pa.lriarch Zailus (53!-S51) tomecime bon......" ')40 and S50. A "-umber of sainlS and matt)T!l had aJ·F.nunt as rilhcr their birthplau or plau of manyrdom. Some of those assocw...t wirh the d'1llf"C Anlonius of Banall., Apa Tit. Epim.du,l$, bishop 01. Pclusium, Hor of Sirr-tqUs. lsido<e of Takin~. l.sidorus of Pdusium. Piroou, and SIna (see !ltIdlTYJ$. oornc). Al-Fararnj, bttame an impol'Urlt cmltT of m0nastic..... a. an tarly period. "The Af'OPHfli£GIUTA I'AT. ..u.. . menlions the area <>hen. 1'bc best-kno","" ol,he monks from ,he aru was lsidorus of Ptlusl..m (c. 355-c_ 435). who "'"as a lheologian of $OI'U. an txtgrlC, and the aumor of. vast eonrspondrnce (published iD PC 78). When Bernhard tnc Wise "",i'M aJ·Faram6 in 870 he spol
1090

FARAS

him thiny dinars pt. yor I<) supplement the R>e*. gc.- re$OU"'~ availab~ to John in al·Faraml. However, SMo",,, reneged on hi> pepn ~ arc",""ok>p;a1 inwstip tion of TaU a1.Fanmj, the nlins of IIw: 'l'ICOf:nl city of Peluslum. in 1$31. laIu in the nint1eemn CeDtu· ry. W. M. F1in
Beman!, J. H. '"The ItineflU"}' of Ikmhard lhe WISe.- In the U¥a'Y of W PO!Uline PiJvjm's rUI Soc..".. Vol. 1. pp. 1+14.l.o
FARAS, ""me ,;..en in modem times 10 a small yillage on lhe west bank 01 Lhe Nile, on It", Fronlier belween Egypi and t.... Republic of lite Sudan. In earlier history it Will one of ,he mOllt importanl religious ,nd administralive centers In LoweT Nu· bia. II is named M~roilic a"'aI Ar· abic m&nll$oCripts, is probC.Iy anocher ''ariant of the same _ , a1Lhough SOme nineteendt-eentury $Chobrs allempced 10 locale Bejruh &nher 10 lhe north. At last I"'" I.,mples _rt built at Fa~ duri", th~ Egypcian N~w Kingdom. but the main imporlance of Ihe plllce appar<:mly bell.n In Meroitk times, A walled ~nclo5.ure wos built al In.tlim~ just ba~ the riy~rban.lr.; tnu foul>d in a nurl:»' t.t..roilic c.,met.,ry u.dicale that Lhis ,.".. a major ad",in'

bo,h..,

"t",liyc and cult center. AftI!'! lhe colla,,"," of Men:>ilk pm,..,r, some .$Cholars ~J""" thai the capital 01 lhe posI·Meroruc kingdom of was esQl;,. Ji:lhed 'I Faras. Howe".,r, the e>idenee for litis is largely 'p"culal!Ye, for Ihe remain. of Ihe poll·Mcr· oilie p"riod thai hav~ been uncov~,..,d at Faras a"" nol very exlensive. A number of medieval Arabic docum~nu rder 10 Faru as Ihe c.pilal 01 Nobalia (or ai-Malts. as they one.ll call il), bul these dale from a la..... lime. after Nobetia had been absorl>cd Inlo the .lr.ingdom 01 lotAUlUW. Af1eor the merp:r, which probably IOOl< pia« in me Sf"enlb (;fntury, il is clear tha, the epa.... hs or 1I'i«~ of NoWlia resided chiefl)' a, Fans, lhou~h lhey e,i· dentiy had other resid~ncel as w<:li. Th~ primary impommce of Faras in lh~ Middle A~es was undoubtedly religious. A bimoprlc was establish"" In lhe sevenllt «mury. no( Io"i after lhe convl!'t$foo of NoWtia 10 Christianity, and the rim cathedral al Far.lS was apparcndy !>qun al the same time. I' was replaced in the eighlb cenlury by a mlKh IarJn and ..-t impolin& buikIi.IIg. the bmous Faras Calhedral. "'....,.., discovery ........ 0"'" of the hi&h'ights of the archaeoJosicai Campaign 10 s.."", lhe Monumen", of Nubia. In Ih~ immediate vicinity Ihere w~rc in ,h., early Middl., AIlU at least six olh~. churches. A .izable monastery (known in recent times as O"¥ al·Wil.Z) occupi~d a nearby hill lop; lhere may have b«n " second monasl~ry ..ithin me ,own. A pottery belOry, probably ope"'t· ed by otK 01 the rnonastcriQ:. made finely decorated vessek 1....1 ...."..., traded all ""'tt Nu~ nand ocher Christian rtmains ~ lCautted O\'1:r a fairly considerable ........ wgeulng thai Fans was one of Ibe largest com.....nities In NubQ in the early Middle Acet. A mar.lr.ed decline i$ e,i Jesu in the bote I_lfih cenlUry. Later Inscriptio..... found at QAa IB.boI indlClK~ 1M the bishopric of Farm ..... ullilDOlldy combined wim thai 01 Oa¥" Ibl1m. the lalter ~Y1denlly being the chief episcnpal resklence_ This developmem did nOI quil~ .pell Ihe cnd of Christianily at Faras, for the buri~d calhedral was overbuilt by a small mon"'!lery and church, whc,.., occupation continued until lhe end of 1M Christian Nubian period. With lhe coming Ottoman rule, these S1rudura were convened 10 ",,,,,., as a Imall

-...n..

b...,.

FARAS MURALS

.mlilM}' outJlQ"'l, bul Fans was IlO lonler a place of any imporu"",e. cillter ~lip.:.us OJ" civil. The decline "f Fat3$ in tlte later Middle Alles i< probably allribUlable 10 tlte fact Iltal lis CXJlO'led riverside lOCali"n was nOi readily defensible. In tlte dio\urbed miliiary and political condilio"s wltich fol1~ lite A}}'\Ibid coroqueil of £aypI. lhe Nubian population began increasingly 10 cona:rq&le in deffttm>le local1lies ""cit as !he fonilie:d itilhops aI Oa¥ Ibo1m and M.lW- 'ADM, and in the lU'f)l Al.>tJ,UAL Much of lite population aI Faru may haw mi&nled ..,..... the ri~"C1" 10 lhe old phanlonic fo~ "f Seml, whiclt ..... reoccupied and rd""nified in the twelfth cemu'}". Major e~cavations were Cilrried out .. Fa"" ~. Iween 1910 and 1912 by an O~ford University e~pe' dition, direcled by F. L. CRIFFI'Tll. Tlti, upedilion unc<>""re.lensi.", wort< _ done bet...ftf\ 1960 aDd 1965, mainly by the PolW. C<:n..,r of Medit,.,......~ ArchHoIOl)'. Th" Polish npedition unco""'Ol"d the buried Faras Catl>edral, another 11'1le cburch Ihal bad been buill alonp/de It. an epi$<:opa] palace. and the monastic comple~ thai had been built on lop of lite earlier remains, Th<: oUlStandinl acltieve· ment of tM exp<:dition was undoubledly Ihe di""overy and preservlItion of lhe lreal FlUS lolliRALs dec· "mini 1'I\.Illl)' of the -lis In !he buried ClIlbed...._ (See .Iso: Nobatia. q",rc:h of; """'" Murals; Nubi· an Churc:1t Orpnization; Nubian Church An; Nubi· an Inscriptions; Nubian Monasl"rin.)

,ft-

BI8UOCRAP'1fY

Adams, W. Y.. P. E. T. Allen. and G. J, Vcrwcrs. "Archaeolollical Survey of Sudanese Nubia."' Kush 9 (1%1):7-43. •, Criffilh, F. L "P'wtito~.&l.h.a ..... -Faras in GeogQ. pity and History." }"""""I 01 Emfitln Arcluu,,1rJry II (1925):2S9-6S. _ _ "OJord Eu.avations ;" Nubia." lIniveriphO'U, War.gw. 1972. Michalowski. K. f,mu. Warsaw, 1974. _ , and G. Gerster. Fi"''', die Kmhtdrale au. de... MlilJle".a"d. Zurich and Cologne. 1967. Milehltn. O. S. Clturclu:.;.. l.owu NubItJ. Universi'y of Penns)1vania. £cypIian DepanIMDt of the Uni·

1091

..,rsily MUHllm, kid.". B. Co~e Junior bpedi. lion 10 Nubia. Vol. 2. 1910. Vanlini. G. T1te £.,cavaliolU ", F.>rtu: A C""trib"flon 10 Ihe Hislor, 0/ Christian Nu/>ia. Bologna. 1970. _ _ Chr;sf;t/niry in Sud"n. pp. 138-40, \4447. 8ologns. 1981.

II",

w.UJAJoI Y. ADAMS

FARAS MURALS. The mosl spectacular arc:haeolopC*!. discovery of the Intema.ionaJ CampaiJn to ~"" Ih" MortumenlS of Nubia was thai of the Faru Cathedral. buried ;n .... nd with ;\1 medi"...1 pn.>Il"IIm of wall decoration largely prncn'ed. Nearly 200 individual paintings were found On Ihe cathedral wall$ and In adjoininl bishops' lombs. and of Ihese 169 were we<:nsfutty remo..,d and prewrveenol d"",,,loprMn· lalltiSlo!)' cf Nubian clturch llI1. TIt" paintings wer" belie,..,d by Knlmien ,.,J(;HAlOWS~l. the Polish excavation direclor It Faras, 10 reflect four main phases of ..)'Iistic d<:vek>pmenl. TlteM: were de$ignaled as lite violet S1yle (early eiGhth 10 mid-ninth «Rtu!)'), tIte ...flile Slyle (mid-ninth 10 early t<:JIlh century). tlte red'J"'11ow style (Ieoth cenlury). and .he mulli· coland styM! (etleVenth aDd twelfth c",,"'riIes), Th<: earli.". S1~'IQ an clearly similar to Cnnalized and Italic ITUlment of tit" human ns· u,..,. Tlte two laler 51)"I"s are mOre distincli""ly Nu· bian and are characleriz"d by brilliant colol'$. lavish Of1IIlm"ntaI detail. and sornewhac more lifelike human ligurQ.

,,"""led

1092

FAROUK I

The sequence of S1}'lislie da..,lopmcnl in lhe Faras murals .. more or leu pllrallellcd in oUt(r Nubian ehurches. ahhough lite multicolored 5Iy1e SC'Cfm lO have ouched full devdopmenl only III Faras ilStlf. Michalowo.ki bellevel ttw FaJali - . the artistic cenlCr of Nubia. &om which odICI' ellu",h painlen lOOk their InsplralioP. bul lhcn is noc enough ... rvhinl ~nce lO ewobIisIl litis ckarly. Some of the FarB pIIinl;"&' haYe been exhibiled a1 lbc N~ Vorl< World's Fair (1964), lbc PeDI !"a. Lais in Paris (1964), and llle Villa Hilgd in &: Nubian Church An.] BIBLIOGRAPHY

Michalowski. K. FtmJ$, cenlre ,mi.r;que de la Nubu chrili.n~c. [.eiden, 1960, _ _ Faras, Wal"$llw, 1974. _ _. and G. Gersler, Faral, die Kmnedra;e a"$ aem Wiijle~$a~d. Zulich and Cologne, 1967, Vanlini. G. Tne ExcavariO'1$ al FarQS: ,( Conlribulion ID /hc Hi.fary of ChriSI;an Nubia, pop, 201-236. Bologna, 1970. _ _. Clorisli".. ity i.. 110. Suda ... pp. 1049-56. B0logna. 1981. Weiwnann. K. "Some ~marks on lhe Sou.-c<'S of lhe Frr::sco Painlinp or Ii.. Calhedral of Fans:' In Ku.. Sl ",,4 Gnclolelol. N"bU,u I" ehrisllidK, Zeu. cd. E. DinkJer, ~cllinaJws$en. 1970. WILLJA)I Y. AIIAM$

Mural painune depicting Saini Michael. Faras.. Eln(nm «(ntw)'. Hrighl: 171 (m; width: 199 em. Coun(· ,., St<4art Artfiquiriots fUld NruM>rtdl .u.. nurtu ~rvlCf;.

Iarzcsc and

spe<:taeubr of all 1M Faras a ~nu.tion of tl>o! lllr« Hebrew youths Shadra<:h. Mehach. :and Abechl* In 1M !Mol)' furna«. protected by the "",hanc(1 1I1CKAfJ.. II • in the muhko.lol~:ft,.r;kand is n~ly \0 ~ec (J m) Ion.. Othn ~,~ pa..inlinp Inc:ludol: a (omplel nalivity Kene (which is uniqu( in lhal 1M auutdanl shepherds are given Ihe namn of ArniM and Lo
nJ'" •

FAROUK t, Su

M~mmad

'An D)lI"'ty.

mosl

FARSH"OT.1arJe lQWlI s~f'd 00 the lrit bank of the Nil" After iI l'QUmes ics CClUne from 00Ulh 10

nonh, !l.a>in, llovotd COIIlIWY 10 ilS CUSWm from ."..1 1O "'"C5l beno."CCO Oint and Hiw. Fanhu!. wril' len ..ith the f"minine ankle (T) in \h" Coptic Inl$. is ...id lO ha.( oon>e from ,h( language oflhe New Kingdom and 10 be a borrowing from Hebrew, meaning Ihe lake (Vycichl, I98J, P. )1; tcmy, 1976, p.

)4).

This lown io f&/llnus In Copl;;; and COpla-Arabic \ileratur( as l!lc birthplace In lhe Mlh or si~th e"nIUry of Saint ..11...." ..11, After havlnll be,," archiman· ow/Faw an
FASTING

near Fan.hol!. One for women near !he 10wn, -e. cordinC 10 a mirxle rdaled in It.. Coptic lUI of hi5 Uk and the other fur m .... in .he I)/tjir, lhe Slony ana belween lhe mounlain5 and Ihe "'uhi....I· ed ,'alley. Thi5 monaslery of mrn i5 ClI.l1ed J~ OT J:Iadcla by the ..-eo:enston of me Syxu'o'RlO!' of lhe Copu from Upper f.&l.l'IA "One STElA relates me ratonol>on of me mon· asltry 01 Abraham in 698.. But W. E. C.... m thinks W"' i5 nOlhinC 10 allow lIS lO idmlify the monasleIY 01 AnW Abr.!haln !hoe anc:hori.e 0<1 thll SIeJa wilh lhe monaSllOf)" rounded III Fam.~ by Saini Abnham. Accordin& To the iNlmc: aulhor. !he manaslery of Abraham in !he I.jfe of J>tw:nl>u' i5 wilhoul doubt lhal of PIlO.........os al Dayr al.BaJ:>r1, the suo perior of which, named Abnham, _ a ",onlemporary of Pl:scmiw.. No ucavation 'pp"an to ha~e been tamed 01'1 in thi, ....Cion to rediscover the ....in5 of this monas· tery. BIBLIOGRAPHY Am~lineau,

E.

u.

GfOfl,aphie de I"ED'P" ~ I·tpoqu~

cople. Paris. 11193. Bud,e. E. A. W. Coptic Apocrypha in the Dialul 0{ Uppe, E,ypt. London. 1913.

Cerny,

J, Copric

Eryrnoloeicol Oictio",.ry. Cam'

beid,e. 1976. Munier. H. "Lc Mo.....tm de SL Abraham i Fa... s/lwI:' gu"ew. de I,. Sod;'ti d',.,c1,iolop d'AIu,."dm )0 (1936l:26-30. Vyekht W. Di",ti<mnai,.,. ilylflOlogique de ". "'''twe «>pIe.

Lc-u.""",

19iI).

Winlock, H. E., aDd W. E. Crum. 11010 Monastery CI{ EpipJt4"i... '" 71IeWs, 2 vol... New Yorl:, 19th.. Rn;~COOOt. ..

MAllRJClI;

M.orrts, S. J.

FASTINC. FastinC i5 :IU'iejlyobierved by the Copts in IIoCcordance wilh their calendar_ 1'he custom predall!:l Chrislianily in Judaiom and anc:,enl EsYJMian relipan. Fasts are recommended by JC'!'us (ML 6:16: Mk. 2:20) and by the apostles (Acto 13:2, 14:23; 2 Cor. 11:27). The toul fasting days in Coplle tradl· tion eo~er approximately IWo-Ihirds of lh~ year Or a minimum of 250 da)'!l. In their ~ts. lhe Cop's avoid meat and all animal eJiracts ineh.ding eus, milk. buller, and cheese. Fi~h II also prohibiled in Ihe fasts of Jonah, Our Lady, and especially Lent. It ~ said thai th~ fOMy da)'!l of Lent COincided with a. similar period during which the ancient Egyptian~ also refrained from

1093

eatill& tih Ihrough the $p&wnint - - . ; n the Nile. This renders thai lradilion wilh lhe CoplS okler !han ohIo introd"etinfI of Chrislianity. CcJpl.M: monks, as«IM:s. and solilarie5 often pushed fasting far beyond the canonical pntCIices. They f:Il5l.e:d the wbnIc year, and ~tly .tic only OIIe meal afl:er $UI\SI!:'l.

Fut of the Apoallu This f:w. commemonln lhe b5I observed by !he disciples after the Nc:enslon of Chmt (Acto 10:10; 12:2.3; 14:21-24; Xl:9. 21). " ..arts on the Monday that iollows PenlecOSl: and ends on 5 Ablb, when tile Coptioc chun::h cdcbratn lhe feall of oh~ apostlC'!' Peler and Paul. Since Pemec05l is a movable feast, Ihis fast "'" no ~Kcd duration, but ,,,,ri" betWl!:Cn fifteen and rony· nine days. According to the COllstilutiollS of Ihe Hoiy Fatlre,s 5.20: "', , . after you ha'"e kepI Ihl' felti,,,,l of Pente,,~t. keep one wl!:flk rna .... festival. and after that faS!: ror it i. reasonable to rejoice for the gift of God, and 10 fast after that relllltation" (Constiruti'm•. 1951, p. 449). The Coptic church. however, 5U.rt! the fast. immedialely after Pentecost. n.e fifty days followin, Ihe R"uTre<'lion ~ a period of rejoicing durin. whkh it i5 not pnlflC"T 10 fasI. "Can the weddin, guI!:SU moum as Ion& ... !he bridc&J"OOll' i5 "'lh lhem? The days ..ill COllIe. when the bridegroom is miter> away from them, and tJoen they ",ill fasl" (Mt. 9:15). The falhers ha•.., ~ this ""int in !heir "'mings, Tertullian (c. 160-220) sA:ltt •.....·10 eOfll.du II unla...full0 fast or 10 pnl)' knee/in&- upon the Lord'a Day; "'.., enjoy the 5&O\e libert)· from Easter-day 10 thac 01. Penteooo.t·· (De corornt, 1910. p. 9-4). A spe<:W rite iJ; followot'd in lhe Ct"Jeb~ of the DMne Liwru durin, the fasI of the ~ especially in the daily Psalmodia and Ihe Fraclion. A complete fasI i5 also ktpe unt,llhr_ o'clock in the ahernoon, thaI is. the nimh canonical hour.

FaSI

or "eradlua

This seven-day bst is auribvte42), who rescued Ihe holy cros.~ from Ihe PeThian. in 629 and rescored it 10 Golgotha. It is erroneously linked wilh the CoptiC church, and tal<· en 10 account for the /irst 5l'~en of the fifty-fi,'e days forming the Coptic Grfat Lcol, The misconception an," from the following historical event, When tM triumphanc emperor ",a<:hed Tiberia< In hi. way back from Persia. he was lobbied by lhe

1094

FASTING

J~

population wbo ,.,""~ Illmugh Ia>ish &ifu; in acquit;". his writlen pl~ oJ. SK\Irily. This they did 10 foratall any poo.5ibl.e acts of relriootion on W lW1 d lhe Chri$l:ian popu!alion of !he Holy Uond. ~, on his a>TinI al Juusalcm. ~ Chrislians p:>inted oul 10 lhe empero~ con<:re..~ e>;' ~""e dille dcYa$lalion caused by the Jews during Ihe yean oJ. the Persilton o<:<:UpAtion and urrd him 10 punish Ihem. Heracllus was ill !irs.! rclue,-nt 10
seve"""

recommendadons. This "';IS the C8S«asor, and also durinclhe pap;>cy of ..:NJ....1/i t (622-661) who was in uile unlil the ARAB OONQUtST Of EGYPT io 640. Ever sinclI: the end of the second cenlury when Pope DEMEI'aJUS 1 rwrpnittd Coptic fasts, they had become unalterable. The lim ",'.-.:k of lhe C,eal unl was integrale.clusion of S6lurday and Sunday fronl tbe lenlen

....

Accordinlto the Itslimony of Etheria (or £&erial. the Spanish tr.. vel~ who visiled the Holy Lands in 382 and 3U (Pue,,;... 1io JlnltuUle, 1919), the church of Jerusa.J.ern obst..ed &II ri&h"'..eek &sI ~

East.,.,..

Fasl of Jonah AI... dco....led lhe Fasl of Nineveh, Ibi:1 f... is

obsenied 10 commemorale tbe penance of lhe Nin· ",-it"" at the preaching of Jonah (Jon. 3:1-10). This fast wall originally kept by the S)'rian Orthodox Cnurch and wlS adopted as one of Ihe fasts of the Coptic church by Patriarch ~a""HAM, the si.ty· second pope of Alu•• ndria (975-978), as s marl< of unity and solidarity bet"""",n the lwo sisler ~hurch· <. It lasts for three wbole days, represemill& the lime spent by Jonah inside the whale, >laning on a Monday. aboul 1"'0 ....,.,b before lhe bqinnina of ~ weal Unl. Uturgies ..... held daily;n lhe aft.,... DOOD. The eal;n. of fish and all forms of animal rat is not allowed dun,. thi. fast. The fnoclion prayers appointe'e Iheir sim, and turned His wra.h away from them." Lenl Great Lent. as diltinci from the little fast that precedes the feast of th. Nali,ity, is observed in commemoration of the fony-.Jay 12s1 (If the Lord Jesus Christ (MI. •:2; Ii. 4:2), aft.r which the

FASTING

chun:h oburvu Holy Week in memot)' of Chrisl's passion. 1nI1 has been obstn-efton, the fast: of thor: p&UOW'f. .. ,Ann ",'hich _.. ~ 1M holy week of I~ pass0""eI'" fasrh'& In !he same all of you with fear and tn:mblinc .. :' (C""'lilurions 5.18, p. 443). n.e penally for failure 10 observe Lent is laid down in the C.no.., 01 tire Holy Aposl/n: -If any bishop, or pre:sbyler. or deacon, or rnder. or si,.,..r dou noc (,..1 Ihe fasl of thor: IOny dayS of holy (.,ent, Or .he founh day of t"" week. and Ihe <; laity, leI him be e~communkaled"(Co'Htilut",,,S, <:SOnan 69, p, 504: .... pos'01lc.1 C."""s 69, p. 598; Cummings, 1957. p. 122), Reference to Ihe imponance of obse ....lng U:m occul'$ in Ihe wrilings of Ihe early fathers of Ihe church. In Ihe urly church. Lent began on the day ailer the fust of Epiphany (...... ff.MTS, MAlak). In imha· lion of Chrisl. who fasted immedialely after Hb baptism (MI. 3,16,4:2; Ii. 4;1,2). Holy Week was obseO'ed as a sq>arate fast 10 coincide with lhe Jewtsh I'assover, QCcurri"ll SOme time betwttn lhe twO monlhs of 8:>ramh.l1 and Diu'amUdi>h of .he Coplic eaknd:sr. To....rd II", end of the second cm· IUry, ""","",r, Demetrius I establ.o.haI the cpa<:t ~em of compUlatiort. and joined the holy fal,c to Passion Week. M 0""' continUOU!i and unimetTUp.ed ""riod of fast:inl prior 10 the celelrr.Won of the ResurTeCtion.

Great Lenl IIISIS fifty-fi"e days, heinl the Iony da)'l thai Jesus O"i... lasted, wi,h the addition of Holy Wttk as the final ..-e:dr. of and an imroduc' tor)I ""cck of preparMion. in view of lhe panlcular significance oJ Lent. More lhan one inl~rprelation. bmo."f:\·~r. has been suggesled rqarding this imroduclory week. I. has bun calkd. for iTl$lance, the fast of He<1IIClius (see abo>'e), Al'6AFl 18N .... ·ASS~L. who anledated HeraclluS hy several cent"ri .... nates that "all m~n and wOmen should omerve Great Lent for eight w«b e>lending from Ihe end of winter until the begin· ning of summer" (1927, chap. IS, p, 1(2). Another Interpretation was given by cenaln church historian., such as Jirjis ibn al··Amld, and Abu·Shaklr ibn al·RJhlb ihn-Bmrus ibn al'Muh.adh·

m"bsl.

1095

dhab (thineemh century). who "plain lhal a fur· lher week was imposed by lhe church in yiew 01 the dilfen:nce in lhe practice of fasling on Satur-

daY" and Sundays. Slricdy $peru",. unlike other weekda).... fasbnl On these lWO pankubr day$ $Il.ould not be a total abslinmce bdwee-n 1loe fiISl canonical hour 01 the day (6 AJol.) IlJld the eleventh hour (5 ~SII.). with 1loe aoeption of the ~ Saturday in Passion Week, thai is. Greal Saturday. on ",ilkh the body of Jesus ChriS! was Mill !yinl in the graft_ To lftIke up for lhe difflll'CnCC, a ,,~ ~ th~ fore added at the bqinoinl of (.,en.. Thmu&bout Great Len.. the lituTJY is celehr.otcd on .... eekdays bet....... n the ninth and e1e,-enth canonical houn. that is. from three 10 6w: o'dock in the afternoon. but on SaturdaY" and Sunda)'5 it is held as usual earlier in the day. It is al"" "",nhy of note Ihat it Is frequently taken from the Anaphora of Saint Cyril, al"" kno....n tIS Ihat of Saint Mark. According to the stipulalions of canons 51 and 52 of the S}'nod of Laodicea (343-381), no weddings or birthdays a... to be celebrated during the season of Lem. and the faithful should abslain from aCliyi· tic' of a festal nature, or Ihose in>'olvinll physical enjoymenl or plcasure.

Faat or the Nativity The fast of lhe Nllmly innriably he';... on 16 HaUlr 01 the Coptic caJmdar and ends on lhe eye 01 29 Kiyahk. thus coverinl ro",...hr« days. Originally it "''25 obsen."Cd for forty days only. but toward the end of the leoth CClIIUI)'. three days we.... added 10 il 10 C<>IIlfDl'morate the mineulous evenl of the Ill<WtnI 01 the Mu~~ hill in Cairo during the palriatthale 01 Abnharn. The SlOry cl this ewnl I"... around the: ch.allenge by a1·Mu~1ZZ. ..... Fatimid caliph ('152-975), 10 lhe Coptic: patrian:h 10 prtn'C the truth ~ the ..yinc of Jaus (Mt. 17:20) that bid> could mQ>'e mountains. Aco;on:!ingly, the patriarch. together ",-jth .he Coplic. communily. kept ,'igiI and pr.oyen fO<' three days and nighlS• ..hich nemually p",,-al efficacious in mO>'inc: al. MuqaHam. This fast ....as ordained by 1M chun:h as a spirilual prepar.otion prior to the celebration of the Nativity of the Logos, ju..... In the Old Testa"",nt M~ observed a fas. for fony daY' and nllhlS before recei,'lng the word of God in the form of Ihe Ten Commandments (E.-<, 34:26). The nrict observance of this fast necessitates tOlal daily abstinence from food 1111 Ihree o'clock in the afternoon and from ealinl animal fat afterward.

1096

FASTING

~I

the monlh 01 Kiyahk. tM church . a 6 1M Kiyahbn p..lwoodi4. ...itich re>ol.'cs amu".f t~ t~""'" of tM incamatioo of tM Lop. the Son of God. and the Pl1lu., of the TJrtoroiOJ (mot~r of God). The Divine LiIU'l!Y abo includes lhn $pe~~1 m.clion: "0 Master Lord our God. who art unseen, unlimiled, unchanguble and incomp",,· henslble: who senl uS the True Light. His only' beJOuen Son Jesus Christ. the Logo.; who abideth everll$linaly in Your Fatherly bosom. and came and d.....,lt in the Virgin" undefiled ...'Omb. She pvc birth 10 Him. ",,~ning a -;TJin. and her villinily is sealed. The .....geU praiw Him, .....d tM heavenly hoN clwu unlo Him. Crylll&: Holy. Holy, Holy. lhe Lord of Sal-Kh, heaven and &nh are 'lied "'llh Thy I>oIy alo
or the VI"tn Mary

Thil lift""n·day b: 86 'Id Q/-$ayyldah (lhe WI pl'f:CCding the ~t of our Lady). This b:sl i' _ widely obse ....ed amona Copts 01 aU "CU, who kt:qI il with puticuIar abstention from ealina fi>h and all food substanU$ tha.t in· clude &1. 011. or iu products. II is abo <:UStoolal)' for ....ny people 10 pncllce full abslent>on. eating only one meal at the end of the day. ioU.....·inalhe cdehnlion of the liturgy. Other people may also extend lheir bst by a.dding a week before and "fter the p""scribcd period.

f"''''''

Wednesday and Friday The Coplic ch'fl'Ch ordai.... thaI Wednesday and Friday be ......." I I fast days. the former bring tlH: day on ..t.ich,Jesus Christ _ condemned 10 be crucified. and the laller being Ibe day on which His <;~11 lOOk pbce.. 11\is lasl appta lhrougboo.ll the year, with the I'ollowing ncqICtono: during ,he fifI}· da.ys fOllowing Eastff; <x should lhe! kas' of lhe Nativity (29 Klyahk) <x of the Epiphany (II TObUl) Ian on either day. The lui. which;,; kepi IInlil three o'dock in the aflernoon. lhat is. the ninlh canonieal hour, entails ab&lenllon from food&IUff& cOlltaining animal fal&, ror the ""&I of the day. R.ference to Wednesday and Friday fuu <>ccun in ,.. riouf sources wch as lhe Did....Ulli.. (1929,

chap. I'), lhe Di.heJu (19st, chap. '). Canon 69 oi the Apo&lollc c...ons. in Ibn al··AssaI', AI.J./..jmi/..I· s"t"wt (chap. 13. iii), and in Ibn a1·l\.luqalla"& Nit,ory 0/ Ihe P'lIri"TCIls (1949. Vol. ~. pl. J. pp. 161. 168). h. impot'1ance ......u also Stressed b1 Clemenl of Aluandria (c, 150-215) in S"omala, vii. 12 (1956. p. 544): Tertullian (c. 160-c. 220) in 0 .. Fa$ling, xlv (1951. Vol. 4, p, lI2): and Peter of Alexandria the MMtyr (d. )11) in his fift.,.,nlh Canon (19~, xi>', p. 6(1).

BlJll.ll)(:aAPHY

k'ad Rustun>. K.m..t Mair",,1 AII4Jt An{~ "I· 'U9'!', Vol. I. pp. 4la_H. Beirul, 195!. Aliya, A. S. A NisIOr)' 01 E.. It~m Cltristi"Ni(y. london. 1961. Audet. J. P. La Did"cM.- '''SI,...:tions du ApQ/I't~. Paris, 1933.

Burmes'er. 0, H, E. Th. Etyprl..n o. Cop/ic Ch"'ch. Cairo, 1967. Bntclter. I!.. L Th. Story of Ih. Church of Etypl. Vol. 2. pp, lIS. 139. 1.0."lon, lS97. Buller, A. J, TJre Arab C.,.,q"ul of Eopl, ilna Ih. L ....I Tlti,,, Y~an of the ROI'Iiln Domi"ioN. pp. 136. 16L O!Iford. 1902. are. Wl:l6a wassd". Pr..tiquu n·tut/k• • 1 tllmt.... III~ du CO(1f." Cairo, 1971. Connolly. It H. DidIUC.J", A,ostolonl.... o.:foo-d, 1919. Repr.. 1969_ Cumminp, D. T1K IWdtJrr. ChicalO. 1957. I:U~ ot..-ud. JlI-DisqUliyy"h "'" r"'lit",, "I·RI/U"I, 2nd «I.. p, 17L Cairo, 1940. Homer, S. Th. S,al"u. of Ihe .41'0<11.,. 01' Cllmm~~ Ecd~sill"lici, London. 1'Kl4. Ibn a1-'Asdl, al~fl. AI·M.. jm,' ·al·S~f~wl. Repr. Cairo. 1908. _::-~ /(;I~b ~1.Q~wan!n. pp. 1)7. 1)9, 142. Repr. Cairo. 1927. Ibn Sib;t.· YQl)annA ibn AhI' l.aur'I"y;i. Kildb ..I·JII .... ""rail IIJ.N~~ fi 'Ulimt 1I1./(""lsiI.h. «I. Viklur Man~r. pp. 52, 53. Cairo, 1902. T~ inlO latin *& I'rtriou ... ~"Cllri.ra d. JcirnliiJ «ck$i4$lids by Vincentio Mi$Il1I:I- Cairo, 1966. bidhorus. Kil.b III-Klt
',t

FATIMIDS AND THE COPTS

Niwn MIni.. 'II", II/.lAhill, Vol. 3, P. 421. Cairo, 1938.

At'he>iD.e_ n... Pilgrinul.ge II{ EdNn., tram. M. L Mcl.w'e and C. L ""'llM. London and ~ York.. 1919. {}II!"J"I<1ftS "I~ ...... 1l1-K
1~3,

S.1d ibn Ba!riq. Kildb N";[7ft tIl.}"""IrIl'. Vol.. 2, pp. 5-7. Beirut, 1905. Suicer, J. C. 71Iua ..rus rcc~>linu. Amsterdam, 1721. ~. L TrIl;li de ;e.:.".... de N,Jiu. ",,.;,. 1615. viIl«ourt. L "La Obsen'3nCeli litu....quu et Ia discipline du jeWle dans I'~ise coptc.. .. E..UrplS from U Mus/on 36.37,38 (1923-1915). Y~nI SalAmah. Xildb ,,/·Le'''l'' ,,/.NII{is4h " SIr",~ fuqu. "'II-J.IU'IIlq<MIJI III-KII,,'~Ir. Vol. 2. P!'. J71-73. Cairo, 1909_ ARCHBtSIfOP

B~SIUOS

FATlMlDS AND THE COPTS. h is dlfficuh to give a complete piclure oIlhe situation of lhe ColliS unckr Ihe F.'irnid dynasly (972-1171). Ccnen!llly ~ini the caliphs wrre very tolerant toward tllem. e.cel't during IWd period. Thq .... not actu.Uy an in-.uion oc the ~n of the F.limids. When they aniwd in £&ypc. Ge"" ..l Jawh.ar and hiI mauer, .1·Mu·iz:r. (972-97Sl, found Jews .nd Ch~ian:lI on dilJCf'Cflt lcvcb ollhe adminislnotion. aod they were wise c"""8;h to clLanie no!hi"i in Ibis matter. A1."Am (97S~~) was the fiBI of the Falimidi 10 bestow the tide of vWcr, and Abtl aI· Fanj Y.·qilb ibn Killis ..... me fint recipient. But he had. in facl, alrcady abandooed the Jewish reliiion before tM F....imidi anived in EoPt. On \he contrary. the Chrntian '1$.1 ibn Nu!OtllS. who held the same pt)S( from OIl,;; aI-qo.·dah 3gS/Oecem· ber 995 until Ram;a4an 386/ScplenlMr-Ot::loQer 9%, dler bring finandal "",reJary, hpt hil religion. Perhaps he showed mOre favor Ihan was tolerated to his fellow Christians was rumored 10 lhe caliph. Whatever the c.u he, was dismissed from hi, poll. tOllether wilh mhcr Chri..ians In offi· d.lpositions. Shonly aftel'Wll.rd. bowt>'er. 'llll was

1097

mnsuJled On the mtel"V<"nlion of aJ."A$'1 fa•..,rilC daucJu:tf. the famous Sill .1·Mulk, OIl condition that he pay • &ne of .300.000 dlnan 10 the Treasury_ C!lrisliam occupied imponant POI",.1so during the rriI;n of ai-Ziltir (1021-1035). For i~WK:e, Majli Ibn NM!'inu ...... in lhe Dfwll.. • 1."Ablo4.< (........ Iy =-eooed for- Muslims). Abo1 Ghilib al~y8 ill lhc Dfwjn ~-K}"u.i (al·Maqrizl, tai'.~ Vol. 2, pp. 161. 163). A ccnain number of Copts, who had been COllvr:ru:d I". fonoe to Islam lkarin"he pcnccution unde>- al-l:'Jokim, look ao:t...,....e of the casing or theu- lituation 10 come back to Chrisli&nity_ Bul in 102S Abo Zabriyyi, • Chrislian ""ho had bccolRC Muslim. was beheaded in Cairo for ha'rinc ..,tumed to his fonner ",Iigion (a1.Maqf1Xf. IlIi'''-~ Vol. 2, p.

1*1· The", ""em 10 have been no slgl'ific.nt changes in the siluation of the Copts during the reign of al·Mustan~ir (IOJ5-1094). A cen.in hardening of go,'ernment policy tow.rd them m.y have bccn due to the deterioration of the relalionship bctween Constantinople .nd cairo. At the bcglnning of the rcign, a lrealy with the Byzantine, pennined Ihe reconstruction of Ihe Church of lhe Holy Sepulcher in Jeru.saJem. laler on there were exchanges of ambassadors and gifu. But in 1055-1056, after a ckleptiort from Baghdad had been allowed to pmy ;n Constantinople in the name of the Abbasid no· liph, thc Fatjmidl permiued Ihe Church of the Holy Scpuleher to be pilb&ecI. while othc.- churches -.e dosed in £cpt .nd Syria and the 1I2Y,," (poll IU) "'as .upnemed. In 1066-1067, siny-tlu-e.e monb .....e re auusinalecl near a1·AIohmUnayn. This bsl ew:nt, it .. true, _ a ~e""e« disorders in the region and not directly lhe faull nf Ibc «nuaI c<""Cf1UlICI1l. The first _ineT of aI·Amlr (1101-1130), a1-Afdal. appoill"'" • Chriolian and • Jew 10 Ihe "-d «the Df...." .l·/a1}qtq (office of justice) that he had just founded (1107-1103) 10 wperrise expendilW'c. Tbc Christian. Abu al-&raUt Yu!p.nnl ibn Abi la}'Ih, held this post until hls atcUtion in 113<1. In addi.ion. the monk Ibn Qan .... played afI importanl role .t the end of the reign of aI·Ami<. Under a1·l:IAfiz (11lO-114~) lhe afllj·Armenian reo action that folloWC'\l. on 8ahrlm's fall had reptr"CUllioll' in the CopIk community. The new virier. Ri<;lwan (1138), removed many offici.ls .nd rcvi"ed • number of discriminatory me8llUrei .gainst 1l01lMu,lims. such as the wearing of special clothe. and the prohibition on "noble" transpon. &sidtl Bahrim ....e kno... of olher Chrlstlans In Ihe caliph's circle. Abo. Sa'ld ibn Ourqah ....., one of his doc·

1098

FATIMlDS AND THE COPTS

lOB. Havilla

_.<<<<1

\0 prqxlre poi$Oll for H.....n. • 1·J:llofi~·$ 100II, he was pUt (0 death and hOs pooses' slon, were given to his Jewish colleague. AbU Bah al·..uhram was k<2rib (..ecrela!)') with ute",i,'., pow. ~ l...a1er on. in 1146.11.7, he was u"",uted for conuption. One of oh.. c~iph's as.lrologers "''as ,. Chri5tian named MUsIo. It is more difficult to _ the dally COnla<:~ of th.. two communities. 0.. Ihis ",aile. IOU"''''' are ve., ~r. We j>OSSC'5oS lOme indications thai in gene",1 Christians and Muslims coedSled peaceful. ly in Fatlmid Egypt. Chrisdans and Muslim. mel for certain fCOl5I$. At Muslim marriages it was Ihe cuslorn for CoPI$ of ,"ItA to ling in pro«Mion befou Ihe bridegroom (AbU $Ali~. 1895. p. 102). wbile 1he Muslim population of CaIro loOk pan in ,;lrious rit"" oi !IOmC Copl:ic fea>u. lor example, EpipbaJly and ~w Ynr. More th.an once die caliphs renewed w:aminl:5 apins. this moo ..... ",hich P'"O"ed that the _mingo were di.,.,garded. for example, al·'Allz forb<>~ the celebration of Epiphany in 978, as did

al·Hakim in lOll. aut on the New Yur f,,""t of 998, the Chri>tian secretary ABU A!.-'AU' YAIl tBaAHIM was ~t officially, while in 1025 the c~iph al-~iT _ accompanied 10 the cdebr.uions by h;s wiw:s. He o.Ut:d only thaI ~tuslims and Chri.. ria... refr.Un from bathi". ~ther in lhe Nile. A.l certain periods, lor e.umpk, al Chris..n.....d £as. ter. the c~iph's pal"",e Mnl gifu, among which were sj)l'dally minted dinars, 10 lhe ChriSlian nfIi, dais (AI·Maqrlzl, Khi!Q(, Vol. I, pp. 265, 494~(5). II mu", nOl be supposed, however, that Ihe Cop« en;oycd full ....ligious libeny al the lime of the Fal;' mids. Careful reading of lhe work of loBO VoJ.JJ:I 1M!! .l1l.ItE!<Wl showo., in rael, dw Y"Y few n~ churclt· es Wef'e built in Ef;ypt. The ChristiaJu had to can· ltol them.sdves ...."itIt rescoring " ... ones b.lIeu inlO ruins. ""'cordial: 10 lbe mm0U5 CO\'ENANT OF 'UM.U.. The same was lrut; for lhe m""""'eria. It hapj)l'Md Ihat one or anoth" monaslery wao fTeqllenled and heij)l'd financially py a Muslim vider or even a caliph, bul lhe.., .... i50laled incidents (Abu ~;l.t, I89'S. pp. 62 and 89). The Copts, who 81 thaI lime ............ far ~ numerous !han today in ~'JII. had lhe kpIlllWU> of Dhimtnis applit'O)'$ _ said to have brou&hl I manuscripl, enti1led A!.~w. .. ~

-ere

MosfJ,.iyy.h

r""'" Chrislian ~e"). in whith II·

Mu'i"" invlled Ihe emperor 10 cOnven to Islam. Ahhouah the tentative was unsuccessful. al leasl a trealy was arranged belween lhe two sovc"";Mns. But .....hen the Byumlncs llt13ckd Crete in %1, a1·Mu'iu. re\'Oked lhe lI'ealy and ...oughl of ~ ing an npcdition 10 defend the i5land. We have lWO lctteJ"!!l add~ by the caliph to lhe Ikhshldid amir of Eg)lK and In the emperor 1Wnw>'" II, rnpee' lively. In lhe fil'Sl, .a\·Mu'izl;ltS\<ed 'AUal-lkhshld to suppon a campa!&n a""in51 Crele. But it....erna Itle expedition failed for wanl of a response from Ihe amir. The island fell into Ihe hands of the By""n· tines and only in 1669...... hen conquered by the 0110<"113111I, did il reven In tbc Muslims. Man, Cr..· Ian Muslims .........e taken poioonen and deponed, ..ili.le othC'n. IIl'er'C forcibly conYene.l 10 Otristianity. Iblines. bUI h;s army met with unequal results, lhouah he managed to caplure Tripoli and Beirul (975), he was repulsed before Anl'kiyah. The ca· liph, however. continued to receive en\'Ojo'$ from BY""ndom Onlil near his death In 975_ AI··.uIz'"s rei&n "115 muted by an allP05l comlnu· ous 61:ht apDw the Creeks fur the poMCSaion of Syria, and especially the AIcppo «'lion. No doubt I de~pdon "..,,1 by Basil II in 987 managed 10 co'" dude I Mven yeal"$' lruce lhal, among other eond" liono, included the liberation of lhelr Muslim prls· onel'$ by lhe Byzanline. and an undenakinll to have the pnyer in the name oi the Fatimid caliph reciled in the mosqut of Coniltalllinople. Bul liltle allC'l>' Don was paid to this lruce; 10 aJ·'Arlz's dellh, flghti. . wenl on f...- lhe, ·ion of Aleppo, and lht emperor Basil II thoughl it ncecsaary to join the eampaien personally. On the Falimid sid.., 100, an e~tremely well~uippcd expedilionary fon:e was prepared. A first fleet comlructed On I"" orders " lhe ,-izier. 'Isa ibn N..,urus, having been destroyed by fire, other ooal$ were immedialely buill 10 re· pLo.,., Ihem and senl 10 al""'k the pon nf Anllll1t1< (996). II ...._ a b,ilu...., The c:aliph died .0.1 lhe head of his army at Bilbris in Octob« 996. As _ as a1·~ir ascended lhe throne, the regenl Sin aI-M.. ll< sent Nicephoru.. the palriarch of J<.'T\l$:Illem. to lead an embassy 10 Cons
FATIMIDS AND THE COPTS

a Bynonli~ ""Irian:h 10 be namfd al J~n.ualtm; th" "",,er- 10 be made In lh~ nlIm~ of al-~~ in ConsIanlinopl". where lh" rntlil:lu~ .... 10 be r«ofUlrUCled (il had b«n d~ molWw4S-IQ.l6 ,,·ilh sumptuous gifts (the.... was Utlk of 300.000 gold dinars). The Ireaty or 1038 was renewed in 1048. But a new period ollenslon sUlned when the empero~ nellolialtd ...ilh the Saljuqids of Iklghdad, and Ihe prayer at Conslantlnople was made In lhe name of Ihe .ultan Toght\llbcg. This w3ll ""nicularly true under tbe empren Zo!!, In ,......eng~•• 1·Must,.,,~r had the Chun:h of the Holy ~puleher pillagtd. and he foTced Ih" Chrl$tians in Jernsalem to live in .. special dmrici. Amb¥'3'lon wen, exchanged. again durina Ih.~ second half of Ihe el ....enlh c"nlul')' (e.... in 1069). bul ll"~rally tbc e<>nlXlS "",re not as rood as un· d... (A)l\Sl.3nline IX. The ani•.". of til.. Crusaders in lhe Easl upsel the haboc" of fo.-.:C5 in tht rqlon. Allianctl we.... eoncluded. sometimes be.......en 8)"'1· ami..... a"d Crwadc~ and eo..,n bcc.....ecn 1M Fati· mids and til" Crusaders against the U'OOpS of Nllr al-Ofn (1169). In !heir rdalionship ...ith Chmrian Nubia. IIw: Falimids had Inherittd a paniculu silUallon based nn the aM)T nEATT....-hieh bid do...'11 thai tht kina of Nubia had 10 pa)' an annual tnbute 10 £&)l". I'ot" a lon, period lhis tribule ~td mainly of 360 black slavts. IOl"lher wilh animal. lhal wert un· known or ..... in Egypt. Through """end Maori.".. a1.Maqrbl i" ""nkular. "'" .know that Ihis pf'loClice (onlinutd under lhe Fatimids, bul onl)' inl"rmi!· lentl)'. Apan from certain periods. the gOytmment of Cairo load no mean. of forcing lhe clauses of til" !r
apirnt

8~"lium;

1099

Exc""" lor Ihese events. 1M hislory ellbc Nub.. ans had linle connection wilh tNl of lhe Falimids; al Icast lhe SOW'Cti rarel)' m"nlion them. A shon lime aft"r Gt:neral Jaw"'r'. amval in f.&ypI. he M:nl an "mbassy to King Ceot"l" of Nubia. ino·iting him 10 con",," 10 bLun or elM: 10 pay lhe ~II. The .... udgn d ...... It> pay. We hear of Nubia ooee mo.... during the rtVOIl d Abo Rakwall. in aI~m" timtS. 1llt rtbri had fled.o Nubia.. bul ...... capturtd by the king 01 Ihe COUntry• ...no handed him ....'Cl" to tht Falimids. .........n tbc king of Nubia.. Solomon, who had rK.... lIy abdicated....·enl on pil· grimage 10 """... n (1080). he "''as 61"i1 arrcsted and SC"IIO Cairo. bUI the oilieT. &ad, aI-Jam;loll. lrealed h.im "ith spedal attenlion. 1llt ling ditd in Cairo the follo....ing ytar and ........ buritd in th~ Monaslel')' of SainI Geo'1le. During lhe Ma&h... b period of the dynasty. Sidly had been one of the major pnoocc"palion. of th" Fatimid caliph.s. When al·Mu'ill seultd in Cairo, he left hi. lind lieulenaol the t3llk of deftnding Sidly. Thi. pmvinc" remain"d "nder Musllm dominalion until the middle of til" e1"""nth cenlury. Fmm Ihat lime on. weakened both by Synontine auac"" and inlernal division., it bt&Rn to represent a covetC
"P-'-

BI8UOCItAPHY

MaIn Arabloc Sources

AbU ':Ianifah a1-Nu'mln ibn Mul)ammad lOidI}. Kil· ~" ,,1.M"jdl~ "",.../.MuStn3d ibn 'Abd al·Wahhib al·Nuwayt1. N'-~il)IQt ,,/. Ard~ f! Fun';'" ,,[·Ad,,". Cairo. 1923. 'AII ibn ~fir. Aklrl>dr "1.0"",,,,1 "1.M.."q,,(i',,Ir. ed. A, FelTe. Cairo. 1972. Ibn al-OaIAnisl. Dh",1 Totrlkh DI"'"s~q, "d. H. F. Amedool. Lcid"n. 1\108. Ibn al·-$ayarfl. "Allsh!rah IIi man nAJa al·Wiclrah," Bulletin de I'ln.tilUf /r"nr"ls d'),rc;heologie ori"n· ,,,Ie 25 (1925):49-112. Ib~ I;lajar al·A!lqaIAnl, R4 "r"f' '"n QmJl'I1 Mi~ •. CaiTO, t957_

1100

FAW

Ibn KhalliUn, Wa/aJ~r ,,1·11.')'1'" 6 vol$., ed. M, M. 'Abd a1-I;{arok\. Cairo, 1948~19SO. Ibn M,,}_. ,u1Un!, Mi?, ed. H. ~ Cairo,

1919; 1957. KilAl> 4I-M.....·i' .......I·{,lH' (41·Kh~I1l). 2 YOh. BuIaq, A-H. 1270.

YaJn'j al-Anlikl. ~il,,/ KillJ.1t Urf~IIlJ., ed. L Cheikho. Paris, 1909. Ed. and F,..,nch lrans. T. Kl'luchkowIky and A, V..iliev In PO 17 and 23 (l924 and 1932). "ntil yur 404.

""venlh celliury lhal lbe pla~e WIOS a Ihriving mo· naslie Center (Pra/um Spirituale U. 71). BlBlJOGIlAPtIy

Arnllineau, E. La GiotraphK.,u "Egyp'~ oil fipoque top/e. p. 337, l';lris, 1893. Le Quieti, M, Orlens ChTistian'H, 3 vol .. Gru.. 1958, Reprint of P.rls, 1740, Timm. S. D4J christlitlt·kopti$Che Ac'pun /" /IIrabisc~, kif, pt.'. pp. 1506-1525. Wiesbadcn, 1988.

Slodlet 'Abd al-Mun'im Mapd. ~1Iu, KII1/4/QI "I F4{imiyyt.. ..."·s"qU!,,ItlJ. Ii Mif" AI ....andrl., 1968. Canard M, "Un Vizir chr~ien i I'tpoque f:\!imile, l'Armenten Bahrim:' A""al... de I"institm d'£I"th. oritnUlkJ Alto U (1954):84-113. ___ "Noles sur les Annbliens en Egypte. il'<'poque ~irnite.~ Ann.1u de l'hUlilu/ d'£/..d... ()ri. ~../"I... 13 {I'JS5):I43-57. _ _ "Vne Lectn .... calife filmile al·Hafi:!: i Roger II:' In Alii d~/ C"nve,,,o di S,..di R"Ueria"i, pp. 12~-46. Palermo. 1955. ':Iasan Ibrlhlm ':I...n. T4rl~h al·D"wlah al. FlJ.{im4Jy,,1I /I "I-Mavib ..." Mlfr ..'a-S"ri)'l "",,·8i· Mil al··AT"b. 3rd ed. Cairo, I~. ':b.un lbBhlm Hasan. and A. $baraf. AlM..·iz:. Ii· DI,,-
Vantini. G. 0"·e..,41 So.." ...... Concern.", Nuhid. Hei· ddbe"l and Wana..., 1975.

FAW, Su Pbow.

FAYYOM, C~ OF,!he capiUl of l~ pnwince of fayyiirn. In anc~l Ec1'l t~ city, !hen named after lhe crocodile cod Sebek (Greek Such",,). was an island in a lake called Moeri. (now Birkal Oir\in). The Romans callM the <,ily Crocodilopolis, and its name in Copt;';' ....... +‫סס‬oo (sea). probably beaUS<' of the sitt of lake Moeris. vmich IlUnounded !he city. In Gf"ftk the city was kn<>-o." lOS A~oi.es, SO named afrer At'$inoe, I.......ife of Ptolemy II, Arsino<'/Fayyiim had a bi.hop lIJ eady as Ihe mid· dle of the third ~en1ul)'. when Nepos .dministe,..,d the dty. Mooast:icisrn nw:Ie an .,.,rly entry into !he area- Salm AlC1QHY visited rnonks in I.... fa))'ilIn anti John MoIIehlls WTO(e aI I.... becinnlns <Jl .....

'n

RAf,'noUL

snw-..IIT

FAYYOM GOSPEL FRAGMENT, a small frasmenl of papyl\l.$ conlatlling SIK Incomplele lines wriuen in a bloek hand On the recto of a roll, lhe veno bernS blank. It is misnamfll in !hal it . . . discoYft'ed not in !he f&:yy1lm bill $I;,;hdy 10 the south. on the sile of the ;lJ\C~t HenlI~lis.. in the ~ourse of «<,a_iollS carried OUt in 1882. it is preserved in Ihe Rainer eolleClion al Vienna. It is unusual In being pan of. roll rltlher Ihan, like lhe peat majoril)' of .,.,rly Chri:sTian papyri, part of a code>:. h can be ~Iy daled 10 the Ihird centul)'. In iI is deKribed. &oS in Mat.hoew 26')()-34 and Matt 14:26_30, the dqranure of Jest.t!i and his di!K:i· pIes to lhe Moum of Olives immedialely bdore tI,e Passion, with Jesu.' prophecy from Zechariah 13:7 and hil prediclion of Peler's denial. The ac<,ount is closoor 10 Mart'l than it lito Malthew'•. but is much mol"l' ...mmary ~n INn Marl<'.. The .... thor cerwnly d"",,· Oil Marl·1 nan;uM:, bul his ooabulal)' ~ thaI he also used JOme Olher ...... rcr, for «ample, he UJCI Ihe word '10 <,row," nOl found anywhere in I~ New TeSlamenl. Thi. also renders il unlikely lhal wh;>.l we have i$ part of a trealise In which !he ...'riler abbrevialed me narnui,,., of Man: ralher lhan a separale I05pel. BIBUOGItAPHY

Bickell. G., ed, "Vas nichtbnonische Evanl~1ien· frag"'enl." Z.ltsd,rl/1 f~' kalhollJche n.e"logi~ 9 0885):498-500. and 10 (1886):206-209. He.. necke, E., and W, Schnee...eicher. Nrw T&
FAVYUMIC. See Ap~~dix.

FAVYUMIC PAPYRUS, Sa HamhurJ Papyrus.

FEAST

FAVY(JM PAINTINGS. SU PortrailS and Funerary Masks.

FEAST, an occasion appointed by lhe church to be observed Wilh rejoicing and celebration.

1101

chief of all the days ... on which our life sprang up again, and the victory ove. dealh was obtaine
Old Testament Feasts

Feuts Observed by the Coptic Church

In obedience to God's commandmenlS. lhe following occasions were kepI as days of reSl, abslen· lion from work. and offering of sacrilices:

These fall inlO four main divisions: the se,·en major feaslS, the sC"en minor feasts (sec FEASTS. "l ..... 0R; fEA.STS, "l1,"OR), the seven Marian feasls. and the saims' and martyrs' feast days. The seven major feasts are:

1. The Sabbalh (Ex. 20:8- 11) 2. Passover (E>:. 12; Lv. 23:5) 3. Feast ofWeeb, or of lhe wheat hal1'e't, celebrat·

l. The Annuncialion (29 Baramhat)

ed seven weeks after Passover (Lv. 23:15) Feast of the Tabernacles, on the lifteenth day of the sevemh momh. al lhe end of lhe harvest feslival (Lv, 23:33) New Moon Feast, on lhe firsl day of every month (Nm. 10:10; 28:11-15) The Day of Atonement. on the lenth day of lhe sevenlh momh (Lv. 23:27) Feast of Blowing of the Trumpets. On the /il>ll day of the sevemh month (Lv. 23:24. 15)

2. The Nalivity (29 Kiyahk) 3. The Epiphany (11 Tubah) 4. Palm Sunday. on the seventh Sunday of lhe Greal lenl 5. Easter Sunday. a movab]" f"asl celebrated on lhe lirst Sunday after Passion Week 6. Ascension Day, on the fortieth day after the Res· urrection 7. Penteeost, on the fiftieth day aft"r the Resurrection

In addilion, lhe Israeliles were ordered 10 hallow the jubilee year. occurring once every fifty years al the end of se"e" Sabbatical cycles.

The seven minor feasls, in chronological order,

4.

5.

6. 7.

Early Chrlstlan Feasts From various references m the New Testament we learn that Christ and His disciples obsen-ed the annual Jewish feasts (Mt, 26:19; Mk. 19:13: U. 1:42: In. 2:13: 5:1: 7:2, 37). Ukewise Saim Paul celebral' ed various feasts. stressing their Chrislian characler and dissocialing them from Jewish connotalions. Thus. for e>t1s warn, "If any of the clergy be found fasling on the Lord's day, or on th" Sabbalh. excepting lhe one only [lh" Salurday preceding Easter Sunday]. lel him be deposed. 1f a layman. let him be excommunicated" (A[X!slOlicai C~nons 66, p. 598). Palristic writings abound in references 10 feasts and festivals. lG,"ATtUS OF ANTIOCH (c. 35- I07) states: , . let ever~y friend of Chrisl keep the Lord's Day as a festival. the .esulTection-day, lhe qu""n and

are, I. Circumcision (6 Tubah)

2. The Marriage Fcasl at Cana (13 TC>bah) 3, Candlemas (8 Amshir) 4, Maundy ThuTIiday, on the Thursday preceding Good Friday 5. Saint Thomas's Sunday. On the Sunday followin8 Easter Sunday 6. Entry of lhe Holy Family inco Egypt (24 Bashans) 7. Transfiguration (13 Misra) The seven feasts of the Thtolokos are: I. Annunciation of her Nativity (7 Misra)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7,

Nativity (I Basbans) Candl"mas (3 Kiyahk) Dormition (21 Tubah) As.
Saints' and Martyrs' Days The Coplic SYNA>
1102

FEASTS, MAJOR: AnnunciatiOn

BIBUOGllArHY

B\J!ruS Jlrjif. Kirllb .. ~A"U ./.s.>yyid;y,v,. Cairo. 1941.

~bJb Jirjil. AI-s<>Uu..h .'·UrlhuJJwhiyy«h. pp.

175-82. C.im. 1948. All.CllBISIlOf' BM;IUOS

FEASTS, MAJOR. [This entry disc..... eJ nv'"

Ie...,..: Annunclltlon Narivity

Epiphany Palm SwKby

The oblip'ion to observe tllb fnst wu .tipuiale. OF AUX· Mo-VRIA (c. ISO-215) 5IalCS: " ••• ,here ,hose who ha"e determined nOl only ,he year of our Lxd's birth. bot also the day: and lhey say Ihat il look place in tht lwenly-eighlh year of AuguslU'. and on .he 'wenly·fifth day of Pachon. _.. Funher. o,he'" say .hat he ",..as born on the twenty-f""rth or twenly-M.h of PharamUlhr' (Stromata 21). The Co""i/"ri,,,.. oj/he Holy Apo5ll~. how....er. strike a !'IO.e 01 cenainty: "Brethren. ob.e~ lite fcsli.al days; and s...... of all the binhday ... hkh )00 arc 10 eclcbra,c on the l ....... nty-liIth 01 the ninth month." The month in lI.-lon hn-c is the nimh ol the Hebrew calendar. Difference of opinion also applies to the )'eN 0( Christ's Nllwity. To trenaet.15 (c. 130-200). ;t was Ihe forty·lirll year of me reign of Augmrus. AU£' 751 or 1 soc... n opinion ~h.red by Tertullian {c. I W-200j. Olher historians held the view Ihal Chri..'1 birth took place in the forty·.econd year of the rei", of AuguSIUS, the twenty-eighth year after Ihe COrUl,UC51 of Egypt. A,UC. 752 or 2 B.C. To Ihis sthool of thc>uth. belong Clement of Ale.... ndria (c. 150-215). Hippolyrus of Rome (c. 170~216). EU5&

,,-en

,"""

AS1O.,moion

p.,,,.«<*. J

Annunciation The Annundalion i.o one of Ihe ..even majo~ feas15

of the Coptic chn!"Ch; it commemoralU the an· nounnment of the angel Gabriel.o .he ViTFn Mary that sh., should conceiw and g",e binh 10 Je_ Christ. the pc-omi..ed Messiah. A.ceordinglO th., CapeK: SYIWlU1ON. this fesoinl. ...i1kh has bttn ob.eyyed Jim. the early centum of Cl\rSiani.y. fall. on 29 Baramhlt. nine moeuhs befon: the narhity of Jesus on 29 Kiy.1ltk. '" Ihis occurs dun"l the Great Un. preceding E;ut.,r. it is celebrated ...·ith due rcjoidn. but without breakin, lhe fast. rhough it is a major fellS'_ If. howeve~. it coincides with Holy Wuk. it is commemoraled withoul nhering any of Ihe solemn observances, The aceounl of the Annundalion as rtlaled in Luke 1:26-~ ,..,fieets the humilily and willin, submission of .he Virgin Mary '0 God's will. in dear contBS' to Z"",haiiah's $kepdcism in """".ion to the ancel's ;der!tic.a! ~e co;>n(:eming his ",ife E1lla· beth and ehe birth 'of John lhe Bapist.. B1BUOCllAl'HY

Jug;.. N. "La Premiere Itte ....riaJe tn Orit'nl et

C'OI

O<:cident; I',,-ant primilif." In &/ws d'OTie,,' 26 (1923): IJO-5:t ARCHB.SKOC' BASlUOS

Nativity The flttil of the Nal;";ty of Christ is b,p' by ,he Capeic Chu..:h 00 29 K1ya/tk.

FEASTS. MAJOR: Palm Sunday

BIUS 01" CAlSo\UA (e. 260-340). and EJ'II'HANIUS. bish· op of Salamis (c. 315-403): Anoth,r «elniastical .... rilel". Dion}"$_ Er.ii\NS. the Sc:y\hian monk "'ho liYcd in Jl.ome toward the end of the filth century and in me fine half of the .alit and ..... the Ii... l<> intmdu.cc the sY'tent of lI$ina: the ye:ar of the IDcamation .. the bqinninS of the Chriaoian en.. liud the yeu A-V", 753 or I Il.C. .. the )UJ" 01 Je.w' birth. BIBLIOGIlAPHY

Boole. B. Us Orip.u d' u. Noitl d ~r I'Epip/HInie. Pan.. 19)2. Duchesne. L O~"es d" c"ltt eMilie". pp. 247-54. Pam. 1889.

Epiphany This is one of lhe most popular feam celebraled by Ih. COpl$ (on II Tilbahl, for whom h mUSI have been a Chrislianized rorm of the ancient EiJ'PIian fWivitiC$ auocialed willt lhe Nile. on", of their principal dyna.slk god$. Th' Coptic Syna.ocarion stales lhal lhe MCS6iah appear~ on lhat day ,.. me Son of God and the Sacred ~ to obliterate the si... of lhe work!, hence the ""ramounl important\! of that ~as.t in lit", Coptic cilendlor. On tIlatlby. me faithful are puri/Oed !Tom $in!. by the holy ~er in a wrj equh~ent 10 bIlpcism. ,",k lUst Is P<"'Ceded by a .,.;,pI and a no<;lurnal ...-, _ of lItr'" night cc1ebraliom. the other t'OlO beina: the Nativity and the Nicensioll. The chief pu.... pose of litis function is the sanctification of thc water. which in t>,JIO:>C day:s _ brow&ht to the middle of lite nave in • Iarse Jfl:q>laCie "ith t"'O ca..... on the sides.. Prj".- 10 lhe celebration of mass• .special praye:n are ~ for the sanctific.a· lion 01 thai waIn with inceost. hymns. and ,""ins from lhe Psalms. the Epm~, and the Gospeh. IJ· I.... the completion or the Lltutgy. the receptaCle is lI>O\'ed to Ih' nanhca where the continuation of Ihe 045ces ends with the faithful plunginll inlo lhe holy waters. This practice "''as suppressed in rno
1103

sion under lkho.ltkl Mul)..mmad ibn Tughj in lite year 941. The bank of the Nile _ illuminated by endless to«:""". and the f.&yptlans-both CoptS and Muslims-e~ in their best appar",l. Many plun~ed into the Nile in the belief thM its santli6ed waler ,,_ld '-I them fro"" .U mmenrs. This is reminiscent of lUI anc>mt Ec,yptlan 1etend. when people rcenacwl the search oIlsis in tlte "''ltIen of the NUe at the pIaoc ",heft ~h bad killed her husband Osiris and .KsuenG his limbs. In ehos.c day:s. F.c1P6- .bo illuminaled lite Nile bank and p1un£ed imo in waleD. Copt5 used 10 visit Ihelr deceased ~IMiVft,;n the cemeteries on lite foll_;1I/I day. This tradition has been establo.bcd ....ona: u..pl$ .nd Mu.lims alike. The food on that day ,;onsisa of. spteiil ,~le kno....n in latin under the name Cole••", artt;quotUm. in A",bic as qulq
Blackman. S. L" F'elltlhs de Itl H"ute.Egypte. lrans, J. Marty. Paris. 19a4, Budtr, A. J. The A"c~"t Copt;,; Churches of Egypl. 2 mls. OafonI, 1884. Coquin, R.-G. "Lcs OrIgines de l'Ep;phanie en F.cJp!f." In Noll. Epiple""ie, re""" du Cleml. ed A. Kniazill and B. Bolle.....ris. 1%7. F"'"""l. M. de. Le StlnclO,,,1 copte. Beirut. 1960. AAcHBIS_ BAsluos

Palm Sunday One ol the most popular fI!asts amonr; the Copts-, this occurs on the JoeYenm Sunday 01 lent and has been cdebral~ by the Coptic dtun:h from carty Chrislian lima in order 10 c:ommemorauo the entry of Jesus inlo Jerusalem. This bePm. Holy Wed... ""hich is called the w«k of s-ullering (Jum'", "I· Allm). n.e CopU throns lIteir chun:hes from early mOnlinll carrying "''ltn lhem plaited ",,1m Ie.,= in th~ .hape of,;rosses Or I round cake of holy brcOtd. or both, deC<>rllted with olive t\Nip and flowers, Religious services On Palm SundlY begin al daybreak and lasl until the afternoon. ahhough nowa· days .ome curtailment is pra';llced in town ,;hurch· ,.. The celebrations Include leven proc"",ions; thn:e Wilhin Ihe JanCIUa'Y b
1104

FEAsrs, MAJOR: Easler

"" C...... d~k~ with bnond'''S of palm and th~e undl.-s. The p.-.x:esoion halts bricfty lnfur" iCOllS and rdies. The S!'venlh lour take' place around the altar. ",'hile 1he choir chanl!l hymns. Members of

us, tI..a~fo...., celebratt the festival. nOl with lhe ok! lea""'n. the It''''en of malice and evil. but with tilt unleavened bread of sincerity and lruth" (1 Cor.

the congreplion join ill the three cenlno' munds of

In the eoulV: of lheir cdebralion of Easler, lhe farhe", P'~ it ''arious dtsig....Oons. Julness like that of day. by c:ausinS ,,_en Iafltn lO be ligtIled throuaf\out the eity; baides which lorella tycl}""he~ dilJu5ed their light. 50 as to impan 10 lhis m~ic visil a brilliant splendour beyond thaI of day," During the first th~e centuries lhere was dloer· gen"e amanS the churches aboul lhe mmemonting the cruc;fi~ion on tile Friday and celebrallng lhe re:wrrect;on on lhe Sunday following 14 and 16 Nl$an. respecli,,,,ly. In Eal-l'I. Patriarc:h DEMEnJUS' (119-231) de'i!oed !he EpK! method d caku.lalilll the e:>::act day of Easler Sunday. so I~ it ........Id always foil"'" lhe Je.....ish Paswvu. in dOK a<\hereOCt 10 the first Eas-

mit proctll$ion "'thin lhe chu.-c:h. Mer ~ rtadina of the Gospel and the ollK., d .....rins. tho: UtutJ:)' of "ilM." Saim Crqory or SainI lbsU Is reitemed ..nrillhe lime or communion. when 1M office of the dead is held at the nimh hour of Palm Sunday. This t.-.dition.l office amon, the Copts is espe5e Math falls in the CO"","" 01 Holy Wed.. One" the <..'rilnotions au cornpk'ed with 1M upenion of holy ......,,...- and the l>enWiclion. the bilhful ",ithdrl..· ..ith their polIm C",",","" and their holy bread. As • rule. IMy break lhe Jast on ~al. consisting ~nliaJly of fish, all this happen. 10 be: the only day of len! when fish is p"r· milted. In the early etnturies of Coptic hislOry. a special procession is said 10 ha~t been conducted oulsidt lhe chu.-eh through tht city ~ ..,..... ht8ded by lhot eletw:r and Iolk>wcd by IN: a>mmunity d !he bith· fuL This 1f"8dilion rnnained in foret until il _ fori:>iddtn by thoe FaIimid calip/l al-l:f.Ikim at tilt lum of tnt Itnth untury. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burmesler, O. H. E'.. TIr, Etyp'iD.n or Coptic Cit"""h. Cairo, 1967.

Buller. A. J. 111, A..cienl Coplic Ch"rches of EDP!. 1 ..::>U. OlIbnl. 18M. Une, E'.. M.....""" ...11 CMSWfII <J/ th# M/JduJ< EO'po 1i.1IS. 1 woIs. Londo.., 1"2.

wa.s.sn.

am

Wissa. h.liqu~ ,jl"'"~

"

..urn,...

"'iru d" I:OpIU. Bibl~qu, d',tuoo Copt"'l 9,

pp, 195-96. Cai9>. 1971. ARCIl8IS110'

B1.S1UOS

Euler and earlitst ml;'''' of thot church, at which Chri$tians cdebrale the annivena· ry of the "':wrrection of 1esus Chrin and Hi. ~J.c. tory O\'er death. n.e omel'\'llnee "I Eutu starttd as early as lhe apo5l(l{ic age. Writina: to lhe Corinlhians, probably at or near thot """"""r lift5Ofl. Saine ,....1 decbns. .'0."". .,.ehal lamb. }u.s been UoC:rifictd La

East" Is 1M

""r

uealeSl

5:7,8).

,~.

The comroveny, nnenhe]""" continued. The..., was also a difference of opinion ""prding the inlerprelation of the concept of the crucifixion. To the Asian churcMs, it was an occasion of rejo«:ll\8, on the Sroun
FEASTS, MAJOR: Pentecost

church of Al~)llowinl are Ihe main fealures of the faMer Sunday service: I. The cdebration of the Uturo sans late on Holy Saturday .,..crain... • nd encb in the early hours of Sunday. in conhwmity with tnc New Tewomenl (ML 16:2,9; LL 2<4:1: Jn, 20:1). Z. As in thor: CIM of the feasts of the N>llimy and the Epiphany. the hahM appointed for the third aftd $iith hours are omilted, in vi.... of the facl tIJiU their contents are: not cOIll~ible wilh the joyful occao.ion of 1M feul. l. An irnpre:ul~ leaIllrc of this service ts the enIoCtItlCDI 01. w Resurrcclion. Ahff w Ieflion ft-om me Mts of'hc ApoI.I~, ",hich foIJo-1; tbe Pao.oline and Cath3lic Eptules, the JU>C1u.ary door is dooed. Aprien or a cXacOfl holds the Icon of the J!.CSUITCC· lion, and the l'QI 01. lhe clergy and deacons, cut)" ina candles. ef06SeS. ppels, and «men, sinl the bymn of m.: Resurrection. Thftt lhe priQts, toeetJt. .r with '''''0 or IbreI: deacons. enter inlO the S;lnetu· ary. ",hile the rtiC remain ouuide in m.: choir. and me sanetlUl}' doors are thecn d~ (repn5elllinl th~ sealed .......e front which Christ r<>aoe. lO$ w~11 lIS .ymboIizina the clolure of .......iu as a ",sult of the bll of Adam). A1llichts in the ch..rc.h llre atinpilJtcd. and IWO deacons. !Undine outside the ...nctuaty. chant in Coptic "Chrisl ts risen" three times• .,.,h time the chief prie$l. .-cspondina: from within: "He .. rilen ind«d"; this is then ",peated in Anlbic. Th. t..o «loCons e~dalm. "Un lip )"our beads. 0 lates, and be )'e lined lip. 0 aoci.nt doo",. thai the King of gbry may cOme in" (Ps. 24:1). This is said !hI"« timcs. witho"il~ response from within the sancluary. Aher the thi~ time Ihe chief pric$t ask>. "Who is this Kinl of ,lory?" to which Ihe deacon. answee, ''The lord,strona: and mia:ftly. the Lord. mia:ftly in battle" (Ps, 24:8-9). Then 11",)' knock on the 5&DCu,Iaty door vlolently, at whkh Ih. door is pushed open. and the lights a.e ptH on. t. The clergy altd deaconllo in pnx:CS$ion three time. around the altar, ~arryilta the icon of Ihe Re.llrre<:tiolt. bannert!, crVSRS. ~andlcs, and cen· se .... and then, coming OIlt. lhey 80 thrice around the church singing in Coplic and Arabic lhe R.sur.«Iion pM~le)<. Finally the pnx:enlon entc.. Ih. sancluary aaain and loes around the ahar onCe. TIt.... it will be noted thai Ihe number 01 ci","ils

1105

made in the procession is seven. I)'n'bollcal of the seven circuits made by Joshua. son of. Nlln. around the gat"" of the eity of Jericho. which finally feU down. TItis .II"" alllld"" to the collapse of the gales of Hades upon the death and the ruurrection or Christ. ARol8lS1lO~ B.tstUOS

Ascension This nd in John 6:62 ,."d 22: 17; Ephesians 4:8- 10; He\noe>.'S ':14 and 1:26: I Peter 1:22; and. I TImoohy 1:16. The fony--d.ay tradition Is ..,ceptcd by ~ Copu and. this seems 10 h,ne been tlteit' ~ice front early times. lOKI< OIl\l"SO.'ml!ol, Etheria. and S(lCIlATU rerer to lhe cdebntion 01. the feau in the c:ourse of the fourth century. This few is solemn!)" cdebra'ffl by the Copts on the fifth T1lunday after Easlff Sunday. that is. the fonieth day after Christ", RcsulTl'Clion. II is a1WllYS aeeompan>cd by the ""me liturgy as the Resu!TI'C. lion, :and a proc~n <:<;ImmcmonolCS the journey of Jnus 10 Ihe Mounl oJ. Oli...". from ..hich he "enl to heaven_ Amonllhe Copts. thil' service seems 10 ha>.., laken the form of a simple chllrc:h li.tnc:tion wilhout the popular celcbratioll$ of Easler. B1BUOC....PHY

Benoil. P. "L·Ascensioo." Revue bihliq~~ (1949): 167-201. Bunnester, O. H. E. TM Emti4n 0<' Coptic Ch~rf:h, Cairo. 1%1. Millipn. W. 1h~ ,hce~s;o" o..d H~~,,~~ly Pr;~S!hood of O~r Lord. London, Ill'll; 2nd cOltloo. Green· ..nod. S.c., 1971. S..ete. H. 8. Th~ """ .. d,d Chrisi. LondOr'\. ''l10. 81sHOI' G1U1GOI\l0!S

Pentecost This major feast in th. Coptie Church. commemo· rate. the d.ocent of Ih<: Hoi)" Ghost on Ille apostles on lhe fiftieth day after lhe Resllrre<:llon (AclS 2:1-4). This "'"",,;n fulfillm.nl of the promise rrnode

1106

FFASTS, MINOR

by Jesus before His cnocibion: '1"he counselor, .he Holy Spirit, ...horn lhe Falher will ser>d in my name, be will leach you all Ihings, 3nd brine 10 your remembrance all Ihall ha\.., said 10 you" (In. 1.:26). Saini Mart explicitly m<:nl>ons lite promise 10 en· able l~ "10 ~ in n......· IOnl"QH (16;17). 1'1Iese and tJmllar pifllta _re all fulfilled len daj.'lI met" !he AsunsOon, thai is. fifty days met" !he Rnurnc-tioa, £qIliva/enl 10 the J"",-isi> feaso: 01 _eb INoI OOC'llrnd on the fiftieth day after the I'asIoYer (Dt. 161, In the Acts 01 the Apost~ tile descenl 01 tIw Koly Spiril on Ihe m.ciples is ~n"bed as "Iongues as of fire, distribuled and restine on each oi.hem" (AclS 2:3). The Coptic l""nlJalion of Ihe Bible dearly di:uin· CUishes between the term "Holy Spirit" when il is u$Cd 10 indicllte Ihe HYl'OST/L$IS and the term ,,'hen il indicate, the gift or snoce bestowed upon Ihose who are blessed by the Holy Spirit, BIBLIOGRAPHY Bur_Iter, 0. H. E. The Egyplian O' Coptic Ch"l'th. Cairo. 1967_ JUl"Jens, William A. TIre Faith ollhe Eal/y F
FEASTS, MINOR. Then are sewn minor fnuI celeboned by the (:(,plic cbureh.

Ful-t of Clrcumdsion

r-st

occurs 011 6 Tubah. The pt'lIIClice of circumcision started with Ab~ ham, in fulfillment of God', COlo..,.,.nt (Gn, 17:914), by which eyeryifa-!e child should be circumciwd on the "igbtll day aft.... his binh. Accord-ine to thoe Ne... TtlIttmenl, brr..'"""r, Ihe sanctity of this rlt .....1 ""'" mpeneded by !he sac:nunem of holy Baptism. Consequently, jU51- :os Ihe un<:ircumdlled ...ere nOl all.".''''' 10 partake of the Passoyet lamb, those who have nOl been Npliled a~ not allo_d 10 partake of Holy Communion: "In him also you were ci~umdsed wilh It dreumcilion macJe wilh· OUI hands. by pulling off the body of Aesh in Ihe circumcision of Chri.l; and you were buried wilh him in Nplism. in which you were also noised wilh him through failh in Ihe wor~ing of God. who noised him from Ihe dead" (Col. 2:11-12). Saint This

Paul rei"'l1II~ ,his point in "'0lIl of his cpist~, bUI he mm, II up succlncdy in Galtotians: "Fo.r neithe.circumcision counts for anything, nOr uncircumdsinn, bul a new crntiofl" (Gal. 6:15). Durilll the ;loJ'OROlic age. a con~' arose: as 10 ...-bet:her cin:urncislon _ dSentialas a ~ligioou< practice. n... aposala mel in 51-52 at Jerusalem and agrttd 10 ""cd Paul and Bamabu, XCO
s:

Celeb... ted On 8 A",shlr. Candlemas commemo· ....tes Chrl5t', "ntry with .he Virzin Mary' forty days after His birth inlO the lemple al JenJ5alcm_ In ""co.-dance wi,h Ihe la... of MOlIQ. a mother had 10 presenl he, MWborn child al the lemple al Ihe "nd of the pr"""n"bed period of purification, ",-hicb was fany Wo)'lI in the case of a male child and e;pot! in the case of a krnale child (lev. 12:2-1). The _ e Ia... ~ thai ".-cry fir$l-bom male ...... 10 be cameen-Ied '0 the servlc" 01 God (be:nce the ",'Of'ds of U. 2:22-23). The te-i1es _re later chosen from :among the child..... of hnel 10 be consecrated ~ . but as they _ ... found 10 be oulnurnWcd, il ...... dK.--d that tirsc-bom mal" c~n .....,re 10 be ~med for a Sltm of money (fi"" shekels). Notwithswtdine .he miraculous YiI¥in birth 01. J~ Mary and Josc-ph "perfomted all ,hines ac· cording 10 the law of the lord" (ll. 2:39). CandlemlU is a1110 the celeb_ion of Ihe meetin, between the infanl Je_ an
FEASTS, MINOR

of Isaiah 7; t4 ("Therefore the lord himself will give you a sig~, behold a virgin .hall concei"" and bear a son, and .hall call hi. name Immanuel") Simeon was skeptical, and felt inclined 10 use the word "maid" instead of "virgin." In a vision the lord promised him lhat he would not .~ death unlil he had seen lhe Lord Jesus Chrisl in person, horn of the Virgin. Anolher person who witnessed the presentation of Christ into the temple was the prophetess Anna, daushter of Phanuel of the Hibe of A.her, a devout wife for seven years and a widow for eishty-four years. who served Go
Entry of the Holy Family Into Egypl This feast is celebraled on 24 Samans. (S" a/so Flishl into Egypt.] Feast of the Marriage al Cana This feast occurs on 13 ~ubah. It celebrates the first miracle ""rformed by Je.us Chrisl during His minislry. when He changed the waler into wine. lhereby manifesting His glory to His disciples who consequendy "believed in Him" (In, 2:11). The following lrulhs may be deduce
1107

feast, wholewme and ben"ficial, rather like the wine of blessing menlioned in Genesis 27:28, 37. and in Deuleronomy 7:lJ. or the eucharistic wine. 4. It is a manifest indication thaI lhe church blesses marriage and treats it as a sacramem, Hence there are many references 10 the marriage feast of Cana in the sacrament of holy Malrimony, Allain, in the offering of incense on .he eve of 13 Tubah, the lection from MaUhew 19. which is used in lhe prayers during the matrimony service, is in· duded in the celebration of the Feast of Cana of Galilee, "Have you not read that he who made them from the beginning made then male and female, .. , What theref".., Go;53-58; I Cm. 1l;23-29; 10:16-17), As with all covenants drawn betw~n God and lIlan and consolidated by means of a blood OOnd (e.g., circumcision in the case of Abraham. and the paschal lamb in lhe case of Moses), Christ's reo demptive covenanl was confirmed "n lhe cross by meanS of His precious blood. The commemorative ""nice thaI the Coplic church holds on Mau"dy Thursday, the only day wilh a liturgy in Holy Week, is particularly rich in spiritual nourishment. It fall. inlO thr..... main parts. The first part covers the canonical hours of H"ly Week, .tarting with the first hour (or morning pra}'er), f"llowed by the third, sixth. and ninlh hours, in each of which lhe laction from the Old Testamenl is in perfect harmony with lhal from the New Teslament. After each hour the rdevant Psalm is chanted in a special sad melody, then follow the appoinled readings from the Go.""ls. and finally a short passage, caller the sanclification of the waters on the feast of the Epiphany, the priest prays "ver a basin filled with waler. with a lishlcd candle on either side.

1108

FEASTS. MINOR

There are nine readings from the Old Testamenl and ''''0 fron, Ihl' N....... Tl'ltaml'nl. and some p"'y' eo'S and homilies on lhe Ihft"'" of humility. m""k· nesI • • nd self·,xnial lhat our lotti lllUllhl <1' by precep' and praclice. An ocuoal fooo:....a.hing lllke. place. followin, tM v.ample of Jesus Chmt: "If I tMn. your Lord and tl'ach/ll". have ",...hed your ffft. you lObo oughl to ","aIfl 0fl1Oc anot"""s fe<:!. For 1 ha"" given you an I'cUmpllOc. thal you should do '"" 1 ha,.., <\o}ne 10 you" (In. 13:14. IS). Vested in an rpilrdd'di.". ( _ UTUltl;1CAL \I1!$TME.-.rs~ the high pries' dipl a (Iolh i",o thlOc f;OIl$l:'C..red '....Ier and "'~ (<<1 of his fl'cllow ~ and Ih., Conve-

t""

ptlon.

"The Ihird pan ia thoe litu'BY Propel". in obedilOcnclOc 10 ksus' f;ommandmenl: "Do this in remcmb... nce of.....,.. (Lk. n'19: 1 Cor. 11:25). It is noIeworthy that in thl'c M.undy Thursday Eo>c:harisl. in ......... of the PaMion of OUT Lord and thl'c panicul..- incidents lhat take plac:1Oc prior to Hil ruurT«liool. the fvIlowing e1....... an made: I. TbI'c f'laJlnIl lhal precede the 0/("";1\& of lhe lamb .rlOc 01111,,«1:z. Thene .ne no I«tlOlll from the c.tholic q>i.Ides tM- CnJdfiJliool) is omined. S. lhe kisl of peK" iI omillN (be<;...... Judas

15f;anoo bI'c.....yN Jesus wilh a kisl). 6. The« s«tloros flOm ,he Creed-"H., ...... (nIdfied for"" at the ~ of Pomi"" Pilale"; "He JullerN and wa! lxlrie'd; and tile Illird day he rOK again from tile dlOcad, aCf;ordinl'O the Scriplum": and "H., BSClOcnded to,' thl'c lI.,a"lOcn!; lie ....t at the right hand of His F3'hl'cr: He will also (Orne ~in in Hi. 110ry to jud810c IhlOc livln8 and Ihe dead; of Whose Kin8m tIM:" !hall hoi: nO end"-are dropp.,d. 7. The (omml'moration of the ... ints i. omined. Whil., Holy Communion is beini .,Jmini"ered. lhe usual P$>llm (150) and lis acco'"Pl'nyinl uprc.· .ions or e~ullallon ar-e to be replaced by lhree ,eadinll' from tile elevenlh (anonical hour. taken from lhe Old Tl'lIlament. The Psalm and Saint Jolln's Cospd (l3:21-:Hl) arlOc Ih.,n read in a ...d mdody. Finally th., l'Oeil gl"« the bllOcssinll and dismissal.

Late on ~laundy Thursday evenini. pnyers are

l"e$Umed in p..."aralion for lhe tillOc of Good Friday.

Sunday of l1\omaa The f"'S. of 'J'homal; fall. on ,hI'c ~rst Sunday afilOcr

the Resurre<:lion_ Tho..... was one of thlOc twcl~ dis<:ipl.,. clll.... n by Christ (ML 10:3; Mit.. l:18; Ll. 6,15: In. 11:16). In Saini John's Gospel he is alwa)'l reft:rl"ed 10 as Diot,mus (Aramaic. I"in). When J...... Chrisl appearN 10 lhoe disdpll:S afler Hi. r.....lTection. Thomas not prelent (In. lO). and "" hearing of it he slteptic..... HIOc.suspended his belief pending ac,woIly Itti... ,hlOc math of IhI'c wound. "im his """n eyes .nd louchlng IMm wllh his Own fi~. Wh.,.,. therefone. Juus appeared 10 the discipl... the following Sunday He .... ed Thorn· lI$ 10 diopd 1Ii1 doubts. "Pu1 )'OUr fin,.,r here. and see my hands: and put out )'OUr hand. and placlOc " in my .;de; do not I><: bith...., but bdie->'In," (In. 20:21). A durer idea of the '1\JI'c eharac.1'c1'" of Thomas can bI'c ~ ;( "''I'c take' into acCOUnt that he OIKe oIJe«d to die with Jesus on H'" "''ay 10 see Uzaru:s in Bed",n)·. "Let us ....... 10. lhal _ may di., ",ith him." said ~ ",t>tn b<: leam.,d ,hal thlOc JIOcW1 _ne Ittl:inc 10 kill Him (In. 11:16). OM b $ not doubt ,he sinclOcri.y of su;:h • StatlOcml'cnl. Thouah 1M: f;o.dd nol ac<:qlf b<:ts unlns vctifiN by ""P"rWn« like a ur:at many peopk who ha.'e las bilh lhan ,..,"""'. the so<.... ,N doublins n..omas was 1M vny first among the 1"lOch.., di5(iples 10 (OI'lffll lhe di· .inity of J...... Chrisl. The mornenl he ......red him..,lf of lhft .....lily of lhe """rs in Cllti$l's hanok and In Hi. slok. bilh _lled up from wilhin him and M proelalmN. "My Lord and my God." (hrian rebukl'c. howe,~r. is of ""nif;ular signi/iun(1Oc to :all II\ciM who shau Thomas's .k.qlfif;;.m: .. Bl.....,d are III~ who havt not ..,.,., and yet I><:lie.·,," (In. 20:29).

Transfigurallon Th., vision of J~"". Christ's Transfiguration On Mounl Tabor ...."" "'il~d by three diloC:iplClPeter, James. and Jolin_in fulfillment of Chri~t'J promise, "Truly I say to you. Ih.,u at-e some sU\nd· ing h~re ",ho will not mste death hefo", IhlOcy see th~ Son of man comini in hi! kingdom" (Mt. 16:28: Mk, 9:1: U. 9:21). This, ho;>wever, was. nOI the first lime that th~ thr." diloC:iples ""ell! <;hO#n by Chti.. for a Pl'ft;f;ular gra<::e '0 blOc bestowed upon Ihem. We learn from Mark 5:J1-40 that when J.,,,,,s

FEBRONIA, SAINT

Lor
According 10 church tradilion. tlte localion of Ihe Transligontion is Mourn Tabor, tM same SPOI Ihal saw the encounter between Abraham and Melchize· dek (Gen. 14:18-20). Some scholars, however. dispute this and suggesl Mounl Hennon or the Mount of Olives instead. Mention i. consistently made in Ihe Euch%gion and the doxology of Mount Tabor, panicularly in the Psalmo
as

1109

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Boobyer, G. H. 51, Mark and the Transfiguration Slory. Edinbuo 1908. lsidhuru•. KitJb al·Khartdoh al.Nailsah fi TanH a/Kon!.;ah, 3rd e
FEBRONIA, SAINT, fourth--<:cnlu<)' nun who was manyred (feast day, 1 Abib). We do not know if the nOliee in the SYNAXARION regarding Febronia was derived from the original Syriac text (d, Simon, 1924) or from the Greek. The story of Febronia is told by Muslim"" ",ell as Christian historial1$ (AI ... AORlzl, 1853. Vol. 2, p, 493: AI·Mak'n. 1625. p, 99). The notice in the Synaxarion is rathel' banal and gives Iinle information, While she wa~ very young. Febronia was conducted to a monastery in Nisibis in Mesopotamia. of which her aum was the .uperi· or. When [)iocletian's persecutions began. the em· peror's messengers came 10 the com'em and seized the superior. but Febronia said to them. "Take me. and lea"e thai old woman." They led her off to the town. where she confessed her faith before the gov· ernor. He tried to coax her. but did not succeed in shaking her. He had her tongue cut om and her teeth drawn; her limbs were cui and she .....as roasted; finally the weary governor ordered her throat to be cuI. A rich believer lool her members and placed Ihem in a gilded ch~t. ABO '>AUf:! TJ-1E ARMENIAN reports another story, which i. said 10 have taken place al Dayr ali:iami<Mt at the time of Marw.m and Ihe Bashmur· ites. who assisted him in tbe .....ar against the Abba' sids. Febronia was a nun in the con"ent that "'as besieged by the Bashmurites. She pretended to pos· ""ss an unguent which rendered her invulnerable. and proposed 10 make a trial of it, but she died by the sword, and thu. sawd her .istel>'. The .IOl)· is

1110

FELIX. SAINT

fuund In ,h~ "",.-n,h... COf>c~rnins ,,/lA'll. I (744 767). bul withou, lopogr.ophical d~ ...il. (IImor:>' 0/ I~ P",,,,,rrlu. \01. l. pl. 3. P 162). II i. a " ...U· ktloO\O.ll them~ or folklo...... the ene' origtn or" hich. ...... ner. is no! ........ n (Cerulli. 1946, P9 439-11). BlBUOGU~HY

CCI'\llh. E. "La ronqu..... persia.... di ~ruS:llem...., e fonu ori".,uali criotianc di un cpo.o,ho dell' Orlando furiooo.' OriDff./i. 15 (I946)~39-11 Ode""..., II S,..,,,-,,,,'-;um Erclesitu COtlSl!. \l AI.Qilm"5 .l-JugJrTl-'fi 1,1·8;'~d ., llif· r1ryal1, 3 ,-ols. in 6 pu. Cairo. 1953-1%8 Simon. j, "Not...Ul I'ori,inal dc la Passion de Sain'e Hbr-onir."· """lula IWlla"d,.". 42 (1924),69-i6.

ai,,,,

'''''''''e.

Rf.Nt-GWR'.f.S

COQIII.~

FELIX. SAINT.lhird"'~n1u",miSl;iollarv who was "ne of Ihe ""lOIS ma'ty.....d n~ar ,he Roma" fortress of Turieum (lurich) (fea.'" day: I Tlul The carlie.1 dcscnplions of his dea,h are found io ,he "i@h'h cenlu,'" Codex 225 in ,he Con'..,n' of SalOl Gall (jIp. 413--71). ,he mid-nin,h..,..nlury Cook. C.IO" 10 lhe CCOIral Librvv of Zurich (fols 59r-6OI"). and 'M laIC nlmh..,enlu" Cook. 5$0 io Gall tP9· 29-

Sai,,.

Sain' Felix and his si'h:r. Salm Regola, S,one rdief. Pillar ,n ,he GrossmjjnSl~r, Zurich. SWll/erinud. Courtesy S<",,,, Girgis,

Lingu .."c. SCOIraphical. and chronological ..udOts of .he Sf'S1 'Wl) codices indical~ lhal bolh are based on a much carti".. manuscripl. poMibh "ril1~n b, Ro",nlmus m ,he founh c"nlU". Accordinl 10 Ihese accounts, Felix. hi. sisler Sain. u:Q.U, and the.r companions. all m=>b<,n of ,hor THF....... ~ left ~nu ... (Sam•.\l.3uricC'fl>. ',a1ais, s.".ilUrtand) upon Ihe ..a.'ice or .heir co.... ~drr. Saini loIuamt:S '" onlrr '0 earn' Chrislianil} in... ""'" 'CfT\lOn' Hod,.... CtiC. 1M, Ira, ersed the drsoIa", .......... of Glarus and linaJ" rached lhor Limmll. f!.i,er a, lhor end of Lake Zurich 1lJcr" ,hn remaIned. preachinl lhor ,,-orcocs deplC,ing ~,,, .... st-agc of Ihc SlDI). AhhouJh "" no specific da,rs of ,.... c_""".ion of ,hese cd,s.,""" ,heir crr-<:uo.. is ascribed b, .radi.1on '0 CJu,rte""'lne aocl his son !.. Throughoul lhor \hddlc Aces. the... Ihree churchn cnjwc"" ...."" from the Hoho Roman Emperor. and !hn' b«:amc Jl'tIPlbr ce....." of ......... noli.... Indeed. dun.... ,hto iconoc"""" of the SY.,,,,, Rcfonnalion. a pontail of Ihe Sa"," Iha, adorned their reSl:ins plxe in ,hor Gr05SlTlUnSl:er ,,--as ,h(, ..nly imal" '0 sun" e deSl:"""lion. 1lJc pldcd ~hrinc holding rhe IT\lUn relics of the .... n.. al ,he Gro..,,· muOSler "..,.. hid<:lcn. and .bus san-d. In 1225 the risen ...inlS. "i,h head in hand. "..,re dcpiu<:d
"",e

FESTAL DAYS, MONTHLY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Egloff, E. Wer hal das Ch,isum"rn nach Zurich gehrachl? Zurich, 1948.

_ _. Der Siandorl du Manasl";"rn. Ludw;gs des Deurschen in Zurich. Zurich, 1949. _ _. D;e Auffi"dang d" Zurcher Heilige". Zurich, 1950. Muller, I. "Die IJiihkarolingische Passio der ZUrcher Heiligen," Zell",hrifl {iir Schweizerische Ki,chengesch;chre 65 (1971). MulJ~r, J. CeschjchM de, heilige" Marly'"' Feli.r "tid Regul". Altdorf, Switzerland, 1904. Ramer, C, Fdb:, Regal" ""d Exuper.nlius, Iko"ographie der Slifl utld SMdlhilige" Zi'r;ch•. Zurich, 1973. SAMl'" F. GIRGIS

FESTAL DAYS, MONTHLY. At presenl. the Coptic church observe. three monthly fe.lal day•. Th~.e three momhly commemoration. are record· ed in the Synaxarion atl2 Ba'unah with reference to the story of Saint Euphemia, a d~vout widow who used to ob.erve her hU$hand's habit of distributing aim., especially on these three feasts e"ery month. Th~ first, the Feast of tho AngeL is observed on the twelfth day of ~very Coptic month (Budge, 1915, pp. 917 -19]. It is held to commemorate Saint MICHAEL me Archangel through laudation, which follows the reading of the Synaxarion in the church_ It i. more r~gularly obs~rv~d in churches d~dicaled to Saint Michael and is usually a simple memorial except On the two main feasts of Saint Michael, 12 HaUir and 12 Ba'iinah. Some Copt., following the custom of th~ir anc~stors recorded in the Synaxari· on under 12 Hatolr and 12 Ba'olnah, still mak~ vows and observe a monthly family feast, to which the priest also is in'ited to ble"" the meal that follows the prayer of laudation and,y,e reading of the homi· ly, Such family or church ~tivals are more often oo.erved on the main: feasts, where "Saint Michael's bread" is also prepared by the faithful, blessed by the prie>t, and then distributed to those who are present and to the poor. The Feast of Ihe Virgin occu,,; on the twenty·first of ~vel)' Coptic momh. It is a simple memorial service consisting of laudation after th~ reading of the Synaxarion, with some more hymns sung 10 th~ Virgin. The monthly feast is more regularly observed in churches dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, especially the feas," commemorating her dor· milion, 21 Tubah, and th~ consecration of the firsl

1111

church dedicated to the TIlEOTOKOS at Philippi, 21 Ba'i\nah, The commemoration of the Annunciation, the Nativity, and th~ Resurrection of Ihe Lord is ob· served on the twenty-ninth of every Coptic month with the prC!lent exception of the months of Tolbah and Amshir, which represent the Old Testament period and the silence that preced.d the Annuncia· tion, respectively, Thus, this momhly commemora· tion continues fur ten successive months, beginning on the Annunciation, 29 Baramhat, and ronning until tho Nativity, 19 Kiyahk. The Resurrection of th~ Lord also occurred On 29 BaramMt (see FE..ISTS, MAJOR).

Commonly both 29 Bammoldah and 29 Bashan' fall during Paschahide. the fifty days beginning with East~r Sunday. Therefore, they are dedicated, like all the days of Paschaltide, only to th~ commemora· tion of lhe Resurrection. [f these days of monthly commemoration fall on fast days, the fast i. ended directly after the liturgy, which is 10 be celebrated early in the morning, but th~ required ab,tinence is observed, The liturgy is recited in the joyful mode (see UI;lN). The lessons appointed for the day are to be read as usuaL But if it be a Sunday, the le..on. are to be changed for those of 29 Baramhl'it, except duou hast com, and .av~d us" are th~ recurrent theme of singing, The commemoration of th~ Res· urrection is restricted on that day to the reading of tho Synaxarion (and the Fraction Prayer for the feas," of the Lord), since the glorious celebration. of the Holy Resurrection are to take place only on Easter Sunday and Paschahidc, The twenty·ninth of Ihe month. Ba'unah, Ablb, Misra, Tiit, Bahah, and HalCir is designated for the commemoration of the Annunciation, Nalivily, and Resurrecti,m, together with the use of a verse for each or "Thou hast com~, "..ast born, and hast ris~n and saved us." Th.re were additional Coptic monthly kasts, but they are not observed at presen!. The beginning of every month was observed by the ancient Egyp' tians, not with festive proce..ions or ceremonies of a mythical character but .imply with a service of· fered for the dead. Howe,'er, there is no ",'idenee

1112

FIGURINES, METAL

lO relale Ihe bejinning of ...,. Eg)'JlIian mon!h 10 the mO(ln. Thi. ~U$lom survivw in Chn.lian Egypl for some cenm"", in lhe fonn of a eucharistic liturgical 5'"",'ice, is allCSlod by 1QK.'oi OF NIlC:1OU (c. 1i'JO), ...flo :ann ,..;l ~ origin of this CUSlom 10 !he R0m ying. WNow Man:h is tJ". lxginnin:!: of months (i.e.• In. ~nnlnc of the IlomlIn yearl. And in the ~nning of I",," monlh lhey celebr.uc: a fusi. and lhey named lha, ~asl 'Primu.s.'w His com· ment l~li&"1 '0 Ihe Copllc CU$lOM of wcharil$lic celeb"uion al Ihe beginning of every month when iliOCS on to say, "II i. for Ihi. rcaoon Ihar lbe holy fathef', rhe EcYPt;an mon ..... who wen: clOthed wilh God. neer al rhe beginninl of evt'Y month an un· bloody sacrifice 10 the holy consubstantial Trini.y and receive the holy life..aMng mysteries, while lhey cham the .......... of the Psalm 80. 'Blow up the lrumpel in the day ol,he noew moon, on ,he notable day of our reaIMoI"" (Charlu. 1916, p. 40). BIBUOGRAPHY

Budc<'. E. A.. W. MisuUQ","",,~ Copri&

ruu ;n 1M

IJill1ccr <>, Upper ED·pI. London, HIlS, CharI.... R. H. T'he Chronk/c 0{ Joh>1, Coptic Bishop <>1 NikioI<. London, 1916. Meinantus.. f. A. Chri$rioln Ezypf. A",..kIor Uld jJaJ. ern, 2nd ~. eel. pp. 99. 1(W. Cairo. 1917. N.... F. N. IA~ ItJI>101otiu Ju Ivt"'gili.irc~ eOple$PO 10, \>p. 16S-244. Pari., 1915. Tl••"...nl. E. Le Ca/end,,·c. d·Abo"'/·8,,,.UI, PO 10, \>p. 245-86. Pari•. 1915.

,,,,,,be•.

FIGURINES. METAL &e Metalwon.. Copt;.;. FIGURINES, TE;RRA·COTTA. See COplic.

~ramiC$,

~~

FJLJOQUE, a Latin word meaning "and from ,he Son" adde:d 10 ~ Ni""ne.{:Ot1$Wltinopolilan Creed by the latin chu.-ch after lhe words "thf: Holy Spirit ... Who proceN!l from the father." II _ the subjecl of diMension bet....«n Ea!i~ and W ~ chu.-cbes. Hisiory of the FlUoque Controveny IdeM akin 10 lhose cxpc_d by rhe fJilXj"e We<"(! ac:ccp"'<:ession

from

~

Fathff aDd the Son. AI the Third Synod of

Toledo in 589, dte VlliJOlh kinl Reearcd <:on~ ..... t'd his abandon""'lII of ARIANISM by announdna ,hal "the Holy Spirir al.o .hould be confessed by u. and laught to proceed from the Falher and the Son." and he redlod both lhe N.co:.'oie Cb:ED and lhe NicetlC<:on:wontinopolitan Creed "';Ih the addition ol the filOoqr.e. The ~it;>q"e and lhe doc,rine' il ap ~ ~ particularly useful as a mnm of «1mbating or apli<::idy re;«1i"l Arianism. The ilka. thoulh not the !Uioque ilsdf, had reached England by the lale .......,mh cenlury; and Pope Man,n I i .... eluded rhe word in Ihe synodal leller he ..,m 10 ConSlanrlnople in 649. aul rhough Ihe idea of the double proceosion Ql)vlou.ly had gained lOme CUI' rency by lhis lime. irs eeoc",l sicnlfic:anoe ....... slill limilcd. n.e PJioqw bccafne a mallet" of more gel>C'nJ «Intn:lYefty ... il pmcInneloa:ians. The conclusion of Ihe Second Council of Nicaea (787). which saw th.e defeat of the ic<>noelasu, "''as the occasion for" deliam lrumpeli... of the Frank· ish view of doctrine.nd theoIOJJ'. The Libri C.rol;· ...- (790) wb;ecloed the a.cts of the COt.It>ciI 10 acathiAg crilicist>!. and look issu~ with ralriarcb T_ _ ... Con... minople, wlto had da~ lO say thai ,h.e procession 01 Ihe Holy Spirit was from ,he Father Ihrouih lht Son. Pope Hadrian I auempled 10 justi· fy Taraslus' doctrine to Ihe F",nks, bUI in 794 Charlemagne called his own ..,pposca! councillO Fl'Ilnkfun, "'hen: the /iliQq.u. ...... used 10 <:oPdetM the bet'"'" of adopoionism. Al the s.!ightly later Synod of Friuli, !'aulin... of Aquilcia dekndtd the lqilimat:y of ao:Id;lion. 10 lhe ereed that do DOl conlradicl the lcachinp of the church falhcn.. AbQuI 807 a dispu'e broke oUI on the Moun, of Olives between Greek and Frankish monks onr Ihe larter group's use of the fi/ioqu •. Pope Leo it, to whom lhey had appealed foe ....ppon. made it clear lhat he had no doclrinal objec.iom 10 lhe filioq"., though he later lold a I""'P ol Frankish church· mnI thaI while he haod allowelna

..,..0

n..

ALlOQUE

in the Mas$ lhrougbout the empir<:. be could noI sanction any additions to iI. Monow:r, be advitcd !he franb 10 slOp havina tbe c.ft'd sun« in ihe MaM, ",bile the fiJioqu~ ... quietly r~rnoHd It oeems only bir 10 ltUUlQe dial Leo "'. ... an~ ... !he .... y Ihr (iJioqu~ had, in 1109, been mm.fonnt>d into oJ6ciod doctrine of !he cburcb in !he Weollern ~mpl,..,_ His !ina! action on .IMO """ct was to ha,~ IW(I IiI...,. Iablell engra"ed-one in Grtdt, the other in l~uin-wilb the unlme'l"'lat~ Nice"'" ConsUonlinopo!itan Crud and 10 hang one al .,ach ~jde of Ih., 10mb of Saint Peler in Rome. Renewed friction was generated by Ihe U$t of tbe ~lioq.. e later in the nintb cemury, when a mi&Slon 10 lhe Bulgan; headed by Bishop Fonnosus of P0<10 not only """uesled lhe u",n 10 d~iss Byunline missio..... ries bu. also was found to be Ulina the interpolated~.The palriarch ofConstantinQPle, Photiur., had already cltihed ",;lh Pope Nicholas I _ r the malter of Nichol. election. He now enerlJdicallyanacked the '"'" of the ~iDque and "".,"tu· ally d..dartd NichoW 6epoeed on a charge of. heresy, Pbotiw is IO...-imes accused of il>$inctrilJ. It il!I I.IIqflI thai he woulcl ne>"er ha"e raised the que:s. lion of lhe {iJioque had it noI been fur the diffic:ul· tin ... rrounding his """,",..tion to the patriaTch:Me, This. howe:vtr, i. 10 overstate the case. Photi... consmenlly complained not of any injury don~ 10 him but of that done 10 the cr«d and th~ father,; of lhe church. His most ambiliow defense of the anti· (iJjO<ju~ position was th~ MYjla,oiia. complet~ in exile after his deposilion of 886. In this work he auempted to show lhat Ihe filiO<ju .. implied not one but two causes in the Trinity, destroyed the prind· ple of a mDtU>rrnia within lhe Trinity, and .umed 10 rdept.. the Holy Spiril 10 an inf.. rior rank. Th.. Western replies 10 Pbotius carne. noI $Ilrprif.ingly, (rom Frankish theolocians such as Ratramn... of Corbie, who quoted scriplu<e, councils of the ~hurdt, and l>odt Uot~ ere..k chun:b fathen in an anU-Greek tract before- W coundl ol 879-UO at .. b;"b P'tool.... ~ ","ffded in obtaiI>' ina from Roman l"'PIes not only ~ of. the Nice!le'ConslantinopoliUln Creed ",;mout ;ll(\(\ilioos hUI also an agreement that DO additions ohould be made 10 it. N......rtheless. by tbe ele~enlh c ..ntu')' Ihe Franks had w(ce"ded In iml'O'lng the fi/ifXJu" on the papacy, It Is generally agre..d that Ben.. dict VlIl acced· ed 10 th.. wi.h of the Gennan .. mperor H .. nry Il, "'bo had inherited thi~ Iheological and liturgical Iepc:y, and th.. creed wilh the filioqu .. was .... ng In Rome. This did not m ..an ill ""loma1ic di•..,m;na· lion throughout tile West as a "We;"'" learn from

1113

Aluande1" of Hales that ill - . noI in use in Pam as la"" as 12-40. But the Jl"I*CY's accepcance ensured that it was mentioned in 1054. One Mlhe xcuy· tions Ievded at Constanlinopk in that by Humbt" of. Silva Canclile debate about the .... lations of falher, Son, and Spiril lurned; e,-en lhen, Ihe.e _ som.. u.use 10 be made for Ihem on accounl of the poverly of the utin tongue. At the Council of Bari In 1098. Anselm of C.nl..... bury admiued of a difFerenc.. between th .. v..rsions of the creed used in Easl and Wesl but strove 10 show Ihal th" addition of th .. ~Iio.qu. wOll not an Innovation; ....ther. It was a mailer of doctrinal clar· ilical.lon. In hi. tk proeessio,,~ Spi,j'''J S,,~.,i (1102) he argotS his own view of. the Trinity ",hile ........nling possibl.. Creel< counte....rgumen15. AI· lhoush ;11 first glance his """" of the int...-naJ ma' lions of th.. Trinity looks remarbbly similar 10 tbe Eatem view of a monarchy within the Trinity, be Is in fact the doubk procession of the Holy Spirit wd the common ~., of the lhru Per:IOns. As for the ""'lIer of lld utin cbu.-chmen in lise fonn of theological debatQ lhal

rear

suessinc

1 I 14

FILIOQUE

were not usually surrounded by any great mutual animosity. In the thirteenth century. however. new de"dopments took place. After the Latin conquest of Constantinople in I 204. the rulers of the Gnek successor states to Byzantium found themselves faced on more than one OCC;lSion with politicomilitary threats of such magnitude that the backing of the papacy was a ne<:essity, The way to achie"e this backing was to hold discussions on the vexing subject of church union. Under the Nicene rulers John Vatat""s and Theodore Lascaris such avenues were explored, and during Vatatzes' negotiations it became clear that e.'en if the Greek clergy were willing to submit to Rome. the}' still believed that "nly the sanction of a general council could legitimatdy add the (i!ioque to the creed. After the recapture of Constantinople b)' the Greeks in 1261, Michael VIII Palaeologos faced the prospect of a Westem "crusade" against his empire by Chades of Anjou and thereIore urged a union on his church and populace, which wali confinned at the Se<:ond Council of Lyons in 1274. There ,,"'as no theological discussion al Lyons. which in any case was attended by only a few Greeks as representa· tives of the emperor. They repeated the (ilioq"e several times during the proceedings. Although the (iIi. oque was by now, in the eyes of the West, a doctrine that the Greeks would haye 10 accept as a prelude to union, it is illleresting to note that the fonn its acknowledgment took was an anathema upon those who denied the (ilioque and upon those "who have presumed with audacious temerity to assen that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son as from two principles rather than one." In his patriarch. John Bekkos. Michad VIll appears 10 have found a man who was personally convinced of the identity of Greek and Latin doc· trines on the processicm of the Holy Spirit, and who would continue to defend these beliefs e.'en after the rejection of uni~1l by Ihe Greeks as a whole. and his deposition an'a, imprisonment. The final attempt at union of the churches look place at the Council of Florence in 1438-1439 (see FLORE."cr, COPTS ~T TII'E; CO~NCIL OF); there the fiUo· q'<e was the object of eight months of debate be· tween Greek and Latin theologians. The occasional· ly bi7AlITe a.pects of this debate have sometimes been overstressed-rather a lot of attemion has been devoted to the episode in which the most obviously antiunionist Greek clergyman. Mark of Ephesus. was accused of falsif);ng. or conniving at the falsification of, a text of Saint BAStL THE GREAT. whom he had cited in an allempl to darify a pas.

sage from Epiphanius, The public sessions of debate on the (ilioque did not achieve any change in the Greek viewpoint there and then. and il is perhaps wonh remembering in this context that the Greeks were subject to con,iderable pressure from their emperor. who sought union in the face of military threat. Ne.enheless. the chief interlocutor on the Latin side. John of Montenero. had affinned that the La· tins perceived onl)' one cause in the Trinity (thus avoiding. as the L)'ons formula doubtless had .ought to avoid, Greek accusations of creating t'-''O principles in the Trinity). Greeks well disposed to union. such as Bessarion and Scholarios, confessed themselves disappointed in the arguments of their own .ide. Bessarion was to argue, after hearing the seentingly interminable arguments in which both Gree4 and Lalins died fathers of the church-and often the same fathers of the church-in defense of their respective viewpoints on the question of the (iUoque. that the saints could not err and could not in reality contradict each other. It has been argued thai Bessarion was inAuenced by his reading of Aquinas, SOme of whose work had been translate
Theological Background and Interpretation There ha"e been many auempl$ to discem behind the history of the incluSion of the filioque in the Western cree
FlLIOQUE

which it is lhe divine essence, common 10 all the Perwns of the Trinity, that is of real signifinnee and alw a causal agent. The Pe....o"' them.elves, or the idea of Person, is nOl pallicularly emphasized, The Spirit is the Spirit "of the son"; he proc""ds from the Son; and .inee the Spirit i••ent by the Son-the West does n01 tend to distinguish be· tween the procession and the temporal mission of the Holy Spirit-therefore the Spirit must <:ome from Him; and as lhe Spirit is the common bond between Father and Son, it must proceed from both, Augustine believes that the Father has gi"en the power of spiralion to lhe Son; the Spirit proceeds from both, and (as he makes explicil in Trac/(l!u. in !oannem Erangdiurn) at once. Augusline', lhought was extensively use.rolingian theologians invoh'W in controvelOY "Wr the {ilioque, 'uch as Theodulf of Orleans, the anQnym"us author of the LilJelius de prQcess;"'te Spiritus Sancr;, Aeneas "f Paris, and RalramnU. of Cornie. all used him, Nor does Anselm', basic thoughl differ subslantiall}' from that of Augustine, The explanatory framework of the De pnxessione is Anselm's own but, like Augusline, he ",,,ncentrates on the essence rather than the Persons of the Trini· ty. Saint Thomas Aquinas was also dependent 10 a degree On Augu'tine, espedally when dealing wilh lhe cha
IllS

in the Trinity-hence the Nicene-Constantino· p<J1itan Creed's "from the Father," After this point, however, substantial problems arise, It is noteWQrthy that considerable use was made by Western theologians of quotations from Eastern patristic writers_ Both eighth- and ninthcentury writers, for instance, quote from SainI ~TH.A NO$IUS I, nH>YMUS THE BUND, Saint Basil the Great, SAI~

GREGORY OF NYSSA,

Sl.l~

(;REGORY OF NI.2UN·

WS, and (\'Iltl I in an attempt tu provide justifica· liun for the {iUoque. Pall of the problem may have been rewl.'ed by recent work that shows that many of the passages or worh used in this conte,t are not authentic or, at least, have been interpreted out of their general context. Thi. still leave, the more general question of interpretalion. For J. Gill, the theology of Cyril and the Alexandrian 'chool was de,'e1oped by Augustine and eventually to<>k shape in the West in the filioq"e. A. Palmieri see. in the WQrks of the CappwJocians similar adumbrations of {i/ioque theology. Reoent w'ork faStens un the ek Palm_, di Viou as the real expression of Eastern trinitariall thought, emphasizing its relation to the theory of monarchia in the Trinity and to the idea of one cause and origin expressed by Gregory of Nyssa, who wrote of the Trinity in tenns of one cause and two causes, the Son ",aused direotly by the Father and indirectly by lhe Spirit. fn the eighth century, Patriarch Tarasius of Cunstantinople maintained "from the Father through the Son." Yet it is still difficult to say whether "through the Son" is universally acceptable as be· ing the true expressiun of Eastern patristic or medieval thought on tho processio". Part uf the problem Ii", in the circumstance that W"'tern thinkers the~ and now tend to fasten on the expression "through the Son" as proof of the Father, and more tban one historian Qf the Eastern church regards tlte ek Pa· rro. di Vio" as a compromise fonnula_ Of the Ea.~t ern write..... Photius giv,," what is probably the mOSt extreme defense of "front the Father" alone-but this is a concept not incompatible with that of the Father as cause expressed by uther Eastern theologian.; and Photiu. was, in any o~, defending the creed against interpolation. And while it was possible for pro·unionists such a. Bekko. to quote from other Eastern theologians in defeme of the {i/ioque, Photius defies this appro:'><'h to such an extent that Bekkos makes him one uf the real authoT$ of the schism betw.en East and West. (Palmieri [1913) se.ms to share a similar point of view_) The formula ex Pal" FUioque wnquarn ab uno principiI), used at Lyons in 1274 and at Florence in

1116

FIQTOR

1439. milh, ~ thought '0 O\-eTCome aI le~ some of the Gr«k ob;e<:.ions to the pli04~. in INI i, dea\$ ..;,h .he problem of mOre man one c:ause or principle of origin in the Trini'Y. Ii il noteworthy thaI BeU05 Ielt able to dttlan: that the« .... only OIle Iin&Je prvdudioon of the Holy Splri,. Al Aor· ence. duritll the Ionr: textual and rneuphyilcal discuuionI on the {iJioq"e. John of Montenef'O reaf· firmed. on bdWf of the Lalins, a belief in 0 .... priDeiple. Bu. both before and mn Ftorence the IdeIo tlul. "from the Son" and "throup .he Son" "'ere "iden'ic:al in iorce~ ran in,o a JOOd deal of skeplicilm I'rom Greeks who believed ,Nt this. ..... simply ano'her .....y of foisting the unacupuble fiJioq"e on Ihem. For lhe Easl. iDeluding Ihe Copoic chureh, ,he fifjoq,,~ represemed an illicit addition to lhe creed. 11 has been ....id lhat even if Ihe Eastern church had believed Ihe jilioq.u be ,heologically acceptable. ,he inlerpolation would slill have been condemned, Ph<:>tius. il should be remembered, a, one time managed 10 oblaln a retraclion of Ihe jilioqu,. from papal representali,""s and a promise lhal no funher additions Ihould be made to lhe creed. The Wesl frequently argued that lhere was no sU~lanl;ve dif· ferenet! in belief and lhat the word had been u~d only lor purposes of clarific:ation. Another weltem arplmenl wall lhat lIIe Fim Council of £N\ESUS (431) had nOl forbidden ahe""ion of the lOreN i,· ~If bu•. rather. any rormulations contrary to its II'iri,. and 'ha' the Sic""" CI'Cftl had i'self been ahend at the Finl Council of OOI1$T...." lfI-..£ In

'0

)S,.

BIBLlOGRAJ'Hl'

em,

no.. C"";,tcil of Flo..e..u. Cambtidlc<e,

1959, Gordillo, M. TMoloritJ orietltali..... COl'" l.i>Jino""" ~,ala. C"""",en'..nn htlloric... OrIentalia Chrilfiana Analeaa 158. Rome, 196(l. Haugh. R. Photius and C1puu. 11K Tri..i,.ri." COllmw.,S)'. Bol«>n, 1915. Kelly, J. N. D. E.rly Chri$ti." C,etS$, 2nd ed. lon· don. 1960. Palmieri, A. "La ProcessiOn du Sainl-Esp';l du Pm lOt du fils." In Dk-Jiann"ir. -J700. Chicago and London, 1914, _ _, The Growlh of Medieval Theolov. Chicalio and Lon&:m, 1918. J.

"J

FIQTOR. Set Ethiopian Pr'Cbtes.

AS, SAINT. An er.ensi.'e life of this saini and an account of ~'IOQ,/ of his mil'Kla can be found in ......, manllSCripu of Coptic orlain. The Lile of Abo. F'b (National L.ibnry. Paris. Arabe 4n5, fob.. 119¥_9'6\". ninth century)"'_ copied by the MLI$lim Muhamnud ·lzzat. as commissioned by £. AmtlinlO*u, Since this Iext .. ""ique

and $Iill unkno....... a .nnmtion of lh.. incipit fOlIo-.: ~U!"en and I"'y h«d. 0 p«!pl.. ...no kn.~ Cbrl$!. $0 lhat 1 may ""coonl 10 you ,he life of .his man. This $Ilinl AbA fb was, ever since his childay'S Timi.. As for mir,.d,.., lh~ ar" as usual. linked to th'"

co=r.uion of ,he church dedicated to .IIe ....in._ This took plac'" on II Ba·unah. Some of Ih,.,.., an: ","""",ted in a mu.ilaled manuu:rip, dated 1360116J. copied by Jirjis Abo. a1·B.araU, ibn RizqalIah, the great-grandson of ,h. Coptic .-ncyelopedist AbU al·Barilil ibn Kabar (cI. 1324) (Capric: Mu.ewn. Cairo, History 469, £ok. 216.. -1Ov). Since this Ie",. is unique and ulllrnovn, lhe inCipil (mn" the COlivenUonal preface) may be .no",1.>ted .: HO bek>'''d breth... n......, shall men'ion a n of tIte minel... of the great and pious "';n'••he ~ner.ued Fath"'r Abu Fls. ..." An iso~ folio (pUMps lift«nth cc:n,ury) con-

taining a fJagmenl on Abo. F'b kept in the Univenity UbDry of Loonin (ronds Lefort arabe A 14) was burned in the fi... ,bal d~led Ihe library durinB World War I. BIBUOCaAI'Hl' Graf, G, Ca/"log". de man"scripl$ a,,,blCS ch,";,,,. cO"$e",h liu elii'e, pp, 264-61, no, 112, Vatican Cit}', 1934. Muyser. J. "Enni,e p~relrlnanl et pHerin inbti· Kable. FraBmenl anobe de la vie inedil'" d'Anba Harmln, nloon,u par $On cornpagnon de "'}'lOg'

FLIGHT INTO EGYPT

Apa HOr de Preht," B"II~lj" de la Soc;;/; d'Mch· ;ologi~ copu 9 (1943);160-236, Troupeau. G. Catalog"e d,s man"scrits (..abu. Vol. 2. pp. 25-26 no. 4775. Paris, 1974. KIlAUl SAMIR. S. J,

FISH.

$", Symbols in Coplic An,

FlsHAH. earlier name of the Egyplian town now known as Fishah Salkhah. which is located in the province of Beheirah in the dislrict of al· Mahmoldiyyah in the noohwest Delta.. The SYNAXARtON siaies in its commemoration of Apa plOJJMI (II Kiyahk) thai this monk hailed from Fishah. After Pidjimi had Ii"ed in Seetis for more than I....,OIy years. an angel appeared 10 him, prom· i..,d thaI a memorial church would be constructed for him in Fishah, and commanded him 10 relurn t(> his homelown. which the monk then did. This account place. lhe origins of Christianity in Fishah at leasl as early as the end "f lhe fourth or lhe beginning of lhe fifth cenlury (for lhe dat" of Pidji. mi, """ Evelyn·White. 1926, pp, 157-62).

1117

was indeed married. This suggests ongins in an Encratite milieu (see ENCMTIT~). which, however. is difficult to situate chronologically. The Se<"ond text, which can be fairly easily daled in lhe ..,vemh century. pretends to "lfcr an enc"mi· urn in honor of PETER I, patriarch of Alexandria in the early f"urth century, but actually recounts a fictional episode derive different chapter:< of his work: one for Damian and one for Peter. Hence. although they now survive in only one manuscript. they probably had a cenain imporlance in C<Jptic lilemture.

BIBLIOGRI\PHY

Amelineau, E La Geographio de /'Egyple ;, NfJ"q"e copto. Paris, 1893, Evelyn-While. H. G, The Mo"osteriu of Ihe Wadi 'n Nalntn, VoL l. New Y<>rk, 1926. Timm. S. Dos christlich-kopt;sche ,{gyp,.n in arabi· scher Zeit, pt, 2, pp. 959. 960. Wiesbaden, 1984. RANOAU STEWART

FLAVlAN OF EPHESUS, name of a bishop of Ephes.... thaI seems to be a scholarly imention. This per: ha"e been inveme
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Budge. E. A. W. Cr>ptic Mtlrlyrdr>ms ... in the ViaIut of Upper Egypt. London, 1914. TIro ORl.'.NDI

FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. The Infant Jesus, the Blessed Virgin Mary. and Saint Joseph. accompa· nied by Salome, mother of Zebedee's children, made the journey 10 Egypt in compliance wilh a divine message communicaled to Joseph in a dream, directing them to leave Belhlehem and seek refuge in Egypt to escape the wrath of Herod the Great (Mt. 2:13). This was also in fulfillment of lhe Old Testamenl prophecy, "An macle concerning Egypt: Behold. the Lord is riding on a ,wift cloud and comes to Egypt: and lhe idols of Egypt will lremble al his presence. and lhe hean of the Egyp. lians will melt within them" (Is, 19:1). The incident is glorified in the Coplic Doxology and the DIFNAR hymnal, as well as in the $YN1.XA.R· ION. The D;fnd', in particular. cite' under 24 B.a.hans a reference to the swift while cloud descending upon Egypt, symboliling lhe Virgin Mary in purily and ethereality: "I praise the Lord, my Say· ior. and magnify Hi. Virgin Mother, the light cloud

1118

FLORENCE, COPTS AT THE COUNCIL OF

came 10 Egypt, Ihe saintly Virgin Mary, with our Lord Jesus Christ in her ann•. " PA!.L'lOlUS. Bishop of Helenopolis (c. 365-425), who spent several yea... wilh the monks of Egypt. recorded his visit 10 Ihe region of al·Ashmiinayn (Hennopolis Magna), to which Jesus went wilh Mary and Joseph. thai Ihere might be fulfilled Ihe word of Isaiah quoted above. According 10 Palla· dius, "We also saw there Ihe house of idols wherein all the idols that were in il fell down upon their faces on the ground when our Redeemer went inlo the cily." Various historians have traced a roule likely 10 have heen followed by the group. The Coptic Syna~· arion also records the ilinerary. and many homilies refer to names of places '"isited by the holy family in the Delta and in Upper Egypt. It is nOw accepted Ihat the group (;J'OSsed the Sinai Peninsula by the nonhern cara,,,,,n route alongside the Medilemtne· an littoral from Gara to Raphia (modern Rafa!)) and came to the present aJ.'Artsh. Their last stalion in Sinai was Pdusiurn (modern al·f~RAM~. regarded as the easlern key cily 10 Egypl). Having c
The group Ihen ""surned their journey to BILBElS, from which they followed a long and circuilOUS route to avoid their pursuers. Consequently, they took the road to Minyat Hna!) (the present Minyat Samannoo), 10 al'Burollus, Sakha, and funher west to Wadi al-Nanl1n, Their neXl Siage took them in a southeasterly direction to Heliopolis; then they set· tled for a while at the spot now known as alMaJllriyyah, where they took shelter under a I...,e. which is still known by the name of Shajarm 0/' ',(dhr
Meinardus. O. E, A. I" the Sleps of the Holy Fornily from Bethlehem 10 Upper Egypl. Cairo, 1963. BlSHQP GREGORIOS

The I~ al Ma!ariyyah near Cairo under which Ihe Holy Family resled during their joumey into Egypt. Courtery Egypli<>~ Slate T,,,,";sl AdminiSlration. Phoro by Subht Af'fl.

FLORENCE, COPTS AT THE COUNCIL OF (1439-1443). The Council of Flo...,na was one of a series of increasingly polilically motivated gatherings between Ihe Lalin church and individual

FLORENCE, COPTS AT TIlE COUNCIL OF

East~m

churches. Pope Eugeni.... IV uoed the "di..ide and rule" policy, for the variotls E.u"m churches in'iled aI diIIel"Cflt Ii",", and Iho.lS Ihqo could not £om, a unifif'd bloc 10 nqollale ..ith ,he Latins as Cr n:ampk. thC)' Wd ROC know about OOI'llinna· IW:>n and "e:uremc: unclion~; they omilted the nuoO!JI: lhey ~enIted Dioscon.Is as a saini; IMy al"'-d divon:e in case of socrious crime Of l<eprwy; and they pennitted dUld marriage. On 31 ""go.os.t 1441 And~ spol<e lO the council pnlising Eusenius IV as ~ lrue SUCCCS!Of" of Saint PCICT and the head and ,?,,=her of IIIe universal church. "The dexon Peler '$pOk~ 2 Seplember. in· forminl Eucenius and the council ahoul his 1'lolI,Ive EJhiopia and aboul !he emperor's intenlion 10 reunile wich the Roman church. On 4 Februal)' '442. the bull of reunion with Ihe Jacobile. of Egypl, CQl1lale Dom;~o. Vi"" solemnly promulgaled In the Chul"Ch of Santa Maria NO'o'ella in Florence, It was .ilned by EUI~niu•. lw~nly cardinal., and f,fty·one prelate., Dnd by Andreas "in lhe nam~ of lhe Jaco· bi~ and hi. plltriarch." Thi$ bull e~pla;n~d the Latin doctrine of the Trinicy. enumerated the hooks of lhe Old and New Testament, anathem",i~d here·

_re

1119

siarc/u. and ..'&n>ed against the above-mentioned eTfQl$ of the Copt$ and EJMopians. These ....,..., aclI.ally lqjtimale cultural. lilU~1. canonical, and lheolopcal differences. in«>mprl'hensible at IlK time ... !he Latin mind. ""nhennore. lhe bull contained lhe 1$ 01 seven ecumenical coundl. and the ~ ... they combaled. and of the OIher I~te councils. Att:ae:hed 10 !he bull were tWO Olher bulls, lAcuna.. ctHli (on ""'nion with the Gred
AI;yll. A. S. A Hi51LJ"'I of EllslurI Chri,tiQnily. Lo>ndon. 1963. Biedennann, H. "[)as Konnl VOn FIorenz und die Einheil
Bilaniuk. P. B. T. TIu Filth U.tUIl" C....ndl (l5f11517) Qnd th~ &Ule... CIt..,du. pp. "-11. 195102. Toronlo, 1975. Caulli, E. "Eujl:enio IV e &Ii Etiopl al Conci];o di Frrenze nel 1...a I." Ilellk IK'elloli. storidt" e jJo4ot;itcr auf dc:m Konol ~on f1",enz." Omlltlllia CltriYill"a PeriodicQ 8 (1942): 5-29. Lehman. M. "[)as Kontil von f1oren. und die 051kirche."' OsthTChliche Studi"" 12 (1963):295-313. Leidl, A. Di" E;~h';l de. Kirche a"f d", .p~tmillCl"l· lulkhe~ Kontilie.. ""n Kon'I""t />is Flor~nl.- Padcrbom, 1966. Wingene, H. A. "De Aethloplbusln cancilio Florentino."' L""re"t;"""m J (1%2):41-70, PETll:o B. T. Bn..",auK

1120

FOGG ART MUSEUM

FOGG ART MUSEUM. Sit

Mu~um•. CQplic

Colltttions in.

""'_.

FOOT WASHING. S« fnsu, Minor. Maulldy

FORTESCUE, ADRIAN (I87"-192J). Roman Calholic clc'lYman. 11Iul'Jiil, and ecd~ical hislorian. FoneiClie WU <:ducal<:d at the Scou Colley al Rome and al 11IIQbn.ock Vniwnil)' In Iwwia. He was ordained a pri<::st al L<:tehwonh in 1901. 0<:spile his P"lOnrJ dulies, he ,••as able lO \J'll'~ in Ute Middle Easl, ...hefe he beca...., inl ....<:>IN in Ute Easum Chrislian eomm..nitia and their local churches. Cons<:quemly he o:b01ed • &1"'M &eal 01 his lime to comJl(lSin, lhe hislory of &stem lil.. r·

....

.u

a hilcoriall. he WTOIe nrc

OnIfodo.o: &urern Ch..nlr (1907), TIw U3u, £II.u", ClrunM' (La... deft. 1911). an.d ne Urti"" £II.Ie'" CIr~rrheJ (1921). in which he ma.de- llSC' oil"" oricinaJ s0urces. A1rhoup he ~ mad<: his swe~ts from 1he Roman CadlOtic penpecllw, he """'u concealed h;,. tympadl)' for lhese ancien! cburches and h.. appruialion for lheir ~ ,kwies.. In concluding 1M Mary of 1M Copes, he declared dUll "ior the We of lhese .Ioriolas memories, ior Ute sake, 100, of lhe lon, line c.i lbeir IfIanJl'l' under bIiun, we can feel nOUtin, bul lapo<:c1, wi!h nOlhins but good lO lhe people of Chri~ in E,)-pt. They have slOOd for Hi. name 10 fallhMly durinS the lone. dark eenlO.ries now past. May lhey s!lInd for it a1 ..";1)'5 in happier age:s 10 come:' 1l18UOG~Hl'

i,,,

Leclerq, H. "LlI..'lisu." In OictWn".. .rarcMolori" clrr~~nn" "r tie'lit"rgi". Vol. 'I, pi. 2. col. 1739. Paris, 1930. .. Vance, J. A.. and J. W, I!cnesc:uc. AJri"" F",u",,,,,, A Me",oir, London, 192". AzII S. ATrn

FORTY.NINE MARTYRS OF SCETIS. The manymom of Ihe forty·nin" elders of Ihe de"",rt of SC£TIS, which look pi""" in Ih~ year 444. js com· m~mO~led in the SYNAXARION "nd~r 26 Tiibah, Ref· erence is also made 10 lhem in the Illurgy wjlh the rest of the hQ$t of saints, martyrs, and holy falh~rs: "Gradou~ly, 0 Lord, rem~mber ali lhe saim. who

hav~

pkaood Thee oince lhe beginnhl3. our holy Fa!bers the ht,urch$. lhe Prophets. the PT<:IIchen, Ute EVarJgeli5tS. lhe Many.-., lhe Confesson, ... and the funy-nine martyT'!!, Ih" ckkors of Shih",l:' ~ slory of their martyrdom, ",hlch it as60Claled ..nth !be Berl:>er raid of -444 on Ihe nasr.eries of S«Iis. began ..iten Emperor lbeodosi II, ton of Arcadius, dai....... of havinc a mal" heir, sent 10 the "kIe", of S<:eIis a ""ouul elder named bidhunI$, WfQIe lO tho: "mperoT 10 Ih" cllec1 lhal God refu5<:'d him " 50II lesl th<: child associale .,..jlh hemics. Some lime later u ...... rr:commended 10 !he empeTOJ INII h~ marry a oecoftd wife, and he senl a m..... SC'nge.- 10 the desert monl;,s. Ihis I;me addn, if his offspring from Ute new wife would m.;1u6e a rnaJe dill" In l!>e meanlimt:. lsidhurus had died. 50 lhe monks 1001< the imperial 1<:11"" 10 lhe place .. htte he had been buriee journey the Berben came .so.... upon them ;" 01><: of !heir .tcurffnl auacks on !he monastery_ An "I&erl)' monk, A~ John, Ir"pm"....f of Seelis, called on his brethren lO lake refu,e in 1M nearby fan of PWnoun, un,"" lhey preferred 10 join him in manyrdom. Fony..righl monks, besides John. _re ma5$iO(.Ted by lhe Berbers. Meanwhil", AI1"mius and DM>s ..'ltre fast ridln. a.....y, bon 0;"" saw a vision in ...hich ansels were conduCling !he M>I.I'" of Ihe manyn 10 paradise and placing !he c........... 01 manyrdom 011 their heads. Hc begged hls futher 10 allow him 10 obtain a simi· lar e.o".... for himself, ... both falher and bon rodoo Nck and shared th" manyrdom of lhe monks. When tho: Bcrbers had SO"" away. rhe other monks came down from lhe fori, eollect(d Ihe reo main. of lh( rnass.acred martyrs, and burled Ihem in a ca~e. In 538, durin. the palriarchale of n1l!Oro SIUS I, their rel;';s wen: n:mo~ed to a n"w cllV~, and a chapel w"" buill on thc top. In the following century, when Pope BENJAMIN I _s re,lored ro his throne following th( ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT, he visil(d Seeli. and lho: cav( ",h(re lhe fony·nlne wen buried and inslilut(d a feasr day to COmmem· orate their reimem>enl, 10 fall on 5 Am~hlr,

.'1'1

I"'"

hac".

FRANCISCANS IN EGYPT

Wben tbe cbapel was dilapidated, tbe monks reo moved their relks once again to a cell opposite tbe lort where tbey remained till 1773, when tBRAHr.... AL·JAWHAllI, a charitable Copt, built a new church in DAYR AHBJ. MAQAR, where their relics still reS!. BIBUOGRAPHY

O·Lury. De L. The London, 1937.

Sai~u

of Egypt pp. 245-47.

ARCIIBISl-Ior BASILI05

FOUAD I. See Mul)ammad 'All Dynasty. FOUR liVING CREATURES IN COPTIC ART. See Christ, Triumph of. FRACTION. the ceremonial breaking of the con· secrated bread in the eucharistic ""rvice. As a bask pan of tbe liturgy, it follows the teaching and ac, lions of Jesus Chrisl at the Last Supper: "Jesus took bread, and blessed, and broke it. and gave it 10 the disciples and said. Take. eat: this is my body'" (Mt. 26:26:..,., also Mk. 14:22; Lk, 22:19: I Cor. 11:23. 24),

Fraction is perfonned in two stages during the celebralioo of the Lilurgy: Immedialely after Ihe praye~ "f crossing the gifrs, known also as the recitalioo of Ihe words of inslitulion, Ihe officialing priest lakes Ihe Oblalion and slightly divides it into one-lhird and IWO-lhirds ""clions. without aclually separating them. Using his Ihumbs, and taking care 001 10 touch the spadi· kOIl (the cemral part), be holds the one'lhird sec· tion in his right band, and the two-thirds seclion in his left band. saying, "He broke it; He gave it to His own saintly disciples an
1121

In Ihe introductol)' pmyer of lhanklgiving for God's saving graces. Ihe priest prays. "Again lei us give thanks to God Almighly, Ihe Father of our Lord and our God and our Savior, Jesus Christ, for He has made us wonhy to stand in this holy place, and lift up our hands and 10 miniller 10 His holy name. let m again pray Him that He accounts us wonhy of the fellov...nip and panicipation of His divine and immonal mysteriel:' At the consignation, the celebmnt taku the pure Body in his left hand and places his right forefinger nexl to the ,pGdil:o~. saying, "The Holy Body." Then he dips the p<>int of his finger in the chalice and makes a sign of the cross On Ihe Blood. saying, "And the Precious Blood," to which the congrega· tion responds by saying, 'We worship Thine Holy Body" and "And Thy Precious Blood." respectively, The celebrant then crosseS the Body twice wilh the Blood, once on lhe .umce and once On Ihe lower side. saying, "Which belong 10 His Christ. the almighly Lord our God?" The congregation respond by saying. "Kyrie, e1eison." These actions are a symbolic reference to Christ's suffering on the cross and the flow of blood from His side (In. 19:34). The fraction prayers accompany the actual process of dividing the Body. Each of the three liturgies in common use (according 10 Saint Basil, Saint Gregory, and Saint Cyril) has its fraction prayer, The purpose of fraction prayers il primarily to se,",'e as a prelude toward attaining the proper stale of purif,calion commensurate wilh panaking of lhe Holy Body and Predous Blood of Christ. BIBUOGRAPHY

Brighlmann, F. E. Lit"rgi.. Easte", alld Wes",,,,. London. 1896. Coquin, R. G. ·.....Anaphore alexandrine de Saint Marc:' u M"$hm 82 (1969):307-356. Danitlou. J. The Bible and the l.it"rgy. London, 1956. Jungmann. J. The Early Lil"rg)'. London. 1960. Leilzmann, H. Mass vI !he wrd's S~pper. Oxford, 1976. AIlCHBISl-\OP BASIUOS

FRANCISCANS IN EGYPT, The history of the Frandscans in Egypl goes back to 1219 when Saint Fmnds met Sultan al·Malik al·Kamil (1218-1238) near lhe city of Damielta. Francis had gone to Dam· ietta with the Crusaders. but with the aim of spreading the message of peace proclaimed by Jesus

1122

FRANCISCANS IN EGYPT

Chm.. For a few yeOlI'S he had been Ihinkin, of a franciKan prr:senoce in lite MuC'~ "'5 a ptaCess would be: a InlimonJ 10 the Gospel In that sa...,. year. SainI f","ciI inau.&"ratt
......

NOlI fTlUCh is known about the fin! lOur hundr,"" ~ of franciscan ~ e ;n ~'J'l. ClOlUinly it _ noc a conliJJUOU!l one. Artlund 16JO 1""'0 IfOUpS of frvoc:iscans 5taned IMir life and acl;"-ily in lite land of lhe Nile and establi5hed a p.,.,..nce Ihal has /101 since be:en inlf:nupled. Even no.... Ihere are IWO distlncI groups: 0""' formed by Ihe frilars of lbe CU5lody of lhe Holy Land. and Ihe other len1 dlrO'CI' Iy by the Congregatioo de I'ropapnda Fide and al presenl forming the Vice'pro,'ince of the Holy Fam· ily. When;n 19261he apostollc vicariat. of" Suez (lat· lOr called vicariat. of POll Said) was establi~hed. Ih. friars Uvlng there cam. under Ih. jurisdlcllon of Ihe pre....lnce of $;tint Bernardin" In France. bUI .ince 1957 they ha,~ become again part of 1M Cus· tody of 1M Holy Land. As already stal..... F........,is founded a friary al Damlelta in 1219. bulW. brolhers had to l.a>'lO lWO )'UfS later. tbq came bKk in 1249-1250. and In IU3 .......... friars suffered martyrdom in !hat cily. In 1301 their pnse1>U""'" atleSl.... in Cairo, .......re. in 1l45. Li>i""s obtained the CI'OWll of manyrdom. In 1320 a UOUp of frian, In-ed in Akundria at lhe f"ruJ"'l (hold) of the men:han15 of Maneilles. The Franciteam rd.umed >pin and "Pin 10 £cpl. Their ~Iy eonsisl:ed in pro'ridin, spiritual care 10 Cal!)OIic fouianen; in Eml and -'stance 10 pil,rims on their _y 10 and from lhe Holy Land. and ~Iishi"ll con~ with Europeans who for one _ _ or another ended up in 1..,a1 pri-... Arw.nd 1600. leo'era! friars li;IIIe chapeb. .Abou, winy b;oplisms ,,~,... admlniSierN in Cairo belween 1611 and 1630. as appears from an iOOn of Ihe b'p1Osmal 61es at lhe Franei$<:an Cent.r for Christian Orienlal Studie:s al MuskT, Cairo. During Ih. same tim ••ighl marri'a:~s were regislered, In 1630. Friar Paolo da Lodi was nominate
Friar Paolo lOOk up l'<'Si was appoimed CU5lO5 of the Holy Land on 22 A\J&USI 11>31. In lite same: )'QT. &iaries -.-.. founded in Akuondria and R.osena, both of ..-Nch still ... s. nw, friary of Cairn bc:came lhe ...... of W J'ftfttl. and aI the end of the c,...'ury. an institute br the S1udy of 0rienIaf languag'" was opened there. In 1632 !he p .'llo de I"ropapnda Fide established a Franciscan prefecture in E1biopia. which was ent.wed 10 Friar Antonio da ViIVJlena. Upon lheir arrinl in EcYI'I. lhey appmached .... CopIN: palliarehate and visiled we monas/.nes of SainI ..... Iony (DAYI .....8A ...,.'Jl}N'YOS) and of Sain, Macarius {DAYa 1a.lIlt/oOUj 10 petfe<:1 lheir knowl· edge of Arabic ·hile "lliting for lhe cara....n from Jitj;l. to Suakin. or,lnind by tbe pasha of Suakin. Be:lween 1633 and 1669 Ihe friars mad. three expe· ditions to Etbiopia, each laslin,a rew during which mOllt of the friars dl.d through martyrdom or ilIn.ss_ They did not fully succeed III establishing lhemselves in Ethiopia. In 1671 lb. prdeclure of EIYPI was uniteei' individual approach among Ihe CopIS of Uppu Egypl. The first adult COm'ell to Ihe Catholic faith was a cenain $a.hyiln Wilid. at Akhmim in 1715. Th. first two COplS ordained as Catholic priests w.re RIlf.t·!1 al'TllkbT and YUSIUS Mal1l.ghT. who were .. nl to Rome by Ihe Franciscans for sludies and we"" ordained lh.", in 1735. Th. former lat.r return.d 10 Rom~. where to.. work.d on <»'lOT.

eo.,.....

,.,.rs.

FRANCISCANS IN EGYPT

an "dition of Ih" Coptic liturgical books baSandria and Ihat of Our Ladys Assumption in the Muskl disirici of Cairo. In 1893 seven of their twelve churches and residences were ced"d I" Ihe Coptic Catholic church. The prefectu,"", on Ihat. "ccasi"n, was given Ihe name of the Franciscan ~ion of Upper Egypt. The firsl half of the Iwenlieth century saw comin· ued growth "r the Franci$can pusence in Egypt. When, in 1921, the responS,ibilily f"r the Franciscan Mi..ion was entrusted 10 I~e Order Pro,';nce of T"scana, the fria... "f Upp<:r Egypt had nine churChes and soon added a temh. From lhe.. cenle ... Ihey depl"yed their a<:tivity in surrounding villages. In Ihe 1930. the fi ...1 C"plic Franciscans were f"rmally ..tablished, and at Ihat time a major Franciscan seminary "''as opene
1123

the same lathe... built new church.., two in Alc,andria and one in Bul~q (Cairo), Snez, Ismt'Hi})'ah, Abu Qir, and Damieua. That thes<> large construcli"ns were necessary can be deduc"d from the baplismal files of Our Lldy's Assumplion parish, where in 1909 n" less than 503 infanl baptism. were regislered. With W"r1d War II and Ihe prodamati"n "f Ihe Egyptian Republic, many d",'elopmenl. took place. The foreign communities rapidly decreasely Llnd fria... direcled their aClivilies after th" war loward Ihe ap<><wlate of the Copts and establish<:d the Franciscan Center for Christian Oriental Studies. On 16 September 1954, Pusident MuJ:ammad Naguib inaugurated Ihe center. The aim of this institute is Ibe promoti"n "f knowledge "f the '"3rloUS Christian communities "f Ihe Near Easl. It publish· es a yearbook and the monograph seri.. Studia Orientalia Christiana C"llectanea and Studia Orien· talia Mon"graphs. In Kafr al·Da,,'W;\r and in the suburn. of Ale>andria the H"ly Land £ria... slarted schoc>ls and dispensaries, and organized regular ,'isits t" the Coplic families that came in great num· be... from th" s"mh to Ihe devel"ping induslrial and urban regi"n, in Ih" Delta. [mmedialely after th" "'"3r, some churches wcre built, as in Ma';!.di, a Sc>ulhern suburb of Cairo where a con'lantly changing group of foreigners lived. In Kafr al·Daww;!.r a church was "rected for the C"ptic Cath"lic C(>mmunity in the 1960s and was enlarged in the 198Os. BU! the friars retired fr"m Mansurah, Damiena, and ."me olher minor I"wns. Th<: vicar ap05wlic of Al<'Xandria ceded the cathedral of Pon Said 10 the C"ptic Orthado, wm· munity, and the Franciscans ceded their church in Ismt'Hi}')"ah to the C"ptic Calholic church. On the olher hand, th. Franciscan Mi..ion "f Upper Egypt increased it. aclivilies. Within Ihe framework of lhe legislati"n for the order, il .ucce..i,'ely became a commissariat", a custody, a vicariale, and, in 1987, a ,'ice-p""'inc,,, or ..,If· 8"veming pan "f the Franciscan Order. Tw" of its members becam" bishops, "ne of AsyU!, the other "f SuM). In order t" promote wmmunity life, they Ihen ceded .."enol churches to the Coptic dergy. 818UOGRAPHY

Gulc>bovich, G. S.ri~ cro>!ologica dei uvere"diHimi ."periori di Terra S""W (1219-1898)-with Iwo

1124

FRENCH EXPEDITION

or dox~1£ llJId llJ\~iled Arabi" de"tee$. Jerusalem, I S98. ed- 8ibliouCII 8io-Biblioi'4kll ddlll TerTII San/II e deO'Orien/e F'tJ~tJna. In !.his seriu S 'I'ONmc:I were ediled between 1906 and 1927 in Qlu,rra.o:clIi, Iwy, e
...,,,.0

friends ~r to k"l) v;iil around the dying p"f'o son. A plYII i. ailed to WPCRSe the bw riles. When de.arh occurs in dlt momi... burial Wees place lhal afIemoon; othe7wisc the body lies in OWe at ........ ovcmichL The body is bathed and perium.cd. The pnference is 10 clollte ~ in ....hile Ii.......; men are dres5ed either in thrir C'\l'Cf)'" day apparel. or ill special formal apparel. rcopk who ~ ..-ie !he pl\&ti~ Ie> the Holy land son>ttin>C$ k«p for burial lhose clothes wheft !hey bathed in the Jonian Ri>'eT In commemontion oJ. Christ's baptism by John !.he 8apUsI. The body is then put in I ....~n "askct surrounMd by lIowers. Two Roor ClfldI~ bum at the Mad and feci. The news of the dealh is convcyN th~ 1'ltW5papers and OiMr news media. In IUral aTcas Il~ can he cOflve)'ftl orally. In villain a woman lead· inC five OIMrs, III welrini black ....... nde.. Ihrough the a....; the .ix call 001 the name "f the dec"ased in their """ling. Black dress and heldeo.'e .. au the cu.tomary apparel of female mourners. Unshaved members of the family !"ttelve men who come to pay condolence. in the home or fn an out.ide lent erected e.pedafly for the ocelSio<'!. Inside the "'«:>men gath. er around the cwel. Before enlering the room, some mourners waif and ullCl'" special shrieks called -!"..... I and lhen talc I ~al or oil on cush· ioned f1oors. dependins uPOfl 10C1ll customs. But I'M) grcetini or talkinl is allowed in the ~nce of the dead. Neilher co¥.ee nor clprcnes, whkh are required alIer the burial. an: otrercd at Ihis lime. The ancient c"""""s art: Slill practiced in the rural areas. """,h as the ......Iin.. the mythmic beat· '''ll of ch",u wKh one's hIno.. and thc drrin« oJ. £ace and hands "ilh indica. The hiri,,! of prell'$.ionaJ mcs in ~ oi. 1M dead is slill to he found. 1'hesc ~ions of en>olion, which arc cornidercd an honor due to lhe deccued, reach their heighl when the deceased is aboul Ie> be taken from !.he home. Members ci Ihe de<J:l' (th... lrealCr the nurn· her the hiChC'r Ihe lIatuS ci Ihe dco.eascrl), dnsscd in mouminl pm, !"ttil" Ihe absolulion pr.t.yen. In rural ........ , a procession led by the clCIl!.Y' followed by the men, and finllly by the women, follows the ca!lket, which is carried on men'. shoulders. on a can, or in a hea~. In chy fune",l., howe,·"r, ....omen until recentfy were not allowed to leave the hou"" to attend Ihe church ",...ice or the burial. The lavishn,," of I funeral depends on the sociaf status of the indivldUl1 10 be buried .and of hi. famify. The hea.... used 10 be pulled by a Il'"lOCt of

_1"1'1

FRENCH EXFEDmON. s...e

Va'qUb, Gencnli.

FRIENDS OF THE BIBLE, Copll" asaociation founded in 1908 by BasH! Bu!",. who was flS finl president until his death in 1921. The main aims of the sodety were to inspire sen'ke in the Coptic Onhodo>: Church and active membership in it and to urge members 10 pray and study the Hofy S<:rip, ture. The lOCiely paid special allemion la youni peo· pIe li"inl in the capitaf away from home and in pllnicular took cau af girl Sludrnt., for whom a .peclal bn.nch "'... foundM in 1939. SUu.~ldtl

FRIEZES.

s...e Woodwork. Coptic.

FRUMENTItlS.

......

s...e

F\INERAL MASKf. .~

NAslM

Elhiopian PrNtllS.

s....

"on",il~ and fune....

F\INERARY CUSTOMS. Fun.rary "usto..... have be.n observed mostly unchanged Ihrough the aacs by the inhabitants af 1M Nile Valfey, e....cially in renof a,.....,. Nonethefess, lhe middfe and upper class.es af the p<>pUlation have curtaifed uce$llive demon.t"'tions of affliction and have If SO eliminat· ed some rituals that have become In''ompatible with moxlern life, especialfy in lhe cilfel. When SOmeone i. ncar delth, Ihe. bmily and

FUWWAH

horses, and the greater their number the more affluent Ihe individual they carried. A band of musi· cians playing funerary marches and men carrying huge arnlngemenls of Ao,'..ers were put at the head of Ihe procession, followe
1125

Mourning periods ue long and rigorou.•ly ob..rved. Abstaining from festivities lasts at leasl for one year. The visi.. to Ihe cemeleri"", are made on the fonieth day and on the ev" of Christmas, on Easler. on Ascension Day. and on Ihe Coptic New Year. Offerings for lhe soul of the deceased are given 10 Ihe needy who gather on Ihe.. occasions in the cemeteries. The.... consist of bread, sweelS. and fruits.. In villages the cuSlOm is 10 lay palm fronds or lemon lree branches on the tombs and 10 sprinkle the tombs ','ith waler. which is belie.'ed 10 quench Ihe thi"t of the dead, All the.e cusloms have striking similarities wilh some cuslOm. pracliced in ancient time. as far back as Ihe Old Kingdom in ancient Egypl. such as the judgment of Ihe dead by weighing Iheir hearts. Ihe offering of brEad loaves. lhe libalion of fresh water. Ihe burning of incense, the sacrifice on lomb. of b..a.ls to be later distribuled 10 the poor. the use of palm fronds. Ihe presence of profe..ional mourners, and lhe use of indigo (blue was Ihe color for mourning in anliquity), Through the centuries Ihese cusloms have heen handed down from generalion 10 generalion while Ihose who praclice them remain hardl)' aware of their origin. [See also: Burial Rile.: Mourning in Early Christian Times.] BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gala!' Mohamed. Ess"I d'obsetvalion .'ur les riles fu· niralre. actuels €>I Egypte, Paris, 1937. l1eder. S. H. Modern Sons of Ihe Pha.oohs. Landon, 1918, CtRts W'SSA WASSEF

FUWWAH. cily localed in Ihe Deha in Ihe Ghar' hlyyah pro.'ince about 14 miles (22,5 ~m) northeast of Damanhur. A version of the SYNAXARION for 3 Bashans lislS th" commemoration o( Eudaimon from Fmw'iah, But il is uncenain whelher this Fuwwah is identical with lh" Fuwwah in the northwestern Della. It is $imilarly uncenain whelher Ih" Paua mentioned in a founh·century papyrus (Sotbonne. Pan•. papyrus inv. no, 113) and the Phoua given as lhe home of the monks addressed in a letter of the patriarch CYRIL (Epislt
1126

FUWWAH

"""" the SCal of a bishop. The 1l1STORY Of y,,~ UTRI_ UCIlS repons thai Bishop CI,,1sl000uloJ from Fuwwah was One of IhOM who supponed Ihe CRust of a J"'rtkub.r parly in ;IS quell lor the ....Iriar<:ha.. af· leT Ihe o.ath III hutareh (;.tell-Itt. II (1131- 1145). iht rTMlOt Importanl of the blshllpS of Fu"'wah was JOSO'ph. who apptan 10 ha~ b«ome bishop around 1239. As a conltmpontry of Patriarch CYalL III (l135-124J) Ilt became embroiled in _-arious church cGn1TO'ttnits. Tosell.cr ",-ith John. lilt b.. h-

op of Madinal a]·l'ayy(im. he spellt lime In jall whh Cyril during the palrian:h's sec<md Imprisonment.

BIBUOGltAffiY

Cra!, G. "Die Il.angordnung der Bi!chllfe Agyple",,'o Oriells Christ;"",.. 24 (1927):.299-337. TImm. S. Dils christficJt./wpIiuht ~e" i" ~,...bl scht, Ztil, pt. 1. pp. 961-64. Wiesbackn. 19S4. RA1
GABR'EL Su Elhiopian

Prelal~

conside..,),le pan of lhal money WlO$ .lso used in paying the slale la.Oeo of the annual "HAW. It is said that Gabfid spent m
GABRIEL I. See lerus".lem. Coptic So« of. GABRIEL I, SAINT, ftfty-sevcnth patriarth 01 the See of Saint Mark ('lO9-920), Gabriel waJ from the vlll",e of 11m;!.\, (Amtlineau. 1893. pp. 162-63). in Ihe MinCl~))'ah p.ovince in Lower fs)'P!. He decidC'CtlhcIns, a prophet). _ rMdt 10. him by a saintly elder named DorolhculI, 10 "'born the brethren CGngrqatN for blo-sso uaaJly "';'hdTe-w for KIlltar)' eon.cmplall",n.. ()r,c,e llorothcm hcId his hand and, _ilin.. SOoid to him thal a time would come when he (Gabriel) d d have 10 COmmune with a gnal muhitlKk of ",en and ..'Omen. So. when he was Sotiz.cd by the bishops and the del"lY for tonscc:rallo" ... ~h: Gabriel rcallcd lhe prophcq of the holy Oo..,lhcusHi. only trouble al the outset of his palrla!":""le w", IO'ith the CU$lorn of reimbursing the IhOU$.Ond dinar annuity 10 Ihe people of Alexandria to take care of their religious institutiOfls; he had nothing 10 give. Consequently he "
BIBUOCIUP1Il'

Amo!llneau. E. Cu.,n.phW: de 'Efypte ii fipoque cOfHe. Paris. 11193. lane-Poole, S. Hislory 0{ £cypl ;" the MiJldh Ag= UlllOOn, 1901.

___ TIIc MoJumt.....d,'" DJ'"u'iu. Paris, 1925. SUMI Y. USII!l

GABRIEL II ibn Tunt}'k. levenlieth palriarch of the See of Saint Mark (1131 - 1145) (feast day: 10 BarnmUdah). Gabriel ibn Tura}'k was one of three laymen selected 10 o<:cupy Ihe Coptic patria.chale in Ihe twelfth and thirteenlh centuries during the late Fatimid c.liphate and the early Ayyubid sulta-

1127

1128

GABRlEL II

nate. He had the rather anomalous name of Abu al-'AU'. which could be applied equally to a Copt as well as a Muslim: however, it!l use is known to have been more frequent in Islamic communities. Nevertheless, he is known to have deKended from an old and noble Coptic family "f SCribes in the new EIDptlan capital of Cairo. He ....... brought up and edu· cated in the Christian tradition and, owing to his SlriCI religious temperament, he became a deacon in the ancient Church of Saint Me<curius (~BO s,vFAYN) in Old Cairo. where he spent time in ardent prayer during his youth. As a mature man, he Ii"ed a celibate life of chasti· ly and devoted himself to helping Ihe needy, the sick, and the poor widows and orphans <Jf his community. [n his f<Jrtie,. he worked as a scribe with a dual function divided between the office of state correspondence (diwdn Qi-MukilIQMI) and the important department of taxation (BQyl Q/.MM). an unusual combinalion thaI points to his significanl ,kill. In spite of hi, heavy invoh'emenl in the stat" administration, he found time 10 con centrale on the Sludy of religious lilerature, and he became an accomplished copyist of biblical books. He was an active participant in most religious <Jffices during the patriarchate of M~C~RIUS II (1102- 1128). After Macarius' death, the patriarchal seat remained ,'acant for three years. Finally, a leading Coptic archon by the name of Shaykh AbU·ai·lIarakAt ibn al-Mabou discovered a solution 10 Ihis national pr<Jblem by promoting Abu·al·'Ala' to Ihe posilion of palriarch; and since no one had anything againsl the candidate, Ihe archons of Alexandria. to whom the seleetion had fallen this time. decided l<J acCepl him, Consequently. he was taken to the ancient AL-Mu'~UAOAH church in Old Cairo where he was ~n<Jinted_ Afterward, he was laken to Ihe tradilional rdigious capital of Alexandria for formal consecration on 9 Amshir AI.\'847/'0 [l30 (Hist<Jry <Jf the PatriaTchs, Vol. 3. pt, Ii p, 26j. In the follo...ing year (A_D_ 1131) at Ihe age pf forty·seven, he was finally confinned as the seventieth palriarch of the Coptic church, e.'en before c'onsulting with the monks of D'YR ~NBA M~QAR in WADI AL-N~TRON_ These formalities were ~cc<Jmpli.hed during Ihe g<Jvemorship of Egypt by the famous AJ.tmad ibn al·A[<Jal ShahinsMh, the son <Jf th'" mighty military head of Ihe armies of th'" Fatimid caliph al'l;Iafi~ (1130-lJ49). Becoming t<J hi, biog.-apher. Marcus ibn Zar'ah. The m<Jn!<s of Day< Anba Maqar gathere
the name of Yli,uf Ihe Syrian. who appeaud Iheir feelings about the dection of Gabriel ibn Turayk. The new palriarch. in confonnity with established tradition, wem to Dayr Anha Maqar, There he celebrated a pontifical mass where he seem, to ha"e had an argument wilh the monks over the lileral pronouncement of the union of the divinily and humanity of Jesus Christ al the consecration of th'" holy bread for communion. The argument was soon ,etlled by the incorporation of the additional phrase "without mixing and "'ilhoul confusion," which be· came pan of the Coptic liturgy, With the solution of Ihis theological difference with the c<JJtM"",-ti"e monks. the ne.... patriarch became uni"crully recogni,ed. and his reign lasted fourteen yeal'5 and six months until his death in 1145. Gabriel instituted the policy of forbidding the burial <Jf the faithful within the churches. Thc church of HARtT ZUV"AYlAH Wall closed f()r a time beea""e a priest by Ihe name of Psus had been buried there, C;ously come 10 Eg)pt in the entourage of another famous Islamized Armenian, B~DIl ~L-JAM~LI. During Bahram's rule, the Chrislians. including ooth Annenians and C<Jpts. fared e,tremely well. The Annenians held nume'" ous governol'5hips of Ihe province" and the Copts monopolized the highest posts in the adminisTra· tion. notably th' offices of oolh finances and laXation. In fact. there was a tomplete reversal of the fonnal policies of Coptic pel'5ecution that had ""ist· ed during the hal'5h reign of al'l;!AKIM (996-1021 j. In facl, some authorities began 10 fear that Islam· ittd Copts might be tempted to abjur", their new faith and return wholes;,le 10 their C<Jptic Chri"ian beliefs. This, indeed, may have been one of Ihe

GABRIEL IV

facton that precipiGlled lh~ rdoollion of l:luan. aI~'. MIn, agailW his £lither. ,",'hieh kd 10 the 'em· potar}' deposition of 1M alipb and 1M applicuion

of I'$ricti\'t

011 the Cop«. It _ du""" this il\~ri"d., that J.iaoan ~ and incan:enlted Gabriel. Gabriel was ...,It-.t aher p;t.)ing an im· poA of a thousand dinars !hal had bttn raised by !he Copl:ic arrhoou and ril;h _rch.nts. 'Jl.., gnovil)' of the ;nternal situation within the country was inten.. fied by conflicts between the Suda~ and the Turkish batallions ....i thin the mil· itary forces of the caliph aIf;!'. This Jed to the oustinll of 1,la$ll.11 and the rdum of al'I:lAfi~ 10 his throne. A new lead"" by the name of RudwAn ibn Walkhasl K~ mi,,;slenal power. Under these circuJTl5tan· masur~

u •. Bahnlom be<:ame uMas)' anenQI15 lll\d Cops alike- Legis1&tiool ...... mac~ to forbid I~ employment of Christians in the adminlslnlion. although mls rule .... neOl of Abo Zikr! ibn Y~yti ibn BU....... lhe Cope. as chief !ilCn1>e logelher "';Ih 1_I~e oilier Chrlslian usisunt Kn1>es..... hile the,e were only lWO "'uslims in doe govemmenl admin;'lr3lions at I later dale. N""enheleos. Christian il\5litutions in Cairo and .1·Khandaq were e:<' posed to mob violence, and Ihe Armenian monU' lery of al-1.uhl1 was destfOY"d. V~lm"nl restrlction~ on Christians were renewed, and they were prohibited from riding horses. Whal probably was ""Or5C wa!l Ihe doublina of the poll WI (JIZYAH) on all Chn:.tians and Jews. wilhoul exce~ljon. Muslim< all O1Ier lhe COWltry became more ",. @"'16i\"e and SOme bnatlcal mobs ~tad,ed Ihoe churc~ althou&h lbe caliph himself '~arttn l"ftIorlCd by i!oe bUhop of SaIl. . in lhe city of Minyat-Ziftl, and IUI"'IIed It in,o a rnooque. The bishop complained 10 'he adrnin;W;Uion au· lhonli..... and a writ ""11I5 issued l"Ol'lpIly for its """oration &5 • church and an uplicil order was giwn for its pn-:soer.-ation and $«urity. In the ""alm of ~gn polk:y. Gahritl II "..alched O\'er the imer=! of the church in his relallons with Ethiopia. The Ethiopian emperor wamed Ihe palri· arch to consecrate numerous bishops for his coun· try, but Cabriel insisted on the prese"'alion of uld es,ablished tr;>dilions of nomloatlng lhe usual Coptic AlIuN, The Abyosinian emperor wroce to the ca· liph 10 bring presoure 10 bnr upon Ihe pauurch 10

1129

rupond b,'-onbly 10 his roequest. Gabriel e:'er the Ab}'5Sinian Muslims. ~mly .bis argumenl eon.'nced Ihe caliph and lhe maIler was closed. In lhe lilerary foeld. Gabriel diAinguished himself. not "",...1,. as a highly skilled copyi" of biblical and other religious texts but .Iso as a compiler and lranslator of works by Ihe falhers of the church. Apparenlly he commanded considerable knowledge of Coptic, al.hough it Is doubtful whcther he knew Grttk. On the praclkal side of his career, he ~ known 10 compiled thn:<: impolUm ",riel; of Canons (Graf, 1947, p. J25) and "'''0 lilUrp:.1 boob and a Nom""anon In ,"enly-four chaplel'S. This "''IS long !hou&h' lO ha'"e loefto 10$1. bu. accordina: 10 Simaybh's c;Ulogue (1939-1941.;;f. no. 570). II "'"11I5 rttleOl1y rediKo,-eroed In Ihe libnry- of dloe patnsrcloaJe in Cairo thou&!' incomplete. Some of hi• collection of canons, bowenr, has !>ttn presenoed in the imp<>nanl Nomoeanon left by MIkHAiL bish· op of Dam~ua.. during obe pauun::hate of _ III (1167-11&9). On thoe ,,·hole. ,hoe patria.rchate of Gabritl II pT'O>'ed be relalively puaful and, if "..e overloolc a number of occasional incidents and the interlude of lhe oppressive Nles of l;Iasan, SOn of al'J:lI~~, and Rudwan ihn W.lkhasl, ,he Copts lived in rela· live .ecurity and enjoyed considerable collabora· ,ion wilh Ihe laIc Falimid administration of the count,)', Gabriel II concluded his reign pt'acefully In 1145.

ha,..,

'0

InBUOCltAnlY

Bute....., E. L nrc SIOry of 1M CI"",::& of Ef:n1I, 2 vols. London, Ig97. tane-Poole. S." HiJlfH)' 0{ ED""'-" me MUldie A,ru. J...ond,o.,. 19C11. Repr. New Yorl<. 1969.

Mrinaro..., O. Clrrisli"" £r:ntI AlSCi..." lind Modem, 2nd ....... cd. Cairo. 1917. Neale. J. M. A HistMy of tile Holy EIlslern C&,.rr.h, 2 vok. London. 1847. Roncaglia. M. HulOire tk /'I,liM copte, 4 Wlli... 2nd ed. Beirut. 1985-. SUBHI Y. U&!B

GABRIEL IV, eighly·slxlh patriarch of lhe See of Saint Mark (1370-1378). Gabriel', hiognophy OIl" pea" in the HISTORY Of' THE PATJUAJlCHS in a mall",r of a f""" lines. H<: was a monk of the Monauery of

1130

GABRIEL V

OuT Lady known

as

IlAYR AWOI.-1;lAIlUQ in Middle

Ec>'PI. "Then' is

no Infonro.;,lion about his secular OT _ i c : IiJe beyond 1M usu.ol $l.ldtlll.eni !hal M _ a k:amod. rn3II • ...mUoOUS, and a Ollie. "5telic. H~ "'. a ~ont~mponry of !he Mamlul sultan, aI· Mhraf SM'bln (1363-1J77), and he ditd in tlte early yeaB of the .eien of his ~ccusor 'Ali al-D1n 'Ali (1l77-I38I). His ~nun: lasted righ. ~tarS and fou. monlhs. and we mUll llSaUme il ..;os uneYe>il·

fuL &lem Y. L0.811

GABRIEL V. eillhly·eiginh patriarch of lhe S.e of S.int Mark (1409-1427). Born probably In the proyince of GILl.. south of Coiro, Gabriel became a ,ovemmelll func:d a priest. His election 10 !he ~llian:halC ....-;as farililaled by a prophecy of his pn'd«essor. MATTHEW I (137814(9). 1'be Slory is lold thu~ in the HISJOIl.Y Of mE 'ATlUAROIS (Vol. 3. pt. 3. p. 171): Manhew had indiCllted to his disciples. before his death. thaI ,'''' Father AoW Gabriel would be palriaTch alter him. And wme of the people did not believe him. unl,1 this FatheT appeared to them on the da.y On which they called Gabriel to be onlained HEGUIoI£NOS. Al the time when the peop'" we.... assembled in lhe CHURCH Of a... ottr.IJ.. IAQ,UI.. one of the Mindy elden; "'ho _re auoem· b...d on tha. day saw this Father in the spiril ......ding at the aide of the altar. and he .... laying his hand ..-llh Ihe hand of the Falhen the bishops on the head tI Anhi Gabriel And whm the eld« saw thi!., he'lharvelled, and he resolved 10 he blessed by him befon: he ~....,iahed from him. and M<'>nhoew blesM'd hi",. Gabriel ..... c<Jn5tquenlly made IJEOJM£NOS of the Chureh of the Vi~in, al·Mu·ailaqah, iTl Old Cairo. On 21 April 1409, he _ «>nsecnted pIllTiarch. Gabriel V faced a difficult period lor the durch. Polilically, E8YJl'l _ unstab.... 1wa6sinatlonl and revolts were !'requenl. In 1421 alone, four sultana held successive rule. Incessant "",r.; made Egypt economically weak. In a period of thiny yea.... four plagues l
e>lception of oht Jews. the Copts sufF....ed under theoe conditions. The M1I$lim hi$lorian of ,hal peri. od.. AJ.u-d Dllrrij. "TOle: The persecutions an' the r=ll' of 1O~'el'lImenl directives.... noese direcliW$ can he claHi6ed in se,;~ra1 cattlOrie3: (I) prohibition apinsl em· ploring [CluUliana and Jew5) iTl IO""mmenl of, fices; (2) conliscalions, conltibulions imp<:>5O'd on the communily. various Iypes of finaocial obllplion; (3) humiliat'nl measures reprdinl drt!S and manners; (4) demolilion cl religious edifices. There multiple halll$$ments, which are periodi· ~ally .... newed. explain Ihe frequeTlt conversions of Christians and Jews who desire 10 maintain their posilions In government; Abil a1·Mal:ibin·s forceful comment on the silualion is lelling: "'l1Ie 0i4I of the ruler is a n:cemly conve<1ed Muslim. bi. Shaykh is a Chrislian, and his pilgrim is a spy" (1%1. p. 141-421. One can compare Il:ardj's o~.......tions wilh Olhu ,...->dence of !he persecuUon of the Copu ...... der the 8al)rile Mamluk:s. Samir (1979) offen an analysis of fnur swdlea and mention~ fi~ Olhers.

In 1412. in the pr'eSeOCe of Muslim kadell, So.ol· tan .... Mu·ayyad lalhered kws and Copts In ,he Madt Chrislian pU· lri"", acccg to the Holy Sepulcher. In ans"".... 10 thi!.. the fteJU$ y~ Muod:ed the MusJims 01. Elhiopia in 1423 and ravas:~ ohe Wamic ki",dom of Jwn. In mum. Banbay look ''''nae:an« on the Copls.. Only through the Inle.....eTltiOft of Eric: VII. king 01. Denmark, ....... lhe Holy Sepukh.... reopened in 1426 (~, 1%1. p. 338; 5« a1w Cerulli. 1943a).

To add 10 Gabriel'. problem•. he and Ihe negus of Ethiopia "'e.... II(>l on sood lenno. In fact, Yesl:iaq ceased to send the traditional contribution of the kings of Ethiopia to the Eg)'P'ian church. In both Coptk and Ethiopian traditions. Ihe name of Gabriel V ~malned linked with a ntiracle repon·

GABRIEL V

ed to have taken plac" at the tim" of the transfer of th" relics of Saint George to the church in Old Cairo that bears his name ('AbdallAh, 1%2, p, 34. fn. 32). Ethiopian tradition mentions Gabriel V in connecTion with Isaac, Th" superior at The monasTery of Mi;rnAq. who refused to ol>ey his bishop. It is ~ported that Gabriel restored good relations between them (Cerulli. 1943b). Coptic tradition reports that in 1412 MAr Basile BahnAm was chosen patriarch of The Syrians at Mardin. Bearing The name Ignatius IX, he came to EgypT \ia Jerusalem (Ephrem, 1976). Gabriel convened a synod thaT charged three bishop6 wiTh his con"""ration, Michael al·Ghamrt, bishop of Saman· nud and dean of the Episcopal College; Gabriel ibn K!tib al·QU~iyyah, bishop of Asy;i! and superior of me monastery of Saint Macarius; and Cyril the Syrian, bishop of J"rusalem. In addition. AI·A,'ad AbU al-Faraj (later to succeed Gabriel V under the name of JOHN XI). parish priest of The churd of Saint Mercurius ("ofj •• nuN) in Old Cairo. helped with me ordinaTion. After his con"""ration in The church of Saint Mercurius. Ignatius IX then returned to Jerusalem. The~ events have been registned in two manuscripts of Cairo
, He himself was subjected. on several occasions, To prejudicial Ir"aTm"nt and ·humiliaTion. He had 10 go in the streets on foot.' When he presented himself for an audience with the Sultan or his emirs, he w,," left standing. He w,," so impoverished that. on mOre than on" occasion, he was obliged To go from ,iIlage to village imploring Ihe generosity of the ChrisTian population. He was unable to obtain aid from them since They t""mselves were in a stat" of po\'erty and dislress. In days gone by, the Abyssinian kings sent an· nually considerable amounts of money to the pa. Triarch of Alexandria. During Gabriel's reign.

1131

however, they renounc"d this cu",om. They had very Htde consideratioll for this prelate who had once been a functionary and had thus. in their opinion. contributed 10 the vexaTions exercised againsl his own people. In shon. 1 have never seen any paTriarch who was less esteemed man this one and who<e pontificate was less honoured, Here then is the opinion of an outsider. Coptic tradition will have it maT thLs patriarch was ascetic. choosing Travel on foot and leading an auSlere and simple lif" (Kamil ~li~ Nal:hlah. 1954, p. 8, no. 6). It is apparent that Gabriel had a difficult reign. It WB.< during this period that Ihe Venetians stole th" Co"",' chief relic of Ih" head of Saint MARK. an act that deeply affecled the Coptic community. On the rdigious front. Gabriel distinguished himself by his liTurgical reforms in The Coptic church. comparable to thOlle made by Pius V for the West"rn laTin Church. Gabriel V left only one ..... rinen work. Tile ardo (Arabic, KilJb Tort/b). He thereby reorganized the liturgy of the church, giving it Th" definitive form thaT it currently retains. WithOUT creating or modi· fying anything in Ihe body of the litul"gy, he assembled all ilS elements and Traditions with minute precision and indicated all g"stures and prayers of t"" liturgical offices. Gabriel's method is inStruCTive. being set fonh identi~ally in the two manuscripts thaT contain pans of the ardo ('Abdallah, 1962, pp. 113, 290 [Arabic tex!]: pp. 319. 440 [1Talian lrans.]): He stud· ied a num""r of "xtant older ordas, lists of daily offices and feasts, comparing them and collating a single ordo that integrated the maximum sub5tance of Their original e1emenIS. On Sunday. 3 May 1411, aT the Church of ~B(J s.o,YHYN in Old Cairo. he assembled The pri"'ts, notables, and deacons of The entire Christian communiTy and submitted the new a,do to them. The assembly gave its unanimous appro"alto This ardo and The patriarch consequently decreed ilS exclusive use in aU Coptic churches. The main part of the anI. is contained in a Paris manuscripT. arobe 98. t",nscrib<:d at the ""ginning of th" seventeenth century according to A. 'Abdallah, or in the fifteenth century according to G. Troupeau. Only folios la-136o contain the a,do. The rest of the manuscripT contains materials pertaining 10 oTher authors. The manuscript, Coptic Vatican 46, Transcrib<:d in Egypt at The beginning of The seventeenth c"ntury. contains in folios 136a-143a a single piec.... The ardo of 'he C,ms
1132

GABRIEL V

penicular ordo .. missing in th., Paris ~uKript. A detailed anai)'Si5 of the whole Vatican manuscripi _
201..2ro;

b. Fun.,rals of lrelJlmerroi. priC$lS. and bi1hful (ed.. pp. 253-58; trans.. pp. 42.-27); c. Commemoralion of lhe dead (ed., 258f.; I... ns. 428£.). 10. Ordo to fill 1M chalice. if pouri", the wine during mass has been lnadvertenlly omiued orif the wine has Illmed to vinegar; baxd OQ a manuscript found in the M~ery of Salnl lot. c:arius (non. ",... IIA MAOU) (rd.. !'P. u,o---f>7; lrIlll5.. pp. 430-3J). II. Ordo of !he <:<>ns«ralion 01 ,he sacred ~1s (td... pp. 268-88; Ifll/"I5.. pp. H.~38). As ~y noted. Ihis Ordo did noo doerive from Gabriel V; ;t "''lIS addc:d he,.., be<:luse of its IP~<:
a.,J"

Blsuoc;;ltAJ>Hl"

'Abdallah, A., a.r.M. L'Or,m,<1m.,,,lo ufouzj<:<> tii GUriJo[~ V. U' p<>lritlrc. COfHo (J4Q9-HZ7} SIudia Oriental;;, ChrUliarta ~1)'Pti<:L Cairo. 1%2_ Gabriel's life appeaT$ on pp. 24-42; his wort. on pp.•3-73. CauIli. E. EliDpi m P~lc. eliopico dt; !oli... co/i di Mana. PI'. 201 202. Rum •• 194Jb. Daltlj, A. L'£VPlc SU"S I~ "!C"~ d~ 8M,bay (81584//1412-1438;. DaIlWCUS. 1961. See especially chapler 4, "Les E.x~dienti." .nd chapter 8. "~ Ueu,,-SainIS Chrtliens." Ephrem 1st Ba'¥um, ItI·Lu'lu' al·Ma.uh'" f. IM,kh al·'ul"m w~ al·dddb "I·suryd"iyy"h. 3.d ed .. pp.

446-47. 8aghdad, 1976,

GABRIEL VII

Graf, G. Calalogue de manuscrlls arabes chrel!ens co"serv~s au Ca',e. no, 'W. Vatican City, t934. Hebbelynck, A.. and A. van lamschoot. Codlcos Cop/lc, Vatica", Ba'beri"la"l Borgi""! Rossla"i. Vol. 1. CodlctS C"pllci Valle""" pp. 257-306. especially pp. 280-89. Vatican City. 1937, Kimil ~ilil:t Nakhlah. Silsilal Tdrikh al·Bdbawdl B"tdrikal "IKurSI a/./,ka"d"n, VoL 4. pp, 6-9. Dayr al·Su'1'An. 1954, A well--documented study on the life of Gabriel V. Khalil Samir. "Chretiens sous les Mamluks." Bullelin d'Arabe dmit!e" 3 (1979):68-74. Muyser, J. "Contribution A I'etude des listes epis· copales de I'eglise copte." Bullel'n de I" Sociele d'arch'ologie caple 10 (1944),115-76, especially pp, 167-68. Troupeau. G. Calaloguo de' ma"u,c,;rs arabes de la Blbliolheque "alio"ale. VoL I. pI. 1. Manuscrits chretiens. Paris, 1972, KH~UL S~I,\IR,

S.J.

GABRIEL VI, ninety.first patriarch of Ihe See of Saint Mark (1466-1475). Gabriel was born al ai'ArAbab al·Madfunab and consequently was called al·'Arabliwl, He was surnamed Ibu Qat!A' aJ'lJsfur. He became a monk in the D~YR ~NBA ANTONIYUS and Ialer was its .uperior. After MATTHEW II died Gabriel was cho.. n 10 be the pope of Ale~andria on 9 Feb· ruary 1466. He then settled himself at the Church of Om lady at I;IARrr ZUW~YU.H in Cairo, which had been the patriarchal seat from the reign of JOHN IX (1320) umil about 1670. Little is known of his life, He died on 15 Decem. ber 1475 and was buried at D~YR AI.XJ-UNIMQ, in the Church of A"'B~ RUWU$ in Cairo. Accoming to 0, Meinardus (1965). he w",", one of four patriarchs buried in that church (d. KAmil, 1943, 1954). No work by him is mentioned by G. Graf. Howev· er, one mUSI consider twQ.f.!anuscriplS in the Ii· brary of tho Coptic patriarchate of Cairo. These record canonical answers o~ marriage and the sel" vice of the altar to Questions,' ""ked by .'arious peo· pie. probably bi.hop,. The questio,," were "collected in the cell of the patriarch Ghubriy~1 al-FarbAwl" (Graf. 1934). Thi. last name should no doubt be ",ad al··Arabawi. Tbe two C.ittne manuscripts are: Theology 294 (1Ogypt. eighteenlh cemury), fols. 501>86b (Simaykah, 1942, no. 541/1: Graf, 1934. no, 439/10): Theology 295, dated 22 Abib A,M, 1549 16/ 27 July A,D. 1743, approximately fol$. 54-90 (Simay· kab, 1942. no. 394/1: Graf, 1934. no. 443/1).

1133

These canonical answers are mentioned by Omf (1951. Vol. 4) but are mi$lakenly attributed to Ga· briel VII (1525-1568) by Murqus Simaybh and Yassa 'Abd al·Masl~. BIBLIOGRA.PHY

Graf. G, Calalogue de. manuscnu Qrabes chrJlims cOo-lsu"i. au Cai...,. Vaticau City. 1934. KAmil SAIi~ Nakhlah. KitJb TlJ.rlkh ....a·Jadawil Ba{arikal al-lskaMdariyyall al.Qib!. Cairo, 1943. ___. Si/,i/m Tankh al-B~baw! al·[,ka"dan, V()l. 4. Dayr al·Suryln. 1954. Meinamus, 0. F. Chri.tia" Egypl: "nci~"l aMd Mod· ~rn, Cairo, 1965; 2nd ed" Cairo, 1977. KHALIL SAMIR, S,J.

GABRIEL VII, ninety·fifth patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (1525-1568), Gabriel VII was born about 1471> in Minsh~h or Manshi)Yat Abu ·A:i,hah. near DUll. AI.MUl;IARRAO. we:o;t of AI-Q1l~iyyah in the province of ,uyU!. He was known by the name of Ibn MuhannA. His father. the lIogummo' Jirjis ibn Rufil.'ll. was tbe pari,h priest of the famous church of Saint Mercurius (ABO S~Yf~YN) in Old Cairo. At an unknown dale. Ibn Muhann~ eutered DAYR Al-SURY~N in the desert of Seetis and took the name Rufil.'11. like his grandfather. Shortly after he became a priest, then a HE()UMENOS A note in the manuscript of Saim Autony, numbered Theology 209. describes Gabriel VII as a tall, Quiet man.•trongly inclined toward an asceticism that included fasts, long prayers. and stringent austerity, On 5 Febroary 1524, JOHN XIlI, the ninety-fourth patriarch, died. After deliberations that lasled near· ly twenty months, lhe bishops and ~RCHON' of lhe community chose Ruf.!'i! (lS patriarch. He was can· secrated on 1 October 1525. One of the colophons in Coptic Vatican 9 notes that on 29 November 1525, JUSt two months alter his consecmlion. Gabriel acquired from masler Barsilm ibn MikhA'i! Ta)'y Ibn BisAdah this manu· script. nOW in tbe Vatican, which contains the four gospels in Bohairic and Arabic (Hebbelynck and van Lant
1134

GABRIEL VII

I!IIlvt Al..4oU.YMGl'. H~

rdluilt

~nllrdy t~ mOJla,tt,'Y

or SainI Anl(M'JY. lh~Q Cllll~d Dayr al·''''nbm. which. al.hooSh tl had be~n destl1»1'd by Ihe bdooins. th~r~alt~r began 10 bloom. Unfonunately, th~ ""fu,.. bi,Md monastel')' of SlIint Paul aa:ain deslroy~d by the bedouins durlng Gabriel'l lifellm~. To his c""dit. Cahtid al~ ~ored pan" of Dolyr al· Mul:wnaq. the monasttry near his nall~e village. Thqe ustorationl r~uirnl a gnal dnl of mono ey. Morl'OWT. !h~ lUes ~ded by the Slate be~ Inc:~ngly 1leaY)'. for these I..... ...-om. Gabriel ooup;hl I<> oaK funds. But failhful in Cairo subsequ~ntly ac;c..... him of beina: a malen. a1ilt. a calumnialion ~dialM by lhe fad u.a.1 ... his death. hts cell was found 10t.ally empty. I n I S61. Pope Paul IV (1559- I S65) ~nt two Jesu· in t<.> Gabriel in lh~ ho~ of rusrabHshing a union btlw«n the two "hurches. Th~ two enV<>y5. Falhers ChriRophore ll.odricun (Spanish) and ClAMMmsn. lUA!'lO (a ........-e of f&)'pI). were received by the pau"rch in N",-embe.- 1561. Their ultimal~ goal was to join the Copu I<> the Chureh of Rome.. In this conneclion. W pope "'3$ aski,. lbat the pun. arch send .. represenl.all«, 10 the Council of Tr,."l. lila. h~ ddeple a group of ,.,una: mm 1<.> go 10 Rome to be in.tI'\lCI~d in lhe Calholic faich. and Ihal he &hOllld wrile a l~u~r of submiSSion, The ilka for Ihi, mission had originalcd wilh II. c~nain lbrihlm a]-Suryirll {alias Abrlm), who ""y. ~nol yurs earl;"r had introduced himself in Rome as .~ envuy of Gebriel. H~ had submitted lelten a11~ 10 be from Ihe pania",h. which indicaled lh:ao Gabriel l'eC"Iniud the primacy of 1M Roman pope. II lat~r became clnr thai the Iftler from the patriarch ...as .-hina: more ....... a letler 01 ~ lfttndallcm. l'bc Olhers had been roraed by Abmn. Initially, Ih~ Jesuit blhel'l appf'ared 10 be allain· inll Ih~k goal. The ~lriarch promised to ...nd someone 10 th~ CouncH <.>f Trent, He a~oided send· ina: a group 01 youna.foplS 10 Rome by SIl"ng Wt lhe Turh W offer allegiance I<> the Roman pope. bu. In the end he ",hallied lois mind 0tI. the unbvonb1e apenl)' with the Joull falhers and 10 work OUI posili<>n$ ac;cepcable 10 bc>ch lides. Wh~n the palriarch was ready 10 sign, a younll man named Gabriel. th~ future G/leR.a Vlll (1586-1601), int~lV~ned. counseling lhe patriar"h aplnll .igninll a document he conlldered heretieal.

wa,

w

The you... Gal:oriel. wt.o aened considerable inftu· enee on .he eighcy-liwe-yoear-
laithfu.l

who~ IMy pleased who. by and. ~. were much

arnonc

Ihe

nqleaed by dt~ nalive bUhops and cloerc'. In faa. thf'Ol.lJhoul their jcurnty the lwo prirsts were Mton~ by 1M obsen'alion thaI baptismal lOncs -.e em"", and in dj...epair. <:on~h,(;ed of lhe u.d~ of their dFons, th~ two delq;atcs finally returned to Cairo ~nd lhen,,~ to Rom~. According 10 lhem. lhe whole scheme was a mistake from the bea:lnninll. due not only 10 misinformalion bUI abo to the obslinale lIand of lh~ )'Qune Gabriel. This lim oIIiciai Catholic mission 10 the CopI:s p8.\-ed lhe -r for a lone selin of pom.ilif;al missiom UI a numbn" 01. IlU(ceaaift patriarchs. All failed. Althou&b al the bepnninl of the dchteenth cenrnry Rome renounce plhr:r !he required. $<1m. Go1bricI decided 10 retire lO his lavoril~ mo~ of SainI Antooy. On arrival. ho.e.e•. he died ...,-. rounde
Bcshah. G.. and M. W. Abc-rpy. 71te Quutitm 0/ 1M Uniooo of Ch"rcJ.es ;" U<so-ElhiopilUt M.ri<ms (/500-16J1). pp. 5511. Usbon. 1'J47. C~l'\llJj. E.

EtJriopi in

,."Ium••.

SlorilJ adl" <"()nto ",,,,,itll c/hiqpica di Ge",sIJlemmo. Vol. 2, pp. 419-21. Rome. 1947. Chaine. M, ['IJ CI"onoloSle des I~mps chreli,,,s de I'Eopte el d, I'Elltiopl" p. IllS. no. 21. Paris, 1925.

GABRIEL, ARCHANGEL

A. •nd A. ~.n untschool. Codices Coplid VII/lcll"j 8IIrberlnill"i 80rgill"; R"uia"i. V<>l. I. Codices Coptic V'llanl, pp. 321. Vatican City, 1937. Kamit M. "J...,lIers to Elhiopia from I~ Coplic Patriarch,. Yo'annas XVIII (1770-1796) and Mallia. VI[( (1796-1809):' Bulleti" i, I.. Sodhi d'Atehiologi, COP" , (19<42)'.89- 143. 1.0...... L LII Cot/less..", di CI""dio. Re i/'Eliopitl (1540-/$59). Palermo, 19<47. Rabb"h. A., SJ. Doc."..,,,,S /nUi,s /IOMr Ut'"r .. ill CI/ristilJ"i_ t:" Ori,nl, Vol. I. pp. 194-Jl;t, Pari" J...,ipzi&. and lDndo", 1901. (Assembles nume>0u5 documents, mostly in Italian or Latin, on tM pOlllilKal misaion of 1561-1561.) l.ounbe,.. H. ell/Il/orUt: iu ,.,,,n..~rils uhiopku (ghUt.' "",IIoriqll,) lit: til BibliollK.,." "olionill•. pp. '4f. Paris. 1877. H~e1ynck.

"!oi=';',

KHAUL SAlolIIL SJ.

GABRIEL VIII, nin~K\'etIth J*lriacch of
tam.

the ......-tic \'OW ...... ShinUdah and M

from """ 10...... of "kil ;n the provinr:., of Asyllt. This .. all we can Quatt from the ".!$TO.... OF ruE '''nLUlCllS. "'hidl in a matter of lhrft lines ellOOI(OUfIy ~ his !.own lIS .1·Manblr. He Vo'U a monk in the wildc..- of Shi"", bul the,." is no iDdica,ion to ... hic:h of its rnorwceria he belo",ed. although it has be-en RlU=ed thai he ...... a monk of "''II91 '!SIlO" This is, of counc. an obscu,." period in the 1Us1<>ry of tho: ~JIIian nation and apedally th., Coptic stelor. Gabriel was a conlemporary of two Ottomllon sull&1U. Mu~ III (IS74-1S95) and Mul)ammad III (1595- 1603). He is sa'd to ha.., died In 1603 in lbe wildemns of Shildt. ,,·he.., he was buried, ...i1hOlJl mc:mion of any sp,dfic monaslery. He was patri· arch for lift""" ynrs. (Su illS(): Gabriel VII,) camt

""n

0' ~

SUIIHY Y.LA~18

GABRIEL, ARCHANGEL. Cabriel can mean "man of God" or "str,ngth of God" or "God reveal. Mm..,lf in strength," In a Coptic exorc~m tut it i. inlerpreted as "man of God" (cf, Kropp, 19301931. VoL 2. p. (65), In the Old Testamenl book of Daniel, Cabriel appears 10 the prophet in Ihe ilCm· blance ofa man [On. 8:IS-16) .nd l.s ImagIned ... having the power 10 fly, a symbol of splriluality (Dn.

1135

9:21), His mlSS,on is to int""l'ret for Daniel the apoca\)JIIic vision of the ram and the hc,~ aOO to clarify the m~ianic maning of the prophecy of the seventy wee4 In the New Talament he is p"'" the til~ of "angel" [Lk. I: II, 26). He appears to Zechari.oh in the Temple 10 announce the binh of 1M forenlllroer of the Meuiah, John the Ilaptisl, and be Identifies himself as "Gabriel:. "''''0 sa:ands in the presence of God'· (ll. 1:19). SI>. monlh.I...,r he appea" to lhe Virgin Mary in Nazarr:th and announces lhal ~e is 10 be th, .....,.ne,- d the Mtuia), (Lk. 1:16-38). Al· though his name is nOt mentioned, ~ is supposed 10 be the angel "00 appean in Rewlalion 10:1-11, since: be briJtp a masage of good tidinp. )n Jewi5h ulr.lbiblicallileralu"" ~riel is riven the titH, ol··arthant;el" (I EnoclI 21:3) and Is con· sidered 1o be one of tho: four rn:ai.. angelic princes l"&"'Im with Michael, Uricl (Sand). and Raphael or one of the socvell archaneels (I Enoch 20:7; d. Zec:. 4:IOb). II is said thaI Gabriel is OtatM a1 the Idt hand of God-with Micn..",l a1 tb., rilht-and that he has Enoch for u> acoI)te (I Enoch 24:1). As his name indicates. Gabriel ..... auu-tty O¥U all tho: ~ (I Enoch 40:9). He has.....,en.! misoioll5. such as to watch <>Vel' Puwli:se, the "'""1""n15, and the che.... bim (I Eoocb 20:7), to inlen:ede for !he jusl (I Enoch 40:9), to be- Pf"'"1 at the hour of death (4 E.sd. 6:1f.; ,tpoctrocu Joseph in Et;ypt: on Ihe dea;:h of Mosco he hel ... Michael", 1'1'<)1"1 llis soul, whiclt Sama'el ..;sltes 10 snalch away. He S''''C5 the three young men in tlte fiery furnace, In Gn"",tic lite"'tu", Gabri,1 i$ shown as the angel of JuMice. anned with a sword and bow. and he ;,. in~oked against Ihe demon., He is identified with Christ talking 10 Mary and laking fiah in her womb. In Christian literalure many of th, characteristics mentioned an: included, others a~ de~eloped, and }'et others an: introduced for the first time. Gabriel is still considered one of Ihe archangels. and It is other an· also said that he ",as created before

,It,

1136

GABRIEL, ARCHANGEL

gels, together with Satanael, who was later transformed into Ihe Mvil, and with Michael, and that he lead. the heawnly hosts. He i!; oaid to have spedal power over Satan, whom"," torments con· stantly with the help of other angels. Since he is the angel of powers, he has authority over wars (Origen De principii, J. S, I). At the end of time Gabriel will blow the he3"enly trumpet, at the sound of which the dead will ri.e. Gabriel is also credoretus 10.20), Since Gabriel was .em 10 Mary to announce the forthcoming binh of Christ, he is thought also to bave been senl to announce the death of Mary (Tischendorf, 1866. pp. 95-112). In Coptic literature Gabriel £re
concerning Gabriel. He is called the bringer of good tidings of the eons of the light. The lnstallatio includes legends: with Michael Gabriel appeared to Adam in the wateTS of the Jordan to pread Ihe good new. of repentance and forgiveness of sins; he appeared to Abraham to announce the birth of a $On {MOller, 1962, n. 7); and he appeared to the Virgin Sibylla, si'ter of Enoch, to save her from the attacks of the de,il (MlIller, 1962, n. 8). It is Gabriel who consoles the martyrs in their lrials (Milner, 1962, n. 8), Hi!; aUlhorily in heaven is shown by his ha"ing being placed by God aI the head of 240,000 angels (MUller, 1962, n, 4). Gabriel al.o plays an important role in the homi· lies on the birth of Chri.t as, for example, in lhe Sermon of Damianus presen'ed in Sahidic (Crum, 1913). Some fragments in Paris and London appear to belong to a homily of this kind (Lucchesi. 1979). The editor attributes it 10 SEVEIlIAN OF GABAlA, There is also a Rohairic homily attributed to Saint JOHN CHRYSOSTOM dealing with the annunciation by the angel Gabriel to Mary (Vatican Library, Coplic 57; d. Hebbel)'nck and Lmlschoot, 1937). Some dozen homilies in Arabic on the subjecl of Gabriel have also been presen'ed, They recall his appearances and miracles, The most important is one anribUled to John Chrysostom (Gmf, 1944-1953, Vol. 1, p, 544). We 6nd references to Gabriel in olher Coplic works, especially in those in which Michael ap· pears. Thul in the Instal/ario Michaelis "'.changdi (Miiller, 1962, n,3) it is state
GAIANlTES

attends the t.....o many!"!; before Iheir death and leads them safely 10 heaven (Till, 1935-1936, p. 99). In a Sahidic Encomium to the Archangel R<>phael (Budge, 1915, pp. 526-35), the name of Gabriel is th'en the meaning of "God and man:' and it is stated that this is why he is the messenger of Ihe Incarnation. As in all Coptic literature and especially in Ihe Coptic G05pd 01 Bartholomew, Gabriel is the bringer of good lidings. IT is thought that Gabri· el is also the angel who revealed 10 Enoch Ihe mysteries of the judgment, according to the "Coplic Fragments of Enoch" (Pearwn, 1976. p. 223). In the Coptic Apokalypse des Elias (Steindorf, 1899). Gabriel appears leading the jusl to the Holy Land (10 Parad;,;e) al the head of Ihe angel•. In the Testa· men! of Jacob. it ;,; stated that he com.. with Mi· chael and many angel. to bear the soul of Jacob to the tabernacles of light. Gabriel also plays a part in the magic Coptic lexlf;, in which he is invoked to awake the lo,'e of a certain person, 10 deliver people from serpents. and to cure fevers. He is closer and more apprrnlchable than Michael, and his name frequently appears on amulets. In the Coptic liturgy, the archangel Gabriel is celebralM on 30 BaramiJdah, feast of the Annunciation; 22 Kiyahk.
Crum. W, Eo, ed. T1leologicol Texts from Coptic Popyri. Anecdptica 2. pp. 246-291. Copenhagen. 1922-1929. Worrel. W, H. ed. "Homily on th~ Archangel Gabriel by Celeslinus. Archbishop of Rome," In The Coptic Manuscripts in Ihe Freer COlleCllon. pt, 2(1). New York and London, 1923, Zol!ga. G, Catalogus codicum copticomm monu·

sen'plO"'''' qui in Museo BOTgiono Velit", ads",· vontur. Rome, 1810.

1I1111.10GRA.PHY

Budge. E, A. W .. ed. Miscellaneous C",uic TexIS in Ihe Diolecl 0{ UppCF Egypt. London. 1915.

1137

GAIANlTES. See Gaian"",

1138

GAIANUS

GAIANUS, rival patriarch of Alexandria in 537.

GANGRA, COUNCIL OF, founh-century coun-

When THEOOOSlUS I. the official candidate for the patriarchate, appeared for his emhronement. a pop' ular movement of all classes in the city swept Gai· anus. who had been an archdeacon under TIMOTHY HI, imo his place. Against the Severianism (see se"ERlAN OF HllAlAH) of Theodosius. Gaian,", repre· sented the more extreme Julian;st doctrine that the flesh of Chri.t was incorruptible b)' nature. He had been in power for 104 days when The<>dosius ","'as restored by military force. Gaianus was exiled to Sardinia, where he later died. The Theodosian pany gJ71dually prevailed in Egypt, but the Gaianite< continued with their own episcopal .uccession through the ""venth umury and perhaps e"en later.

cil that opposed extreme asceticism. The traditional date is about 340, although the eccle.iastical historian Socrates Scholasticus (1864, 2.43) indicates about 360. under the presidency of Eusebius. bish· op of Nicomedia. The fourteen bishop:s present condemned the vie"", and practice. of Ell'lathiu., bish. op of Sebaste in Armenia, and his follower'S, which tended to be extremely rigorous and ascetic. They included contempt for marriage. holding thaI no married person "had hope with God"; refusal to eat animal flesh; refusal to pray in the houses of mar· ried people; rejection of church wor'Ship in favor of worship in private com'entides; belief that the rich c"uld not be saved; and encouragement of slaves to de.en their duties on the pretext of taking up an ascetic life. Though the canons of the council had no direct bearing on Egyptian monastidsm, they ,how the increasing distrust among many clergy of the monll$tie movement and especially lhe cenobitic form that was developing then in Egypt under the inllu· ence of Saim PACHOMlUS and Saint AMUN,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hardy. E. R Chrisri~n Egypt. New York, 1952. Joannes. Bishop of Nikiou. Ch,onicle of John, Bishop 01 NiHu, lrans. R H. Charles, 92. 1-5, 10; 94. 2-6; 96.10-11. London. 1916. Jugie, M. "Gaianites," [n Dicri,mn~ire de thi%gi. earholique, VoL 6, cols. 999-1002. Paris, 1915. JUlicher. A. "Die Liste der alexandrinischen Patriarchen im 6. und 7. Jahrhunden," Fesrg~be J, K. Mueller. pp. 22-23, Tubingen, 1922. Maspero, J. Hi'lOire d<5 par'i~'ches d'Alexandrie. pp. 110-17. Paris. 1923. E. R. HARDY

GALACTOTROPHOUSA, Su Christian Sub· jects in Coptic An.

GALLERY. See Architectural Elements of Church· <•.

GALTIER,

EMILE,.~JOSEPH (i864-1908),

French Orientalisl. He studied at the Ecole des a member of the Institut Hautes Etudes and fran~ais d'A
was:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hefele, C. J .. and H. Leclercq. HiM"ire des coneiles d'cpres In documents origin~w<, Vol. I, 2, pp. 1029-45. Paris, 1907. W, H. C. FREND

GASELEE, STEPHEN (1882-1943). librarian. Coptologist. and connoisseur. He lectured On Cop· tic dialects, cataloged the Coptic manuscripts in the University library, Cambridge, and published articles. mainly on Coptic bibliograph)' and literature (Kammerer, i9S0. p. 178). In 1916 he entered the Foreign Office. was made librarian and keeper of the manuscripts in 1920, and in 1932 became president of the Bibliographical Society. BJBLlOGIt"PHY Georgy Sobhy.

"Sir Stephen Gaselee." Bulle/in de la $ocieli d'~'chiolog;e cople 10 (1946):211, Kammerer. W., compo A Cop/Ie Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mich.. 1950; repro New York. 1969. MARTIN KRAUSE

Kammerer. W., comp. A CopEle Bibliography. Ann Arbor. Mich .. 1950; repr. New York, 1969. Maspero. 1. Roppan, Sur 10 rn~rche du Service des ~tltiquitb; de {'Egypte, p. 279. Paris, 1912, Atl'. S. ATln

GAVET, ALBERT JEAN MARIE PHILIPPE (18.56-1916), French Egyptologist and Coptologist. He was born at Dijon and studied un-

GEORGE, SAINT

Mr G. MASl'D.O in Paris. His works .ouchin, on th~ 6~1d of CoptoJosy can be found I~ed in .4 Coptic BibJicvtlplry (Kammerer. 1950. 1969) IlTid Wit.:> Was Wit.:> Do EtyplOlou (Dawson and Uphill. 1972). His colle<.l>on of IlTiliqunia ";10$ idt to the cily of Dijon. whicll ccdN It to the Lourre "tusno.... IlIBUOGIAPHY

Davo"SOn. W. R.. and £. 1'. UpllilL WlwI W&,I W100 in Emroloc. p. 115. L.ondoft. 1912. KamIM1'ft'. W., eomp. .4 Coptic. Bihl~.phJl. Ann Arbor, Mkh., 19SO; rtpr. New Y<>rk,. 1969. ~IZS.

GEMINATION, VOCAUC.

Ann

See .4p~"di.t.

GENUFLECTION, the act of kncelinll in pnllyer a $llln of reverence and venell' soervi« oIlenuflection on Whiwlnycr of 1M descent of the Holy Spiril, when th~ dn.con SollJ$. "Worship God In a_ and trembling:' In the t"SlilIlIU of John CASSlAN (c. 360-435). in which he describes '"the canoniCll! syll~m of the nocturnal prayers and psalms, obs.erv<:d by the servants of God throughOt1t the whole of EiYPt." he pa)'$ spedal tribute 10 the distincti\'e C,,$tom of the desen monks in pr2lClicins genuflection: "... before they hend their knees lhey pray for a few momcnu. and while they "re $landinl up spend the greal~r part of the time in prayer, And so, ali~r Q

1139

this. for 1M briefest $pa<:e of time, lhey pn)$",ste theonselttS to th~ ground, l$ ir but adoring the divine mercy. and as lOOn .. poos&ibk riOt up, and again $tanding ertcl with oulSpfead hanlh-jusl as th~ had been MandinlJ to pray before-remain with ~ u intmt UI'O" tOOr praycrs.~ Some early £:others ailXhed Sf'Kiai syrnbotical s~ilic:an<:e to lh1' acl 01 emuflec:oon in its reIations,bip to man's fan prior to his redemption. Thus )"".....us of Lyons (c. 130-200) states, ~SiJtce iI l>ehooYtd US aiWllYS to re~beor both our own &.II into si... and the grace 01 our Christ th...,...h which we ha\'e ariMn from tilt fall. tberefore OUr k""",liol .,., the ..... daJ$ is a si,.. or OUr fall inco sl .... but our nQI kneeling.,., the Lord's Day is " sign of the risin~ again. through Which. by the IV"ce of Christ, we have been delivered from our sins :and from deatll." Jolin C"",ian refers to this tradition as ohserved by the Egyptian monlu. "This, 100, we ought to know, thai from the even;nl ()f SalurdAy which pre· cedes the Sunday, up to the £oI10wins evening, among the £.iyplians they never kneel. nar from wter to Whlt$Untidt:· BIBLJOCurHl'

C..mming<. D. J1Ie Rudder. pp. 196. 755. Chicago. 1957.

GEOGRAPHY, DIALECTAL. Sre AppendiL GEORGE, SAINT, There I n \;V;OUS accounts of the hmary of Saini Ceo,.. knowr> in Arabic l$ Mar Jlrjis....."" is held in JJUl "tmra.ion b,. Copes as an dticacious inlen:asor. Many stories _re handd down by tradillon, and are popIIlarly a<:<:qIled as hlsloric;l.l. Accardinl to the Copt\(: 5Y~IUOII. Saint c;..orge was born in Cappadoc;a to Anastasi..s and Theopisla. His father. ""ho wv a governor. died when Ceorge was twenty yUB of aac. He therefore betook himself to Em»f'l'Qr OlOCttnlAII (21140 profeJ6td Chri.stianitJl. he tore

1140

GEORGE, SAINT

them down. He was taken to lhe emperor', court, whe.... he proclaimed thai he was a Christian, cry· ing out in anger. "When will you stop torturing innocent Christians and fordng them 10 .... cant their religion? If you do nOl wish to embrace their faith. at least do not perse<;ute them." Magnentius, one of the emperor's courtiers, lrie
""IS

A particular event connected with Saim George is the commemoration on 3 Ba'unah of the consecra· tion of the firsl church in Egypt to be dedicaled to his name. According to lhe Coptic Syna.arion lhat church was at the town of Bil'l11a in the Ba~ariyyah oasis. The saint's decapitated booy was brought from Lydda in Palestine to the Bahnasli. Another church at Bil'l11a near Tan!! in the Delta wa.o; al"" consecrated to Saint George on a similar date. The S)'",,,,arion gives an interesting story lhat throws some light on the similarity of the names of the two towns. A young man lhed near a well, in the area of present-day Binna, together with a community of Christian soldiers. He had heard of the mirade. wrought by God at the hands of Saint George. so he collected details of lhe saint's life story. wrote them down. and found great spiritoal enjoyment in read· ing them. On the ew of 24 Bashans. while he was praying. he saw a group of saintly men singing and praising God around the well. One of the group, in military dress, stepped fOlWard and lold him thaI he was George and thaI he was martyred by Diodelian. and commanded him to build a church on that spot. The youth kept wondering bow he could af· ford 10 do so, But Saim George appeared 10 him again. pointed out 10 him tbe exact spot where the church was to be built. and explained to him where he could find the necessary money, In the moming the young man went to Ihal place, where he dug up a pot full of gold and silver coins. The church was ,oon buill, and wa.o; consecrated by the palriarch on 3 Ba'unah. Afterv'iard many houses were buill in the ,idnity of the church, which acquired the name Bi' rna' (i,e .. ,,"'ater well), after the well near which the church was buill. The Synaxarion goes on to say thaI the relics of Saint George were later translated from his church at lhe town of Blr rna' in the oases to lhe Monastery of Anbi ~lm""ll during the patriarchate of M~TIHEW J (1378- 1409). Later, during the palriarchate of G~BRJ· EL v (I409~1421), the saint's relics were translated, once again. to the church dedicated to his name in Old Cairo. BIBLJOGRAf'HY

Delehaye. H. Les Legendes grec9"es des sainI< mili· lair«. New York, 1975. Holweck. F. G. A BiograpMca/ Diclionary 01 Ihe SainlS. Repr. Detroit, 1969. Meinardus. O. Ch,-;slian Egypl Ancient and Modem, Cairo, 1965. O·Leary. De L The Sa;>l/S <>f Egypl, London. 1937. Fu~D MEGAUY

GIZA

GRAll, finance minister for

MIJI;t.UlW.U)

'.uJ 8c>m

in the laic eighlttnth ttntwy. Chlll was emplo,d by Mul;>ammad ~ ai-All\. " leading ..... re among I~ Mamluu' He w;u a co.llemporary of I~ french Eapedidon (see n"QllB. GENEllL), during which lhe J_'!w1 br<>thtrs rO$a,... mad •All b«amc Khedive, CMII inherited .be posttion in !he finance admin...ration fonnel1)' held by Jt~rs 4L-U"'·llAlli. Appannll}' Ghill's me(hod of noi5i... funds for the ""'5 mono conciliatory I~n rlllll of Jirjis, who _ forced 10 ftN his ...... maslCr and his compdiror 10 refuge in Upper £CYP1. In 1105, !he khWi.... enlru5led Chill with the Iotlil arlminil.tration of the finances of Egypl, Hc rcorpnlud the finances on a firm basis by taking a compkte survey of Ihe counlry and panilioninllhe arable Klil inlO IlUable sqrnenl5-lhus utablishing a p~o.e bud&,,!, which incnascd cO"'liderably as a •.,wh. Hc alw divided the country into provlncC5 and districl5 with a Boyernor, lilled a81la, responsl· bl" for each district, In lhe meamime, Mul).ammad 'All was cBBcr 10 secure armamenli from Europe bul round Iii<: cOli loa high. When he consulted his generals, they IoIIll recommended European military hardware. Chin made the coUmelpTOposilion thaI armantems be manUfaclured locally, uplaining lhal lhia would bols.e. !he economJ and proWde the people: ...~th opponuniti<es for work. 1be khedive accePled Chill', proposal. Durina GhlIrs administration the French Imbu· aador pl'ammarl 'All onlcred Mu'allim Gh:dl, who...-as I CopII. to tell the Cos>'ic pat:riarch 10 a«ede 10 the f~h amb"nd "'s rcqUQt. Chill, who knew well thai the palriarch ..ould I>CTC. do .... loid the \.hcdive that the best .....,. to attnellhc Copts to Catho!· iciNn "'lIS limply to adopc the RoIlUOD faith hlmscff. The khedr.~ acccpced m.:.J"'U"'lion. "'hleh proved ro be the bqinnlnl of !he very $lIlail Calholle con,...pion In Eafpt. This is'probably the only S1Jrvi... in,lcpcy from the Chj]j family. who ~ante CalhoIic on ItUII occasion. A"""r~nlly ChAIrs SUCCCM in discharging his duo lies cnated ;calousy. and hi. c<>mpctlllOQ began 10 fomem lrouble behind his back al cOlIn. For hill rlilurc to meet the khedi,'e's requesl for utraordi, nary funds, he was incarcerate
1141

'Ajd·ib QI-Ath•• fi Q/·TQriji", .......,I-AlcltlHlr. 7 vol.., ed. 1:1_ MuJ:tammad h,"TIN" al. Cairo. 1~58

1%7. Ram21 Tadrus. AI..AqH!

fi

QI..(Jam al-'uJntn, ] voJs..

Cairo. 1~10~1911. Ya'qilh NillWt Rufa)iah. Tjrilclt ,d·UmmQIt Q/Qib!&Y.n. Cairo. 1899.

kbcdi,..,

w..,

Jal».nr. 'Ah
GIRGIS MATTHA (190S-1%7), Coptic: Egyptologist, papyrolosist, and I specialist in ancitnt Egyplian philolOC·. He ..._ 0'" of the carlJ lradua<:c.; of the """"Iy established Institute of £r;ypwIogy in FOlWII Uni"e",ity in Cairo. In 1928, M ..... sent 10 complele his higher cduc.. ion It lhe Institul cad.... lique in Paris. Liller he studied in England al Queen's College. Oxford. under 1M famous Egyptologist and C""toIOS;"t Fnncis L CRIFFrTH, who s\>· pc",i... d his doctonl thesis on the editing of the Bodleian collection <>f demolic ostn-ca, On his rclllrn tQ Cairo Unlvcrshy in 1937, he was appointed lecturer, then ,ss1st.m professor of philology. He Wl\5 nominaled \'ice-dcan of the Faculty of Letter> in 1949-1950. and bcC'ame dire<;t<>r of the In5lilllte or Archacolog)' in the Uni~e..ity From I~SO 1<> l'Hi5. Mmh...·• producth'ily In lhe field or Eg}l'lology "'"85 enonn""s in quanlity and quality. He collaborated with ocher ."".... an 10 the publication of demock ostraea. notably ...·lIh Griffith, who spoke hi&hl)' 01. him in the prdKe 10 his CQlQlope 0{ lk1JW6c G.IljfiIi. In Cairo. Mattha made a g:re&l llI11nber of contributiona to the B.J/~ri" de n"srillL/ f"'l1fw d'MchidofW; ~"":h. the A""
GIYORGIS, See Elhiopian Pnl.lcs. GIZA (aI-Huh), city ju.. out$ide and a~rO$! the Njle rtum Cairo and perhaps but kno.....n a. a pagan ,ite with it. three pyramids and the Sphln~. The city has some ,ignificance in the history of Chtistian Eg}l'l 85 ,...ell. AlthouBh the many monasleries and chun;:he, in Ihe vicinity of Giza argu~ th.. Christianity gained an

1142

GLASS, COPTIC

early foothold in the area, the region is not men· tioned in the Coptic martyrological literature for the pre·Arabic period, and the first bishop of Giza whwe name is recorded in historical sources did not live until the ele.'enth centu'1'. It appears that Giza lay for centuries in the shadow of Memphis and Wasim. The record of bishops in Giza begins with Bishop Hezekiah, who attended a synod in Cairo in 1086 as the bisbop of Wasim and Giza. Bishop Mark, Hezekiah's successor, is known for a trip he made to Abyssinia under patriarchal commission. In 1299, 1305, and 1320 another bishop Mark of Wasim and Gi,.a attended the consecration of chrism (see C~II.IS"1, OONsEcItATION or THE) in Cairo, This bishop Mark is also known as the copyist of ~arious manu· scripts. In a colophon from a manuscript that he wrote in 133S. he calls himself the bishop of A.wslm and Giza. ~BO ~L11;1 THE ARMENIA>! said that there were fifty monasteries at the foot of lhe mountain al Giza flabal ai-Giza), all of which had been destl"O)cd by the Bemers, BIBUOGRAPHY Amelineau. E. lAJ- Gt"gr"phie d, I'Egypte a Npoq", cople. pp. 190-91. Paris, 1893, Graf, G. C"lalogue de ma""scn'/s arabes clrrillens conse""s a" Caire. Vatican City, 1934. Mun;er, H. Recl'e" des lisle. episcopales de Ngli." COple. Cairo, 1943. Timm, S. Vas chrlsl1iclr-kopllsche Agyple" in arabisclrer Zeil, pt. 3, pp, 10S5-60. Wiesbaden. 1985. RA"D~LL

SnwART

GLASS, COPTIC. The glass of the Coptic period -third to twelfth centuri~.-was the heir to a long tradition of glassmaking.\ln Egypt. While Coptic glass exhibited some regi"1'al variations. it did not differ substantially from glass in neighboring area.. Glass was manufactur~ in Egypt from about 1500 B.C" it reached its acme of boeauty in the luxury glassware made at Alexandria in the Ptolemaic and early Roman periods (JOO B,C._A.D. 100). Sand, soda. and lime, the ingredients of gla"s, were readily available ;n the de.ens 01 Egypt. These components were heated o~er wood fires until they were molten and were worked while ~iscous. Early glass. laboriously made, rare and expensive, By the first century B.C., however. glassworkers had discovered the technique of picking up a blob of molten glass on the end of a hollow tube and blowing air

"'IS

into il. This glassblowing technique revolutionized glas=aking, since glass vessels could be manufactured much more speedily and therefore became a common and in""pensi~e item. Although this change came slowly 10 Egypt. by the Coptic period glass was found in abundance.

Technique TIle glass furnaces of this era ba... not ~n found; n""ertheless. the quantity and simplicity of most glass used in Egypt sugges. that a number of small factories produced glass articles for local usc. E"idence from other areas around the Meditenanean shows that glass factories could be quite small and simple. For example, the scanty remains of a third-cen.ury glass furnace at present-day Salona, Yugoslavia, compri... a re<;tangolar melting tank about 2.5 by 5 feet (0.80 by 1.50 m) within a small furnace stmcture. Glassmaking installations in Gali· lee also used built·in rectangular melting tanks, while in other areas separate day pots ha~e been found. Since early glass furnaces do not survive above the foundation le~e1, we must depend on descrip· tions and illustrations in medieval manuscripts for the appearance of complete furnaces, Those of the southern and eastern Mediterranean seem usually to ha~e been circular structures with the fire at the lowest level. the melting pots and work area at lhe middle le~el, and the annealing space for gradual cooling of the finished glass at the top, Ordinary ancient blown glass was blue-green. yel_ low·green, pale blue, or amber in color. Added decorative elements were often in darker blue or green. These colors were easily obtainable from the batch materials. Impurities in I1lass sand. for example, impaned the characteristic greenish tone to ancient glass. Truly colorless glass. achieven were c
GLASS, COPTIC

_ I '0 form indenfalions or ribs, ~ blowing Ibt Jlass ,nlO a mold. and by eng...,ins. Glass _ of,en blooon in'o a mold '0 imparl. for uample.• nbbtd desilll. ,btn withdr;lwn :;rnd funhn inft;>,td. sohenina .nd somet,mes J\Ooi5lin~ ,he ori8inal p8uem. Glass Monntd .. ilh cui beets .,.. ensnvecl .. "h ~ figural and llor.al motJh wM a 'P«iaI,} or lhe ear.... Roman 1J1Msmakft"S 01 A... und ...... Th" ,radmon COtllinuw in ..,..,.".-hal dimintloh«l lonn I'or oevcnl e",,'unes. Horilontal .. heel..:ut lines and be", ntmnlJ decora,td !>tUM'll and bo.>ls. ..iii'" Jt'O'l1ffnc palle""" of a shallo-r ".." oma· me'l1ed jup and bootiesB, ,he nin,h cenlUry. aller lhe Islamic cooquesl. nC'W .. Oft. shapes. and deeon,;"e ,e...-hniques ehanctd Eg)'P'ian glass inm some,hin. diAincli,..,I,' dillCffn, from earlier wori. Techniques ...ell :Ii painl,ng in IUiler (melallie glaze) .....,..., used :u fi ..., fur Coplic mOli&; and ,uOsequenlly for the hlamk rcp<:'l1oirc, PineerN! designs ....ere applied s",all vessels wIlh pallerned longs. and white marvere<J·in ,nreads decora,ed glass....are of purple, red. arid .....y. In Inc ninln .nd ,entn ccnmries, glass ""lIS lkeplv elll fron> blanks in imitation of rock cl1''S,al "e", UStS fo' glass incl..dtd coin ",..ighls am! ",..di· cal ..'ensils such as cupplJ1g glasst:s. The mos, imponan, archaeol<>&ical ."'id,,nee of COplk Ilau comes From ,he Greco-Roman ,own of Karanis ,n ,.... Fayyiim, e"ca"a,ed from 19H 10 1935 bv lhe Uni"ffSily of Michigan; infonnalion 011 ,he .1_ "'"&$ publiWd by D. B. H",rden, Usted bu, IlO'I full, pr't'$('n,1NI is ,he glass from ,ne 1905-1909 e"ca'-",ions 01 ,he "'onasIe". or MY" MA J£lE."',U1 al Sooqcpra. Iklwcen lhem lhesc slles Spanlhe periods of lhe second througb fifth c~.uuries and !he ..",h Ihroup mid-nin,h Ctrt'U~ More tleC'en, C)· ca,~ions:ll Cairo con,i""" the hi:ot"", of J!assn>ak· inl after ,he l.lamic cooquesl. AplIl1 from lhesoe stles. thc e,-.&nee ~ 01 scMl~ refCTellCes 10 finds, musnom g~ "i,h p.-obabfe E&YJ>lian pro,enancc. and brief m"",;ons of glass and cJass. maken in plIptT1 and manuocripts.

'0

Tablewa~

and Stonge Vessels

Karanili pm,'ides the best evidence for ,he "pes of d<>mcs,ic table glass u""d in Rom;tn and Coplic: E&>l'1; simil.r c>
1143

er p of lliass and household objoects found ,ogtther on ,ndMt llNlge of H""lot 8C 61. Kannis. Fifth cenlun' Co.. ruS'J A.e/ln \.Iuse..... 0( Arc-Iule%v', L'lIi,'e,.il}· of ~flClti.f<m. Am, Arbor.

shapcs is lhe clead}' ,;s,ble crissel"O$lo marb ollhc '001 used '0 ""II QUI and "hape Ihe base rings.. The common form of lale anliq"" drinking ~es ""I. in ~'pl. a. e1se.. hrre In ,he IMdi'crran..an. ",as a deep--bo .... led Soblcl On a .. em. liimilar '0 lhc m<>...ltd .. IUt .. jour (opcn-",..m.) ,hreads Inilcd from rim '0 sl>ouI...... and .. Ilh ..'Crt1Caf lr:aik belo th.. sidt' Iutndles- Altltouch lhese fea",.~ :lR ..,.,n on e_em MtdilerDnean sJau. ~l'lian enrnpitS ........, dNinll"oVtcd~· ,heir ,hin bbric ..nd crimped bas.e rin~ As a, otloer ,""". btF numben of 'UIpntfttritt (ptrfume bootles) ....e..., found. The earli· .....hapeo ,,'" similar 10 loag·"ed,cd 1\-pots in booh East and Wesl:. "11K- .mall, squal bot,les mOSt com· mon at Kar:anis, art. he".." ...., qUlle cliffe",,,, from ,nose made elsc....he... Some Gnl:< llLa.5, probabl... made a, Alexandria. ....... found a, Karanis and a, o,ner ~l'1lan si,,,,, ano ""lIS ...-ideh· exponN as ....dl. FR)m ,he Sttond and earlier Ini"l cemuriel eome sm.ll mundN! bo..... ls of colorless Itl.."", engn..."d either witn m}1h· ological ddigns and Greek inscrip,ions or wi,h o"erall faee'-eul pallem,. TWQ fac"''''Ill bcakers fmm an "''en earli..r period were eartfull ... pre· "''''co as hei,l""ms in a K:tranis nou..,hold, Facelelll "d<>lpnin belllcs"' whit globular bodiL"S and ''''0 small handi"s "','..., made in Ine ,hird cen'u"',

1144

GU\SS, COPTIC

ioe. More frequcntly One or two examples of each shape WeTC found along with glass lamps (discussed later] and small fiash. Tha' Ihis plainer hlown gl3ss was u>Ilsider.d the finer lablewa"e is sugges'cd by its sl<m'ge along wi,h pieces of imponeJ redwaTc pOlleT)', The gbsswaTe fOllnd at the Saqyam monastery corresponds to glass of earl)' Islamic t'l'C from clse-whel'e in Egypt. Prominent an" small bowl, wi,h r~ised design, applied wilh patterned longs 10 the hoI glass, Flash ha\'e globular bodies and tall, ,ery nalTOW necks, whilc other gJ"-""S e~hibil ,he characteristic Islamic decoralion of mar..eTed·in while ,hread, in a brillianll)' colored malri~, There are al"" glass coin weighl. stm"pcd wi,b dotes ranging from Ihe carl}' eighth to the mid-ninl;' c<·ntut). The recent excavalions at al·Fu'l"! rc"ealcd ,imilar typcs of glass in slleh quantity as to indicate local manufacture ,hero. Gi,'cn the pro~imily of Saqqara to al·Fu,W.'. il scem, likely ,hat ,he monMtel)' obWined i15 glasswaro ITolll Ihis nearhy souree, since the highl}' skilled gla.. making crafl "'a> ntlt carried on in the monasteri"" Inem""l\'es. Lamps From the fnunh cenlu')-' on, lanlps of glass were in wide use. The earli""t twe in Egypt, a, elsewhere. is a long, conical sltape ",iln a hocked'off or fiTe-poli,hed rim, pointed or knob base, and dec·

Jug with eng'd,ed designs, Karank Founh celllu~, Cmm~s)' Ke1sev Ml<se"",J'/, Archawlog~, U"iver£i'~ of Michiga", A,,,, Aroor,

while in ,hc f"unh conlul)' 'all cylindrical bouie'S were d«onllcd wilh shall<>wly ",,,.tohed facets, diamonds, and olhe" paltern •. The rebli"ely rare ap· pearance of su,h glass on EIOT'tian siles sugge>!. ,hal 'hey wore an e",pensi"e ilem deslined more for ,hc export 'rade than for common domeslic use. Groups of glass ,'('s.. cl, slored in Ihe Karan,s housLos ..ugg'''' how glassware was u.....d in the a\Crage hous"h(>ld, In (>ne inSlance a group (>f si~ ("'al di.h"" and .ix shallow bowl.. found 10gether with other shapes indica'... a completo glass 'ablc s.er\-

Polycandclon wilh sh glass lamps. SiXlh eighlh cen· turies. CO/mes." Waller; Art Galler". Ballimore_

GLASS, COPTIC

oration of horiwmal wheel-cuI lines, zigzag Threads, or applied blue glass blobs. Al K.1ranis small vcr· siam aboUl 4 10 5 inches (10-13 em) in heighl were in u,e, probably 'upported ;n I"w wooden lripod >lands. Larger examples, "bo,a 8 in"hes (20 "m) and over in height, were generally suspended from ,he ceiling in groups by means of melal holders, These hulders wn'eral I"m!>'. They were hung holiwmally and suspended from chains, Dcsclipl;':'ns of carly church.... include mcntion uf ,uch chanddiel'S. The ~hapcs of lhe gb" lamp, evoh'ed lhrough t;me. Some were deep bowl, with Ihree handles, used frce-,wnding or hung, while the lype most often hung in chandeliers had a wide bowl and heavy 'lem. Windows and Wall Decoration Glass in winoow, in Egypl is nol definitelyallesled before ,he sixlh cemury. From Ihis lime il has been found in the SainI Jeremiah Monaslery 'II Sa'!'lara in Ihe form of small panes of t;«ula, nown gl.,;" oolorle", purple, orbl,,", cu' ialU small piec-

Glass imarsia picture of "lung man. ,\nlinoe Counes." Slale Col/eClio" o{ £/:.,'p"a" ArI, Mm,;ch

1145

Clay )a",ern and 81a", lamp in wooden holder. Kal'3nis, Fourth ernlu,)', C ~,,"e.,y Kd.<ey M,ge,,,,, at Archaeol08." U"i...";ly of M;c/';ga~, A,,~ ArboF. and fa",ened with day inll> ~ircular- "r r~""langu lar'palt~rneJ limes"'ne windqw fr~me,. >\lw al the Saqq"ra monastery, m""aic glass cubes were fOlm
Group of Islamic glas,"s fTom the Fay""'" Eighlhlen,h centUTie~. CO,,,"")' Kd.<ey Muse",,, a{ Archae"l0ty, Un;w"i',' vf Michiga", A,,~ Arbor,

I 146

GLASS, COPTIC

F.....gmentary glas, mosak in opus sectil<. Bearded man obseT"\'ing mo~ogram of Chl'ist wil b panial inscription of Sl, Tl1orn"". Reputedly fou"d in tile Fayyiim, F-l£r1'l. Probably lhe second l1alf of tile founh centU';r Length' 7'1.5 crn. COHcle.'y The (omi"g M"seum ()f Cia,." ("rning, N~w York. Rene Oghia" drawing after a photograph taken befo", restoration. to a backing,

Outsid~

of Egypt. at Kench",ai in GJ'~ece. many large glass wall pands in lhis tech. nique have been found; these we", undoubtedly imponcd from Egypt. A fragmen,ary glass imarsia piclO'e of Saint Thomas with a cro" uo;<"\ thi< ,ech· nique fOT a Christian subject. Luster Painting on Glass The dccorati,'c t"chnique of luster paiming on glass seems 1<J have begun l~ pre-Islamic Coptic Egypt and was laler adapted to "lamic last. with new mOlifs. In lusler painting. metal salts of sil"e, and coppe,' were painted onto the glass and kiln· fired at low tempe..-alurcs to produce ,...oslucent colored designs. E'-cntuall)' this Egyptian gla..." nak·

ing techniqlJe was adapted for lus,e,· p«inting on [X'ltory. The cnl
Religious Uses of Glass

Lulory vi L"s!te·Pa;~II"g. ph. VI. I and VI!. J. Courtesy The Ne"'ark Mu,eum. Newark, New Jersey,

The <maTI pendant crosses worn by the Christians "f Egypt often had colo,,,d gla« inlays, a ,,,ligious adaptati"n of ,he widespread USC of gia.<s in ",cula, jewelt},. The Coptic Acta ",arlyr~"" wrillen .bout AD. 300. records tcstimony from one Apa EPt.'M. who when orde,,," by ,he magi
GNOSIS

1147

GLASS RESTORATION. SU An P,."""",ation.

GLORIA IN EXCELSIS, opening words of tile

Beaker with lust,.,,·painted tree of life. Height: 14 em. Vidoria and Alben MU$l!um. london. Drawing after W. B. Honey. lIiclMia a"d Albert M~uu",. Gla,s: " Handbook, pi, 16 D, Co~m,y The Newark M~,e""" NewaYk, Now Jersey.

hanced the ,."Iigiou. experiences of these early Christian worshipers. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chaneston. R. J. "Glass F"rnaces Through Ihe Ages," Juurnal of Glau Studies 20 (1978):9-33. Clairmont, C, W. BeMki Museum: CQ1alogue of ..1,,cient a"d Islamic Gla..... Athen•. 1977. Harden. D. D. "Roman Glass from Kanmis."' Uni· ,ersity of Michigan Studies. Humani~tic Serie~, Vol. 42, Ann Arbor, Mich .. 1936. -;:;--c. "Ancient Glass, I: Pre-Rom~n"'; "Ancient Glass. 11: Roman": "Ancient Glas~. Ill: Po~t-Ro man'" The Archaeological /2"rnal 125 (1968):4672; 126 (1969):44-77; 128'0971):78-117. Klein. D.• and w, Uoyd, eds.:The H~lOry of GI~". iIlus. pp. 13. 32. London, 1~84. Lamm, C. J. Orienwl Glass of Mediaeval Dale Fo"nd in Swede" a~d 'he Early Hislory of Luslye· Paimj~g, Slockholm, 1941. Pi"d....Wilson, R, H.. and G. T. Scanlon. "'Glass Finds from Fu~tal: 1964-71." Journal of Gla$S Studi" IS (1973):12~30, Quib.ll. J. E. £U;avatwns at Saqqaya, Se..'ice d., Antiquit's de l'Egypte.l (1905-06). Cairo. 1907; /I (19OtJ-07), Cairo. 1907: l// (1907-08). Cairo, 1909; IV (1908-09). (1909-10), Cairo, 1912. SUSAN

Aum

Latin version of the angelic announcement of the binh of Christ. "Glory to God in the highest. and on eanh peace among men ",ith whom he is pleased'" (Ue.2:14). Known also as the greater doxology. it wa~ incorJl
GNOSIS, a Greek word, derived from the IndoEuropean root g~". also preserved in English "know"' a"d Sanskrit i~
1148

GNOSTICISM

it as m~anin, thai nun. by (umin, h1$ au~nlion

in..,.rd. could abnr'lM:1 rmm ""1M<: perc~ption and pusiofllO UrK:O,'eT" pur~ reason. ",hieh coold know Bcin,. Apinsl !hem the Stoia arpKd lhal man could onl)' kl\OW himsdf by lookinl OOlward to Ihe ptO>-ldtnu and hannony of the C05"'05 aM 50 ItaCO"u lIw man is pan of a ..-hole (1M Sto. is holiscie). Apin~ both lIChools !he "~Iic 9:'"'Plia pro'o'td oM man could oat know an)1hinl ...nh cu· cainI)'. tsp«ially about Cod. anwledge of im· mediace revelalion or of an esoteric tradition of such re.~lation for the elect This .iew is fOtlnd in the Oriental my-l-lcry reli· giol1ll of the Roman Ernpin:' and malical papyri. and abo. wilh th" equivalent dll'ut for S"6sis, in thc Dead Sea Sl:rolls of the E'.$scncs. Man ch~re kfiO>',"$ Cod dlr«cJy. bul Ihrougb lhe 1~ller of che Law, as ,,"'ilh ch~ bier rabbis. MI mow 1'be~. 0 my Cod. by lhe Spiril ..."ich 11Iou hast givcn 10 m"n, and by Thy Holy Spirit I ha,.., faitJ-.fully heartened 10 Thy ml.,,~llous counsel'· (Hymn 19. col. 12.... ~nnes. 197_). Tho: ... me concept is found in !he Go&pel of Jo),n 17,), 'This is (not: will be) etenW life. that thty know (r>oc: btI~ in 11>ee) and know Ja.as CII.... (M", and now). wborn Thou ~ Knl,- Aho. jJl che Jewish Merbbah ",>",iei:sm of lhe tll'Sl cen· luriel lNIn is pennined 10 behold direcd)" the Clory of Cod in che funn li~ the aPJl'C"'nncc of man (Ezekiel 1:26). This was Ihe grvundinj: upon "'Mch the "<>no:. lies" of AleJUtndria buih:lheir ")"S1~m, whieh was known 10 and Chrislianized by "'at~nlin.. s. The COn· fercnc~ on Ihe origins of gno5i.s in Messina (1966) distinl"ishe4 becween gnosi•. an e50leric knowl· ed~ for che ele~t. and ,nOlStieism. which is chara.::· lerlled by a 5plil within Ihe ~ic)"; lhe fall of a spiritual being, called AmhroJlO!l or Sophia; and Ihe identicy of the human spirit with che Deil)", Valen· tinus, in his Gospd of Trulh (32. 38, Allridge and Ma~Rae. 1988) call. his followers "child,~n of Ihe

n-

Knowledge of 1M hean:' "H~ ""'0 chus ~ che gno5is [Coptic: l4u.. el. knows "'hence he is come and .....hither h~ is goina:" (22.13-15). Such gnosis does not abolWl che sacramtnl but COmpleles il. acconlin, 10 . . . . .lencin;"n quoted by Clement of Alexandria in ~rr-pu /Tom Th<'oJoflU (7.8.2. Sac-nan:I, 1970l: ~Noc onl)'!he bath of baplism doeliYers fr-orn Fat~. but abo the G~. ""'0 "'e .......... what we haw become. where ...., wen:. in ..'hal sort of a worid we ha.~ been chrowtl down. "'..... is hirth. whac is l'l:binh."' BIBlJOGAAPHY Allridge. H. W.. and C. W. MllcRae. ·'The Go5peI of Trulh.- In The lillie H(l/ffmlldi Llbr",.,. pp_ )7-51. ed. J. M. Robinson. Rev.~. San Fnnc-iso:o. 1988. Kine!. G.. ed. The%pe'" Dieli<>nary 0/ Ih" N,w Te5lame..'. Vol. I. pp. 689-719. I...n,. and ed_ C, W. Bromiley, Grand R:!pKIs. Mich .. 1%4. QuispeL G.. cd. Gnostic St"dieJ. 2 .ols, I>lanbul. 1974-1975. Rudolph. K. G"osis. San Franci""o. 1983, Sagnard. F. L. M. M. Extrai,. a~ Theoaol<, Clem",' a'A/u,andne, New cd. Pari" 1970. Vermes. G. Tu Dead Sea Scrolls in Eng'i,h. London and New York. 1987. GIlLES QUlSI'EL

GNOSTICISM, a modem lerm in.... nl~ by schol· ars 1o indicate amitDriI)" all !IOOU oi elllTCnlS of laiC anliquily thaI S1r~ I"osis. an inluit;"e knowl· edB~ of .--..vcaJed mysteries. It should be limilM to ..Titings of the ".:>up Chal called lhems..""'" Gnostics (e.g.. the Apocryp.\o>I ci John) and produclS of thinkers lik Basilide:s (AI~JUtndria. e. 120). "'alen' linus (c. 1'iO. Alcundria and Rome). and Marcion (SinDP'" and Rome. "" ISO). who..-~ bmiliar ",ith the conC1tplS or lhe ~Gnoslics·· and Christianittd
Dripl works rilJhll)' aclribulM 10 gnOQici5rn aa all in Coptic...ilh lhe u«ptioon of Ihc ,""",ondeen'u,," Gr"",k uller 10 FIoTtl. by a eertain !'tol.... maeus. pr~n'ed in Ih~ Pa"arion 01 Epiphani . The oldest ollh~m ar" lhe COOu Askewian~ (containing Ihe lwo Boob of Jeu) and lhe Codex Bro· cianu.< (wilh four books or the /'is/is Sophia). Bolh a", wrtlt"n in Sahidic, th~ dial~cc of Luxor; ",ere probably acquired Ihere in th~ ~lghleeltCh ~entury 1>y Ihe Scottish traveler Jam~s Bruce: and were no, translaled bul ",ritten direCII)" in Coplic. The Pi,,;,· Sophill lell,. among other chings, how Mary Magda·

GNOSTICISM

10M inlerprets Ihe I'saIms aulhoritalively. ., if she were an nrly Chrislian proph"leslO. and is crilieiud fur tNl by P"I.,.. This may refI«1 lalSions In Ih" local COIIV"P''''' ofw:wr btlwec:n a GnOMk raclOon 1....1 had prcsc","", lht: primiti« offi<:" of pms>Iw!Cns) and a Catholic- faction. inspired by Il.om"••hal fa.'Of'fd an ~ c.....rch ord«. In lB% lhe German Kholar Carl Schmidl announced lhe aocquimio
~"'. In tN: _ d half d lht: thin! cenlury. the ,.eal GnoAk Mani (216-277) senl his misWonllries Papos and Tttomu 10 £opt. whmo thry setlled in Lyeopolis. on the Nil~ abow: the ~ in Middlt' fcypt. Thtt~ IMy PI'OI"1ytiu:d amonl the pupils of the Plalonic philosoph"r Al~ of Lycopolis. who "TOI" • preset"¥fd treatise against them. iMre they oeem also 10 have t",nslated. or 10 ha•.., hsd Inn.. laltd. Ih" Manichaean wrilings fOtJnd al Madlnat Mad; in 1930-19)1 (bph~l~i", I'saIms. homilies, etc.) from East Arsmaic into sub-Akmimic, tilt Coptie dialNI of Lycopolis and .urrotlnding!l, In 1945, M",hammad Ali al·Samman. an E,yptian farmer of the NaS Hammadi region. found a jar comalnlnS • co;>llection of about thirte~n codices, fifty-Iwo wrilings in Coplic. that is incorrectly called

) 149

a GnoMic library. Codo II ends wish lhe typically monkish invocation ··Il.em"mbtr me. my brtthTfll. in ,.,.,.. pnytf3,. ~ This aloo" is Sous boob and indi&nanlly left the ~ef}' when archbishop Alhanasius!lU'e:<5oed thr imporunce of thr canon (361) and m., abbot ~ed thrm 10 su.-rtr>dtr their precious treasures. laler. wh_ pru.sure increased, they did not destroy lhe boob because lhey had an inMrent quality of boIi_ . bul buried them careNlly. jusl Il$ J""".,; pul t1n-alued manw;criplS in a hidclen place. called the pttivJ. Ali furthn stories sboul lhe disc:aodria is the cradle ef lhe lhird componenl <;If lhe Wf\ivtd In 1600 with the upetir:nce of lhe ohoemaker Jacob Boehme. and sunives in lhe idns of Johann Goe1h" and George Htg<:l. Rudolf Steiner and C.... JlIng. William Blake "tts (first cenlury kq had giwll .. raip:-. opIimiSllic inlerprettil of Himadf (.....II"r is no lower b>tanIlion. i. nOi ""il); Ideas art: IhoughtS of God (nol I<> he foutt curiously deni", in h.. PIJ ~ltides nO') lUI this is relevanl for ~uenl gt>OS1icism. Especially Ihe Iheme thaI the shining figure of Man i. manifesled as a ptOIQlype tn the angels, who funion th" body of Adam. «cun .galn and again, It i. nol without reason IMI a fragmen, of PlaIO'. Repulflic ,,"'as found among the ""riting. from Nag Hammadi (VI. S). Of Ihe approximately 10 million Jews then living in Ihe world (ef whorn 6 million we,e in the diaspr>-

m._

1150

GNOSTICISM

ra o#,~ Roman Em"'"" and only SOO,OOO in ral_ ,ine), h.. ndreds of thousands lived in AI~dria. MOIl of lhem "'Crt '"efJ difft'r~1 from lhelr I~w abil!inlJ I"alolinian COLInlerpar15. ..-.on liberal even lban "5 ..,.~ in sp«Ului...... about Sophia, ,"'hose rdaliomhip wilh ,h wanWn Aslane is mini,. .'rikd. Mo...,.,.,er. ,he fnlgrnenlS 0# ,he Alexandrian Jt'Wisb pot! &rbel ~U5 ~vuJ ,hal by Ihe second cffl'ury a.cwere celU;n cin:les in Alexandria lhal meditated abou, Ille "like· neM lik. Ihe appearance of 8 Man" 01 £.>••;el 1:26. ""hl,,11 '0 ,his day r.mains Ih. main ,h.me of Jewish mYS'lcism. Som. idenli6.d ,lIis "Glary «God" wilh lhe Idea of Man, Gnaslic A"'hropos and gnaslic Sophia are of Jew. ish origin. There: wert aiso Egyptian COplS in Alu' andria al lile Ii"",. They. 100, contributed 10 lhe rise of gl\OSlicism. According 10 Egyplian •• Iigion. Ihe Nile oricinal~ from ,h" lears of lhe sun goo Rll. In olher word.. maner is an .man.a1ion of lhe deity. So Valentinu. can S¥J thaI lhe _rid came Into beinll from the lears and III" smil" 01 creativt' W~ <10m. Sophia. The Egyptians spoke wilh i~~ freedom about Ihe SIe..uallives of oItdr p>ds. So did Ille GII_iea.. According 10 Ihe ~ogy of Hennapolls. a Nile I"""" (Ihe Greal Caclder) laid her eu in th. moor; from it "'.... born d>e ,..n p . ...t.o funelions as" d.mn.l"J. "'M a~" ,he world. In lit. ume lhe Orphi<3 of Aleundria laUchl d)al lItrir .ame:is found in lhe $l'Venteen hel'TTte1ic: wriling>.. the I'rodUCIS of a mrst.ry com· munity in Akundria. a son of Masonic: I~, of Which Gree.... Jews. and COJ'U w"re "",mbers. In the Prayer of Thanksgiving. a' lasl understandable owini 10 a fragment fn>m Nag Hammadi (VI. 1), lh. fem"le half of Ihe androgynous God is invoked wilh Ille words "We know Thee. won,b conceivinM through the phallus of lhe Falher." Much of the Egypllan inAuenc. on Gnostic:ism seems 10 have been uerc;"...j through lh" intermediale channel of

,!le...,

_y.

the hermetic: Iod&e. This encourages us to see. lhe

origin of gnOiillki$m in lhis Aleundri.lu:t congrega· tion at Ihe be&innina of Ille Christian era. According 10 th. lhineflllh lreatise of lhe Cofl'US Herme:ticum. the Anth~ is bam from the "'OIJIb of opiritual W"Moo'n in sile1>c•. betoI1tJI by 1M: opemt of God- This Anth,.."..., of COU~. is abo a penonaI figure..... lil<mels as the appearan<:. of Adam of &rud I:26. and Ihe Idea of Ioblt. Accordinl W the P"'....."dru. .... 6rst lrfttise of the Carpus Ht'nne of Seth (Vlt. 4) lhis divine Son of father and Malher is caned Ge~mus (Cera;as Adarnas or Primordial Man). none other Illan lhe Adam Oadmon of m~i· cabalism. Thi, is lile bask mY'1I of ,he "Gnosliocs." wlto producM ,II., "'pocryphon of John, the HJ'PO'rasis of ,he (II. 4). 0.. 1M Origin of 111. World (II. 5). and many similar wrilinll" of Naa Hammadi. II lived on in llle Manic"""an Trinity of Father. Mother. and Al'Thetypal "bon. The Chrislian church of Alo:undri.lo of lhe 6m two cenlUnes .... p1urifonn and 10leranL Accord· in& 10 a InoSlwonlty lradltion cOllI&in.d in ,he potUd
".'lll

",,,,It,,,,,

GOBIDLAHA, DADO, AND CAXO, SAINTS

Si/v"',,u (VII, 4). Calholic'sm ehan<:tertzed by the con","ion of bith, !he canot:l, and the monarchic episcopacy _ a Ialecomer in Ak:u.ndria. Until il took OVa'. O_ic tnche" like 8al.ilidn. CarpoeBtes. and Valentinus could easily remain memo ben: of the church. l1>e fine two uugltt relncama· tioll (like the "G_ics~ of thr PUlis SopJ!i.). All mlft ...'tft nty frr:e about sell (thal ...... lhe influ· eMe of f.IypUan relipon and the IoxaI Hermetisu). and lhe Iaot t"'O held lhat Otrist had come to make man, $pirit....1 man, comcious of his deepesl sell, Thills most impresU\'t:1y delIcribed in the Gospel 0/ Tn"" (I, J).• sermon ai,= by Valentinus in Rome (c. 140) and dewloped in a complicated, wry ''he' reticai myth about Soph~. '"'00 tries unsu«:es.sful· Iy 10 penetrate to Ihe depth of the Godhead, fall~. and brings fonh lite ......rW but is brouaht back to her oriain by Christ. the di,,;ne Savior. l1>e Implka' tion was thaI only spiritual men could be loaved. The leade" of Ih W""tem school of valentlnl.an· isnt, Ptolemaeu. and Heradeon In Rome, took a more favorable ,iew of rising Catholicism and Ihe ordinary churchgoer. whom th<>y called "psychic" becau~e he had a soul but no .pirit, They thorough. ly modified the system and even Imrodu.::eOt a t.-gic concomllanl of ",..,Iution bul a c0ll5Cmis to hIs counterpart, bul also nteds ,he man or ....,man 10 whom he belongs because he cannol enler the pleroma. the spiritual world. Wilhoul his other ha.lf, Manl tea~'hes Ihal eveTy Manlchaean has a Iwin. who Inspire' him and leads him 1<> the lighl. but at the ...me time Manl holds ,hal lhe "'erna.1 Jesus suffens In mailer and is 10 be redeemed by the Gnosllc. And Jacob

Boehme: sa}$- thai God is an ocean of lighl and darkne$l" love and Ire, who wanU to bttome COIlseiou!; in man. The God of g-';c:ism ill Bein& in movement.

,,,euOG....l'1Iy

la)'on. B. T1te C .....li< Scri",..res. New y<>tOUic eosp../s. New yon., 1980. _ _ Adam. E"e, .,,4 lJw: Strpctl. New

''''.

yon.

Qui"""l. G. "Gnostidl"" from the Middle Ages 10 the: F'resen1." In Th.e E"c,doJ1#:di. of Re/ifion, Vol. 5, pp. 566-74. New Yorl<, 1987. Scpl, A_ F. T..... P""''erJ i" He.""", I.cide-n, 19n_

N

it"

1151

GII..l.£S QIJISI'U

GOBIDLAHA, DADO, AND CAXO, SAINTS, three carll' Christian marty... In f<>unh· century Persia. They helona 10 a minor tradllion. so II I. remarkable 1<> find a COpllc l<:stimony 10 their death. The 01'11)' Sahidic codex 15 "'ry fr3gmentary, but it allows a u",ful comparison with lhe olher W'rsi<>ns thaI ""is.l in Greek (AcI" S'''lclO'~m, Sep· lember, pp. 129-J4) and in Syriac (Bedjan. 18901897, Vol. 4. p. IbJ, wilh the peoralkl Passion of Dado. pp. 210-21). which aUO\OII reconstruclion of lbe events, a1on, with an . t....t ;1'1 the Copco-Ara· bic SYIOOWUON. Dado, llCM'mor of a Persian province, is x.Jmowt· edred 10 be Chris.tian. He it denounced by the Per.ian kin, Sh:apiIr II....too sends a kpte: to UU him. Shiptlr's ...... GobidIaha, ...·Ito Is Dado's friend. goes 10 ......... him and convntl 10 Chris.tianicy himself. Wllen ShIpir disC'o>-"CT$lhis, he summons Dado and GobidIaha to hia co,,,t, The king lrif:l 10 persuade Gobidlaha by means 0( his siSler Cuo. bul she aIs.o conver1S to Christianity. All three are lhen mar·

......

As can be SC'eII ;n the n~nin, ~nts, the Syriac and the Coptic versions perfectly agree.

...·hile !he Greek redaction shows some di/Jerenc<'5. In the Greek ~ion Dado is. senator, whereas lhe efore tlte m","yrdom of Gobidlaha and Ca>o; in Ihe other venions the lhree are killed 10i\ether. The Syriac ",ralon gl,'eo a sepam.. text for Dad<>. which agrees almOSI complelely wllh lhe pan concerning the passion of Gobidlaha. Possibly lhe original language ...... Syria<: wllh lhe differillg Greek version appearina prior 10 the Coptic. Per·

1152

GOBLETS, BOTTLES,JUGS

haps the Greek ..,rved as an intenne
join them both together, allea${ let him Db.ene the Sahhath-day:'

BIBUOGII"PHY

BOOjan. P. Acta Martyrurn el Sancta,urn ,iriaa. 7 vols, Paris and Leipzig, 1890-1897. Repr. Hilde,· heirn, 1968. Orlandi, T. "Papiri copti di conlenUio teologico." Mirteilungen aus der Papyrussamrn/ung du 0,1<" r
GOBLETS, BOTTLES, JUGS. See Metalwork. Caplic.

GOOD FRIDAY, the Friday preceding Easter. 00sc ..., ed a. a day of mourning in commemoration of Chris!". passion and crucifixion to accomplish the miracle of redemption. Thi. day has been kept "ith due solemnity ever •ince the apostolic age. "It is therefore your dUly, brethren, who are redeemed by the precious blood of Christ, to ob.erYC the days of the Passover exactly. with all care, after the vernal equinox. lest ye be obligated to keep the memorial of the one passion twice in a year. K~ it once only in a year for Him that diebath. sh days. makini use of only bread. and salt, and herbs. and waler for your drink ... Do ye who are able fast the day of the preparation and the Sabbath-day entirely. tasting nothing till the cockcrowing of the night: bUI if anyone is not able 10

Highlights of the Coptic Service of Good Friday Following morning prayer. the church i. decked with crosses draped with black material. The icon of the Crucifixion i. placed on a rai..,d stand in the na.'e of the church, surrounde
GOSPEl. OF THE EGYPTIANS Christ on the crou, many P"ople bruk their lasl by drinking a mt~lu"" of vinegar and myrrh (MI. 27:48; MI<. 15:36; In, 19:29),

Good Fmb,. CC'leb~Uons 10 J«vsalem The Copcic cdcbracioo of Goo. ducled in Ihru di$tinC1 &lain, I. Morn;ni pra~r and th. r",yer of the Third Hour are p"rformed br:lween 4:30 and 7:30 Ul. 1. A pmcessiOlOle. On the ...."3)'. it Slops bridly at lhe Sroon.. of Anoinlin, and I"" Holy ~Idler and then ~mn iu roule lo.....anllhe Copcic chapcI in the Basilica of I"" Holy Sq>ulch" •. th" pray.,.,. of the Si~th. Nimh. El"""nth. and Twelfth Hours a,.., said, At about 4:30 in the aflemoon. they ~um to !he patriarcl>ate. J. At 6.-e o'clock in the """ninio lhe burial proCCSJion Slal'U l1wu the CopIic e~1. Slopping en rotlle at the c~1s of s.lm Mary ~ . the Prison of Christ. Saint lonpnus, lhe Divi...... of !he Rai""'"I. Ihe Moclin,. Cal""ry (",..them and nonhem parts). the Slone of Anoinling. the Holy Sepulcher. and b;>ck to the Coptic chapeL At each MOp a priest laYS Ihe Inrercession of lhe Gospel; the metropolitan ,..,ads the Gaipel in Copcic i""ide !he chapel followed by the Arabic nrM>n read by a d O(M' at the enlra""e; and finally a short senaon to deli..-eucl. Tbe procession ends aboul aeven o'dod in Ihe evening and ret.. ms 10 the patnal' ehale following lhe same itinerary.

Th",..,.

BIBUOGJlAPHY

Btlntlesler. O. H. E. The Eopfirm or Coptic ChUTC". Cairo. 1967. Phlliilhlwus al-Maqirt eI al. Kit4b 0411~ ....·T.1'116 1"""<11 rd.J.t.........··Ii1 ..t.FUh ..t.M
lIS]

GOSPEL CASKET, a r=langular bo~ useject is bt:queat.hed in perpetui'Y to the Church 01 Saint ilaftMra in Old Cairo. COtlplC'd wilh • pra~rful phr.ose for the soul of the donor. Anolher sample in lhe Coplic Museum (no. 1527) has Similar embossed. COPI;" inscriptions 0<'1 both faces, an Arabic inscription 0<1 the ~, the name nI the donor. and a bequnl in perponuity to lhe ChtJrch of ~m Serzi'"" In Old Cairo. coupltd "'i!h the usual pra)'etful phrase lor the soul of the lio'tt. BIBUOGRAPHY

Btltler, A. Th. Ancienl Coptic Clt"'ches of Egypt. 2 ml,. Oxford, 1884. Hablb. R. The Coptic M"se"", (F.n&li:Jh Guide). Cairo. 1%7. SI..... yWo. M. a"iric 10 tM Coptic M",c"", _d rJt.. ",..,imt Copr;e Chuulou. 2 W>ls. AtWMc cd., Cairo. 1!J30: F~r>ch td.. Cairo. 1931. SlnylO"''$ki. J. KopiUclte K",Ul. VicnJlSl. 1<"l(K. HrSIiMAT MESSrHA

GOSPEL OF TIlE EGYPTIANS. Two .... her fragmenwy '·enio.... of the Gospel olthe; f.«yptisns ~ Sound in lhe NAG IIUOlUll UBtlUY. the Onot .1.p-

GOSPEL BOOK.

SU Lilu"¥ical Instrument$.

purina: as Ihe second lractate in Code1 III and the other as Ihe Hcond piece in Coriginal of rhe cIocumenl, each o'erslO
1154

GOSPEL OF THE EGYPTIANS

Both copies are written in the $ahidic dial«t of Coptic, with ""m~ orthographic and syn1<>ct;c varia· lions In the texl of Codex III tlmt ha"e ~n ex· plained as either predassicaJ fealUres of the dialect (Bohlig and Wi..." 1975) ns embedded within them. Tbe lirst and long.,,;t bas to J., with the origin of the cel~tjal realm that begins in the .i1ent wodd of light, with the "Great Imisible Spiril," who is Ihe "inconuplible Falher" and lhe "Mother, the virginal Barhelon," emanating from themselves a trinity of powers, namel}', "lhe Falher, the Mother (and) the Son." By the end of the crealive process, some fOlly aeons or emanatio,," have come fonh, not the least of whom is "the great inconuptible Selh, Ihe soo of lhe Inwrruptible man Adamas." The <ec
which i. to counteract the e,'i1 elfons of Sakla., the god of this world, who ~eeks to e",lave the divine .eed of Seth, The thi
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bellel, P. "The Colophon of the Cospd of rhe Egyptians: Cskion," Journal As;a/;que 254 (1%6):317-435, and 256 (1%8):289-386. Hedrick, C. W. "Christian Motifs in Ihe Cospel of tho Egypr;ans: Method and Motive." Novum Testa. mentum 23 (1981):242-60. Schneemclcher, W. "The Gospel of the Egyptians," In New Testament ApfHCrj'pha, ed. E. Hennccl:e and w. Schneeme1cher, 2 yol,. Philadelphia, 1963-1965. Wilwn, R. M. "The Gospel of the Egyptians." [n Studia Palrist;ca 14, ed, R. M. Wilson, pp, 243SO. Texte und Untersu~hungen 117. Berlin, 1976, ___. "One Texl, Four Translations, Some Reflections on the Nag Hammadi Gospel of the EID-p' tian.... In Cnosis: F'srs~hFift fur Hans JonaJ, ed, R. M. Wilson, Pl'. 441-48. Gallingen, 1978, S. Kt;NT BROWN

GOSPEL OF PHILIP

GOSPEL OF MARY,

an

apocrwhal Gnostic gos-

1"1 originally wrillen in Grul. probably during the ",,~ond century A.I>, Two pages (John Ryland. Ubrary, Manchester, England. Pap}'rus 463. 21r and 22v; Ihis papyrus, from Oxyrn\'Ilchus, was acquired in 1917) of the Creek lext survive from the third century. Pan of the text i. preserved as well in a Coptic (Sahidic) translation at Ihe beginning of the Papyrus ~rolinensis 8502, The lranslation differs in places from the original Greek and may be a some....'hat condensed veTS;on. The Coptic rnanus<;tip! consists of eighteen pages, of which len (pp. 1-6 and 11-14) au lost. The litle of the wod is given in a colophon at lhe end of each version. From the extant pages of the lext it is apparent thaI the original gospel consisle
1155

i$ the major character in dialogue wilh Jesus de· spite Peter's complaints, and in the concluding log;· on of th~ GOIiPEL OF mOMAS, wh~re P~ter-having tried 10 have Mary s~nt away as unwonhy of salvation-i, o1l... rruled hy Jesus, who promises to make her mal~ SQ that she can en1~r th~ Kingdom. More unusual is the presenc~ in the gospel of a contradictory "iew of Peter; in the transitional panl.· graph, he acknowledges Mary's authority and asks her 10 share h~r ,~cret knowl~dg~. Possibly, this is the work of an editor who did not share the belief in a conHict between Mary and Peter hUI who did not dare alter the original le~1 and SQ softened the effect by presenting a milder picture in the con· necting lines. BIBLIOGRAPHY The Gre~k lut has b~en edited, with an English translation and nores, by C. H. Robens in his Catalogue of 'he Grtek o~d La';~ Papyri In 'he John Rylands Library Manchester, Vol. 3, pp. 18-23 (Manchester, 1938); and by C. P. Carn>lelli in La Parola del PaHala, fasc. 2, pp. 22M., (Naples, 1946). Th~ Captic t~xt has ~~n ~dit~d, with a German translation and introduction, by W. Till, in his "Di~ gno.tischen Schrifren des koptischen Papyrus Bero· linensis 8502," Tex,e und Unursuchunge~ [fir Ceo schich'e der altchri.,lichen Literalur (\() (1955);2432, 62-79. An English translation by F. Wi,s< has been included in The Nag Hammadi Library i" E~· gUsh, pp. 471-74 (New York, 1977), For """ondary ies:

lit~rature,

see

th~

following stud·

Henne<:ke, £. New Tes/amem Apoc'J'pha, VoL 1, pp. 340-44. Philadelphia, 1963. Quispel. G. "Das H~h~revangelium im gnostischen Evangelium nach Maria," VigilIa. Chris,lanae 2 (l957):l39-44. Schmidt, C. Ern vorirenlilsches gnosrisches Origina/werk in kOplischer Sprache, pp. 839-47, Berlin, 1896. Wilson, R. McL "Th~ New Testament in the Gnostic Gospel of Mary," New rcslamem Studies .3 ( 1956/1957):236-43, BEVERLY MOON

GOSPEL OF PHILIP,

titl~ apparently of two

separate and ind~pend~m Gnostic texIS of the second or third century. The first is mentioned only hy Epiphaniu$, who also provides the only known ex· tract, a clearly Gnostic passage dealing with the asc~nt of the soul to h~a1l'en and how it must answer each of the an;hontic powers it meets on the

1156

GOSPEL OF PHILIP

way. This passage does not appear at aU in Ihe second text, comained in Codex II, Tractate 3 of the NAG HAMMADl UBRARY and first made available in p, ubib's photographic edition in 1956. The first tran,lation, in Gennan, was publishe
no deariy organiud .tructure, which makes ;t im· possible to summarize Or outline the contents. All that can be done in brief compas5 i. to indicate some of the leading themes. One such Iheme is the consistent disparagement of the world and the flesh (ef. sees. 62, I I 2). The world came into being through a transgression (sec. 99) and i. dominated by archons. who wish to deceive mankind (sec. 13). The)' think they do every· thing of their own will, but In fact the Holy Spiril is working through them (sees. 16. 34; d, Sophia in Valentinianism [see VALENTlNUS]). The very names used in this world are d""eptive (sec, 11); its good i. nol good, and its evil is not evil (sec•. 10, (3). The only true realities are those of the other world, the "kingdom of heaven" (sec. 24) or "the awn" (sec. lJ). In this world the soul is captive to the "robbers" (sec. 9). Like a pearl dropped in the mud. however. it does not lose ilS value (sec. 48), even though il is imprisoned in "a despised body" (sec. 22), The con· dilion of natural man is bestial (sec. 84. d, sec, 119) or is deserihed in terms of sla,'ery, In contrast. he who has the knowledge of the truth is free (sec. 110). With the coming of the light. the slaves are set free and the captives delivered (",c. 125). but if a man does not receive the light in this world he will not receive it in the other (sec. 127). A .ignificant place is given to Christ. tlte perfect man (sec. IS). whom the Gnostic must put on (sec. 101). But the fundamental evil in the human situa· tion i. not sin but ignorance. Deliverance comes through knowle
GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK

The document is clearly Valentinian, and a knowledge of the Valentinian system is wmetimes ~ential for understanding certain allusions (Schenke. p. 153). It is not yet possible to id"nti!y it with any particular branch of the school, but the closest affinities appear to be with the Mareosians and the Exce'pw ex Theodow. Knowledge of the New T..tament is clear but difficult 10 asse... ,ince the evidence ranges from unmistakable quotations to possible echoes and allusions. One ~nal point is the glimpse that this text affords of what g"osi< meant 10 a Gnostic: the sense of release and liberation, even a sense cf exhilaration, which is particularly clear in the dosing lines. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Catanzaro. C. j, de. "The Gospel According to Philip In Journal of Thwlogkal Smdies 13 (1962)'35-71 (English translation). Gaffron. H. Studien 1J<m kopti,chen Philipp"s· evangelium. Bonn, 1969. Isenberg. W. W" "The Gospel of Philip," introduc· tion and tmns[ation. [n The Nag Hammadj Libral)' i" English. ed. James M. Robinson. Leiden and San Francisco. 1977: 3rd rev. ed., 1988. Labib, P. Coptic Cnostic Papy"; in th. Coplic Mu,e· um 01 Old Cairo. Cairo, 1956. Menard, J. E. L'Evan,ile ,elo" Philippe. 5trasl>ourg, 1967, Puech. H, C. "Gnostic Gospels and Related Docu· ments." In New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. I, Cospels a"d Related W,iti"gs by E. Hennecke, cd. W. Schneemelcher. Eng. tmns. ed, R. MeL. Wil· son. Philadelphia and London. 1963: 2nd ed., 1973. Robinson. J. M. The Facsimile Edition ollhe Nil' Hammadi Codices: Codex 1I. Leiden, 1974. Scholer, O. M. Nag Hammadi Bi/,fiogrophy 1948_ /969, Lei
Tes/amentum). Wllson. R. McL The Gospel of Philip. London and New York, 1962 (with co"",ental)')' R. McL WIlSON

GOSPELS, SYNOPTIC, the Gospels of Matthew, Mark. and Luke. The similarity of considerable segments of their .ubject maller and even their phraseology may be explained by on. of two theories. The Gospel of Saint Mark is supposed to be the earliest of the three Gospels and could have bun utilized by the other two. This imerdep.mdence and the pooling of knowle
1157

trait of that age. SainI Mark w>I$ the most highly educated of the evangelists. Another possibility adVllnced by sOme theological s~holars is that the th,,,,, Gos!>"l, drew upon a foum source. 0"" loS! and unknown. In the meantime. one must bear in mind that Matth.,.· and Luke used .ome material peculiar to ea~h and without pa.... net in Mark's GospeL Wheth· er each e\'angelist had his own independem source on cel1ain matt"rs. in addition to their common knowl"dge. i. debatable. In this .ituation of uncer· taimi.. and multiple probabililies, the Coplic IheO' logian. insist on the seniority and superiority of the Gospel according to Saint Mark the Evangelist. the fuunder of Egyptian Christianity an
Thomp&on, J. M. Th~ Synoptic GO.'p<:ls. Oxford, 1910. Taylor, V. The Gospels: A Short r"lrod"ctio". Lon·
GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK, felt by man)' 10 be th" most cohesive. the b~S! wrinen, and the moot eloquent of the four Gospels. Mark'. narrative styl~ is simple and unadorne<:l, yet compelling and vivid, Although Mark's work was the least appre~ialed of the four Gospels in early Christianity, there is a muI$ careful of this one thing. to omit none of the things he had heard and to _tate no untruth therein [His/ona ecc!esiastica, 3.39].

1158

GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK

Th., anti.Ma~iQnite prol",,", to Mark, dal<X! by mllJlY 10 the period 160-180, ~Qn$til\ll~ lhe n",,1 "';II"'SS:

... Mart ekelared. who ill ealled ".rum~ fin,.,.ed:' becaU$e he had ralher small fing.,,,, ;n comparison ....lth Ihe stalure of Ihe rnl of his body. H., was the inlerpl'l'let of Pel"t. Aftu the c1rath of P"tltt" hiTn)e1f he _ e do"'T1 this saIDC I""pel in II", teJions of haly [quotN in Lane. 1974. p. 9]. lrenxw.. writi"l around 17S. con~cyed lhe: fol· l_in& inionn3tion aboul the ~ MMt""'" compos«! hill Gospl'I amon, tho: He-l>r<:w. in their _·n "n~, ..·hik Petitt" and ....1 proc"imed Ihe Oospel in Rome and founded the communiI)'. Alter lheir delluh [Jru<>don} Mark. the disdple and interpl'l'lcr of 1'10'1<:1", InnSmilled his preach;n. 10 us in written form. I\nd Luke.....ho WlIIS huI's foIlcrwer, Je't down in a book the J05PI'I vmi~h he pruc:hftl.. Thtn John, lhe LonI'$ disciple, who had reclined on his hruse. himself produc:ed the Gospel when he .... Sra.Y;nl al Ephesus. in the proYit>Ce of Asia [At"io1$1 Hct~nu J.I.I).

Tht Muntorian Canon (plobabty ""ritten in the period 110-1110). in a badly mutibled section that, ... indiare
Rom... and by the Spirit had proclaimed the Gospel. lhat Ih..... p'<'$enl. who were .....ny, ""honed Mark. as one who had followed him for a long lime and ~em~red whal had b«n !pOlen, 10 make a record of w.....1 "'as .said: and thai he did thii, and dislribuled I~pel amonllhosc ""'I asked him. And Ihal "'~en 1M mailer carne 10 P~ler's kOO"'lcdge he nehher alrongly forbad.. il n<>r urged il forward [quoted in EusebiUi,l.IS.l).

So 'orillianl was lhe n,hl of pielY Ihal shone upon Ih.. minds of Peler's hearers (In Rome). Ihat Ihey were not conlenl 10 be uIisfied with hearing him on~e and no more, nor ",ith Ihe unwritten lea~hing of Ihe divine me_goo; bul besoughl wilh all kinds ..,f enlrealie5 Mark, whose Gospel ii e,lanl, a foll..,wer of Peler, Ihat he would leave them in wriling also a memoir olf lhe leaching they had =~i,·ed by word of molwh; nOr did Ihey relax Iheir ..ff,,,"s untll lhey had prevailed upon

lhe man: and lhus Ihey became the otilinalOnl of Ihe bool< of the Gospel ""~ortling to Mark. as il is caliM. Now il is said lhal ...hen lhe apostle leaml, by .."",lalien of lhe Spirit, wluol "'as done, he "'as pleased with lhe men's ~eal. arw:l aulhor-ized the book to he read in Ihe churches [Euse· bi...., LI5.if. quoting C"'menl. Hypolypos.eiJ 6). Mark, the follow..r of Peter, ...hi... Peler was

prcachi"8 publicly the &OSpel &I Rome in Ihe presence of celUin of Caesar's knig!>1$ aPd .... pulling fono'ard many t<:$lirnonie$ con«minc Chrisl.. heing rcquntod by lhem WI lhey mlchl he able 10 commit 10 memory .he lhines "1lich were beln, >pOken. "TOO" from the thinp ..... ich we.... spoken by Peter Ih.. Gospel which is called ..,..ording 10 Mark [C"'menl, " .....mb... riooIu ;" pnoum 5:1J). The an.;""1 lradition is u ....n......... in iu cxpIiclt 3lltibution 01 th~ secorw:! Gospd &0 Marl<. Thls lesdmony pins credibility from the fact lhat II or\t:iMloed in 3.11 "D thai ~ lIlpOItOI.ic authonhip dille Go5peIs, and cannot, therelOre, ~ 1iV><1y dismm.ed '"' rithtr coc>,,,,nienl or apolocetk. Thus. lhere is little, if any, rrason 10 doubt thai lhe &u'bor dtlle XCClnd Gospel is John M1rIt. tile associale of Peter, the Mark of the I'wlillC ~pisr.l~ and of Acts.. Any allempt 10 dale lhe Gospel of SainI Ma•• ",W( bqin with the rebti..e wealth of aneient 1<'$1;"

",ony.1'bese 5OUt<'ts unani_ly repon lhal Mark 'N35 ..ith Peter in Rome and heard the a"",",tle preach aboul Ih.. U),np ...d d~ of Jnus and thaI if 'N35 on the basi:i of lhis aposure 10 Peter's leaehing WI Mark wrot.. his Gospel. H_.."er. the tradilion ii divided on whether the work ... <:om· posed before or after the death of Pt1er. who &Cctpt Ihe l<'$Iimony of 1M anti·Mat<'ionite prologue and lrenaeus, as _lias lhe impllcatlon in Pa...... lhal Marl< penned lhe Gospel after Ihe mar· Iyrdom of Peter, lend 10 datt lhe work 10 lite period 65-70. Ttnltd in Ihis camp a~ such Sl'holars as lane (1974). Htngd (1985), and Cranfield (1959), In support ..,r th~ Itrminus poll quem, lhey ~ited the lradition Ihal Peler ...... killtd durinllhe Neronian persecution of 64-6S. As I\Jnher evidence for the view that lhe Gospel "'llS eomposed after Ihe d..ath of Peter, Cranfield (1959, p. 8) argued lhal Mark's descriplion of Peter's failures could only have been wtillen after the apOSlle had died a rna.. I)"r's death. for lhe frankness Ihat would have .....med malicious during Peler's Iifetlme was weI. corned after his manyrdom as affortling encourage· menl 10 weak disciples.

Sc"""'"

•

GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK

To bUll"''' the terminus anle quem, they argued thai use of Mark by the later sylloptists malce$ a date after 70 unlikely and that Mark's ~ompl.le .iIence 011 the events thai look place al the end of the Jewish Revolt is explicable only if the work was completed prior 10 69-70. Cranfield (I'. 8) thought the Gospel was completed in 65 or 66 before the war began. Hengel'. interpretation of Mark 13:6-13 as a r••ponse 10 the Roman political upheaval of 68-69 and 10 romo ... that lhe hated Nero would return to life led him 10 conclude that the Gospel was ",Tinen within lhe narrow p"riod belween the winter of 68-69 and the wintu of 69-70 (1985, PI'. 1-28). Lane (1974, PI'. 12-18) adduced Marean r"f.unces to trials and tribulation as evidence that the Gosp"] w3$ wrillen between 65 and 70 as a product of the Neronian persecution, it:5 purpose being 10 .trengthen Ihe Roman church againsT OUTside ago gression. Those who believe the Gospel was wrillen before the death of Peter either ignore as err<>neous the witness of lrenaeus and the anti·Mar";onite p,.". Jogue or obviate the difficulty the)' pose by interpreting them to mean the Gospel was wrillen after the "depar1ure" of Peter (Le.. from Rome), nOI after his dealh. Among Ihe proponents of a date prior to the death of Peter are Robin.on (1976). Zumz (1984), Reick< (1972), and Allen (1913). Robinson leveled ",me of Ihe inconsistencies in the ancient te"imony by explaining that (I) the "nonchronolog· ical" record to which Papi... referred cannot be the cohe.ive, well-eon.tructw Gospel of Mark known today, but must have been merely a compilation of Jesus' sayings and deeds, a compilation that hI' dates to about 45; (2) in the mid·~fties. Mark may have composed a prolo-Goopel; and (3) the formal Go.pel that w... later accepted into the canon and that has .urvived to the presem was wrinen in the late fifties or early sixties. Allen (1915, Pl'. 2. 4-6).~rnainta;ning that the Gospel of Saint wke was ~ten around 50 and that it was dependent on Mark's Goopel, suggested that Mark rna)' have been wrillen hetween 44 and 49. Reicke (1972, Pl'. 121-34)' argued that the passages in the synoptic Gospels that are cQmmQnly accepted by modem scholars as ex eveMlu prophe· cies of the destruction of Jerusalem have been mis· inte'l'reted. He found no hint'in the synoptislS of any knowle
1159

deduced that the three synoptic Gospels.•ince they antedate Acts, were writlen prior to 6Z. Zuntz inter· preted Mark 13:14 as a reference to Ihe emperor Caligula's threat 10 place his statue in the lemple al Jel"U$3.lem and dated the Gospel to 40. Jf the best solulion to the .ynoptic problem (~ below) i. Ihe thwry that Ihe lhree .)'noplk Gospels developed over a period of time, the allempl 10 establish a fixed date for the composilion of each is an endeavor donme«n put forward as the p<>ssible provenance of the Gospel, no other lheory has been able 1O discredit the ancient testimony and win a large b<>dy Qf fQlIowers. The tradition and the internal suggestions of a Roman origin are simply too convincing. In addition to the evidence adduced by lane, Cranfield, Zunl2. and Hengel thaI Ihe Gospel, Or s;gni~cant parts of it, may address various politi· cal and .ocial .ituations in Rome. there is linguistic evidence that il was wrinen for a Roman audience and a theological·historical argument thaI il had its birth in Rome. The Gospel contains a great number of Latin technical tenns such as l.g;o (5:9), specula/or (6:27), denarius (I Z: IS), quadFan. (12:4Z), pagel/are (15:15). praetorium (15:16), and Unfurio (15:39),

1160

GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK

While it is true that .uch tenn;nology was in use throughout the Roman empire, the fact that Mark twke uses a Latin word to explain a commonplace Greek expression is telltale, At 12:42 he give. quad· ran. (a quaner of an as) as a gloss for the widow's mite (lepla duo) and at 15:16 he offers pmewti"", ,.. an explanation of "in.ide the han" (uo /eS aules)_ These lexical aids would be more des<:rip· tive than the Greek phrases that they elucidate only to a speaker of Latin and, since the quadrans """ not in cirClllation in the eastern empire, only to a Latin speaker in the western empire. Use of such words points tl)",'ard a Roman provenance. B. W. Bacon (1919, pp, 34-43) wem beyond these linguistic considerations to reason as follow", Mark's Gospel, since it possesses so liltle pretense of authority, could not have gained the high standing and wid" currency that it must have obtained to he so respected by the later sl'noptists, Matthew and Luxe, and it could not have maintained this respeci after the larger Gospel of Matthew, with its higher claims of apostolic aUlbority, Came into wide circu· lotion, if it had emanated from some obscure region undi.tinguished as the seat of an "apostolic" church. Its """",,;ation with Peter would not have been sufficient 10 secure for it such eminence. In· stead, the cause of its high standing must be soughl in its pro'enance. There is no ancient tradition to link the Gospel to either Antioch or Ephesus, which, in any case, had their own gospels, and a Palestinian pro"enance is unlik.e1y because a gospel with such sntall pretensions 10 apostolicity could not ha,'e won in Palesline the place that Mark came to occupy, These arguments, he says, lend support to the established tradition of a Roman provenance for the Gospel. While the ancient tradition is faidy consistent in its lendency to give the canonical order of the Gospels as their order of composition, a volatile dehate rages among modern ·.~holars on the question of priority. Historically, tire view that Mark. was writ· len first and was a soUree , for Manhew and Luke has been dominant. BUI opponents have fired nu· merous deslructive, if not crippling, voll"')', against the bulwark of this "Marcon Ilypothesis." At pres· ent, if one is to judge from the ferocity of the ongoing debate, no satisfactory solution to the synoptic problem has been proffered, Those who maintain Illat the Gospel of Mark. was wrillen first employ tile following arguments to show that it was copied by the olher synoptic Gospels, particularly by Matthew, whose account is most often advanced as Mark's ri,al for priority

(see Kee, pp. l4-16; Cranfield, pp. 6-7): (I) The respecti,'e accounts of Jesus in Manhew and Luke are completeiy divergent until they reach the first point of parallel in Mark (Mk., l:2; MI. 3:2; ll. 3:4), and they diverge again after Ihe best tc.>:t of Mark. ends (l6'8). (2) Of 855 sentences in Mark., 709 are reproduced in Manhew and 565 in Luke, and of these, Malthew agrees verbalim wilh Mark in 136 semences. (3) Mark's style i' simple and vivid, but often crude and awk.""ard, while Mauhew's Greek shows a much higher degree of sophistication. (4) Doublets (passages or sayings that occur twice in the same Gospel) in Matthew and Luke result from the combined use of Mark and another collection of sayings as sourees. (5) Mark. contain' theclogical diffioulties and stylistic flaw. not found in Manhew and Luk.e. (6) In Mark. Ihe theclogical affirmations are weaker and the indications of fulfillment of Scripture are less explicit than in Manhew, (7) Pos· sibly offensive or perpl""inl1 pas.retation._ (4) The fact thai the Gospel of &lint Mark. provides the mosl unified and consistent account of the three synoptic Gospels prove. not that it was wriuen first but that it represents a later development, since Manhew and Luke, if copying Mark, would not ha,e chopped up Iheir source and added disparate material to create a less cohesive whole. (5) The vividness and freshness of Mark's account is not proof of its priOT' ity, since there is no established principl" in literary or inteileClual history that clarity of presentation is a measure of the sequence in which lilera.,. ac-

I

,

GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK

counts originated. (6) Doublets in Manhew and Luke do not indicate Mar~an priority, since such doublets occur even in Mark'. Gospel. Furthermore. _one of Ihe doublets in Matthew (15:24, 10:5-6) has a texll1al equivalent in neither Mark nor Luke. (7) The Petrine origin of Mark', Gospeland, hence, ;IS authenticity as a primary hisl
source for the life of Jesus-is subject to serious doubt. since the WQTk of Mark dcs<:ribed hy Papias (quoted above) cannol be the Gospel of Saint Mark known today and Peter i. nol more prominent in Mark than in Mallhew or Luke. (8) One must resort 10 psy<:hological reasoning that is subjective and unconvincing 10 show Ihat each lime Ihc synoplists diverge it is Mauhew and/or Luke who aheressible use of any olher Gospel(s) as a synchronic phenomenon ralher than as a diachronic process. 11 is probably the case thaI each of the three synoplic Gospels as nOw known represents the final stage of a developmental process thaI may have spanned a period of as many as fony years in the middle Qf the first century, ThaI period began with an oral tradilion of the sayings and duds of Jesus and it ended .....ith the Gospels of Mallhew. M'lTk. and luke "" now known. The development of eacb was parallel 10. but not independent Qf, Ihe OIhe,.". Along Ihe way, each account may have flayed both the role of borro.....er and the role of :.turce. Strictly speaking, none of the Gospels in its pfesem form can properly be said to be prior 10 any olher, Ihough il may be the case Ihal one presenoes'the underlying oral tra· dition more faithfully than the OIhers. In the Codex Sinaiticu$ and the Codex Vatican us, as .....ell as in wm'; manus<:ripts Qf Ihe Sinaitic Syriac, EthiQpic, and Georgian versions, Ihe Gospel of Saint Mark ends with the eighth verse of chapter 16. In many other manuscriplS. verses 9-20 are marked with lISterisks. obeli. or critical notes explaining lhat their aUlhenticity is SUSpecl, On the basi. of its poor manuscript suppon, Eusebim and

1161

Jerome believed ,his ending to be a later addition to the Gospel. No references to Ihese verses occur in the wor"'~ of Clement of Alexandria, ORtGEN. Cyprian. and CYall_ OF JERIIS~LE.M, Internal considera· lion. nOl only cast doubl on Marcan authQrship of Ihis ending but also run counter to the Iheory that it was written later spe.:incally as an addition to Ma.k·s Cospel, Verse 9 does not continue the narrative of verse 8, but ralher introduces a lisl of Jesus' post·Resurrection narratives in Manhew. Luke, and John. Concomitant with this rather abropt change in the sto'l' line are a jarring change of subjeel and a sudden formalily in rdemng to Mary of Magdala, Whereas Ihe subject of verse 8 is the women, verse 9 has JestlS as its understood .ubject. and when Mary is m~ntioned later in the .-erse. she is introduced as if for the first time in Ihis narrative, de.pile the fa<:t lhal ,he has been a major panicipant in Ihe lomb encounter described in the previous eight ,'erses, This stylistically anomalous change of subjecl and the unnece....rily formal introduction 10 Mary lead to a suspicion thai verse. 9-20 were bolTOwed from anolher a
1162

GOSPEL OF THOMAS

with ,'e,-..., S, that the conclusion of the Cospel has been lo,t, or that the work was never completed, The second ""sumption i$ problematic, For ,uch a 10M to have gone unrectified, it must ha"e occurred very early in the transmission of the te~t, bdore other copies were in circulation from whiCh the lost material could be restored, But if the mutilation OCCUlTed so early, one must ask why Mark himself did not rewrite the lost ending, The abruptness with which the account would end if verse S were Mark'. final statement militates against the theory thaI the Gospel was imentionally concluded at that point. Attempts to show that "e<:se 8 is not only a satisfactory, but a powerful and effective, ending are n01 persuasive (e.g., Lane, 1974, pp. 591-92). The theory that Marl< newr completed his Co5pel appea<:s to be lhe simplest explanation of the fac15. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, W. C. The Gospel According 10 Saint Mark, wilh fHlroducrio" and Nores. New Yorl<, 1915. Bacon, D, 1£ Mark 0 Roman Gospel? Ha""ard Th..,· logical Studies 7. Cambridge, Mass.. 1919. Cranfield, E. E, B. Th" Go£p
GOSPEL OF THOMAS, an apocryphal gospel of Cnoslic origin, pessibl)' from the late .second century. The most "popular" of the Coptic texts of the N~G HAM.\lAD/ UBM~Y ([I. 2), the Gospel of Thomas has been translated Into several languages and circulated v.'idely in learned circles among spcciallsts both in gnosticism and in New Testament studies, as well as among the general public. 11 has even been considered a fifth canonical Go,pel. An infancy gospel under this name was known before the discovery of thoe lexts in Nag Hammadi in [945. Preserved in its original Creek ve<:sion and in various translations (Lalin, SyJiac, Georgian. and Slavonic). this gospel has nothing to do with the Nag Hammadi lext, ",hich con'ists of a c01ltttion of "sayings" of JC$us, Hippol}1uS (R.!w..rion 5. 7. 20) memions a "Gospel according to Thorn""" used by the sect of the Nassenes (Ophites), A phrase quated hy Hippol),us may deri.·e from the c.,ptic collection, although the aM'ription is uncenain. It has been argued that it may instead have corne from the infancy go,pel just mentiooed, which ",as also perhaps used by the Manichees (see MAN/CHAF.· ISM). In any event, Ihe quotation does not follow word for word, and lhe identification remains prob· lematic. 11 is cena;n, how",·er, that three Creek papyru' pieces discovered al O~)'rhynchus in 1897 and 1903 are related tn the Coptic version. The Coptic texl appears to be a witness to a late redaction. representing the end of a literary evolulion. MoTt: "gnostic!zing" than Ihe Creek fragments from O~yrhyn chus, of which il is not a direct translalion, the Coptic tvt may date from the end of the second century, Among the known Cnostlc works, the Gospel of Thomas approaches the canonical Gospels mOSt closely. According to modem editions, it contain, 114 "sa)'ings" of Jesus, which are neither numbered nor separatcd hy any special punctuation in the manuscripl. After some vacillation in the earlier publications. schola<:s nOW generally adhere to the numbering of the edlrio princeps (Cuillaumont el aI., 1959). These sayings-logia, as thoey are corn· monly called-are introduced for the most pal' by the simple fonnula "Je'us said." There are no narrative elements as in the canonical Gospels, although there is an occ""ional hint nf such (e.g" logia 13 and 22). In other instances, a questiongenerally posed by the disciple,-lead. to the sa)', ing of Jesus, passages that tend to take on the appearance of a dialogue. It was precisely the literary

GOSPEL OF TRUTH

feature <Jf the saying. that 'l1ra"ted so much allen· lion 10 Ihis leXI_ Nev.' Testament exegetes hav" p0stulate5pd of Ihe Hebrew. and the Gospel of the Egyptians (quoted by Saint CLEMENT OF U~XAN_ D~I~). Moreover, the presence of $emitism. and some striking contacts with Syriac literatureespecially the Libu gr"dum" and the Dt'atessaron (a tbesis defended principally by G. Quispel)-ha""

,h.

1163

led scholars to think of a Syrian origin. perhaps in Edessa. A._ a whole. the Gospd of Thoma. may be· long to the milieu of New Testament apocrypha, which depended upon the canonical Gospels and wbich came to t~ Coptic translator in a Syriac version. But the problem remain. complex and opinion is divided. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker. A. "The Go.pel of Thoma. alld the Syriac Uber Graduum." New TeS/ament Studies 12 (1965 -I 966)'49-55. Ehlers. B. "!Canll das Thomasevangelium au, Edessa Sl;UlImen) "-in Beitrag zur Frlihgeschichte des Christentums in Edessa:' Navem Test"men· t"m 12 (1970):284-317. Fitzmy'er. J. II. "The Oxyrhynchu. Logal of Jesus and the Coptic Gospel According to Thomas:' Theologkal Studlu 20 (l959):505-560. Garitte. G. "Les 'Logoi' d'Oxyrhynque et l'apoc'1'Phe copte dit ',,",angile de Thomas.'" Le Museon 73 (1960):151-72. Grant, R. M .. and O. N. Freedman. 111e Secret S"yIngs of Jesus. with an English tran,lation of the Gospel of Thoma. by W. R. Schaedel. Garden Cit)'. N. Y.. 1960. Gttillaumont, A,; H.·C. Pouh; G. Qui,pel: W. C. Till: and Y. 'Abel AI·M,,"i~, The Gospel Acco,ding 10 Thorn",. Coptic text establi.hed and tran.lated, New York. 1959. Janssen., Y, "L'Evangile .elon Thomas et son caractere gnostique:' L. Mustan 75 (1%2):301325. Marcovich, M. 'Textual Critici.m on the Gospel of Thomas:' Joum,,' of Theologlc,,' Studies, new ser" 20 (i 969):53-74. Menard, J.·E. L·Ev"ngil. sel<m Thomas. Nag Hammadi Studies 5. kiden. 1975. Quispel. G, "The Gospel of Thoma. and the Gospel of the Hebrew.:' New Test"menl Sludl" 12 (1965- 1966):371 -8-2, _ _~, euostl" Studies. Istanbul. 1974-1975. Schrage. W, D"s Verhiilmis des Thom"s'

Evangeliu"" "" s}'noptlschen T,,,dltim' "nd zu de" koptischen E'·angelienilber>etzu"gm. Ikihefte lur Zcitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissen· schaft und die Kunde der alteren Kirche 29. Ber· lin. 1964. Wilson, R. McL St"dies in Ihe Gospel of Thomas. London. 1960. YVO~NE JA~SSR<S

GOSPEL OF TRUTH, an apoc'1'Phal work probably of tbe second century. The Gospel Qf Trulh

1164

GOSPEL OF TRUTH

sul'\'iva in lwo ""rsioM from ,h~ s.w HAMMAII/ u· BAAlY; a -'I~rved copy (I. 3) .. nd a ....,. fn.&. l\'Ioetluo.,. piee~ (XII. 2). While the oririnal tille ~ .....ins unkn'w 1tM. initial phrase ('"Tb1C ppcl of lruth") may ha 5eI"'Cd ao. an incipillhl~ and c~r· uoinly has been ..:iopttG as iu tille by modem in_ 'ip,on. One mip,t ~n hazard a CI>nI tha, lhIC manina of ,his le"'l is el~ ~lsewtIe~ ...ithin ,he- 6r3t pan.anPb: "lhIC name (of] !he IlO'JId is IhIC ~""bdon of hope" (L 17. 1-3). Whclloer mil. d0cument bu any lilcrazy connection wiIh 1m "Gasp'1 d T.....m.. mlCnlioncd by lunaocus (Ad""rUlJ om..cs 1k>~r(~S 3. II. 9) cannot be dcmoMinled in a deeish-e _yo allhough il would not be surprising if lhe 1Wl> were ,elalat. NaiuBily. since this t~",t WllS Ql'IIC of ,he finl to be published from IIIe Nag Hammadi coUeclion. II tIM be~n widely Iludie
""."

:;

AI fil'Sl glance, !he I.-::hing abou, Jaw setms closer to the ,... di.ion·of the put church ,han the viICw commonly exprcss.ed in Chril.lian GlI05Ik •nlll, But a clOlft" uaminat>on ~~ca.ls clear if subtle conoedions wilh the GlI05Iic lMologicat "'orld. In. r(1.,tG vein. ifv",uNTl~llS hinuelf is ,he aulho, or Ihe documen" as some have sul~"epandeo may be due simply '0 Ihe fae, ,hal ,he .eM·s author was nOI In'ere.ted in spellinS oul ,hlC full dimensions of his own belief (Altndae and MacRae. 1985). In ,his conn«,lon,

whether or no! one main!aiM that ValcnlinllS wroIe the documem. !he dale of compooi.ion is likely 10 be in lho: middk: or bllC second «nt",)'. In facl, ilS Ihoughl ~u _her _11 into ......1II is known of lhal lime.. One thinks. for ill$lanc:e. of the ddwe of Ircn· ...... "ith Gnostic dua.lislS eonc~min. wbeIhe. thrir doeity encomJ'l'Oi4lC',i all !hinp (Adv..,.",.. -."u h".,.. OICS 2. I. 2-3). The flOIIIlel la, clearly holds lhat the Fad",. included all ~cs and emarwlons..,;m. in HilMelf. spe<:ificall, speaking of Him ~ "the nnc who encirclcs all Il)aCCS ",hUe lhere is none thai encircles him" (I. 22. 25-7). In the ,nl then:' are no clear quou..ions from .he Ok! or New TeslaR\lCnlS, E~n so, a number of ref· crenccs and allusions 10 Ne'" Tesu.n>en' p'pgn nisi, ",hieb have b«n COllecltG by J. E. Mb>ard (1972. pp. 3~9) and W. C. van Unnik (19S5). H...... e""'. one 5hould 110I pos'ula,e lhal the au,hor 01 Ihi$ tTCalise somehnw d~nded dir~ctly on one or another of lhe New Testam~n1 documents fnr hi. inspira,ion (bu, sn TucklCn. 1984), Funhe,. ther~ seem 10 be alll1$ions in Ih~ ,~x, to ,he ini,ialion rites of baptism and chrism bUI hardly to ,he "bigh· er' ri,es known from. say, Ihe OOSPEL OF PHIUP.

BI8L100UPHY

AHridgc. H. W.• and G. W. MacRae:. "NHC I. 3: The Gmpcl of Tru.h." In H"I H"........"di Codex I (The lu~ Codez). Na& Hammadi Sludies 22_ l.riden. 1985. F"csiJtlik Edilio.. 01 11K H., H"....,.u..1i Codices: Co.ocu Xl. XH. XIII. l.riden. 1973. FtJc:simih Ed/liem of Ille N., H_....tJdi Codices: Coda I. I..ridcn. 1977. feeh!. Go -n..s erRe 'Td' des 5OI<'"""nl", Ev.tngtlium Veriw•. ~ QrWttaliil JO (1961):311-90Grobe!. K. 1M Gos~1 of t,.",1I: A V.lcntmitJn MetJiI.mem. "" 11K Gg H"...."""di Ur"ry. at. James M. Robin5on. New Yorl. 1971. Malinine. 1.4.; H.<. ""ech: and G. Ouispcl. <:
GREEK LANGUAGE

SIOry, C. I. K. The N"ll
n,

ERIC StGWlUG

GRAFFITI, inscriplions lhal are

1165

SCTat~hed, p.u,ic'

ulady on walls bUI also on vessels and clay shards. We find them alongside inscriplions Ihal ~re ",rll' ten with different colored in4 on lhe walls of monasteries and SCltlemenU Or worked inlo roc:ks or mlae. Sin<:e the older publicalions mostly do nOl distinguish be1ween jraflili and iMcriplions, both arc dcall ,,~!h "nder 1J<SQtll'n()folS. especially since they arc not di",inct from one another in terms of content.

S, KUlT B_,.

GMF, GEORG (1875-1955), Gnman theoIoPan aJ\d Orientalist. In 1898 h b«anw a pric$l, and in 19lO, bonorary professor d Cbrisoian.Qrienallile!'"' aNre at the UnI...enlJ)" of Munich. An eminenl ....thorIty on Chrisoian·Arabic IItCfatUTe, he _ edi· lor of the journal on..... Christill..,", edi_ of lhe !Lnbk seccion of the Corpus Scriptorum Chris· Iianon.tm Orientalium from 1933 10 1955. and the lIUlhoc- of Cesclli€J"e der chriJrliclH.nhUclwn UleTlUUt (5 ...xs., VIltic:an City. 1944-195J). M.AlTtN K..... USt:

GRAFFlN, RENt (I15'-I~I), Fr~h pn:ble and OrientaliSl. He was born al !'onlvalllOin. Sanhc. He gavc a dedsi~ ImpellA 10 lhe study and edi,ing of Easlern Christian IaIl(U'lei and li,eralures.. He s..>died at the French Sl:minary in Rome and then completed this -..1< al Inrn.bruek. In charge of Syriac Sb,od;es at the InSliM catholique in Paris, he conec;"ed the projecl of an "Oritntal Migne." which was at 6nt con6ned to Syriao: wilh lhe Patn)Iogia Syriaea series, COnsisli"l of lhree ....Iumes only: ApIrr,um (I197), 8Ilrtku..e (1901), and livre des deph (1921; Book 0/ Steps/, ... ilh 'o'OCaliJ:ed 1e:>1S and latin lranswion\: 8cglnnil18 in 1')0), in lhe Patrol08ia OrM:ntalls Mies, he published le~.. in Arabic, Annenian, CoPli<:, Elhiopian, Creek, Geo<-pn. Sillvoni<:, and Syrb~, ",iln 1... lI$l.aliOM Oll lhe bcing palle (usually Fren~h), From Ig% 10 1940 he edited Revue de /'Orit!:m ehrbi... (29 vol· umes), which unfortunalely lenninalM wilh Vol· ume )() in 1946. His Indefaligable and principal collabo"'lor was Abbot F...n,o;s N~U, followed by Abbot M, Bri~re. The PalrolOiia Oriemalis ~ con· linued by bis nephew, Fran,ois C...flin, S,}., and as of 1984, il ~omprised some 191 bsdcles.

FRANCOtS CRAFFlli, S.J.

GRAPOW, HERMANN (1885-1961), German ~ . He

a pIIpil of Adolf Erman and GeoI"z StcindorfJ colbbontor ....;Ih Erman in the Agyptuche~ W6r1erbueh. and succeasor of K. Sethe Illl Berlin Univttsiry. He wQrbd also 011 ancient f.&'!1>t.... mcdici_ and medical lUIS. Hi:! ime~ in Coptic t.:d to V"", Hicog/whisch·DenrcxUdte" lW'l K~f1 (Berlin, 19)8) and "Untersucft. ungea ubcr Stil und SpBcbe des kopt:iscMn lUmbysesmman$" (uilsdtrift fUr IJDpliscllc SF"ehe ..nd A/Jer/Wf!sh",de 74, 19J8. pp, 55-68), ;os

BIBUOGIlAPHY

Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill Who Will II'ho I.. Et:>'PI<>lOfO·. pp. 12111. London. 1972. Fir<:how. 0 .• ed_ ADPf<>JocUche Sl"dK". Berlin. 19.\5; lhis iestschrilt contains Grapow'a bibli"'...· phy tw- i~-"'iv). W~endotf. W. u~hrifr fUr lIPPlUche Sp,"lre .",d Ahmrmuk....
GREEK LANGUAGE. 8e",-een Cl"ftks and Ef.)l'tian •• contaC-ts of cssentiall)' cOfflmeKial nalUre """ aueso:ed for the Mycena....n period (c, 158(1-1100 IIC) ar>d lhe ninlh-eighth eenl"'ry H.C Unambiguou. evidence for Gl"ftk presence in EcYPl is available from lhe ..,~nlh century 8.C. on. P$llmmetichos I (664-610 II.C,) gave lhe Ionian and Cari;In men::enaries (the "bronu men" of He· rodotusll.152, 31J.), who h~d helped him ~ome inlO power, se((lemenu in !he Easlern Delta (SITatope· da). He enlruste<:! Ihem wilh leachinj Ihe Creek language 10 Eg)'pllan children. Herodolu~ considers lhe>se ...ho infonned him about Egyptian t ... dilions 10 be Ihe descendants of lheir pupils (1l.IS4). The Greek mercenaries look pan in the Nubian exped;·

1166

GREEK LANGUAGE

tion of Psammetichoo II (593 B,C.) as members of a separate contingent (allogl6ssoi, the foreign speakers) led by Potasimto (see, e,g" R, Meiggs and D, r..e",s, A Selection of G.eek HisWrlcallnscn.pl;On,< ro Ihe End oflhe Fiflh Century B.c. [Oxford, 1969]. no. 7). Shortly before 570 BC.. when they numbered about 30,000, they were defeated by the native soldiers under the command of "masis_ Subsequent measur~ of Amasis improved the relation. between Greeb and Egyptians. The Greek mercenaries were withdrawn from the Stratopeda and s",tioned at Memphis. whel"<' they would soon mix with the native population. Naucratis. founded by Greekmainly Milesian-merchanl$ about 650 B.c.. was de",ined to become the only C.eek trading point in Egypt. The polis consequently grew as a center of Creek civilization. By the time- Herodotus visited Egypt (c. 449/430 B,C,), the Greeks bad established a series of focal points for trade along the Nile (e.g., Neapolis in the Akhmlm area, a kind of early protOtype- of the Hellenistic politeuma). Herodotus acquired his information about Egypt from Greek inhabitants .s well as from lower priests at Memphi, and, to a lesser extent, at Sais and Heliopolis, who must therefore have been ablo to speak Greek. Among educated Egyptians, the Greek language had aroused $Orne intol"<'st very early. A ,triking proof is offered by demotk literary produdions such as the PetubaSlis Romance, an ad.ptat;on of Horner's /liad to an Egyp'ian milieu, of which the extant versions date from the Hellenistic and Roman period but whose oldest components go back to the seventh centurJi 'L Before Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 B.C" Greek had cenainly been used among native traders aod administrators, especially professional scribes. On 'he other hand, ~ns of the Greek population, like the mercenaries at Memphis (Karomemphites, Hell~!OmemPhilCs). were already thoroughly Egyptianize . Marriag", between Greek soidiers and Eg)ptian wOmen promoted the process of cultural and linguistic assimilation. Still, Eg)'jr I;an society on the whole remained unaffected by Ihe Gl"<'ek pl"<'sence, for natives as well as foreigners kept ,heir ancestral identities. Afte. the Macedonian <:onques', the country was overlaid with a dominaling Greek~peaking elite, which gradually assimilated with its surroundings. The Greek language 'hat spread throughout the Hellenistic world is designated as Koine, Its basic component, the Attic dialect, was enriched with (mainly lexical) Ionic and a few Doric elements

(Eolic influences wore ex,remely rare). In Egypt, Koine Greek remained the language of the administration fur more than 1,000 years. One has 10 distinguish between literary and colloquial Koine, The former-the Koi~ 01 the literary texts and of the official documents l"<'dacted at the higher echelons of bureaucracy-remained mol"<' or less faithful to classical models, The colloquial or popular Koine, however-osed for internal offi __ cial, administrative, and pri.'ate maners-waS essentially practical, and thus adaptable to ,he changing political. «onomic. wcial, cultural, religious, and technical realities. The continuous development of this form of Greek in Egypt is abundantly testified, especially by some 40,000 pieces of papyrological evidence (papyri, ostraca, mummy labels, etc.). The orthographic variants occurring in these
GREEK LANGUAGE

to the native population. After about 150 B,C., Egyptians infiltrated even the MOll.eion at Alexandria, the .tronghold of Greek scholarship founded by PlOlemy I. Among the Greeks and Macedonians who li,'ed in Eg)'Pt. the lower weial d ~ tended to adapt themselves to their surroundings. The process of assimilation started in those areas where the first PlOlemies had gh'en plots of land in tenure to members of the Greek(Mace alumnis oblalum, pp. 263,~ 7g, Studia Hellenistica It> [Lou,-ain, 1968]). The politics of tlte Roman emperors in Egypt intentionally emphasized the distinction between the Egyptian and the Greek/Jewish inhabitants, for in$tance, by granting the lauer 6scal privileges and curtailing the political and economic power of the nati,'e priesthood. Though pari of an empire of which the official language was Ultin, Egypt-as tlte eastern provinces in general~continued to handle it. official af-

I 167

fairs in Greek, the more so since most of the pro' vincial prefects originated from the h.llenized East, The ratio of Ultln to Greek papyrological documenlS from E'ID-pt is Ie.. than 1 to 100. During the 6rst three centuries of Roman rule, the use of Latin in Egypt was confined to correspondence between Roman magistrates or individuals, the army, the COt1rt~as far as lu' civile wa, concerned-and edicts or decrees of the central gO"emment_when dealing with the categories mentioned above. Greek, moreover, preserwd its supremacy as the language of the educated. Aleundria, with the Mouseion, remained the unrivaled center of Hellenistic culture, but the nome capitals such as Oxyrhynchus gradually developed their o....n institutions for Creek education and the tradition of Gruk (and, to a much lesser e~tent, Latin) litera· ture. In educated milieus of the second century, Auic literature: (lyrics and tragedies) "nce more aroused interest and, accordingly, "archaic" termi· nology revived in the Greek language they u""d. Parad",ically, the Roman conquest of Egypt rein_ forced lhe rapprochement between the Egyptianand the Greek-$peaking populations, both group' being henceforth treated as subjects of 3 foreign ruler. The popularity "f double names such as "DionJ5ios [Creel] also known 3$ Petosiris [Egyptian]" marks the increasing hellenization of the nati"" inhabitants of the nome capilals, especially of the educated and official strata. Demotic-Greek bilingualism was more than ever current among members of the middle elass (see, e.g., J. Quaegebeur, '"Mummy·Labels: An Orientation," in Texte, gr.cs, demotlques el billngu.s, ed. E. Boswinkel and P. W. Pestman, pp. 244-47, Papyrologica Lugduno-Batava 19 [leiden, 1978J). The interaction between Greek and Egyptian is particularly revealed by the fact that Egyptian writ· ing adopted Greek characters, thus resuhing in Coptic. After an unsuccessful al1empt to u.<e the Greek alphabet for Egyptian (mainly magical) texts about ~,D, 100 (Old Coptic), Coptic proper was de· veloped in the course of the second cemul)'. Though Chrislianity had gained its first converts in Egypt among the Greek-speaking inhabitants (e.g., the Jews at Alexandria), Coptic-first emplo}'ed f<>r translation of the Holy Scriptures from the Greekbecame the chosen medium for the Christianization of the native population of the chora from the end of the second centul)', The third centul]' and the reign of DtOClEThlN, introducing the Byzantine period in Egypt, ",it· n...ed fundamental linguistic transformation., The

1168

GREEK LANGUAGE

spread of Christianily and socioeconomic chang~s, sud as Ih~ agricultural crisis in the first half of th~ fourth century, brought about semalllic e"olutions in Creek language. Thus, for example, anacIr6ri.• i$ us~d for withdrawal (in order to evade tal< paym~m) acquired th~ particular m~aning "withdrawal from th~ world" (in ord~r to devote one'. life to God)-thence the designation anachoreu. for monks: and geouclro. (landowner) acquired the specifically social connotation "pos""ssor" about

340-350, Literacy (the ability to read and write Greek) gradually receded with the impo,..,rish""'llI of the middle classes, c~used above all by the Roman liturgic rystem, The decline had se1 in at the end of the second century, as shown by, for instance, the case of Petaus, who learned to write Greek after having been nominated as village scribe of Plolemais Honnou about 185 (.ee Va. "'chiv de. Pcrau., ed. U. Hagedorn, D. Hagedorn, L. C. Youtie, and H. e. Youtie, Papyrologica Colonensia 4 [Cologne and Opladen, 1969)), Diocletian's attempts to latinize the administrntion had littl~ influence on official practice in Egypt. Latinisms intruded into the Greek vocabutal)' but did not neee.....rily supplant the ~~i.ting Greek equivalents, and Greek writing increasingly followed a Latin course. Still, these phenomena prove that the Gruk language kept its vitality. There even was a reviva.! of some classical Greek literal)' words (e.g., ht rhrl!psament, the nourishing [soil]) and Ptolemaic terminology (e.g., p"'gramm
leni,tic culture (e.g.• $H~Nvm. abbot of Dayr alAbyad [c. 385-451], who used the term Heiltn as .ynonym for pagan: J_ Barne•• "Sherrute as a HiStorical Source," in Aeru du X" Congres in/emallonal de papyTalogie, V"Tsavie_Cracovle, J-9 .eptembre /96/, pp. 15i-59 (Warsaw, 1964]). Yet, the ,tudy of Greek language and literature prospered in Egypt umil the end of the fifth cent'll)'. Many scholars of the fourtb-fifth century were .«roited from Greek-speaking enclaves in the metropoli.e. and sUITOUnding villages of Upper Egypt. Th",e groups organized the last countemtl-ack of Hellenistic (i.e., pagan) culture, comprising Greek and Egyptian elements (see, e.g., the Greek treatise on the interpreta,ion of hieroglyph' [HieroglypMka] by HOIlAPOu.or< of Phenebytis (end of the fifth century]), against the Coptic (Christian) trend_ The members of thi, Greek/helleni2ed intelligentsia trnveled widely in the Byzantine empire, temporn.rily gaining influence at the imperial coon (e.g., PAMPREPW$ OF PANOPOUS. who supponed the re"olt of 1II0us against Emperor Zeno in 484). But this flare-up of the Creek language in Egypt was confined lO a mi· norily; in ordinal)' social milieus the knowledge of Greek had gradually faded. Many lower officials were said to be "grammaloi (illiterale" in Greek). From ,he age of Justinian on, more and more official documents had to be published in Coptic a, well as in Greek, in order to be understood by lhe population. The exception proves the rule: the papyrological archive of D,OSCORUS OF A1'HRODITO sho...... a contemporary of Emperor Justinian writing Coptic as well as Greek documenlli. This bilingual notal)', who owned copies of Greek literary t""lIi, is the last inhabitant of the chorn known so far who comJ'O$"d-how,ver poorly-Greek poems. The A....B CONQuEST OF EGYI'T (MI) caused no sud· den change in the uSe of Greek as the offidal Ian· guage (see, e.g" Ihe archive of Qurrah ibn-ShaT1k [698-722]). But, as Coptic had introduced the de· cay 01 C.eek in Egypt. so Arnbic completed the process. With the Abbasids in the tenth cenlury, Arabic became Ihe predominalll language in gov· ernment administration (the last Arnbic-Greek papy· rus da,es from 996).

or

Mutual Influences Greek and Other Languages In Egypt (332 B.C.~A.D. 641) Since Creek ",as ,he language of the rulers, gov· ernmelll official., and magistrates. it naturallyexer-

•

GREEK LANGUAGE

~ised

mOre influena on the native language than vice versa. NevenheleM. there are some mainly le~' leal foreign comribmions 10 the developmem of Creek Kolne in Eg,pl. Among these the latest, Lat· in, ....as the most important. Greek Influence on the Egyptian (Demotic. Coplle) Language. Demotic wriling (cuITent in Ihe ""venth century B,c.-third century A.D,; latest anes13tion, A.D. 452) always rem.aineowever, Creek loanwords were rare and generally referred 10 hab· its, animals, and objects thai were known 10 the Eg,plians only through Creek impon or literal"",. On the other nand, Greek commercial terminology had probably "nt"red into spoken demotic from the S'OVenth c"ntury B.C. on. Th" change of gender of $Om" demotic words presumably occurre
1169

lng, moreov"r, adop.ed scme Sj'mbols that were current in d"motic documents. On th~ whole, Egyptian inlluenc~ on Greek was very limited. Yet the Greeks took over Egyptian literary last~. Th~ Gr~ek romance owed Its origin at l~ast partly to Egypt: th. Dr~am of Nu'anebo, the firsl piece of prose fiction in Gr"ek (second century P.<:.) was translated frem d~motic. Another popular g~nre in Egyptian literature, the prephedes, also inspired Greek writ~rs in Greco·Roman times-see, e.g., the PQlIU'5 Oracle, com]XIscd in demotic between the fourth and the end of the second century p,e" and known from Cre~k extant versions of the second-third century A.D.: there is a strong pre· sumption that th" thirteenth book of th" Dracula sibyllimi (between 241 and 2/>5) was wrillen by a eontem]XIrary authnr (Jew or Christian?) at Alexan. dria ('N. Scan, "The Last Sibyllin~ Oracle of Alex' andria," Clo5,,'-cal QuarTerl,. 9 [1915]:144). Latin had a greal~r impact on the Greek language in Egypt. About one·fourth of the Latin teons auested in Greek papyri mad~ th~ir first appearance at the "nd of the thirdlbcginning of the fourth c"nlU· ry. They were particularly numerouS in military vocabulary, but also embrac"d the spheres of adminis· tration, fiscal maners, law, agriculture, and textile manufacture. The adoption of Latin words followed several patterns: (1) transcription: (2) translation: (3) metaphorical usc. When t.--anscribed, the Latin words gen~ra1ly unt, qafF; d. the to]XInyms Q~r Qanln [i,e .. Dionrsias]: Luxor (Arabic al·Uqfur, the camps]). To a l=er ",tent, Latin influenced Gre~k morphology (e,g., the incr"asing popularity of the suffix· es ·t()F and .arlos), Symactical influence was practically nonexistent. Latin literature played a minor role in Egypt (about 100 ..tant Latin literary papy. ri). BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnes, J. W. B. "Egypt and the Greek Romance." In ..lb." des VTr/. Imernatio"alen K<mgre","" fi'F Papymlogie (Wi." /955). Milleilungen aus der Papyrussammlung der Oste=ic!tischen National· bibliothek, n.s., Vol. 5. Vienna, 195/>. Bowman, A. K. Egypt After ,he Pharaoh... 332 B.C.A.D. 641. From Alexander to tlr. Arab Conq"""t, PI" 157-/>4. L::>noon, 1986.

1\70

GREEK LANGUAGE IN CHRISTIAN NUBIA

Cadell, H. M. "Lc Rcnouvellemenl du voeabulaia au IVe li""'le de noltt m d'apres les pllpyrua." In Aile" des Xlll. lnlemaliorfalm P"/'Yro1ot.,,*'m· ,.uses (Mam...-y'l.ahn. Z -6 A"P''' /971. Muni<:h. 197•. e-ron, A. "wandcrirtg Pocu: A Uln-ary M~· Int!'RI in 8yJ:antine EgrpL ~ HiSJOria I. (1965): 470-509. Cbl)$$'l!. W. "uu,rary ~ in Documenlal)' 'Ar· ehlves.·" In Eml ."d IlIe H~l1e ..i5lie W",,1d. SCu· dia Hellenillka n. Lou,~n, 1913. Cosuos. P. S, An Outline 01 tiN: HiSfo.., 0{ riI" C"," l.arfp.~ ",ilh P.ma.1J>. Emplrtui. on Ill" J(oin~ and Ihe S"bu'I"ent p~riod•. Chiap, 1979. Reprint of 1936 edicion_ Oatis, S. II knico Idl;"O nef 6'UO d'EgiflO, &tl:elona, 1971. Doel ("<>mo, D. "La lel1eratura popolare nei """iri." In P.-oceeding. of Ihe XIVth Inte..."tio .. ,01 C01li,.n of Papyrol0/O' Oxford 1974. London, 1975, GIgnac, f, A G,,,mma, of Ih. Gre~k P.pyri of th. Romon and By;."nl'... P.rWd•• 2 vols, TeSli e doc· umenti per 10 studio dell'antkhitoll 55, Milan, 1976-1981. Girgis, W, A, "Creek Loan Words in COplle," 8"lIe· tilt de la Suciit' d'drch.olotie eOI'M 17 (19B196-4):63-73: 21 (1971-1973):33-53. Kaimio, J. "Latin in Ronan Egypt:' In Acte.s d.. XVe Coni.-t.. irrtern"ti"".1 de p"l'y'Ou.re, Vol. 3, ProblOttu r''''.alU~Papyrolo,ie lilt/ra;,e. 'llpr' rolo&ica 8",~ellensia 18. 8n>sJeb, 1979, Uoyd. A. B. -n.e Crttb in Empt lTom thf Bronze Ace 10 the Time of HerodOl:m:' Hrrodot... Book 11. InlFOd... ,ion. Etude$ preliminairta lUll; Rei.. cionJ, orientales ~ l'Empi..., romain 43. Leiden, 1975. _ "Nacionalisl P~ndo in P10lemaie £cypl." Hiswn. 31 (1982):13~55. Ulddecbns. E. "XIYP"'n.~ In Di$ SjOTt>C/l... ;m rllttIisc1lUl Rrich du K/loq.. iurtt ..,... I. bis II). April 1974, cd. C. Neu...."n, Bonner Jahrblkher, 8eihdt 40. Colov!~ 1910. MacMullen, R. ~P'rovincial LanKW'ge$ in lhe Roman Empire." Amuic1lnJol#ndofPlrilol<>o87 (19M}: I -

_d~rwdc.

~a .. H~rodolo,'

pp"OOJ

in h~,

IH:Id

Ecypfiseh~ ~n a"kr~ CO"femporair~ ,""""~,,. Biblioth~Uoe dOl MU5Con 27. Lou,-aln.

...... de

1951. Mortte\'eCchi, O. u. popimlOfi-. pp, 73-85. Turin, 19a ---C~ "Fpani e Creel: La coesisl~Jml delle We culture ndl' Ecitto romano." III EfZlID e Jt>ciail ""Ilic'a_ Am d~J roo.vtf"o Torino 8/9 Yl-D/24 Xl 1984. Milan.. 1915. Pack. R. A. n.~ Gre" ."d LoI;"UJerlJry Tutt from Greco--R''''''1n £01", 2nd cd. Ann Arbor, Mich.• 1%5. Palmer, L R. A G...""",ar of u.~ I'oIl.J>lokm.ic P.· pyri. London. 1946. ~. W. "Sur Ie bllfngul'rne dans l'Eg).pt d~ u.g;des:· In SfUdia Paulo Nast~r chi"'''. Vol. 2. Ori~nlalia antiquo. Orienlalia L.ovaniensia Anale<> Ia 13. t..o:>u""in. 1982. P~migotli, S. "I ph) napporll Ira l'Egitl<> e i Gr""i (secoli VII-IVa. C.)." In EliI/O ~ .oci~lir antica. Alti d~l conv~, .. o Tori"o 8/9 V/-2J/24 Xl 1984. Milan, 1985. P.otman. P. W. Greek a..d D~mOtic Texl' from the Z~ .. o" Archiv•• esp, p, 8, Papyrol<'>l!ica lOlgduno· Balava 20. L.eldon, 1980, Pr.aux, C, Lu Crus en Ecpte d'.prt. Ie. archil'~' d~ Zenon. Brouell, 1947. Schmitt. R. "m., S.,..,..:hvul\lillnlsse in den 6Qlichen Provinun des rtimi~hen Reiche..... In ....,meg .. tUl Niw""", II" I'tlnri.ch... Well. cd. H. Temporini, II. N. 2. Berlin and Ntw York. 1983. Me pp. 578_80 for the stClion On Eg}Jll. Sijpesleijn. P. J. "De in,'~ ..... hel lalijn up he! Grieb:' UmtlHlJ, TijdJChrift ....,.". Nwrla~ CI.ssici 15 (1982):31'-30. Th......n. H.·J. "G~o-AsYPtiJChe Lileranor." In (erike... de. AcPlOiocle, Vol. 2, .0.... 873-'78. Wirsbade... 1977. WIll.., W. H. "A CenwJ olthee Lilerwy P"I"'ri from Ec>-JIl-" Gred:. R"",.... tUl Bytlilfline Smdic 9 ( 196'):203~141.

n.

M:lndila... 8. G. 1M I'e'" ;., llu G.,,1r. Non·Lil.. ro,., P"pyri. AlhCP!l, 1973. Manfredi, M. "Cultun Ietleraria nell'lOcillO gaco • romano:' In Egitlo e .wculil ...tica. Alii def .010....• 1"08/9 Yf-lJ/24 Xl /984. Milan, 1985. Mayser, E. G''''''rtlotik du griuhi$
GREEK LANGUACE IN CHRISTIAN NU. BIA. Of lhe lemtol)' in whi<:h the Ih.-ee Christian Nubian ldnsdorP\< <merged in Ihe $i~th cenlury, only the Oodcka5choenU'!l had a tradition of the use of the C...,ek language, Ihe mOSt eloquent remains being the proskyne..,afa left by soldi.~ of the R". man imperial army garrlllOned In this frontier rone (e,g., P,ei.igke, 1915, 8462-8509, 8514-8533: Ber· nond, 1983, n<)$, 13}o-73). The Meroitic Kingdom, In ,pite of its H.lleniution (DeNnge" 1983), u>edits own language and developed its own writing

GREEK lANGUAGE IN CHRISTIAN NUBIA

system_ There is no evidence even for a parallel use of Greek alongside the native language for monu· mental inscriptions, as was the practice in Axum (e,g., Preisigke, 6947-6949, 8546; Bernard. 1982, pp. 105-114). Accordingly, the two fragmentary founh..:entury Greek inscriptions discoveroo at Meroi:' (Supplemenwm epig'aphicum GFaecum 24, 1246; Hagg. 1984a) are remnants of victory monuments set up by Axumite kings,

Prolo-Christlan Period In this so·called X·Group or Ballana period (c. 300-550), evidence for the use of Greek is still confined to the Dodekaschoenus, LIcking written languages of their own, the Blemmyes and Nobadae used Greek for monumental inscriptions as well as for communication both between themselves and, no doubt, with their neighbors of Byzantine Egypt. In the former category, the most imporomt item historically is the fifth..:entu'1" Silko inscription in the Mandulis temple at Kalabsha. proclaiming in bombastic language the \'ictories of the Nobatian king Silko over the Blemmyes. Silko's Greek (or, rather, that of his scribe) has been \'ery differently judged: according to upsius (1876) and his followers, it is Copticil.ing all through, According to others (most radically Kapsomenos, 1953, pp. 25Iff.) it is pure Greek vernacular. Two further inscriptions, in rather ungrammatical Greek, concern cult associations in Tara and Kalabsha, and four others at Kalab
1171

basilisJws for "king," phylarchas for "tribal chief," hypmyrannos for ".ubd.,,;pot," prophtlts for "priest," HimJrcho. for "head of cult association," and epiphanestatos for "most noble" (see Hligg, 1990),

Christian Period The most imponant category of texts i. tlte inscriptions, now amounting to approximatdy 300 published items, dating from the sixth through the twelfth century. In the absence of a comprehensive c0'l'us. the... aeo the principal collections; lefebvre, Recueil (1978, comprising only one·fifth of the inscriptions now known); Firth, S"",_y (1912, pp. 45-50, inscriptions from Ginari); Mina, In.'cr;p';ons (1942, inscription. from Sakinya); Shinnle and Chittick, Ghazali (1961); Tibiletti Bruno, {scrivoni (1964, selection of inscriptions): Kubiti,ka, Fares IV (1974), See funher the topographicall)' arranged bibliographical list In 2:abkar. "Gra,'e Stel.." (1967, pp. 16ff.). More than 2oo oftbe in-"aiptions derive from Nobatia (approximately 20 differ"nt places), fully 60 from Makouria (a dozen places), and aboout 25 are of unknown or disputed provenance, The soil of 'AI",,;! is only beginning to yield Greek texts. Few of the Nuhian Greek inscriptions bear dates, Most of the dated ones belong to the eleventh or twelfth cemury. Besides a few foundation or build· ing inscription. (e,g.• Prelsigke, 10074. from Ikh· mindi, sixth century), the majority are epitaph. (for the formul ..., see Junker, Gmb$leine, which is fundamental but in need of updating; d. Krause, 1975; see also Tibileui Bmno. 1963, pp. 492~5i7), The most conspicuous type, at prescnt represented by nearly forty specimen. (list of eighteen in Oates, 1963, supplemented by Hiigg, 1981) di.tributed all over Nobatia and Makouria. and even 'AI""a, di.plays a long text based on the Byzantine pmyer for the dead z. 1967-i 968. p. 133). the latest on.,,; twelfthcentu'1'. The persons honored with this elaborate fonnula are mostly bishops or high officials. Other textual categorie. include legends fo< wall paintings, notably from the cathedral a1 FarA.S (eighth to thineenth century; Jakobielski, 1912); nu· merous, mostly unpublished, graffiti on church. monastery', and house wall. (see, e.g., Jakobidski, 1972; Bernand, 1969, Vol, 2, nos. 205ff.): and some

1172

GREEK LANGUAGE IN CHRISTIAN NUBIA

texts on papyrus. parchment, or paper of a lilurgi· cat. administrative. commercial, or private charac· ter. This last category, though still rather modest in size, has been substamially increased through the excavations at Q~r lbrlm. The "barbaric" character of Nubian Greek has often been exaggerated. Much of this impression is due to phonetic· orthographic phenomena welt documented in con· temporary texts of the same calegories from the Byzantine wodd. Certain peculiarities remain, how· ",'er, on both the phonetic and the syntactic le.-e1 (e,g .. nominati,'e or accusath'e for genitive in ce.· tain position,; for a preliminary analysis. see TIbi· ieui Bruno. 1963. pp. 517-29), It remains to be shown to what extent any of these peculiarities, ,orne of which occur in the proto·Christian texts, may be due to bilingual imericrence from Coptic or Old Nubian and whether the language is merely "conserved" in the Christian Nubian kingdoms, in comparative isolation after the Islamization and gradual ambization of their northern neighbors. or whether there are nstiges of later direct contacts with Byzantium (or with Jerusalem or Sinai; cf. [}onadoni. 1986. p. 228). The series of Euch%gio» M.g~ epitaph,_ is inSlruetive, in that late specimens (e.g., stela of Bishop Martyrophoros. A.D. 1(59) are not nec..>aril)' more emotic than earlier Ones (e.g.. the stela of Mari~o, 1032), Rather than witnessing a gradual "debasement" of Nubian Greek th.ough the centuries, we probably ha,'e 10 reckon. on the one hand, with a rather conservative wrinen tradilion of this prayer formula and. on the other. with isolated instances in which the text carved on the stone was based on the recitation of the prayer fo. the dead, with ensuing phonetic spellings and misunderstand· ings (d. the discUS1ion in Oates, 19(3). Medieval Nubia was a multilingual societ)'. As a written language, Greek competed lirst with Coptic, then with Old Nubian. and later with Arabic. The competition with CoptilJis witnessed, for instance. by the lind of double fo"ndalion slOnes for the ca· thedral at Faras (707) and the subsequent alterna· live use of the two la"guages for bishops' tombstones, by the intenningling of Greek and Coptic epitaphs in the cemeteries 'of Sakinya and GhazAlt. and by Coptic liturgic fonnul", in other Greek in· scriptions. Clearly. Coptic had its strongholds in the monasteries. 1Qme of whose inhabitants no doubt were refuge.. from Egypt. Old Nubian, written with the Greek·Coptic alphabet (extended by three extra lellers), is inserted in Gcc.ek inscription. from the eighth century on (e.g., stela of Stephanos, 797), juxtaposed ",ith Greek in the memorial "lray" of King Georgios from Wadi al·Na!rUn (1158) and

mixed with Greek in the legends to the Faras wall paintings in the last phase of decoration, All three languages, wriuen with the same palaeography, meel in the graffiti, Out of 250 registcr<:d graffiti from Ihe calhedral al FarM, 23 ore apparently Greek. 26 Coptic. and 62 Old Nuhian; many, ofren consisting jusl of a name and perhaps a title, defy such classification. On the walls of the tenthcentury church at Sonqi Tino. Greek and Old Nubi. an dominate. For adminislrative. legal. and commercial purposes. Greek seem. 10 have yielded to C<)p1ic, Old Nubian, and Arabic. at least to judge from earlier published documents (see Griffith, 1928) and from what is known at this point about Ihe rich texlual finds from Q~r Ibrim. H<)wevcr, it is worth noting that Greek was sometimes used for the outside ad. dress of dispatches Ihat wecc. Ihemselve. written in Coptic or Old Nubian, an indication that Greek rna)' stilt Mve been in some use as a lingua franca in the Nile Valley. as it wa, in Ihe proto·Christian period, The cuntinued use of Greek litles for higher offi· cials. such as "parchos, cxaychos, ~a"aychO$. mei· oses throughout the Middle Ages. at least a.. far as the United Northern Kingdom (Nobatia/Makouria) is concerned. The applic3lion of the whole set of ecclesiastical titles is a matter of course, but more importalll. the Greek epitaphs. supplementoo b)' tbe legends and gnlffiti, cover the ""hole time span from the sixth through the twelfth cemu')'_ Greek manuscripts (biblical, patristic. and limrgical texts) found in Nubia confirm what we already knew from Oriental literary sourceS about the use of Greek in the Nubian church. Compare the infonna,ion aoout 'Alw1 deriving from Selim al·Aswani (tenth centu')') that "their books are in Greek and they translate tbese into their own language" with lhe reported dlsco"ery of bilingual Greek·Nubian limrgical lexts at Q~r Ibrim (cf. also the tenth-century bilingual graffilo from O~r e1·Wizz), There also survi¥<'. in fragmentary fonn, translations from Greek into Old Nubian of biblical books. homilies, and other whole worb (see Browne, 1981). The last indication that Greek was. in a sense, a "living" language in thc Nubian church dates as lale as 1312, The letter testimonial sent by the Coptic patriarch of Alexan'

GREEK LANGUAGE IN CHRISTIAN NUBIA

drill In (onne.:llon ,.,ilb the (on5e(lalion of II NubIan. nm01~ as bOshop or nru. although wrillen in Copcic: and Alabic:. begins wilb an addrlt$ll in Grffk diretled 10 the Nubian conl"eplion (I'lwnIcy, 1975b): apparently, Gr«k !hen still rqam. cd III Nubia', e.:clesiasrical Ian~e of (hoic:e. B1BUOGIlAl'HY

Barnes. J, "" Tn! cI. the Boredidle in Gree.k and Old Nubian I'n>m Kasr el,W=." lot<,.".t of EvP' mu. ATCItD<'fI/oo 60 (191.):206-211. 8emand. E. Lu inu:riplitm$ VUIl"a el ["Iina de l'Itil"e. 1 ...... ~ Paris. 1969. _ "Nou~~lles .~ons de b ampagne du rol bana conUe Ies Bedja." uiIscitrift fiJ' Papyrok>tie "ml Epigrapltik 45 (1982):105-11 •. _ 1~$i;ripli<MJ frecque.o d·EmI. el d. N"bie: IUperlO;,t bibli"t'ap!tiJ;ur dn rGRR. Paris, 1983. Browne, G. M. "Greek imo Nubian." In Nubi... Cullu .... Pa" .nd P'eJrnl, ed. T. HJiIlll, pp, lO924, Stockholm, 1987. Bnlni, V, Ilunu./; di u~ saa,dou ,,,I tita bh.",i. M .econdo gli cucolog; m.~oscrilti di Ii~gua g,tCO, Pubblica:cioni d.llo Siudium Blbllcum FranciJcanum, Colleclio Minor 14. Jerusalem. 19n Oeslonges. J. "l'Hell"ni._ da... Ie royaum. de M~I'Qi!." C,uco-Aric.. 2 (1983):275-%, Donadoni. S. '"I.e inscriptions grecques d. Nubl.... Grouo-A,,,bic,, 3 (19$4):9-19. _ "Trois nOU".lles Sldes. de Gha6.l1." In N../?' i1c1oe S'udu... cd. M. Knust. pp. 223-29. am RIlei". 1986_ Eide. T.: T. ftiu: and R. H. Piero:•. ''G«J/.",;c,,- JJ (1912):2H-19. F~d. W. H. C.. and I. ~uirbcad. "'Th. Gr«k Manuscripts from Ibe Cathednl of Oafr Ibf'lm. ~ LA Mu.1oft S9 (197&):<13-49_ Griffilb. F. L "Chrillian Documenlll from Nubia." PToceedi~. 01 lite BtUish .4cademy 14 (1928):111-

""'ira.

...

Hig. T. "Two ChriSlian EJ>itaphs in Cr-eek of,he 'E.ucholoslon M.p' Type:' In Lote Nubi,.~ Ctm,· le,,'tJ.•d, T. sa,'.-SOderberth. The Scandin~vian Join! EJ
1173

-cc- "Nubicograea I-III: Bemtrkungen zu grie-chi$o::heu TeXlen ...... Nubi.n." ZeiISCIt'ill 1.., roIop: ""d £pivaphill. 54 (I98llb):IOI-lI2. ___ ~'Bkmm)'aIl GI"ffk' and the Ltller of Phon.n. In NubUcJre Slud~", cd. M. Krause, pp. 282286- Mainz am Rhein, 1986. -0-- "Tttl" and Honorific. ~etS in Nubian Gnd< Texu- ~ Symbol« OsJOUItl 65 (1990):141-

p,,"

N

"

Jakobielsii. S. Fal'" /fI: A HiSlOrf allJoe Bishop,*- cI PtultrK... oro the &om of COPn'c JrucTiplWms. War· _ . 1912. "Inscriptions." In F""IS: W./t p.,irt/ings i.. lhe Co1J«tiotr. of Ih. 1'141;0.,01 Musc_ in W.ca",uions al Old Dof13Ola." Kush 15 (1967-1%8):125-42. Junker. H. ·'Die dlri.dichen Crabsl';ne Nubiem. Zeitsclt,-jfr liir iigypti.clte Spr""h, " ..d Allerlum>ku ..de 60 (1925):111-48, Kapsomenos, S. G. "OU Grieehische in Agypt.n." Mu.eum htlve'i~um 10 (1953):248-63. Knuse, M. "Di. Formulare d.r christlichen Grab~!eine Nubi.n•."· In N"bi~: Ric.nus ,ecS,ercS,u, ed. K. Michalowski. Warsaw. 1975, pp. 76-82. Kubi~sb, J. F"r". IV: Inscriptio". greequn chri· r".~n,.. Wanoaw, 197•. lekb~..".. G. Recur;1 dts ""scrip'i~..> grecq....· ch"'Iim".. d'Etypu. Chic,,&o, 1918. Reprinl of 1907 edilion. 1zp$iuI. R- "Die 8riechlsche Inschrih ~ nubi· schen KlInics Silko," Hemu. 10 (181&):129-44 _ Mina. T. I"scripriorzs .opUs 1I gruqu.. d~ Nulti,,_ Cairo. 19<12. Moone,.." de Villard. U. Siorim E>
N

...,Itr..

1174

GREEKS IN EGYPT

"Anmerbmgen zu ein~n B~mm)'fl'Tu· lell." In LcbenJigc AltcrfumS><~_NKh"fl. F'ut. ,aft ;:ur Vol/clUb"" des 70. Ld>c~hrts >'OfI Hen'ulII" Vet/os, pp. 327-]2. Vien .... 1985. Sanlon. C. T. -Elu u".P'.ia." Jllitul<) l.omkrdo. Acc"dem;1J. ,Ii ..-ie"te e lellere, Re"d;' comi, unae 97 0963):491-5311. _ fseritioni nubitJ."e. Pavia. 1964. Ttlrl)k. L A Co"tributio" to Post.Maoi/ie ChronoloC,' Th. 81.mmy.. i" LO\+'a Nubi". MeTQilic: Nc"'S< lettcr 24. Paril. 19S5. Vamlni, G. Oriental Sources Co"cernl", Nub/a. He!' delboeJl and Wanaw. 1975. Zabkar. L V, '"Thrtt Christian Gr,,,. Stdas." In AuJ,."bu",e" VOn Khar·Deltm;, b/$ Se' d.W.. li, ed. H. Ricke. Uni"c",i.y of Chica80 Onelllal Insd· tUle, Nubian Expedition 2, pp. 16-ro. Chicago, 1967, Zaborski, A. "Martina! NOU'$ on MedieY\l1 Nubia:' In Nubisolw: Studior, ed. M. KnUSt, pp. 403-412. Malnt am Rhein, 19l16.

_

GREEKS IN EGYPT. Greek contxU wilh EI)'pt had bcocn frequent and varied bdore A\eun· door Ille Great oolll"Lan hjs. lOfy. As early as the limes 01. the Sea. Peoples and 1M OI>rk Aies 01. G~ Egypt uper!efK:ed Gr«1r. invaders and ...itkrs, bUt me counlry was not aeceuible .0 la~alc colonizalion ....hen Gr«u ~ pn. In 1M eighlh c.mury RC.. 10 s~ad Iheir Killemenu and .,,,ding S1a1ions over the Medilernncan and the Black Sea. Howe..r, with Ihe <:onsent 01. the pharaolts of the IWenl)"si~lh Orn... w, G~eh were able to establish, perhaps around 650, a wlony al Nau<:rtItis In the Deha, Milesians were prominent among the foond· ers of Ihal ileulement, which was deSlined to faclli· Utte and d,annd commercial actlvilies, bUI mher Croch .lso had aCcess 10 Ihis lawn and iu, sanclU' aries, Equipped with lhe Iypic:al set of Greek city·

stale inslilUlions. Naucnl", ,,'as able 10 p.....,rw: ils Hellenic ch.a~ler well down inlO me GrttORoman period. II "'as O"VW M'le<:led as a rnooie!, parliallyal 1<:tiI., for Uo"TINOO/'OUS ...·h..,., Ihal G.ee/< ell)" was founded in EIYJII by Hadrian in A.D. 130. E£yptian rdations Wilh Grc:fts. sometimes I<:ns<:, """"' oftC'fl friendly, _~ especially stro<1K under the rulcn of the Twenly-6lxth Dynasty (11064-525 tu:.). " ..... used Gr~b and Carians (the laller from ...uhwesl.Cm Asia. Minor) as mercC1l&rics, for cxamp~, 111 PclU§iwn on Ec>'Pl's eastern bopt, since many Greeks of Asia. MirtOr had becom~ Iltlbjeclll 01. the Achaeme· nids lIlId Egypt was Sli1l open ~'en to Greeks from outsi.... th~ P~nlan realm (will1C5S Ihe visil or Herodorusl- The Slrue:gle 01 the Greeks againsl lhe Persians in 1M f;fth et-ntury led 10 Gra:k mililalj' c~lion."idt ElYJllian dynaslS ...,...,lIing againsl lbeir Achacm.nid OV1'riords. The ficht for Egyptian in~e "u f;~lIy Al«esslul in the very 1_ yean of the fifth cenlury \"ilhout Greek military aid, acconfi,,& to Salmon, 1%5, p. 239). Bul in 343. F.t;ypl: came ap.in under Persian dominatio-D- The Achaemcnid 1'\"Sl0"'lion was. 1loweYe<, a sbort-liwd aJb.jr; in ]3;t, the Macedonian linl, AIn:andeT th.~ Grcao., in>'aded lbe tenitories of 1M Penian Darius III and conquered Eol" In H2 B.C. 'rhough leading 10 lihcr.uion from the Pel'lians, Ihis conquesl "''35 aI5o, in a cenain scnse at leasl. the ,Ian of a new foreign domination. In Egypt, Akund.r posed as ph;mooh and was ",,
GREEKS IN EGYPT

now l>ein, one of the quartets of the n~ town. iu local pop"lation btame inhabil.anlS of Aluandria. but _ ~cluded from u.", riJhts of Aluandrian ciliuM.

AMr m.. ""ath of Aksandrr in 3H.lhe "U1Ipy oJ f.cypI '"'lOS utributtelf rrom...n.. retMlned of tht Mxedonian imperial .... thority. Alter he usumed tilt- lide and posilion d a kmg in JOS, EoP' ...... ruled for nearly th...-e hu....nd yean (305·)0 a.c.) by lhe Plokmies. a '"Greek" d)""""Y (Macedonlans then beinl considered. lhough somev.-ha' relucliU'l" ly in.som.. quaners, as Gcecks). But at leas! il was a dyn;uty firmly anclt<>red in Ell}l'1 and keq>inl Ecl'l at 1M cen,cr of the Ptoltmaic .. mpi........hiell ..~. tended. in the thin:! century. O"<'t regions of 1M eastern Medil",mo""an (en'IUS, Gyrene, pans of thoe Syrv-Phoenician coast, and terTitories In IO\llhem and western Alia Minor). Rath.er WOn .fter his 'n· .tall.lion in Egypl. Ptolemy I abandoned EllYJ'lian Memphis and clime Alexandria as his c.pital. BUI btsi~s beinl Hellenistic kings in the Macedonian and Creek tradition •. the Ptalemies were viewed and repres-ented as pharaohs by their EaYPlian wb}«ts. Whereas E~'Plian. had .till played leadin; roles under Ale....nder and Ptolemy I (d. 28)-232), Greeks occupied. under Plolemy II and his succes"'~ in the third celllury. nearly all lop-Ie~el pooIi· lions at the coon, in !he anny. and in the d"il adminl5'lnlion. Immigration <Ji Grub and Hell,.. niu.ia Minor ..... ponicubrly .... bs'anlial in the Ihird CeTuury &c. AI. oandria thus became !he rnosl: populo.... center of the Medria .... and rema.ined a oommunity of <:reel< eiry. resen,'mJ' full ciliun richlli 10 a core of Greco-Maudonian TC:5Klenlli only. but spradlnSthe Greek b"flUlle to ID06l ~ illi inhabitants (the linl"isricaI Hellenimtion or A'feundrian Jews prompt· ed lhe Gruk 1",,,,I;>tion <Ji !he Hebrew scriplUl'es. the Sepluasinl). Bul Creeks in E,:ypI "'"e~ by no means reslrlclICd 1o Al9andriL They SClded in large numbers in Ihe EcYPlian hinterland. the cho.... above all in the Fa)"" ylIm (Arsinoile nome), as well as in numerws pi",,· es In lhe Delta and Upper Egypt- Amon; the l.ller, Ptolemals (modern al·Minshah: see '001), a founda· lion of Ptolemy J, .Iands out as the only Creek cit)' in Upper EllYPt provided wHh the full Set of po/iJ in";tution,. The Egyptian nOIm caphals-that II, meltvpoles like Memphis. Arsinot, HerlilCleopoHI

J"",..

e1C.~were no!

1175

orpnized It! Greek ClUes, but wer"C. in constitulional ~. mere "vil1ages," lhough ......,.;n. as the aclmini$\.....ift and rdigious cen",rs <Ji lheir tflpt'clive DOD\eIi. Many <Ji th~ nome capita" auraeled Cruk IoCttle... ...·ho lived there as soldier'S (that ., veteTVl$), aniAr\s. busin<ssmerl, and lanOowners. They brO'lghl wilh m.,m not only their 1an~e boll also erttk nt:ligiouI. c:ni<:. and cultuBl insd1udom. amona !hem !he .cJ"1'1asium. Thq' mi""d .,..;th tht local popularion, rt>aolT)lns Gre:fl: men. ~ many Egypban _ <:reel< population may hoi"" had a surplus <Ji mal.,.. "",nly a a e<>mequen<:e of immpion and also of lemale infamicide. Com"'}' to EiJplia... and Jews, Grotb. wishing 10 k~p lheir bm~ieI omall and lheir property ..ndiminished. "'"ere not ..,IOOm indinw. to nesleet their chi1d~n, espttially -plian and Cru. traditionsII is cauinly lNe lhat Creeb in Ec>-pI, a small minority convinced of ita superioriry. S1ro,,,,, to maint2in ,he uniquenoeu of their culture. whereas, on the other side. the masl of ~p1ian peasants lacked opportunity .nd will to forsake their own ",,,Iitions and to assimilate the ",ays of fo~igne.... BU1thc reaction againsl the concept of mixe fur. R""en, progress in the siudy of Demotic papyri and of hie!'" Ofllyphk in",riplion$ in the Emtian temple5 of the Ptolemaic and Rom
t.....

""""""'in,,,

l! 76

GREEKS IN EGYPT

awarcnes,; of the perfonnance of Egyptian Late Perioo art, are c....ating conditions for a fre.h look at the relations between Egyptians and G.....,ks in Ptulcmaic and early Roman Egypt. The question of mi~ed civilization should be reexamined on a larger and morc systematic scale including all aspects of life and carefully distinguishing places, perioos. s0cial strata, and ethnic groups. It is evident that there is at least one group of Egyptians. occupying positions in the administra· tion and the ann}', who tended to become partially hellenized. The same will apply to many G"",ks and Egyptians mingling racially and sharing commun values. Not all the.. cases need to be ,'iewed as examples of unilateral Hellenization, that is, Egyp. tianization (the laller to a le..er degree), because some people. then as today, belonged at the same time to two cuhures. for example. persons serving as Greek-speaking soldiers in the Ptolemaic army and oIIiciating simultaneously as Egyptian-speaking prieslS in a native cult. This graduall}' and partially hellenized group certainly represented a minority only of aurochthonuus Egyplians. hut it was a high· ly active, fairly propertied, and politically important segment of Ptolemaic oociet}', becoming ever more visible and assertive after Ihe third century B.C Such person. often boore two names, one Greek. the other Egyptian. That means thaI names, aboove all from the second century B.(;. unward. cannot be considered any more as reliable indications of ethnic urigin. Anyway. after more than a hundred years of mi~ed marriages in Ptolemaic Egypl. the queslion of ethnic origin had ceased 10 make sense in the corresponding milieux. On Ihe olher hand, e"en outside these intennediary groups. Eg}']ltian and Greek traditions were not totally impenneable to each other. Instead of focusing the debate on ethnicity in tenns of "nati,.., Egyptians" .'erous "foreign Greeks." il seems mo'li.rewarding to detennine the rcspeetive slrength of EID']lllan and Greek traditions in Hellenistic as well .os in Roman and Byzantine Egypt. That approach is·of great relevance for a fair appraisal of boolh Greek' civilization in Egypt and the part pla}'ed in ilS developmenl by native f.gyptians. Comparison wilh mooern colonialism will not do. One seems justifiecl in saying that Greek civilizalion in Egypt is not only the mark of an occupying force. bul also. and not at least. an achievemenl of hellenized Eg)ptlans. Additionally and simultaneously. the aclivily of Egyptians is on reeord in nalive Eg)l'tian religion. art, and litenlture in Ptole· maic and Roman limes. Far from being one long

iOlennecllate period interrupting the continuity of Egyptian hi,tory. the centuries between Alexander and the Arab conquest Inily belong to the heritage of Egypt'. people and have made a great. but often underestimated. contribulion to booth Egyptian and classical d,'ilizalion. Nevertheless, notwilhstanding contacts and common performances, difference. even opposition. belween Greeks and Egyplians did not disappear in Ihe cou""," of time, the dividing line being. ho....'cvcr. not one of race, but one of cuhure and social class. As there was cooperation, there also was hoslilily. clearly evidenced, for in· stance. in prophedes foretelling, like the POller's Oracle, the ahandonment of Alexandria and the end of foreign rule in Eg}']lt. After the conquest of Eg}']lt by the Romans in 30 Re., the country entered Ihe Roman empire as a province administered by a representative of the emperor. the praef<elus Aegyp/i. Roman citizens. active in the administration and in the army, doing business and owning land. were hencefo"h Ihe suo preme cla.. in Eg}1't. soon reinforced by Egyptian Greeks. that is, hellenized Egyplians who acquired Ruman citizenship, espedally Ihrough service in Ihe Roman army. The rest, Ihat is Ihe majority, were "foreigners" (puegri~i), al leasl in Roman ju· ridkal construction. In fact, Greek remained the ruling language, rIC,'er replaced by Latin e~cept in the highest ec:helons of governmenl .en.;ce. in legal procedures in,'olving Roman citizens, and partiall}' in official military use. Analyzing the relevant te~1S of the Roman period, Montevecchi (1935, pp, 339-53) reached the conclusion that the term Aigyprios had a twofold mean· ing: (i) in highly official language, it designated both Greeks (including hellenized Egyptians) and nonhellenized nati.'es as oppo...d 10 Roman citioens: (2) in everyday life, and even in court. "';gyp. rios could characterize the nonhellenized nati"e. in contrast tu Ihe Greek. Ihat is, hellenized Egyptians, That is not to say that Ine Romans established no official dislinction belween the Greek and the "truly" Egyptian inhabitants of the country. Both groups had to pay the poll ta~ (/aographia). but the gymnasial elite (those "Greeks" whose status had been verified by as<:ertainment of Greek ancestry on both maternal and paternal sides and who had been given access to Ihe O'mnas;um) wa~ treated as a privileged class and so were, though to a lesser degree. the other cilizens of the nome capitals as opp<>sed to villagers. The members of Ihe gymnasi. um as well as the m"'r<>pOlile. paid lower rates of p<>ll ta~, Thes. favurecl groups. partially a blend of

GREEKS IN EGYPT

"pur"" Cre<>k; and helleniled Egyptians already on record in Ptolemaic egypt, inserted themselves betw"en the Roman dlizens and Ihe "true" Egyptians. that is, {~ peasant mass. Under the inAuence of the melropolitc "Greeks," the nOme capital. eva]'-.,d into Greek·.lyle citi<:s. It was a recognition of that development when. in c, 200, lhe emperor ~plimius Severns granted a lawn council nol ooly (0 Alexandria but aloo (0 the melropoles of the Egyptian chora. His son, Marcus Aurelius Antonius, popularly called Caracalla, wem one sup further when he accorded, in 212, Roman citizenship to all inhabitants of the Roman empire, excep' to a group designated as ddilicii (literally "lhe capitulated"). whose precise identification is sll1l debate
1177

TIte same is true for MONASTICtSM. which was, in the fourth cemul)' and beyond, a shared eXp"rience of Greek· and Coptic·speaking groups that held 10gether under the common direclion of the Alexan_ drian patriarch. The drifting apart, amidsl the dog. malical and ecclesiastical conflicts of the Byzantine period, of Christian communities in Egypt, above all of Monophysites and Mdchites, rna)' not simply be equated to a division between Greeks and Copts. 1l is well known that not only Copts but al", many Greeh, that is, Greek·speakers in Ell)pt (and el",where) adhered 10 the Monophysite church. Bul one may .unnise that the Meichilcs had few supporten beyond the ranks of the Greeks in Alexan' drill. and in the chora, the Chrislian Copts thus fonning, together with Greek·speaking Monophy· sites in Egypt, an opposition to non·Monophysite authorities in Alexandria and Constantinople. In other respects, too, the cultural diversity of late antique Egypt does not always correspond to a divi5ion between Greeh and Cop,". This holds true, for instance, for G"osrIClSM and MANtCHAEtS.lol. both having had Greek- .... well as Coptic·speaking adherents. With pagan "Hellenes" in BY".antine Egypt, ",me dividing lines are perhaps clearer, but again, they reveal no fundamental opposition in tenns of Greeks "e.-sus Copts, The~ "Hellenes" ..ill che.. ished the traditional Greek paideia (education) and were its acti.'e heralds. That is eSp"cial1y true for the astonishing number of Greek, often pagan, poets that Egypt brough. forth in the B)7.antine per· iod, one of the most fumous being, toward the end of the fourth century, the Alexandrian Claudianus, who wrote Greek verse before becoming a cel"brat· 00 Lalin poet (Camerlln, 1970). O.ber Greek poets followed during Ihe fifth centul)', many of them coming from Panopolis deep ill Ell)pt. Establishing wntact with the court at Constantinople and the leading men llf the Brzantine empire, lhese poets bear wilness to tlte profound and long-lasting Hellenization of the Egyptian chora throughout the Greco·Roman period. But these "Hellenes" were by nll means alien to Egyptian culture and religion. One can deleet, in thc works of these Greek-writing Egyptian poet., manifestalions of an Egyptian patriotism that often tends to be overlooked but has nevertheless a long tl<\dition reaching back to Ptolemaic and Roman times, Some of these poets show an interest in typi· cally Egyptian cults, That is surely natural enough for Greek·speake,.,; who were brought up, as thdr aocestors had been, in metropoles of the Egyptian chora. But the same interest for Egyptian cults may

1178

GREEKS IN EGYPT

k conjec'ured, a furtio
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Austin, M. M, Gruu a"d Egypl in lh~ Archaic Age. P
Bagnall, R. S. "Creeks and Egyptians: Ethnicity, Status, and Culture." In Cl~opalra'. Egypt: Age of lho PlOlomios, ed. R. S. Bianchi, pp. 21-25. New York, 1988, Barns, J. W. B. Egyptia~$ a~d Creeks, Papyl/i"e World. London, 1985. Davis, S. Rau.Relalio~s in Anci~nI Egypl. Greek, Eg)'prla~, Hebrew, Roman. London, 1951. Fraser, P. M, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vols. Oxford, 1972. Hagedorn, D. "Marci Aurelii in Agypten nach der Constitutio Antoniniana," Bulletin 01 ,h~ Ameri· can Society of Pap)'rologlsts 16 (1979):47-59. Koenen, L Elne agonislische Imchrift aus ;';gypt~n und friihplOlem~jsche Konigsfesle. Bci'rligc "'If klassischen Philologie 56. Meisenheim am Clan, 1977. Kmuse, M. "Das christlkho Alexandrien ond seine Beziehongen mm koptischen Agyplen," In Alex· andrie~. Kultur1>egegnungen drcier Jahrtausende im Schme!Ulegel ~i~er m~diterr~n~n Cro$S$wdt, ed. C. Grimm, pp. 53-62. Aegyptiaca Treverensia 1. Mainz, 1981. Kmuse, M., and K. Hoheisel. "Agyptcn 11 (Ii'era'ur· geschich'lich)." Reallv:lkon fur Amlke ,,~d Chris· remum, Supplement-Ucferung 1/2, cols. 14-88. Stullgart, 1985. Lewis, N. Lifo i~ Egypi under Roma~ Rul~. O"ford, 1983. ___. Grub i~ Prolemaic Eg)'pl. Case Studiu I~ lite Sod,,1 HiJlory of the Hdlenistic World, Ox· ford, 1986, Lloyd, A. B. Herodotus Book If, 3 vols. Etude< preliminaires aux rdigion. orientales dans l'empire romain 43, Leiden, 1975-1988. _ _ . "Nationalist Propaganda in Ptolcmaic Egypt." Hisroria 31 (1982):33-55. MacCoull, L. S, B. Dio>corus of AphrodllO. His Work and His World. The Transformation of the Clas.i· cal H~ritage 16. Berhley, Calif.. 1989, Meleze·Mod,-zejewski, J. "Lc Sta,ul des Hellene. dans l'Egypte lagide: bHan et perspectives de rccherches." Revu~ d~s budes grecq"~s 96 (1983),241-68. __ . "Fra la cilla 0' il fisco: 10 statuto greco nell'Egilto romana." In Studi i~ o~ore dl Ce.ar~ Sanfilippo, Vol. 7, Pl'. 463-86, Milan, 1987, Montevecchi, 0, ..... igyptiO!i-Hellen in eta romana." In Studl III o~ore de Edda Br~S<'ioni, cd. S. F. Bondi, Pl'· 339-53. Pisa, 1985.

GREEK TOWNS IN EGYPT

____ "Egil.iani e Cree;: la coesistenza delle due cuhur. nell'Egillo romano." In Egi/IO • .Olitiqu~, Mem"ire. 57, pt. 6, Brussels, 1965, Samuel, A. E. From Alhe~$ W Alex<mdri~: Helleni,m a~d Socu,1 Goals In Ptolemaic Egypl. Studia Hel· lenislica 26, Louvain. 1983. Th"mpson, D. J. Me'nphis ~rlder the P/ol~miu, Princeton. N.J.. 1988. WiPS2ycka, E. "La Christiani""tion de l'Egypte aux IV'-V[' siede•. AspecI' sociaux el ethniques."· ,Ie· gyptus 68 (1988),117-65, HEINZ HElNI'.N

GREEK TOWNS IN EGYPT. Long before the
of Alexander the Great, Greek< had come 10 Egypt a, merchants, soldiers. and <elliers during Ihe era of the "Greek coloni7alion'" (seventh centll· ry B.c.). As a result. N~UCRATIS, in the Delta. was established under the Twenty·sixth Dynasty as a Greek town complete with Ihe traditional ",t of polis (city) instituI;ons aod d"$lined to focus and control Greek commercial aCli"ities in Egypt. It was to ,..,ma;n for a lon¥ lime Ihe only Hellenic lown on Egl1'lian soil. ~~ When Alexan
1179

nome metropoles were granted town coundls at about the ",me time. The Ptolemies, content to develop Egyplian re, sources and their owo income along lhe lines of pharaonic traditions and Hellenistic planning. did nearly nothing to funher the spread of pole;, in Egypt. Ptolemy I founded only one Greek city com· memorating his name. P'olema;s in Upper Egypl. His suCCes"ll'$ did not add a single G,..,ek dt)', probably not wishing to establish more "aulon<:>mom" centers In a country where monarchic abso· lutism prevailed. After Ihe conquest of Egypt by OClavian (AuguStul) in 30 fl.C-. the Roman emperors maintained lhat tradition. While prolecllng Ihe "Creeks" (i,e" both native Greeh and Ih""" Egyptians who had joined their ronks lhrough mar' riage and Hellenization) and IheiT institutions, Roman authorities refra;ne'eru. accorded the privilege of lhe lown council not only 10 Alexandria buI also to lhe metropoles (nome Capilals). In the p"-"t, the lauer had gradually developed several featu,..,s typical of Greek lown" such "-" magistrades and I<-"mn<'';;'' (schools). In 200 they became pole;,; In Ihe Hellenic sen"", complete with a scI of town inst;lutions, but without proper autonomy. This evolution was taken one step further when the ,..,forms of DIOCLETIA>ol. beginning about 296, tran,formed the melropoles into po/els (civllate.) and established the nomes "-" the eIIoria (tem/o";um/ of these new cities, These measu,..,. deliniti"ely blurred the di.linction ~1Ween the old Greek lowns of Egypt (which had long protcttcd their privileged slatus, exening a careful control on the be!;towal of citizen righls) and 'he metropoles. in the past, the lauer had 1::>«n considered as mere villages (komai). technically speaking. notwithstand· ing Ihe central functions of the nome capitals in religious, administrative. an
1180

GREEK TOWNS IN EGYPT

the gradual dissolution of "pure" Hellenism in Roman Egypt. paralleled by the fading away of the old traditions of native Egypt and the rise of a new, late amique EgypIian civili.ation with its t}pical blend of Christian and pagan, of Greek and Egyptian elements.

conceded a to""n council to the Alexandrians. Ihus satisfying their perennial request. !!.xca,'alo", have discovered a building with ranges of weli·pr~r...ed seats (the so-called ,mall thealer), which may perhaps be identified a.s the hail of the town council (ef. Baity, 1983~ see also AUiXANDltlA IN LAn A....-r'OlJl· H).

Naucratls (modern Kom Gu'alf) A colony of Ionian MilelUs, founded perhaps lJl the mid seventh century in the Saite nOme on the Canopic Branch, Naucratis was a dourishing cemer in the archaic and classical periods. It li.'ed on as a Greek poli, throughout Ptolemaic and Roman times bul was overshadowed by the nDl-so·distant Alexan· dria. Naucratis pw;erved its purely Hellenic char· acter, intermarriage with Egyplians being otill con· sidered illegal in the second century A.D.

Alexandria The lown "'... officially styled as a separate entit}', Alexandrea ad Aegyptum. When Alexandria was conquered by Octavian in 30 JI.c.. irs lown council was abolished (or had already been abolished under the last Ptolemies). NotwithSianding the effort. of Alexandrian Greeks to recover that symbol of polis status. the Roman emperors. such as Claudius (A,[>. 41-54). refused to cede on that point. But Alcrandria did have a wide range of munieipal institutions and magistracies. among which were the exegeles. gym~asi/1.rd!Q$, kO.I",ete$. eUlheniQcchos. and "goranomos, A distinctive feature of polis organization was the subdi.'ision of Alexandria's citi""n corps imo tribes (phyla!) and deme. (demo!). M a privi_ lege, the Alexandrians were exempted from the poll tax (laographia) and from liturgie, in the l'.ID'Ptian chora (on the Alexandrian chora, cr, Jabne, 1981). Besides ilS citizen population. Alexaodria was inhabiteple of "ery different prownance. Apart from the native ~tians. whose innux into the town v.-as checked. ;sometimes brutally, by the Roman authorities, the largest segment of the nonGreek population was ~ade up of Jews who had corne, or had been brought, to Alexandria since the beginning of Ptolemaic times. Like other nationali· ties, Ihe Alexaodrian Jews had their own civic corn· munity (polil"uma), complete ""ith a council of eiders (gaol's;,,). presided over by an "Ihnarch, with tribunals and archi"es, The Jewish drive to obtain full parily with the Alexandrian Greeks led to severe tension, and occasionally to "",vage killing during the first anti second cenlUries A.D. During his visit to Egypt in ~.D, 200, the emperor Septimi.... Severns

,

Paraetonlum (modern Man.a Matrul,) In the nome of Libya, Paraetonium was first men· tioned in the period of Alexander the Greal. and it ranked in Roman time. as a pri,'ikged. perhaps Greek town (eI. Jones. 197 f. pp. 305f.J. One of the few harbors between e:,renaica and Alexandria. Paraelonium served as Ihe obvious starting place for the journey to the desert o",de of Zeus Ammonios in the oasis of 5i""a. which "'as much frequented by Greeh from Greece and the Aegean. Hence the name of Ammonia equally can be anested for Pa· "'etonium. The place had an impo'lant garrison, bloding the access 10 Egypt from tlte west. As a consequence of Diodetian's reform" Paraetonium belonged to the newly created province of Libya Inferior and served as its capital. Under Justinian iI ""as the reside nee of the dw. Um;"s Ubyci (general of Ihe Libyan border). In 325, Paraetonium is men· tioned as the see of a bishop (Roque" 1987, pp, 1101.).

Plolemals he Hermelou (modern

al.Man~ah)

Ptolem ..is was founded by Ptolemy I Soter, and as the southernmost Greek city in Egypt. it established Greek presenee and Ptolemaic control (by way of the SlraUgos [general) and other royal officials) in Upper Egypt, where nath'e traditions and opposi· tion to Alexandria and foreign domination were especially strong. Ptolemais had a town council. a board of pryumeis (leaders of tri~), and the usual set of municipal magistrales. but it stood, like the other Greek town•. under overall Roman supel'Vi· sion. There are some Gre<:k inocriptions illu,t"'ling ci.'ic life and Hellenic eulture at Ptolemais during the Ptolemaic period (Dinenberger. 1903. no•. 47_ 52). but the source malerial for Roman Ptolemais is rather meager. compared with that of Antinoopolis, We learn aoout the maintenance of civic and religious institutions, even detectable in the faellhat in Roman tintes many people still gave their sons the name Ptolemaios or Soter. thus commemorating the Ptolemaic founder of their town. The carefully nurtured tradilions of Greek paganism weI.., eel" tainly responsible for the resistance to Christian it)'

GREEK TOWNS IN EGYPT

in Illller Ronu.n PlolelRai... The lown Ihu. did not become: the ~ of a bishop, this role bein, aMUn ..."(! by neiJllborins Th;.. Ptolema;' seems 10 ha.'e been ootrored in the course of me Anb ~onquest.

Anllnoopolh (modern An.tInaJ In A.D. 130 fUdrian fwndocpTlan lraditions and of \>o(h Ptolemaic and Ro· man monarchic rule. l1tc colonisu well' alll"l.CIM from Ptolcm.. i~, but also from the Greek or Htllen· ired dasses in the A",inoites and from '·eltTlln. of Ihe Roman arm)'. Many of These had IonS .Ince minsJed whh lhe Et>ptian population. Jl was cuicr to ddend and spread Gtffk ci~i1ization than to pre' ""rve nldal puriTy. Ali a consequence. and contrary 10 the Laws of NaUCTllI;', the citw.n. of Antinoopolis _te ,n....,n the rishl 10 marry £optian. fep;· lamia}, many 01 whom Ji~ettance by l>eco:nin, the seal of the tl.... of In.. 7hcbaid. The .... th..,.. mury ad'>oocate and poe'! DIOSCOIUlS OF AI'tIlilOrtO. lluenl in Gr~lt and Copt;" as ..'dl-as Latin, "';101 a remart· aWe nponel1l of lhe GIl'~k society of ble amique Ecfpt.

I""

BIBUOGRAPHY Ce"et.1 Calderlnl. A.. and S. Daris. Dhio"arlo tl~; "omi ,eo· ,ra(j.:1 d~II'E,;lIo iTtco·",m/l"o, 3 vols. Cairo. Ma· drid, and Milan, 1933-1981. Jone., A, fl, M. The Cities of th~ EIIJtern Rom." Pr,,"inc,", 2nd .,d., pp. 301-306. Oxford, 1971. JouqU<:I, P. La vic m""idp"l~ da". I"ECpu romain., pp. 113-201. Paris, 1911.

1181

Montcv«chi, O. La P"piro!QfiIl, pp. 141-43, 149, 156-53, 163. TlII'1n, 1973. W~den, U. "0;., Gri..dwtlS'idt..... In C,..~ u"d Clr.nslOmlJlJlie tl~r Pa,.,rus/cund~, cd. L Mil",is and U. Wild",n. Vol. I, pi. I. pp. 43-33. l..riIJzic. 1912.

.....

"'~

Abbadi, M. 1>. H. d·. "1'lIe AJeundrian Cuiz=ship.Journal uf ElJ1'n.n Ivduo/OO 43 (1962):106-

on. Balconi, C. "A.lcsandria nell'eti augu...,,,, Aspftli di .ita-" In Ednll ~ liJI)(;eJb ."ne.. ..ttti del c".,,'~~ n" Torino S/9 VI-Up. XI19B., PI'- 181-96. Mibn. 1983. BaI.y, J..c_ "Le 'boulcuterlon' de l'AI~Dndrie .eve""nne:' In Eludes ~l /tI"'au~ D, pp. 7_12. T",,· \';lUX dll Centll' d'Arch~losie mMilernn~.",n., de l'Academic polonaise del .cie~ 26. Warsaw, 1983. Jlihne, A. "Die '.uf(al'6pt.. ~ X"'-"'." Klio 63 (1981):63-103. Wolff, H. "Die Conllilulio Anloniniana und Papyrus GiMen.i. 40 I:' 2 vols, Dissenalkon, Cologne, 1976. Sec e.pecially pp. 239-71, "Zur Rechtsstd· lung der XlYJ'Ier. D/I$ Beispiel docs flal'J'O"ras:' AntlnoopoIb

Bell, H. I. "Aminoopolis: A Kadrianic FoundaTion In Ecl'1." Ioumlll til R"n"", Stud;,. 30 (1940):133- 4 7. Bemand, A. us porT.S du di~n. ~CU.,i1 <Us in· scripOOots uecqueJ tl'..t"tiroooupolis Mllpa. pp. 23-107. Paris, 1984. BrauDett, H... G......,htK~ Unroe fl965-1968', Rome, 1974. KUhn, E. Antinoopolis. Em !kilt", tot' Ga€lr.iclru ks H~nerrisntus in! r6mjJC~.n ADP/en. GrilnJunS _d Y~rf""""f' lriptis, 1913. MacCoull, L 5. B. '''The Coptic Archive: of DioM:oIUS oJ AphtodiTo." Clrroniqu~ d'EcYPt., 56 (198.):I85~9J.

Pislorius, P. V. "lndicQ AnllnoopoIiWli:' pp. lIOn. Dioscmttion, Leiden, 1939. In Afrikaans with Ertslish summary. Timm, S. D"s cltri.uliclt.!t;()pti.u;lrc AgyptCrl in a,a· bisclt." uit, Vol. I, pp. 111-23. Bc:iheft., zum TlIblnger Atlas des vorderen Orien... Re;h., B (Geisteswissensd•.o.ften). 41/1, Wicsb"d.,n. 1984. Nau"ratls

Bernand, J.. Le Ddt"
1182

GREEK TRANSCRIPTIONS

M~mo<,es

Publlts par les Membra de l'ln.lilut fran~is d'Arclteolocie o""nUlle du Caire 91. Cai· roo 1970. Bissinl. W. yon. "Naukratls lIS an EcYPt~ and a G.~k Seule....enl,'· B",IIt1ln de /" S«ill£ 'o)'<'le d·,,,-cI.loloCle d'AIUtlndn', J9 (1951 ):JJ-82. CouIK>ll. W. D. E.. and A. Leonard. Cilia of Ihe D,/Ill. pl. L Nlluerlll'J. Prdiminary Report .... lit' /917-78 .. nd 1980 SeaJ<>
.u,..

Keel', H. """'railonion." In R • cydopf..mJ...uunJd"fr, Vol. 11.3. cob. 1182-M. S!ullpn. 19049. Roqucs, D. S,,,lJitu de Cyrble ., 10 Cyri_iqw, d.. s.u·Empi7,. Eludes d'antiqui~ afric:aincs. hri5. 1911.

DitttnberpT. W. Orienm 6111«1 ... JCriprio....J _ Sl. 01 holemais lhal is ;mporunl fur the cOIIIfIO'ition oIllloe lewm population). ;:;ceo Pro/en";'; Aluandria. ) WIts. OJ.fo.d. 1'112. Jahne. A. ~PIolemals and h. Place in ~ SUI"" 5,-s.I""" oJ. hokmaic EcY\l''' (in R~ian). Vrsmtl: d _ j "'om (1910):19-)1. Pbumann. G. l'lQ/,tmIlU In Oknlopfrn. Ein £kilr", 1Il1 G,schldll, du H,lIe.. lsm"'J i.. Al)plrn. Lriprile. historis<:he Abhanc!lunllen 18. LripziK- 1910.

lee,,,,.

Hf.I.~z

HfJSL"I

of Ale:undria durina the P<'riod between 1250 and 1516 .esided most of the lime at ConsI.anlinopk. Ho,.,.,,'er. il seems lhal Cresol)' II us....lly resided at Cairo. ;l$ is 1l11es1ed by Ih, manuscript ~opied by lite hierodeacon SAM ¥I.$A in 020 al the JIlluUr' "hal residence in Cairo (Si,..i Arabic 102). At an inletmediale dale. Cn:gory C09Ied lne large Gre<:o-Arabic ..ucltologion (Sinai Arabic: 251: fob. 12Ib-l7b are ,,'tillen exclusi\'Cly in Anblc). He glI\'" this manu'iCri", lIS a ""gacy 10 lhe church oi Mir SAbi. which is in the pan of Aluandria. Of panic:ular not.. in this manuscripl is lhe office of con....muion oJ. the " ...1..... of lne Nile. penormed on Ih.. Sunday More Ihe fnst d PtnteeoSl (rols. 127b-7.5bl. 1br Cr<'d: 1<:>'1 diMs office has been ett: lelll h... not yet bttn edited. Grepy -.. _II \..,~ in both Arabic and Greek. ... Sinai Arabic 138 all<'$S. Bul abtwe all. h<: bqan to trwrslal.. the T~Oft of 54...' StJIM from Gred< inlo Anbic:. with an Arabic COmmenl&f}" on the part oo<>c",ming the a,.,.".. itJI (a nlelu SC't'\"ice before ceuin feasu, in the EaR,m chun:.h) only. as he had no time: 10 do more.. This aplains .....Ily. .bonl)· ancr..'aTd,. in 1315. Ahtl al·F~ 0I.ISI.......111l IIIi ASI AL-.!lA'M.J 1.."1 "III .Q..F"T\:I .... did.he whole Inn$la'

"'.

Fun"""""",",. a nol'" in a manuscript .. o~ in 1.594-1.59.5 (Mir £liM ShuW3)')"l' [Lebanon] Matt· uscript 30) .ecords tha' Pauiarch Crepy was mo....n as Grqory al-51n",,1.1 (lOis. 2a-2b). This ind>t:ateS thai he had bttn a monk al Sinal and ....pla:;"" ..... hy some oJ. his manuscripls are found lhere loday. Accoming '0 GlUm"'. Cre",., II died ~fo.. 13.54. allhough Grume! adds a qUC:Sflon mark. Ac· cording 10 Nasrallah. he died wro.. I33S.

GREEK TRANSCRiPTIONS. See Appr..du. BIBUOGRAI'HY

GREGORY II,

fou"~nth..:enlury Melchite p~(ri

arch of Alexandria. Very little Is known about Cn:g· ory II. V, Crum..l and J. Nasrallah dale his el..ction around 015, As IIOOn lIS he Wlll5 el"~led. he .em a •ynodal lelte. to hlJ colleagu .. of ConsUlminople. Palriarch John XIII Clykys, announcing hi. ele~· lion, Thi. letter was published by F. MikJ05i~h and J. MUller along wilh a ,eply from John XIII. Invit· inl him 10 come 10 COnst.a.nlinople, Nallrallah (1981. p. S6) Slales lhal the patriarchs

A,iy>.. A. 5.. and J. N. Yotlt$ef. Call1log.. , Raiw.. nl of lh, MOUn! SI"ai Manll.criplJ (In Arabic). pp. 203-204 and 4B~84. Alexandria. 1970. Black. M. "Rituale Me!chilarum. A Christian Pales.tinian," Bo...... orlen/aUKhe SllIdien 22 (1938):28-3.5 . Omilrievskij. A. Opi.", ..ij, IirurgiC'$kh ,ukop;J~j, Vol. 2: Elfcholv~;'" I'f'. 684-91. Kiev, 1901. Engberdin8. H, "Der Nil in de, lilurgi'chen Frtlm· migkeit d•• chri.dichen Osten.:' chri'li". .."'s 37 (19.5)):.56-88. Gmmel, V. LII cltro..olori... p. 144. I. I!. Paris, 1958.

Orl,,,,

GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS, SAINT

Margoliouth. G. "n..:, Liturgy of the Nile," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 0/ Creal Brito;n and [rdand (1896);677-731. Miklo,ich. F., and J. Muller. ..lela el dip/ornata gro_ eco medii aevi .acra el profono. VoL 1, PI', 20~2~, Vienna, 1860. Nasnollah. J, Ristoir. du mouvemenl /i11'raire dans rEglise "'e/chite. Vol. 3. 1'1. 2, PI'. 62 and 149. Paris and louvain. 19SI. Kw.UL S,u,IlR, S.J.

GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR, SAINT, or the Armenian (c. 240-332), bishop and patriarch of Annenia .....ho is a "martyr without bloodshed" (feast days: 1$ Kiyahk and 19 Hit), His is venerated in the diptychs of tbe Coptic church. where hi' name is mentioned together .....ith two other Gregot)'<, Thaumaturgus (c. 213-270) and the Th.,. ologian (c. 330-395). He is also called the "Apostle of Annenia" for having evangelized the country. although. historically, he was preceded in this mis_ .ion by Saint Bartholomew, one of the twelve disci· pie. of Christ. According to an Armenian tradition, Gregory was the son of a Parthian nobleman, Amak, who assassinated King Chom>es ! by order of Ardashir. The dying king commanded that Amak's whole family be put to death. But the infant Gregory was saved and se<:retly taken to Caesa,..a in Cappadoda, where he was brought up as a Chri.tian by a foster mother; later he married a devout woman who bo,.. him two sons. A few years afterward. the mar· ried couple chose to forgo their conjugal relation· .hip. preferring to de"ote their live' to worship and prayer. Upon his return to Armenia, he was attached to the coult of King Tiridatcs, who succeeded his fu· ther, Chasroes. to the thr.,ne. thanks to the effons of Emperor DIOCltm~l<. N"'!.\fmowing his tnte identity, Tiridate. orde,..d Gregol}' to offer incense to the idols. but the laller persist'ently rero$ed. and was ,ubjected to extreme aCt, ottonu,.., which came 10 be known a.~ "the tweive tortures of Saint Gregory," and he was finally thrown Into a pit. He,.. he was se<:retly fed by an old Christian woman named Anna for a number of years. The legendary life story of"Gregol}' is inten.o.'o'-en with an episode about a community of nun, who had been living in Rome. but Iled to escape from the designs of Diodetian upon One of them. Rhip· 'ime. They took refuge in the capilal of Atmenia, but Ihere they fell prey to Ihe harassment of King

1183

Tiridate. who. befo,.. returning Rhipsime to Dindetian, allempted to seduce her. However, she managed to escape. but was later caught by the king', men, who put her and her companions to death. The story goes that, by divine retribution, Tiri· dates was transformed into a wild boar and hi' subjects were smillen with the plague. In a dream, hi' sister was told that only Gregory could bring about her brother'. recovery. Gregory was therefore released from the pit, and his pr.oyers produced the miraculous recovery of the king and his subjects. all of whom embraced Christianity. Gregory waS thus able to preach in public, and was consecrated bishop of Armenia by l.eontius, bishop of Caesarea_ Having reached an advanced age. G,..gol)- consecrated his son bishop. and retired to a life of solitude and meditation. In 325, he Was called upon to lake pan in the Council of NtCAEA, but he delegated his son, Bishop Aristages. to go in hi. place_ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Davidson, L "Gregoriu. (7). St:· tn DCB 2, pp, 731-39. Ulnglois, V. Collection des histori"ns ancien.. el modern". de I'Amreni", Paris, 1867-1869. Peeters. p, "5. Gregoire l'IIluminateur dans Ie calendrier lapidaire de Naples." Analcera Bollond!"no 60 (1942);91-130. At
GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS, SAINT (329389), known as the Theologian. Along with Saint BAS· t~

THe GREAT and Saint GREGORY OF /lYSSA, G,..gory of Nazianzus is one of the three: Cappadocian fu· thers, He was born in Narianzu•. For a few month, he was bishop of Constantinople. bUI he then with· drew to private life. Among his principal works are a collection of fony·Ii,'e homilies, induding five theological homilies on the Holy Spirit; the Philo· kalla, a collection of passages from ORICf.N: a col· leclion of 425 letters; and a collection of poems. Although Gregory is a .aim in the Onhodox and Roman Catholic tradition •. the Coptic church did not ,'enerate him panicularly. Indeed. he has no individual feast in the Copto-Arabic SYNAXARION, nevenheles., he is mentioned. for example. in the Gre"l Euch%glo" of DAYR ANBA SHm(it>AH (the White Monastery). The Coptic literary tradition at· tributes eight nomilies to him; four are authentic, one is erroneously attributed, and three are later spuriOU! worh.

--1184

GREGORY OF NYSSA,

SAINT

""'" ."Malie homi..... (Irambted from 1M Grl'f't) include Homily 14, ~ c;'."'4IIC. " ..hien SUe· rives in Bohairic: In a compkte codu (Vatican U. b,.,..,.. Coplic 66. 12) and in JODM: fncm.eIlU from anoth coda (La(onlaine. 1919); Hom,1y 21. I" ...""'PI which .........."" in ~"""l.5 of a codcK of lhe Whi"" M~el)' (Orlandi, 1910); a nl"'enl of Homily 4). In S.sili".... hum a papynl.5 codcK lBro......e. 191'1); .00 5(>IrJe' unpublished fl"lIglMnu from Homily 45. Dc Puc;'". in a code~ of lhe While Monaslery. The erroneously al1r1buled homily is in feci Greg· ory of Nyssa'. De deilale Filii ci Spiri"'. Sa"eli. pardy rewo.-kcd. The !hru .purious homili... show all Ihe signs of being lhe froil of oriJinal COplic produclion of abo." lhe se>'tl\lh cenlul)', and an: allrib!aled 10 Gl"Cpy for reasons of co.wenience. Dc Mich.,c1c ArclNl",Uo cl de di4lbolo (Lafon",;ne. 1919. from \he .... IlUICripi ;n the f'ie''POtll Morpn Ubrary. New Vori<. M591. hi.. 8-16: al'racmenl in the British Museum, 0... 6782. fol. 9) is a ~1allon of a doclrinc altributed 10 hcnlks and .l.bnict-ilD$ COt\ttrllinc Ihe .in commiut:d by SaW! and the IaIb $Ubf,eqU(:ntly IaftrJ on by Michael. Accordinl 10 Ihe hereties, SaW! ..... hani$ht:d foe hAvin. refused 10 adore man when lhe Ia"er ..... erealt:d. Againsl Ihn view. !he aUI""," .lalCJ lhat Salan. lhe fitst .,f the hea~el\ly crealures, .inned by pri&c before lhe ea"h was even crealed. and II was Ihen lhal he was .epleced by Michael. The leKI lhen speaks.,f Michael's role as imerces"'" for men wllh

GOO. Some papyrus fnogmenu (Pierpom Morgan U· bBl)'. C7; Crum. 1913, no. 7) con\8in a COmmen· tary. I" Rom. • :/5. thaI deal. princi..lly with baptism. Also concerninl bapri5ID, we haw .- homily that ........ ni\'ed in IQmIC unpublished fnaments froon the While MOfIMlery. Ursl. _ o}w;)uIdofnelllion oov liwrti<:ll1 ......... (Plcyte and lIocM=e. 1'91, pp. «IlL). called "Pnl~r and Exorcivn." of m1'ltri<>us conlent. It ts nor .,eelain, ......~r, thaI the Grqory given as lhe ... thor n 10 be, idenlified .. Grqory of Naziarau$.

• IBLlOG....'HY Michi~d"

Coptic Tut•. Papyrolot;ica Caslrocla~iana 1. Barcelona. 1979. Crum. W, E. "Theol"aical Texu from Coptic Papy' ri."' In A"ecdm.. Ox.,,,ie,,si... Semilie Series 12, OKfo<-d. 1911. Brown.,. G. M.

Lofontaine, C. "Une Homtlie eop1e IUr Ie diabk CI sue Michel auribuk , G"q:oi". k lMolopm.~ I.e M"-SIooo 92(1919)".31-60. - -;;;c:-, "La Ve........ coplf: boNirique du discoun 'Sur" I'amoue de. p&U......... de Gcip'" de Nazia... ~.~ I.e M".Io>r 9) (1980);199-230. UrIne. E.. ed. I.e cuelto1ose d ...Won"-Slc-.t Blanc. PO 28. 2. J'aris. 1958. Orla.... i. T. "La. tradul.ionc copra. dell 'Encomio de AIan..-io' di C".gorio Nazianuno." Le Mum" 8l (I970):lSl-66. Plcyle. W., and P. A. A. Boese•. M"..u.uits copus d" Mu.te d'Amiquiti, d .. Pdy.·8o. iI !.tid•. Lei· den. 1897.

a,,,nd

TITO ORLANDI

GREGORY OF NYSSA, SAINT

(c. l30-395),

.. thoologian. With Sllint GU'OlIlY OF N.UI...."ZO,IS and

Saini &toSIt nit GlEAT. his older bmrher, he ..-u one of the Ih~ c.PI'*docia" &u.ers. He IlC'l our 10 bccocne .. rhetorician. but Crqory of NN:ia.Nw con.-inced him 10 dedicale him5elf rather 10 lhe ccdesiallica! lif1l!. Basil oominaled him 10 be bt.bop of Nyssa., .- .mall city in CappadociL He ...,,;ded there o"ly al ItTeg\llar iruen'ak. at firsl be-c-all$C cl the Arian concrowny and then bee.-UK of hts lon, VO)"i'ICS- He panlcipated in lhe Fir$l Council of COi'<. STANTINOf'U! in l81. M an opponent .,f A/lIANI!>M. Gregory fo.>nd favor in lhe C.,pllc Church. but was not regarded as a saint. ahhough he Is in lhe R<:>man Calhollc and Onhodox churches. He is besl kn. by Macarius (Vaciclln library. Coptic 61, 6), auributed in

Capric '0 Gregor)' of Na>ianntI. 1be oritinal Int has b«n .-hered '" as 10 tmpkJy only lhe pari th;ot is eMC'nllally CUBelical :and moral in dU'1'aC1CT. ). lk "ni",.. el ruclio"e is a dialogue found in a fn.l"'ental)' SaIImc c<>
=..

GROHMANN, ADOLF

The.., last two work.<, which are distinctly philo· sophical (particularly the dialogue), coming from a PIMonic-origenist s~hool, seem to have been lrans· lated into Coptic and spread Ihroughout Egypt during the period of the Origenisl controversy (fourth6fth centuryl- a time when it might be supposed thaI Egypt should have sided with Patriar~h lHEDPHlLUs OF ~LE.x~"'OR!~ agains! Ihe OrigenislS, It migh! ha,'e been po!oSible, however, that one pan of the monastic 50Ciety had been and remaine
1185

was, in addition, one of the firsl students of the Old Nubian language, publishing a translation and commental")' on three documents that he found in thc British Museum and in the Royal library in Berlin as The Nubi~n Texl' of the Chrislian Period (Abhandlungen der Koniglichen preussi$Chen Mademie der Wissen.chaften, Jahrgang 1913, Philoso· phisch·hislorische Classe 8, Berlin, 1913). Griffith was also a pioneer in the study of Ihe Meroitic language .nd culture of the pre-Christian Sudan. He excavated a number of imponanl Mem· itic sit.., chieRy at Faras, and published many anic1es on the Meroiti~ language. B1BUOGltAPHY

10 ACUHON'CUS OF TARSUs,

BIBUQGRAPHY

Chaine, M, "Une Homelie de S, Gregoire de Ny",e," R,v"e de 1'0rie"l chrhi", 17 (1912):395-409; 18 (1913):36-41. Coquin, R,-G" and E Lucchesi. "Une Venion copte du De anima et resurrectione (Macrinia) de Gre· goire de Nysse," Oriml~lia wva"ie.uia. Pe.iodic~ 12 (1981):161-201. Fsbroeck, M. van. "Fragments sahidiques du Pa· negyrique de Gregoire Ie Tllaumaturge par Gregoire de Nysse." Orimlalia Lova"iensia Periodic~ 6-7 (1975)-1976):555-68. Orlandi, T. "GTegorio di Nissa nella letleratura COpt3.." V.IOTa ChriSlianorum 18 (1981):333-39,

Adams, W. Y. ""ubia. Co",idor to Africa, pp. 77_79, 486-87. Prin~eton, N,J" 1977, Gardner, A. H. "Fran~i. U.,...'ellyn Griffith." Journal 01 Egyplia" Archaeology 20 (1934);71-77. W'LUAM Y. AOA\iS

GROFF, WILLIAM N. (1857-1901), American Egypt"logi.t. He studied Egyptology in Paris under G. "AS~ERO in 1878. He lived in Cairo from 1891 to 1899, A nUmbeT of his published anicles were later collecled and edited by Maspero, with a biographical notice by hi. sister, Florence Groff.

TITO ORlANDI

GREGORY OF NYSSA, SAINT, CANONS OF. See Canons of Gregory of Nyssa.

GRIFFITH. FRANCiS LLEWELLYN (18621934), British Egyptologist. As longtime profes· SOT of Egyptology at Oxfo~ University, he was a pioneer in the slUdy of medieval Nubian archaeolo· gy and philology. Between 1410 and 191 2 he direci' ed lhe excavation of sew",l chur<;hes and other Christian archaeological remains at Fa,.,..s in Lower Nubia. At Faras and at 'Abd al·QMir he al.o made the 6nt imponant discoveries of medieval Nubian wall paintings. This work produced "OxfOTd Ex~a· vation. in Nubia" (University 01 Liverpool Annals of Archaeology ""d A"lhropology 13, 1926, pp. 50-93; 14, 1927, pp. 57- 116; and 15, 1928, pp. 63 -82) and "Christian Documents from Nubia" (Proaedings of Ih. Brilish Academy 14, 1928, pp. 117-46). Griffith

BIBUOGRAPHY

Bibliolheque igyplologique conlenmll les oeuvre< des igyplologues /"mfai, (OeuYFe. de W. N. Groff), pp. 1-4. Paris, 1908. Dawson. W. R., Egyptology, p. Kammerer, W., Arbor. Mich ..

and E, P, Uphill. Who Wa.s Who in 128. London, 1972. compo A COPI;C Bib!iagraphy. Ann 1950; repro New York, 1969. Az'lS. AT'YA

GROHMANN, ADOLF (1887-1977), Auslrian Semitic ,cholar and philologist. In Vienna he stud· ied Semitic philology and EgJptology. He took in· structlon in old South Arabic and Arabj~ papyrolo· gy from D. H. von MUller and J. ,'on Karaba~ek. After his habilitation at Vienna in 1915, he became an editoT of the texts in the Erzherwg Rainer Coi. lection. He wa.~ professor of $emitic languages at lhe Gennan 1Jni~eTSity of Prague from 1921 to 1945 and at lnn.bruck from 1949 to 1956. He was also pTofessor of Muslim history and archaeology at the

1186

GUARDIAN ANGEl

Un"'~nily of

yin) from 19.9 to 1956. His ~~n' live edl,101U of Arabi<: pap)-ri in VknM. Cairo. and CieMoen, along "ith hi. works on Anobic peleogno. phy...re his priJnary conlribulions 10 5Chobnhip. As rqMds CoptoIoc. his w<>rt on SUDovn is _ thy of menllon. His m:ajoo- ......:wb IllClude "Die im Alhiopischen, Ar:abischen unc! K.opcisehen ertW· tftM!n Vioioa.... Apa Schenules YOn Alripe" (bit.KIrrif' .I.". de..uche" 1ftO~7I1ii7u1~"Ceu/lschJ:l{l 67. 1913. pp. 187-167. and 68. 1914, pp. 1-*); Crifflrisclte. koprioche .. t<J uUi-Khe Tale ;:ur Reav- .. ".I ,elp'/tm U'U'ilI'" i7I .lD'lnellS SpilUil, with F. Bibbel (Hridelhel'J, 19~); Einfwhr"", ""d Cltruto,m"Jrie!Ur .,,,bische" P.py",sk....de (P"'l"e, 1954); SI>.dien tN' hu,o;i.Khl" GeOf'o"hie ....d Ve,.,.,..lt....&: de. frUh",,'''e/o/,u/lche .. i(Vplert (Vienna, 1959); A,,,oische CIt'Otto/otie. Aro· bi.che P"pynttJ"mde (Ho"dbuch dc' Orie"'O/islik, Err~"~ ..nrsbo,,d 1, !.elden, 1%6, pp. 63-9(). BIBUOGRAPHY

loeb,msteln, H. Fest.ch,ifl V'''' lQO./illr,lge" Be· ,,,Ire,, dt, Papyru.sa",mlu ..g d" O.lernwJr;,ch." Notio ..olbiblil>lhek, Papyrus Ert!terzpr Ra,,,er, p. JO. Vie""o, 19&J.

GUARDIAN ANGEL, anglJ ass.icned to wonhip. glorify, and awl God co,,,inuousJy. and also 10 miniweT 10 sainu and 10 prot«l, _u:h owoer, and inlercW. on behalf of pc sin, and do nOI say before Ih~ messenger thaI it was a mislllx.... (EecL 5:6), Ii ..... as also a common hellef among the ancl~m Greeks. Jesus Chri.. cI>nfinn~d the idea of the guardian· t.ltip of angel. in the use of children. "$oee that you

do nOi despise one of these lillIe ones; for I leU you thai in hea.~'en lheir angds always behold the fac:e of III}' Falh........ ho is in hea~<'Il" (lolL 18:10). Uke· "is<:, when Peler "'as rel~ h-om prison, and knocked al lhe dono' of Ihe house where the disci· pies "'ere rneelinl- Rhoda. the maid who answered the dooo', announced lhe r>n>-s 10 them. "You are mad.n!hey loid her: but she ill$iJte-d thaI i\ " .... so. lMn lh<:y said. ~It is his ansd" (Acts 12;15). Many of th~ early fatMn 01. the c;hucc:h spoke of the guardian lUIJlb, for <:>.ample. (Pseudo) Cle"""nl in Ruopifioru (2.42, 1951. pp. 108-9) and CIemel\/: of Alenn
,e;

BIBUOCUPHY

Asad Ru5tum. Ab.l:' "/·#:.lInis<>Jr If ./·0..",...I-n,,· 101110010 11/-011., pp. 41, 47. Beirul. 1961. Duns ScOlIZS, John. G<xJ lI ..d Crellll<,n, lrans. Felix AllunlO!l and Allan S, Woller. PrinceI"", N.J., 1975. Mlkknl Mini. 'Jim al·Uhfll, Vol. 2. pp. 91-93. Cai· m, 19.16. ARCHBtSHOP BAstuos

GUIDI, IGNAlIO,

llllHan Orn:nlaIiSl. bom al Rome in 1844; died ,hef~ in 1935. He ,,'Oded fiBt

GUIMET, EMILE ETIENNE

In rt.e Varkan MuswJJU, :and from 1376 M laUlhl Hcbrtw and $emilie IaIli""8'n al 1M Uni..~ity of Rome. He publishftl1C~t5 md m<>Ilognopns rtlad.... 10 tht ABbo-lsJamic, Syria<:, Ethiopic, and Hebrew litenllur"tS- His main contribulioM to Copt:ic ~udin Me me followinc: "fl"llmmotnli CJ, l,2 (11S1):I'I-lS, 65-31, 177-190, 251-270, 368-].84, 4.1 (IW):60-70; "Gli Aoi Apocrifi dqll Apo$IoI; nci reslll copIi anbi td H;':'1,id." Giorn.k ddl.. Sodelii arid,.... ,'..Ii..... 2 (I ISJ): 1-60: "Dl alculW ~pmnw ""idick della coIJcnone BorCiana,· R."dicO
(1901):51-53. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amon BaUmllark published a bl"iI1lphy of Guidi In o ..'trtJ ChriS/JllnUS, ..,r. 3, 10 (1935/:23Q-44: and

1187

Richard Goubtil presented a ....«ted hibliogno phy of his ",'Orb in .knmtlll III ,he Americ..n on.,tldt Society SS (l935):458-61,

GUlMET, EMILE ETIENNE

(1836~1918).

french ir>dw.lrialill. Bam ;n Lyons, he succeeded his father III 1M direction of his factor). at F1eurief>. sur-Sa6ne. hI 1579. be founded the An:hatoIogk:aI and Anlhropo1osica1 MUSotUm at L)'Of'S...il;el> " ... handed o""r 10 the Freneh ..,wmmem and rRnS' rerred. to Pam in IUS. Its eontenlS are mainly I'mm the far EaM, wilh a fair a,,-,n. or Greek. Roman, ar>d Eg,}'J'Cial\ antiqu~i". It sponso<ed a line series or publica.ionl, including a numbtr on E,.yptology and CopIOlOlY. BIBLlOCllAPIIY

D;owson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill, Who Wos Who in Egyplology. p. 129. i..o:>ndon, 1972. Kammerer, W.• compo ,4 Coptk Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950; rtpr. New York, 1%9. ,uIZ S. ATIYA

. ·

-

HAASE, FELIX (1882-19??), Gennan Catholic theologian. He was prof"ssor of middle and lale church hislOry at Br.slau. He aho worked on CopI;e sour<;es. His important works include HZ"r Rekonstruktion des Banholomaus'Evangdiums" (Zeit. schrift fiir Neui.$lamemliche Wiss."sch"fl 16. 1915, PI'. 93-112); Lhuurh";.che Urllusuchungen zur ori'" I0 liseh.apokryph." Evangdien lit "raWr (Leipzig, 1913); Patriarch Dioshr J VO>1 Alexandria; Nach monophy$iti,eh.n Quell." (B",s]au. 19(9); Altchrisl. liehe Kirche"geschichte "aeh oriM/a/i-orn, InO),

IiI-Kanlsllh al-Urlhiidhuhiyyah (Praclical Reforms in lh. Onhodox Church). He succeeded in intro· dueing the study of the Christian religion 10 Coptic students in govemment schools. and wrote a two' volume manual as a teacher's guidebook. He alw ".-as instrumemal in pel>'uading Cyril V 10 issue a speeial directi.'e 10 metropolitans 10 limit the ordinalion of prieslS in lheir dioce5es to graduate. of the Clerical College.

Q".II."

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J:labib Jirjis, AI-Mablldl' al.Mas1hiyyah al·Urlhu. dhuksiYYllh, 2 vols. Cairo, 1950. Madrasah al·/klin1
MARTIN KRAUSE

~ABIB JIRJIS (1876-1951), Coptic theologian. He was born at Azbakiyyah, Cairo. and joined the Coptic SchOQI at !:Iari! al·Saqqayln. H. was One of the earliest smdents enrolled in the CL("'!C~L COL. LEGE aher irs inception in 1892. He gradualed in 1898, became a leacher of theology at the College, and lhen dean in 1918. He be'hip, his expelience as archdeacon. and hi, long service as a member of the COMMuNITY COUNCIL. Cyril V invited Habib Jirjis 10 ~llend the Holy Synod sessions. All these fa<:tol>' helpN! 10 inspi<e hi, book, al·f~la~11/ arAmaliyyah

SUL-IYMAN NAslM

HADES, according 10 Onhodox teaching, lhe rest-

1189

ing place for the souls of alilhose who died prior 10 Christ', redemplion of humanily. where righleous and unrighleous alike awailed His resurreclion and lhe wi Judgment. At lhe dealh of Chri,l, He de· scended inlO Hades 10 release Ihe soul, of the right· eous and tran,fer them to paradise. Since then, the souls of lhe unrighteou. alone have been restricted 10 Hade•. The Coptic church also leache. lhatther. i. only one final judgmenl on mankind, which will take place after the .esurrection of the dead, to the exdu.ion of any immediate Slag. or so-called "panicular" judgmem. The souls of ail the departed are

1190

HADRA OF ASWAN, SAINT

kepi in ,,";I;ng-lhe pious in pal2di$c and lhe si,.. ful in HlIdes. II is only alie~ lhe ~ ]u
Whon he o .... ~ the 6.hh seal. I saw under the aiuor Ihe souls of t"'- who had been slain for lhe word of God and for lhe wilnes:!l they had borne; lhey cried aloud with a loud voke. ''0 Sovereign Lord. holy and lrue, how loog befon: lhou wilt judge and a,..,nge ou~ blood on those who dwell upon the earth?" Then tMy we~ nch given a white ~ and told 10 !"eSt a little longer, until the number of Ihei~ fellow servants and lheir b~thren should be complete, who were 10 be killed as lhe)' (hemsd,es had heen. (Rev. 6:9-11)

livfil in a ea•.., and appHfiI himself 10 Ihe S{udy of the li~ of Saini ..,ro)tlf A{ Ihe end of some lime. he .....,.,1 off and lived as a reclusoe in. cell, the door of which "'1'> shUI. The Synu.arlon speaks of his miracles. aDd in panicubr of those 1""OP}c. ~ by demons in the fil"$l ~'S of the Crescenl moon. ,,-boon he de!i'....-ed; and the sid. whom he eured. lIwlb co the oil bJcs-l by M.... Syrians consulted him on obscure points of scripture; the $!Lint gave them upbtww.ns lhey 1wI 001 obuoincd from nu· merous doclen and p/'Iilollophen. When the bishop of As"",n died. the inhabiW\ts ...d the neighboring monks took hold of Hadrt. opening hi!; C4.'1l by lOr-c:e. They bn:tughl him '0 Alexandria. "tte", he " .... conoecraled by lhe p"1rbn:h THEOPItlutS (JIl5412). HOOn was an eumplary bishop. and at h.. death the anllds accompanied his spiril, The present·day Mon... tery of s..in! Symeon Is In faci OAYR mBA IIAOIIA BIBLIOGRAPHY

Graf. G. C
BIBUOGRAPHl'

l'llidiyGs Val;lann.l. labib_ Ki,~b "I·rlzitl~ ")I ~"I~, "I-Mowld, pp. 22, 192, 215. Cairo. 1905, Mil:.hi·11 Mini. "11m ,,1-Ultul, Vol. J, pp. ~27-28. Cairo, 1938. ~mu'l Tadnos. AU,,"",,·"'" B"!u,,, III-M";}!,,,, pp. 108-111. Cairo, 1\I~9.

rr

McNBISIlOI' 8..stUOS

HADRA OF ASWAN. SAINT. fifth-century hermit ...no ~ a bishop (feast day: 12 Kiyahk). Hadrt. was the son of Chrislian parents, ...'1\0 brouchl him up in the ~ of God. ""!len he reached Ihe . " of cighi1"n. they married him 10 ;0 YOI". airl of thdr kind.\d. He decided 10 remain \'iliin. The day alicr his marriage :after Ioing early to the chureh. he mel a funeral proc:~Oon and said to himself, ·'0 Hadra, iI is not this man who Is d ....d today. but }'D'l:' H~ did nOl relum home. but joined the eon,*, tllat """" com-e,.ingthe deceased 10 the: monll5l~ry. wnere he 115kcd 10 be adm;ll~d. His 1Y.'r~ms and friends tried 10 persuade him not 10 forsake hi' wife, but he refused (o return 10 lhe world. Th, 5YNAXARION .Iates precisel)' {hat Had'" lived in Ihe time of Saint Bfman (no doubt PQEMf.N), whoM' disciple he becn,." After eight years spenl wllh him, he a:ske
.~

man~$c...iIJ

a.... be. cnrilims Cair<, Studi , Tesli 63. Valican.

1\134,

HADRA OF BENHADAB. SAINT, the 6.r$t ..--ok of the mountain of Benhadab. ,,'1\0 dJec'cd lIllIlIy minrolou$ <:ura (feast day:

3 Amshlr). AI

thi!I .... rio~ in lhe Tesurrec{iot! of lhe body: hit. name ,,-as YahVrJl5'.'S and wen, back inlo his cell wilh Anbi Yahoda_ H~ pre\l.'nded 10 ha.... Iol"JOlten his apron. and ..,nt Anblt Yal"idi 10 lind II fo<- him_ y;ohlicbl thon saw {he dead man covcr~d by {he apron ex· tend a hand {o YahOdlo. He leI out a greal cry that broughl AnbA Hadr:l.. who reproached him for lack of failh ;n the mi",cle he had soen. and c()nfinned him in {he faith in JeloUs Christ's pledge of the res· urreelion. Anb;t YahUcbI supervised Ihe building of monas-

HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC

tcric5. and hi"...,lf tsUblished two; O<>yr lUmyllT ill $il\lMcd on the blnk ." the ri,"e!'". 1M tnenMlny of Dandanoh is localed near 1lw lown. Pagans liwd in a , i l l . noc br fro... his mo""'lery. One niem they obsen
I:!lery••ince they were pinned 10 the $pOl. They implored the saini 10 deliver Ihem. He did, and Ihey wenl off p .... i.ini God. Toward the end of hi. life. Had~ .... ffcrcd vk>lcm headaches, bu1 he did nol Tel"" hi. ascetkism and his
HAGIOGRAPHY. COPTIC. The discipline of

I""

hagiog:raphy originated in activity'" the Society of Bollandi"",, the Il"'"'P of Jesuil scholars who in the ""'''''nteemh Century began "'"lC aniel"" under inl'S nalnt. The Indi"iduil anlel"" should be ,...,.....d in the penpecliW: presenled here.

rae" ..

ScholarshIp The sludy pf Coplic hagiography (B.umeister. 1972. pp. 27-)0). or hagiology. beg.n with E.. C. Amtlineau·. A.cleJ des maTt)n de /"tglis. c<>pU (1890), which ",-as ba<ed on the Copio-Atlllb;c Syn· aurion. He ...-as doeIenninw above all 10 idemifv the locaI'l;'" in ...·hich the ·l.anyrdom of lhe. indi· vidual $ainu occurred. However. as an CJl,Pft1 on haaioto,aphy in the. ~ Ian~. he J"ftOCni...d lhe Mandardiud prodlKtion of a cood number of "-ions. pi". l-k 10 the ....... l of a literary school of the seventh and ciIlhth cenlUries that ull,lnderslandinll the hislori;:al and literary conle~l. Delehay~. The fundam~n1a1 work of Copri<; hag;·

1191

oIof;y t.....,n if limited OI\ly to ,he man)TS) "... H. De~'s "La Manyn d'Ell)"J'Ie:' published in 1922. It lint trw::cs a hiolOf)' of the peneanion in EcYJll: and of the ck,'dopment of the cull of the martyrs; then il analyu:s the MQTIm,!ogiUIlI Hiero~y~j.. ~",m. Ihe Greek Synuarioo. and the CoptoA".bic Synaltarlon. The lexlS of the Pus ions in Greek. in Latin, and in Coplic are analJoUd in the main chapler, Delehayc's main objectiw: was h;"tor· leal, \hat of establishing within lIMo limiU of possi· bility the hi5loriclly er the ....inlS in queslion and the originality of their hWoos. Gi,= this pl. one can eompeciaIly the Coptic Of\ft. To 'hill judcmenl T. Ballmeisler anributcs. for good Tl':lOSOn. tbe small interest d.... wn by an edilion of Ihe ~k ~ published by I. BaI~ri and H. Hyvernal in 1908 (-'ela Martyrum. 1955). N....""nheless. OCleha)"C nlt.S( be giv~n credit for having establi.hed 50me firm points fo,- hle....ry hislory. He recocnized that lhe Coplic h"lliographle texts were sHiclly depen· dent on the G.andria ~em. 10 ha"e been the main cenler of this lilentun!: and Alexandrian infille'nce remai~. vivid In ils development. Therefoce lite P~ion, of the epic genre. or lite epic Passion...... Odcha}'e called them. were wide· spread in Egypt (C(lming directly from Alexandria) before the consolldatkln and diffuoion of the nonbib)icalliteratliTe in Ihe Coptic language In Ihe fifth century. The eFie Passions are dislinauW>ed by their MCnl:OIyped construclion buill around chaneten (l<' eV<'nU in a certain predet:ennined ....y. "'h-ieh ~IS itself a l _ identically in all lht IUU, ucepe for chanaes in names or drc:umsta".,.. n. Sueh features. in brief, include the chanocter of Ihe emperor and his edict 01 perseculion; the judge. (lClIeT1l11y a prefecl "t>ose Mhaoior ;, always the loa...... going from threa15 to naner)' 10 cruelty; the Ions altercations between the judge and lhc man}T; Ihe atrocious 10nLlre; the visions that cemfOTi the manyr; and lhe mincles, which nevenlMole.. do not .ltcr the pe~lI1or'. verd;et. Thi. EcYJll:ian school of week I.nguaee dedicated

1192

HAGIOGRAPHY. COPTIC

;lUlf 10 lh.. composilion nOl only of lhe l'a!sions of the Egyptian martyrs but also of fo,.. ign marty... wOO enjoyed oon>e popularily In EcJ'I (De"'haye. 1922. pp. 152-5J). In La manyrs J'Eopf", DtJdl.aye '*- _ ~ify tho: period in whicb this ...,.n was lI<;complistlN. al le_ in irs ...,p- PO"" lion. lbou&h be JlI'OllO!'eS one fourth C<"lliury. H.. also _ th.. work oIlbe Copcic s<:hools as a nalu· ral continuation of lhe G.e..k s<:hool. O'Leary and Baumeister. In 1937 a vel)' usdul listing will published by De wy O'wry. Tfu Sainu 0/ E~'J'1. in which he summari«d lhe IoU included in lite Coplo-Anibic Synuarion rO'r och saini. He also made referenc:.... in his wort 10 the rdaltd lets known io Copt:i~ He arnneed the ""nu In alpha~lical 0 .... and po-eud<'d lhe work by a brl..r Introducllon e fundam<'n. tal to Ih.. e<m>prehension of Deldlaye·. WOI't.. In his Mturyr in"""s (1972). Baumeisler look up sum<: of the i~as previously expounded by S. Mer.. n~ (195J. !'P. 250-!5). Baumel....r descrlbed whal he call<'<:l "kopliscl.~r K"",se~I." namely. Ih .. rq><'li· lion Ihrou~ unironn ......,nts d Ihe wme of t~ '~md",uuclible life.~ which is unfold<'ll in a great numb« of Copt;" hssiotts. Apart from references 10 or deri,...tions from pRYlous Cred' lens. ..... can ~ CC>nSidered Iypically £cyptia... Ba.umeisl.... a,'oid~d chronological qu<'Slions. bUl il is possible 10 add thaI lhose Passions bdon& 10 a p<'riod lat... lhalI lhe Greek passio.... thouah Ih.. y repUS<'Ot tl>eir cominuaoion in a Copt;" "'no·ironment. In 0I"dtr lO U1lo(" lhoe d<"Vdopmenl of Coptic bagi.

ography within Ihe limits of currenl kllOWl<'dg.. (Ihere is Slill a greal deal 10 accomplish in lhis area). 1"'0 qu<'Slio05 are esp«.lally importanl. Fin;l. il mll$t be d~oo... red if. even acceptina the IN.i .. re:suhs of Delchaye and BaumeWer. il i:s poIoSibIe to dra.... from !he 1....1$ any further eJe,menlS that illu· minm", lhe hisLOriul d<'vdopm<'nl of Coptic haJiographic ..,bools. S«ond. ..,holan mUSl lake inlO ...'count. togeth.., ,,"'hh the t"~IS of the PaMlon. consid..red by Del..haye and Baumeister, texl-' oi Ih.. Ii",s of Olh.... saints (especially monks) that also belong .<1 Coptic baa:iovaPhY. AlXOTdl"ll '0 Oelehaye .....bos.e pasioion b 10 be lI<;C~. Coptic: ~. was born as a lribu· tary of C......k ha~. especially lhe Akundrian IUIS:and ble. the Ec'Jll1an OMS. This "laces lhe producllon of the Passions, including lhe epic and nonepic ones. and also some Ilv... of monlr.s and OIh.... mal ..rial, ..m .. P ions, lhough inspired by th.. Greek ..pic genre re .IS<.> infiu.. nc~d by typically Egyp. lian conceptions. This silua.lion is also true of OIh... original lelIl$ produced in lhe Coptic langu.aa:.. in a bIer period. Nelth a>11hor. ho" ........ consid<'re-d t-- theoc lexIS ined the ~I of ,he Cyclt:s. The authors of the I..ats did not .. on fine them~h'es 10 n ling specific .. vents or the 8<'livilles of specific ints; th .. y alao dr.. w on th.. tradilio", of their llt..rary g..nre as ",<:II as th.. n,.."talily thaI p<'Oduced it. Even if imaginary. these produ<'lions had to mai... lain a c."...m eohe ........ ~ .0 ~ 50 widdy :aeeq>l<'ll, even apan &....m lhee ..,... nlS ol ecdesi.",i<:.aI poli.i<:s ...~.~in Ec1M and "'tewhere £iKomlu,," of CItNtmu. It is these t....o Iasl ele· ments_literary genre and Egyptian mentalily_ that should provide some funh...- hiOlorlcal dalB and some point of reICrerK:e lhat will allow us to define I .... phases of Coptic haciognphy. FonunateIy we F an Encomiu", of CIQUliius unainly writlen by ro..-sr..,.'Tl";E,. bishop of ~ ....i>o is kno...·.. 10 ha,... lit.>ed i.. !he .....000 half of th<' sinh ce"tury. Claudiua is knowr> from Olh<'J' SOUrces as one 01 the principal Diodelianic martyr'$ in lh.. epic Passions and is alS<.> cormecled in some way 10 th.. eyel.. ol BasHides. In focI Consta"tine, tOO. places him i.. this conl<'llt. H", ;ralnles !he beginn;ng 01 the penecmion and also 'races i. bad, 10 its anle-

.=

HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC

cedent events. After mentioning persecution by the emperor DECIUS. he cites a period of religious peace under Carus, and then under Carinus and Nume· nanus. After Numerianus. father of Claudius, was murdered, Dineletian ascended the throne on his return from Egypt. According to Constantine, Clau· dius saved Diocletian on the oecasion of various wars against Persians and Annenians. I'inally. Diodelian being troubled by the devil, Claudius was exiled to Egypt and there killed. In this text there are several distinctive elements characteristic of the Basilides Cycle: the city of An· tioch as a main theater of action: Egypt as the final place of martyrdom: the emperors in between De· dus and Dioeletian; the characters of Romanus and his son. Victor. Soterichu•. and othen mentioned; the characler of PSOlE OF I'SQ'. who later on became vcr)' importAnt; even the apparition of a "proto· martyr-" ..... ithout any inAuence in the rest of Ihe action (Hom, t982). But there is an absence of other important c1emenl. in the Cycle: the legend of Diocletian and Agrippida; the character of Basilides. other..... ise essential; and the characters (Ie.,. relevant but often presenl) of Theodore the Anatolian and Theodore the General. It would seem Ihat Ihis legend contains the e1e· ments of its later development. Given what is kno..... n of Constantine, one can draw from his narrative some conclusions bolh lilerary and ecclesiastical. In this effort an Encomium of Leonliu. of Tripoli written by SEVERos OF ANTIOCH i. helpful. In itlhe characler of the Greek epic Passion. originally placed in the time of Vespasian in the first century. was transported into Ihe period of Diocletian, the late third century, and complelely reim'ented. Thi. chan!:" helps clarify the meaning given to the char· acter of Dinele!ian as a prototype of the wicked emperor who deviates fro,!, orthodox)' and to the character of "his" martyrs. "4'0 become al once the representatives of the figbt ;against religious ene· mies and abo against the imperial power. The hagiographic work ohhe Coptic school followed this trend, adding dements specific to Egyptian literary taste and meanings more or less hid· den in relation to political e""nts. tn fact. after Ihe $Ccond half of the .e,'enth century the war againsl the Chalcedonians was succe,(ded b)' the harsh fight against the Islamic conquerors. Once again religious and political motives were mixed. and Ihe stories of the martyrs could reiindle feelings about historic event. of a later period. It is unnecessary here to enter into details of Ihis

1193

Irend. since il will be discussed below when the palh of Coptic hagiography is reconstructed. It is con""nient here to mention, as a point of reference, anolher text to be placed in the period be· tween Severus and Constantine. which, because of its theological.literary character. became pan of the homily (In Pelrum el Dem"lriurn) attributed to the nonexistent FlAVtAN. It narrates the history of a WOman named Martyria. who is persecuted by Dio-clelian and who. with two children. escapes by sea to Alexandria, where she is protected by a cenain Peter. She will not appear again in the Passions of the Basilides Cycle. in ,",,'hich her husband. Socrator. appea~ as a brother of Basilides. All this conlinns that tho "standard" texts of the aasilides Cycle are a reorgani>.ation and rearrangement of a more disorderly set of malerials probably going back to the fifth CentUT)'. Literary Development Writing aboul Coptic saints extends from the fourth century 00 the ninth, Fourth and Fifth Centurles. Because Coplic hagiography staned with translations from Greek. a study must firsl take into accounl the material from which the Copts had to cht:>me, thaI is, the produc· tion of the Egyptian hagiographic schools. These schools had disseminated some texts thaI are con.iderc
1194

HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC

empcror Coroluonline and cI lhe dioroYery of I~ C'I'CU. Momtion may be made cllhe f"agio ... of AIIlf.S CYIWDJS and 01. I;l.I5IQIU.5.. besida !be minc~ deKri>ed in d>e Passion of IoIUOlRlIIS OF ~ thco'e _n: also 1'- IhaI ~,. be deseriboed as clast.ical epic PassioM. which weu buill "round wnlS of various pw.-e""nce, each ....Ih his o"'n peculiarities: EPI.,,","U5 Of' ,EUl$IU.... 1oIEHA.S. J..".es

IIOI'UClSUS the Persian. L.£OtmI$ OF TItlPOU. MeK\lr· ius, ,.\NTAllQti. fUSTATMIUS Of Am"lOCH. Cyrus and John, PHll.OTHEUS Ol' ANTIOCH. and the funy m.n)'T'l of Sebaste. Some of Ihcse are wilnesscd only in Ihc Coptic ",xts lind Ihey probably had lypicaJ Eg)ipllan connOlalions of a Strictly intemal nsture. f()l" eum· pie. lhose of JOOkt of Jlnjeb. of HH"" of T.mmah, and of DIOS. The PU$il)(ll of lhe marlyr-monb oksc...... special consOdcnlion. 110cy aJ,o derive from !be epic l"'n~ 1M monasUc "nvironmelll had a dclerminln. illllumc" on m..m. 10 thai lhey can be cono.idercd evideroc" cI an epie hapogTaphlc ochool ill m.. monaslic emironm"n1- n.e,. an: lhe hssions at hphnuoo. (rmybe m.. lint and the 11I05I imponan. and widely witt>esst
In this sam" period, bet~ ...., founh and shih ccnluries. other Ilagiognptuc 1....1S wt..., »I"O(kocccl Ihal Ih" Copu would I.t"r KCtpt and tllat bee.me an integral pan of more 8"nenl palrislic literature: lhe Life of A~lony by Saint ATHANASIUS I. palriarch of "Ie""ndria. the Llle 01 C,erory Tltaumawrrus by Saint GREGORY 01' NAZIAm:US. lhe Livej of Pa,,1 a~d of /filarion by Saini JEROME. Ih" Lif' of Ep;p~anl"s of Salamis by Pofyb;U$, .nd Ihe Uf' of SimWll SlyIi" by Antony. To these lUIS c::an be addc:)-mynchus (Pemge). The won r;L the ~ic ~ IIChool datn to this period. _ l'v. can be judged. As indic:'led • bm". those chosen t""l1 and thrir uan,blio"5 from Gretk originals in the CopIi<: manusaiplS may have undergone a "elUin _ n l of rNtlilina 10 Ihe <:ourw of lhelr lraosrniosion into Coplic. Fifth .nd SlJrth C"lurlft. In ...., meanlime. I,l' e..1)' ""Ilvily in the Coptk l.nguag" was gro.... ng and spreading, mainly due to Saint SHENIITE. AI the dimax of this pros...,,. Came Ihe ChalcedonLo.n cli· sis (451). which severed Ih, Copti<: lilerary tradlllon from lhe im,rn.llon.l Cre"k llt"rary I..dition. an "venl that had con~enccs For hagiography u

0'

...,

'The Uvc:s

of IUOnu .....,..., modeled on the arlier

eumples cl Uvea (thM is. d>e life of AnlOlly or of Saini ,A(>t(lMlllS). as ... ell • on m.. A,opNJ,t"".,.. and ...., bmous LiJe of SM....u (writiM by 1f.SA probabl)' around #0. in territory where du: ani;· Chak~nian conll'O'o~rsy had nooI ytt ariun). and mosI 01 allan lbe lives oIlhe n'lOnk$ wrill,n in an anli-ehakedonian vein: MANASSDl. toHOlll\l$ OF ~. TOr< TrnEW TIlE I'OOlt.... MAHAlol. and Apollo. uter the..., lhe Life 0/ $
,..,.

It i< p
K"".,,,•.

h>ptiscltn Thi< supposition d,rives from the fa<:1 thai in such lhe EcYPci.n tnodition predominated oyer the inl,rnational Gr«k (inch>dlng Ale,andrian) Ihat had given rise to lhe epic Passion.. M()I"e<)ver, the manyrs in quesdon were all Egyplian. BUI it is e...,mlal to note Ihat the compo.ilion of such PlSsions probably lasled unli! Ih, later periods (probably Ihe eighlh cenlury). ",hen they bee.me imen",ined ",ilh the lrue cycli<: Passions (Cycle of Btiilidcs. Cyde of Julius ol Aq~), which should be c:onsidered by lhemlod,..,.. To this period an .bo be attributed the 'nons~t lion into the ~'PIilIn style of 50Rle Passions of famous foreign sainu-for o;unple~. Vi<:tOJ. and Thc:odo". Stratew... -with the cornpICle ,..,. ca.tinll of lhe lUI. "II this wor\ ~Ileox:anline Empire .

,.,..ions

HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC

Slxlh to Eighlh Centuries. Ie was in Ihese cit' cumSlances lhat, loward the end of ehe sixlh century. legends were born that were destined 10 enjoy great popularity in suece..ive decades. They also served 10 uoite the numerous Passions into a cl"",,ly knil Colle
1195

The Passion of Eusebius is a beautiful e~ample of composite ",daction. including a long report on the legend of Basilldes together with the martyrdom. in the style and mentality of the kOplischer KonSMS. Yet it is Co be noted that the legend of Dioclelian and Agrippida is implied and that it has a small part in this scene. RomanllS and Victor are given a very important part. while Claudius becomes a nephew of Basilides with very little importance: none of the Theodores is mentioned. These elements, and mo", subjective ones. which would be too long to discuss at this point. illuslrate the subdi";sion of the legends in different and substantially separale groups. These were "ariously treated and mixed in Ihe exisling texts. In fact. one can distinguish the legend of ClaudillS and Victor. connecled mainly with the p",lended Egyptian origin of Diocletian (Dioclelian and Agrippida). that is. with the imperial succession of Decius-Carus· Carinus·NumerianllS-Diocletian. and with the PeT' sian wars. A legend of Basilides. which at the begin· ning appears eXl",mdy familiar. is soon joined to the legends of Diocletian and Agrippida and of Ihe wars with the Persians (or other '"barbarians"). A legend of Theodo", is born from tlte importance of a purely epic teXl concerning Theodore, the genet' ai, and later variously intertwined with the Anti· ochene legend, especially with that of Claudius and Viclor. To these legends must be added that of Julius of Aqfah~. a chameter probably emerging in a mOre ancient period: this legend has now unfolded into a true cycle. It seems that within this framework of different elements of religious mentality-both politicalecclesiastical and literary-each legend found adequate expression in the complexity of its yaried connections and their development in time. In the posl_Chalcedonian period, the type of epic passion of the Greek international literary school "..as exploited for the c",ation of characters-that is. of martYrs-that could be sp",ad in an antiChalcedonian environment. wilh an implied argument against the official Byzanline regime, and in certain cases giving prominence to a privileged agreement between Alexandria and Antioch. From a literary poinl of view. the epic genre was elaborated and modified by Ihe more intimately Egyptian theme of the kOPlischer K01lJem. E1llhlh and Ntnth Centurle._ New elements were accentuated ;n the eighth and ninth centur;"s. One was ecclesiastical politics throogh the developmenl of Ihe Antiochene legend, always more com·

1196

HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC

pIe. and at the same time more standardized than earlier versions. Another element was the fonnation of literary Cyclos around ~haracters who tended to be more strictly connected to one another through family relations or increasingly fantastic and romantic evenl>, The motif of religious controversy was accentuated as a means of protest against the dominant Arab political power, which overwhelmed Christian orthodoxy. All this was achieved (especially at the beginning) either through the complete rewriting of rhe texts or through combining previously independent texts or (especially toward the end) through the interpolation of passages in texts already sufficiently oriented in the desired direction. Documentation consists mainly of manuscripts of the ninth to the e1e,'enth ~entury. However, they contain tc.1S that were ooit· ed throughout the whole period under consideration, For this reason it is not possible (save in e.ceptional cases) to attribute a specifi~ Passion to a certain stage of this development. The Cycles. In conclusion, a more precise pic· ture of The period can be given by listing the Passions considered to he linked more closely in different legendary Cycles, although one should he aware of rhe risks as«>ciated with such lists, First are the Passions of the ancient Antiochene Cycle, which served as a prelude to the formation of other Cycles (those of the Theodores and of Basilides), though it never coindded with them. To this Cycle belong the Passions of Claudius and of Vi~tor; rhe most recent editing of the Passions of Psote; and the Passions of COSMAS AND l)AMlAN. EPtMA (not T" be ~onfused with Epimachus of Pelusium), and possibly that of Isidore. Next are the Passions of The Cycle of the Theodore" the Passions of Theodore the Anatolian as well as those of ANATOUUS, hi. father or uncle; ,hat of Theodore the General (who was probably a\ta~hed 10 the Cycle purely b,~ause of his name); and that of Elia (who appears in a much later period). The P"",i"ns of the ¢ycle of Basilidcs include the Passions of ElJSEBIUS, of TE~ ~NO ERA', of Basilides himself, of WtC~RIUS' (in second reda<:ti"n), of JUSTUS, and of .!.MLl. BESAMON. mentioned only in fragments, formed pan of a Passion of this Cycle that Ireals of a different martyr, unknown today. The Passions linked to the Cycle of Julius of Aqfah~ are those of Anub, Ari, Didius, Heraclides, John and Simon, Kiamul, Macarius (in first redactions), Macrobius, Nahrow, Nilus and Sarapion, Paese and Tecla, Panesneu, and Shenufe. In addition, there are sever.1 late and genuinely

Egyptian Passions, wrillen according to The kopl;scher K<mse~s, whi~h are not included in the Cycles. They are the Passions of Philt>thcus, Isaac of Tiphre, lule and Ptolemy, lacaron, Pekosh, Pirow and Athon. Pisura, Sarapamon of Seetis, Sarapion, Til, and Timotheus. The latest Coptic hagiographi~ produ<:\ion under An'lbic domination is the Passion of Joh~ of PhaM;joil, martyred by the Arabs. EncomIa and Miracles, The whole development of hagiographic production, from the fifth to the eighth century, was accompanied b}' the producTion of Encomia, or Homilies, dedi~ated to individual ""ints. This production al.o, in Coptic literature, began with the translation of the texts of the great fathers of the fourth century, which later gave way to The production of original texes in the Coptic language. Indee
HAILE SElASSIE I

~ auribu~

for- political reuoJ\S I<> penonaliliell "'bo w~ CQmpletdy In\"flUed but _rc pR:SlJmed 10 hao;e IMd in the palrisco.: ~riod in ~ l"outth and fifth anlUl'Xs. To "" by Isaac of Anll, noopolis on Colllll1>u., and by Mose, of now on OJympius. To Ihe Laler, dandesllne period should be as.Isned the works of authors whose names are pre· ceded by "pseudo": Demelrius on Philothws. 8;u1l· ius on Mnn>rius, Theodore on eodore Ihe Genenol. John o.~ IOOlI on Victor, n.eodosiu:s of Je~em Oft GeorJe, Theodotus on Geocze. and an anon)_ author on

""'..tho. __

To period is to be ~ ~ rcWioo.>s Minda allributed 10 the ainu; 00' martyn.. which became imponant ~""plti· cal I«IS in lhemsdves. lhe U!>aal doWer of a pint in Ihis period thus conlU~ of his life or Plossion, his Encomium. and his Mind<"$. The ruts of lhe Mi~1es of some gints are presen~ Phol· bammon (PielpOnl Morsan LIbrary, Coptic codices XLVI), Men"" (attribuled 10 Theophilus), Leonliu. (Paris, Nalional Ubrary, Cople 129.16. 28-35), Mercurius (anriooted 10 Acaclu.l, Viclor (anributed to Theodoslus of Jeru..le,n), and Victor (altribuled to Celeslinus of Rome). 811lUOCUrtly

,4e'" M"TfyrUm. "",Is. I and 2. ed. I. Balest:ri and H. Hyvenw. CSCD .3, 401. Loo.moin, 1955. An\8i1\eal, E. C. l.u AcfU Ju ....l1)n de rlefiu: cople. Paris. IS'JO. Booumetaer, T. M<>rryr ["VlCflU. Du /tUnyru .1. Si",,1JiJJ du ErlOsultf '" du ~rtde _d in! K"/r du fridten koptUdte" lCi~ lur 1C000,inuilat du Iltyplist:"m 0.,,,"11$. Forse"""",,, w,r Von:,. bmth 46. Mum,l",r, 1972, Budee. E. A. W. Copne M"rryrdmn.<, "'",_, itt llu D/..kelof Upp.r Egypt. London. 1914. DeIr:haY"'. H. "La Martyn d'EfD"pIe."' A....lut.. Bo/· I".. d'a"a 40 (1922);5-154. 299-364. _ Ln Pa«;o... ..In marly.s U I"" g",,,r"'$ Iille· r";rt$. Brussels, 1966. Caltier. E. "Contribution;\. I'elude de la Iillel'llture .""oo.copte." B"iI",t'" de l'I"$till
-to

1197

Ho
O'Leary, De L. E. rh~ Sa;m. of Egypl. London and N",,,,· York. 1937, Peet",n. P. on",,,, e, BflI'"ce. u 1I1/o"d$ o<'Mlal d", /'haziovaphie ~"'i..e. Subsidla H~ cr;ophica 26. Brvssoels. 1950. WinSl.,.jt. E. O. Cop,ic TUI' _ TlreotJon lit", Gen /. S41in' Tlrtodorc rh", ElUte",. CIut."...,.u ...d J ,..... London and 0>J0<:hrif, 14 (I959):1~28.

s..in'

Tn:o Qlu.u;1lI

HAILE SELASSIE I (KhiyLa s"lIlIsc I. 18921915). Hdd 10 be the drct of God. he became "Kine of Kinp''' of Ethiopia in 1930 and was ern· peror of Elhlopia from 19W until his dellh, He was rhe lasl sovereign of Ihe SoIOIllonic dyn""ly, His reien lasted fuMy-four )'can and .tand. oul IS an epoch in Ethiopian hislory during which the coun· Iry underwenl silnificanl cluing..... Tafari. as he was orieinally \IIImed. was born of Ri$ Makon~n. a eousin of Menelik U. and a WOman of a lower s0cial _us called Yahimmebet (Y"'i Emma Bel), who died In Harar shonly aller her son's birth in July 1&91. He ~ciYed his educatloon lint u!>der an El:hiopi· an religious tulor and then under lhe F...,nch Lazar. o.t missionaries in Harar. Lat
....,,0

1198

HAILE SELASSIE I

assi.. Emp","", bwd ilu Menelik in the Nno in. or Sl3tt aJlain.. Upon hu death in 19)0 , he s"e c~d 10 'M impe rial Ih........, unde r lhe name of Haile Selas ,ie I, At his ....n diose eoro nallo n, the palri neh of Alt~· andr ia was repre sente d by Arch bisho p VIls;ib, who bier beca me palriarc:h. 'TI>l' MWe reip'S ",Ii&ious polic y ..,. prMo .nina ndy liM" " aod toler ant t<>w.rd ollle r relig ions and deno mina tions . prior i'its btlng nalUl'8lly reser ved for the Ethio pian Orthodo~ Chu uh, "'~ I*tro n he ""ll$. His rtlall ons "'ilh the See of A1t und " we", l"'ne nlly cordi al, thou.,h occa siona lly !lCmncd. 'TI>l' prob lems eDla' lWed from t""O historical dewelopmenlS: the 'lues · lion of ,he right s of tM Ethiopian Orth odox Chor eh in Jerus alem . whle h had enga gtd lht COpts sinee Ute mid ninel~th cen,o l}', and Ute q..... 'ion rt'.own omy for ,he Ethio pian cho, eh. whk h _ peatedIy nise d lor seYn'lll eeOI\lrWs,. Dori n. his visi' 10 Jerus alem In 1924, IUs Tabr i h.d ,..,mwewcvcr. be solw d in sup . In 19U , .IOKN x'x became Copt k p;llri an:b. and ,ht Ethiopian l'U1~r used lhe op))c)rlunily to l&k~ up the mail er of appo in,in g ""ver al Ethio pian bisho ps al the same time on I'OUnds of lbe siu; of the Ethiopian empi re and the .,.-.i linc diflie ul,its of ~ommuni<:alion. lbe pa ~h ....as more unde r· stand ing ,han his prnleeessD<$ and agr« d 10 orda in a few dillnilaries at OI\ee. prov ided Iha, the "b.", rema ined a Copt, eons tquen tly. Abona O~rel,," (Cyril) III ...... ronse cr.lle d for Ethio pia. and IOor EthiopW l ehun :b ""bo iars, ..'be ....,re nominated hr the Elhic pian autho rilies , we..,. on!a.i.ned bisho ps in

or

......,lved.

1929. Tl>ey "''""'" Abnl ham, Pllf"Oa, YQl:Iaq. and Mi"':t!. A 6fth one. Siwi nl&. .. ccuJ d l>OI travel to Ec'JII on acco on, of illness. "'as cons «:...., ed in Addis Ababa whtn the IXiuriarch visited lhe E,hio pi· an ~apital in url}' 1930 <see ETHtOPIAtl CHURCH

-no

AUTOCEPKA.LY).

n.e

rdali ons bet", '«n the ,..lIp e'Or ....d the met· ropol itan were corii aI until tlM: FascOlt occu pa,io n of Ethio pia (193 6-19 41). wht!n the dign i'ary .._ more or less fol'C'ed to luve his dioce st. The ltdian$ "'ant ed to separ ale the Ethio pian chul'C'h from A1ezandria 50 lIS 10 bring ilun der their full conl rol, and Mftr opolm ul (Jere l.. WZI llIJmmoned Ie> Rome foI- cons uha'i o..... aner ...hie h he rerum ed '0 Ea,wl. The llalia no appo in,ed an Ethio pian metrnJ'Olilan who orda ined SOmt bishops. This Italia n polic y was cond emne d by lhe see of SainI Mark . Upon his retur n from aile , Emp eror Haile SlObssit: que:stiooed the integ rity of the Coptie tne1rOpOIitan, who a1lesedly deserted his eCD gnpl ion a, ,he time of di$lresa, and he dtma ndtd that an Elhlo p;' an be eonS «:r8l ed in his stead . After an exttn si"e corra pond enee . euha nges or ddep lion s. and lellf:thy OOllSUiuuicns, it was agn.ed IlpOI'I Uuu Melropo liWl awe r dtwc hes equa l in hlerardu<::a1 Sl3n a. and i" 1959 M suCC «lkd ...hen he re""h ed an agr'f tnlef U throu gh whic h the firs, Ethio pian Pl'ui an:h eoold M insta lled. The aim of the empe ror's polic y was nOl ,he comp lete sep&Dlion of tbe ,..... ehur ches . of equa lity and dose cobut rathe r the operMion. Donna his rel&", more Ethio pian Rude n.. ,han ever were stnt 10 Egypt to m.dy a, Copt ic ;l\IiliIU' 'ions of leam inll. and the e'lab /ishm ent of tht first Ethiopian theoloskal semi nary _ entru st"'; '0 the lUtd Copts. He aime d lit fostt rina of coll~ion nOl only betw een IIIe cbun :hes E1hiopill and Efyp l bul also amon g all fWe Easle rn siste r chur che•. the head s of "'hie h met for lhe first time al a conf trenc t $
.,Iain.......,

"r>dersuu>di".

HAIL MARY

1199

ascribing ~se 10 I"," MOIhe.. of God. Notablr :orr Ihe fuIlO"',ng: Bel'de Maryam Menna (Ba'eda Jar)'Im Mm;t.). MIM Gachich~ der iilhioc>pncbcn Palriarc.... n

_ 1926 bis 2W" ~",-an." DocIOO'l1 disa.., RupteclIl karl Unlvrnily. HrideIMl'L 1982. Cb.pftarn. C. H~jJ., SeI/1S5i.e·s Gcw.........,"I. London.

,....

!-bile Sebsr.... T1u AUlobiocr~pIty D{ Emperor H~i1e Se/4s.sH.I; My ute .n4 E.tJriorM's ~css, /892/937, Irw>$. E. UlIftMlonI. Oxford. 1976. Heyu, F. Ole Kirdtc Atltiopims: Eine &SI""JS
HAIL MARY, lraditional prayer based upon the words of the "'nnunciation. Tho salutalion by the archangel Gabriel 10 The Virgin Mal)' in announcing the divine ool>Ceplion of Jesus Christ was. "Ha.il. 0 favored one, I"," u,rd. is with you!" To IMs Is lidded the ""'.. I,Uio" of EJilabeth when Ihe Vir,in Mal')' visiled her: "Blessed are you among WO~, and blessed is the &uil of your womh" (U- 1:42). This salutation, hoto""""r. is no onlinary 1P'ff11na. as the onpnal Greo:ok tum (0. •....1... ch.in. etyma&op;ally denotes the impartation of llad lidinp 10 M receh'ed ..-l1h joy and jubilation. Ills used in this in nriow places in the Old TQtameftt: "Sin, _ aloud.. 0 ""&h<er of lJoa•... rtjoicoe and uuh with ul1O"r heart. 0 d"'I!'I..r of J~m" (Zep. 1:14) and "Rcjoic:e ,ready 0 Iy ont, full of Ilory. may you lift up our p...yers 10 your Beloved Son. IMT He may parden us our 1101, Hall, holy Virgin, who broughl forth the Trtle Ughl, Chrisl our Lord.... Hail. Vi'llio. Irtle Quceo. Hail, honor of our race. ""ho gave birth 10 Emmanuel:' In Ihe psalmody. a daily IhrolOkiofl i5 ckvoled to

L for Sunday: "Hail 10 thee. Mary. I"," mother of Emmanuel ... Hall Mary. lhe T1reotoloJ. 1.. for T...esday: "Hail 10 the 1MoIolo•.... Hail I/) the Immaculate. ... Hall to lhee. ,,+to hast found grace. The Lon!. is with thee. Hail 10 thee who received from thr aneel Ihe joy of the world. Hall 10 Jhr,e ",ilo p", blnh to the Creator:' l. for Wednaday: "Great it! the honor ...-hich ~u thee. 0 Gabriel. who carried lbe JOOd n......" and announced il 10 the VirJin Mal')'.N 4. for Friday; "Bless<e
N

Similar verses of praise also lorm p;ort of the LdJ.h (d", explanalOry com~mal)' Il>Cluckd in Ihe f)lalmody). Ihe do.oloc:Y Ihal follows 1M Psahm of I"," morning p"'yer. and Ihe psalmody of Ihe Coplk monlh of Kip.hk. [0 Ihe morning and evenin, ."ising of incense. Ihe incense of Ihe Pauline epistle and the p.".is reading, when Ihe pliesl offers Incense loward Ihe oonh, he says, "With Ihe "'ngel Gabriel we salute thu....Y;ng. 'Hail 10 Ihoe who a" lull of grac.... the Lord. is wilh Ihu...· Befo'" the creed and 1M oII'el101')'. the peoplr .ing Ibe Im"rceuion 10 the Thunol«Js. lhe Ou«n. After m., rtaltinl of the C,,"holkoft, kno...'11 as lhe Catholic epistles. the cong~lion ~op The hymn 10 Mary. whic:h ''aries accordins 10 the lime of lhe year. for exampJe: I. On the Feast of I.... Vi..pn Mary and certai0 Ita$I found P'l'CoC. The Lord. is "dth thee. Hail 10 thee who re«i.-N fro... the angel the j<>y of the World:' 1. duriD.g m., monlb of Kiyahlt: "HaIl Moll')'. eli.,;"" peace be .. nlO Iheo:o. Hail 10 Thee, Mother of lhe H"'y One." "'n ostracon fouDd in lwlor in lIpper Eio'P1 l>eaJ5 nidenc:e IMI the angelic: salutallon wa!l popular as a common deVOlic>nal p ...yer In I"," .ixlh cenTury (~clerq. 1~12).

BIBLIOGRA'HY

•...hd al·Masih

~aJib

.1·Mq·Qdl. KilfJ.b III.Khitliiji al· Muqaddas ay KilfJ.b a!.TI!a!fJ.lhal Q..tldfJ.!lfJ.f. Cairo,

1902.

1200

I:IAJIR lDFU

Iqladiylls Yl1l;>annl Labib_ Kildb ,,/.Abfn• ..."..10 "1,\f,,qtuld4<4lr. Cairo. 1908. KilU ./.,tjbiy"". Cairo. 1900_ La:lerq, H. "Priel1!: de Ia Vierge Marie ..... un lrakon U1!SHOl' BASIUOl!i

~AJIR IDFO, an intpOOUnt bul Iiltle-known site !yin, aboul 2.5 miJel; (4 bn) weol of IdIU. I~ importance for £&)-plolocr has already beorD sboIoo.., (Qo. b.... 1977). Morem"C~, il is not ""ilhout ImerUi for

CoptolOl)'. The provenance of many Copllc rnanu· scTipu in the British Ubrary, who$e colophons bu~ dalCS from 981 to 1005. is known 10 be 1dfl1 (Orbn· dl. 19761. The lexU oIlhe cMe thai a monas
IIIBLlOGaAPHY

Clarttiti.u in rlt. Nile Vlllle,. Odonl. 1912. FakJuy. It. "1& Report on the lnsp«tO.-e of lJppe1" EcPL hI"..t.... i" d.... "",1iq,,;'M de rEo N

Se""'.

rJPl. 46 (1947):2S-54. Gabn. Go ''1'l!e Sile of lial<=r Edfu as me New Kms0.- Cemetery ~ Edfu. ~ Ch",.. iqNe i'EeT't. 52 (1977):201-222. -:-:C ''2ur BtdeutunC des GtbOet KDp1OIope untl Nubiolo&ie." MiJIri. /JI ..,teJI des Deutsclt... IIrcltilolorJClonr IJtSlind. lClIira 41 (1985): 9-14, ~tsehoot. It. , n. BecMeil du colop1l<»u des mOl"' IUCrits c/v;Ii s d'EC/lIl, b5c. I, p. 97, l. II; p. 188(Q. U. 5-6; p. 190.11, 5-6; p. 206(B), II. 5-6; p. 209(Q.Il- 6-8; pp. 212-13; p. 185, II. 3-4; p. 198, n. 5-6; p. 195.11. 9-11. lotmun, 19H. Mtinardus, O. Chrioli... Etypt, Anei...t ..ltd Mod,"" Cairo, 1%5. Orlandi. T. "Le. Manuscrit. cople. de Dublin, du British Mu",um el de Vlenne," Le M~$kn 89 (1976);327-33. RUSlafjaell, R. dc. Th. Lighr of Egypt. london, 1910. Timm, S. Chrisllid1' Srallen in AiJpun. Ikihefte rom Tlibinger Alias des Vorderen Orienls, scr. B, no. 36_ Wicsbad'm, 1979.

J:lAKIM BI.AMR-ILUH ABO 'ALI MAN~OR. AJ.,... Thil son of Caliph aJ.'Am came 10 lhe thront 011 lb~ \au day of ~ llI6jOtsober 996. A1 fint, one of his brothers, MuJ:>amrnad, had beUI chostn as heir. bul he diM befott his fathtr. Sinet the ........ caliph _ so )'OUna (bono in 986).

the Berbn- KuUimah chief, aJ.1;fasan ibn 'AmllW, acted as regmL Sut the T\trb, ,"'ho "'P'"estJ'Iled an equally strong otCIion of tM ann,. "",.'" ,t;"n,jditd with the prd"ermtnt sl"'en to the Berl>tn.. Henu fi&hting brok~ out betWt"Cll me dlfIernot bctions ""'hich resulted in me remo....1 of Ibn ·Ammar his I1!:plactmem by lbe Turk Baljaorin in 997. From the year 1000 on_rd. a1.Hilkim himself C1trcM
and

I:IAKlM BI·AMR·luAH ABO 'AU MAN!?OR, AL·

and gifts, were disg.-a~ed and beheaded a few weeks late., Here we ~an only give a brief list of these tyrannical measures, t",ating the caliph's behavior toward the Chri$tiam ""pamtely, In 1004 came prohibition against eating ~enain green vegetables, such as mu!ukhiyyah (because Caliph Mu'awiya liked it); ii'71r or rocket salad (per. haps in memory of 'A"isha, the wife of the prophet Mu~ammad); mutawakki!iyyah (becau.... Caliph al· Mutawakkil was a Sunnl and al·Hllim was a Shiite Mu.lim); and fish withoul scales. It was likewise forbidden to drink fuqq{,' (a drink roade of barley lhat 'All detested). It was prohibited to go out after sunset. An order wl\$ givell to kill all the dogs in Cairo. The traditional celebrations for the Feast of Sacrifices were forbidden. Mourning observe
1201

dertaking of the Andalusian prince aI-Wand ibn Hisham, ~alled AbU Rakwah, who allied with the Zana· ta and the Ban" Qurrah of Barqah to attempt the conquest of Egypt. After threatening the population, he was finally overcome, taken prisoner and executed amidst popular ,..,joicing (1007). Likewise, the p"'lention. of the Sharif of Mec<:a, a1·l;Iasan ibn Ja'far, allied to the poweri'ul tribe of the Banu al· Jarral), never endange,..,d al-l;Iakim's authority. From 1017 onward, an idea spread that Ihe caliph was divine. This idea could have originated with a/·I;la1ammad ibn Is· rna'll al-Dara21 and l;Iamz.ab ibn 'All al·Zawzanl, whose conduct caused an insurrection in a district of Old Cairo and among the Turki'h soldiers, man· aged to escape under al·J:lakim', protection, Then the caliph took revenge by loosing his bodyguard on Old Cairo, whe,.., Ihey lOOled, pillaged, and bUlTled as they liked. AI·l;lakim'. sister, Sit! al'Mulk, realized that her brother's exce••e. ri.ked bringing the Fatimid lami· Iy to ruin, AI",ady disturbed by the naming 01 a distant cousin, 'Abd al·Rahim llyas, l\$ heir to the throne, she decided 10 take action when Ihe caliph menaced her personally on the basis of suspicions about her private life. Sources here are contradiclo' ry, but it seem. likely that Sill al·Mulk conspired with the chief of the KuUmah to bring about the murder of her brolher. He disappea",d during one of his customary night walks in the Muqa!!3m hills in 1021. [t is nol easy to understand al·J:ltkim" personali· ty or to explain his behavior, [t would be too simple to suppose he was insane. His varying moods, hi. change of tastes, sometime. for lu,ury and then for asceticism, his frequent night walks and his insom· nia, all seem to point to a nervous temperament. Perhaps in his adolescence this had been exacerbated by the contemptuous way he was treated by his tutors, Ibn 'Ammar and above all Barjawan. Our source. lor the study of this caliph are almost ex, clusively Sunnl or non·Muslim. Even these authors a", often nuanced in their judgment of al'J:[tkim, nOling hi. generosity, ca,.., for justice, disinterested· ness, and the favorable way he ,..,ceived complaints. But these attitudes, worthy of a model monarch, were 5Uc~eeded by fits of incomprehensible cruelty. sawlru. ibn al·Muqalfa' compares him to a "rearing

1202

t.iAKIM BI-AMR·luAH ABU 'ALI MAN~OR, AL-

lion in scan:h of a pu:y,N ec:lIoing Ibn ~fi"'sjudg menl lhal he "w,u in Ihe midst of men like a "'Y;l~ 1100." Ibn ~lir also nolea lhal "he wall very careful 10 find oul details on I"" life of each I"Irwn: noth· in. thal ""y of his Sl:rvanl$ or his SUhjt'ClS did. ...he1Iw:• ..... 01 or ~", was IlJ'O"'d:' In his..-.e lOn"ious pe'Iods,lII-l;Iakim Mod reson· ed to a.uoJocers. It is well kJ,oo,o,." thaI he b.... orN eMaio e:xI<emists such as I;lamza "'Z.wtanl and MuhlUl>mad -J,[)anozl, who openly pmoehed his d~ >'lnUy. This altitude is nOI as novel as it would aeem. sioce h was fully ....·hhln Ihe m.mewo.k of Ihe limail! doclrine professed by Ihe Fatlmlds. In Ismail! syso:em, ,'''' imam is ,'''' incarnallon of Ihe uni""roaI inleJ~.. ,.,hieh .ecei...... anributell that. in SIIIIOI IsilUll, IN"'e <es<en'ed 10 God alone; lor tho: Ismail... b:::>we¥er. God hM no altrib.ues. The lirsz Fltimid caliph, ·lh)-dallih -J-MaIKlt lei the poxc proclaim when speakin. of the caliph's .esidence in Ra.qQidah, "'Then the di,i"i1y resides, de:c017ued whh hi. high 8uributes."' And a.l·Mu'in even accept· ed Ibn Hlni' al·Andalusl's bold venes, "Thou art Ihe lighl and 1111 other lilht Is darkneu , ... Wh•• .hou ",ill happens .... 1hcu an the unique, the Irrt'Sistible."' W"r\OOul wishing 10 UCWpoJe "'J:l1kim :cesses. we ha"" to mcos:' nize thaI hyperbole _ eommon in lhe fatimid enlourage, whieh mad" its lignjlicance .-ela.h-e, We have rdali...ely preci$f infoomalion 0<1 Ihe reo lallon.hip between Ih. caliph and Ihe Christians, especially I"" Co"u. In lhis mall.r ",'e m ..st distin, JUw, dilfe.enl groupL Po/",ce olfid",b ",nd "'",." or Ius cUne coIIDlHP"'fqrs of W cfl/ipJl. 11Ie chronicltn ha~c rcconkd lbe names of • numbe<" of Copts ..'Ito often h,,1d ¥ery ;mPJX-r Wlcln" aI-'Am, cootinued klr a ~ months ",,oYed from office and beheaded in 997. A few mODI,," Ial.' the po6I WM lIi....,n to allOlhe. Otri$tian, ABf) AL-'AU· FAliD IBl\I IBMH1,., who die
I""

ta

from August WIO to Seplember 1012. He died a lIatu",,1 death while ~liII in office, and il i5 sai<:l Ihal al·':lakim ,..,grened being unable 10 put him 10 death as "" had planned. Anolher of 'I$i.', sons, ~'id, was also viJ:ier lor a short period. He WM appointed in 1018 and dismissed four mondu flDd ""ecuce' pied importanl poail>ona in the dno'QIU. AbU ManF Dishr ibn 'Abelanlh ibn Solr'llt, sec'--'Y to lhe Diwlln IIUnshlf, who lranscribed lhe caliph's «ders, "...,rns 10 have li ...en comple1e salisfaction. since he remained in olliee unlil his nalural dealh II' Oclober 1009. We also know of Iwo of al· I;li.ldm's doct~ who were Christl""s: Ya'qub Ibn Nas!h and AbU al·f.t/:t Manflir ibn Sahlin, ..t\o b n ~ witlt the caliph w obUlln die libenliDII ot the Coptic officiab who had bHn imprisoned after ,he lOSSIS$inal>on of lbe ¥We. fahd ibn Ib-

Ia,,,,

""~.

Sec"",, rneOSI"es. MallY X'Curily measures decreeer 1004, an edict was rud In Ihe rnosqo.>e$ obliging J""'S and Otrisllaos 10 "ur black clothes and 10 carry special bf.dces (particularly tlte Vlnn"" a xnoam'. beh). laler, Cbmtianl were obli...,d 10 wear • .."ODden Cn>lS aJ"<MInod lhrir lIeC"b, .nd lhey ..-enIi:..bidden to ride hon.eback, Ita";n. to be sati$fied witlt mules o. donkeys. llIey -.e 10 "..., undecoraled WQO
HAMAl OF KAHYOR, SAINT

the caliph, for at the "m~ tim~ he had forbidden publk festi"iti~ for the feast of ~rifiCft and the mouming of 'Aihilri', Other m~asures. ho,.,~,~r. wen: dearly din!Cted .pinst ChriSlians, fOt" eum· ple, the dffiroying of churdws and ~inlthem with mosques. In IOOS tl>t' RAshida mosqu~ "'-lOlI buill in place 01. new church th.. had b«n built withollt th~ caliph', pennission. n.e year 1008 ",as mar\ed by the dc5!rw;tion 01 many churches, be· linnlog ",ith thai: of th~ Koly ~pIlkheJ in Juusal~m. ",hkh .J.l;lildm orde~ to be completely de· 51roy'fll. In 1010 the M~khltc montite'}' or al~r (ncar Cain» .... dc5Iroyed and its «mete'}' pr0faned. Finally, in 10))·\01•• n.. m ~ con~cnlS and. chW'tMs met wi,h tl>t' ",me bt~. It ww1d be dii!iicuh '0 ...... ~ an e>'en Ipproxlmat~ ~ lOll to the RIlmi>a of bulldinp doestroyed, bill it ..,."". there wtre many. n.e caliph onIc~ the confisca· tion '" c.... n:h PnlP"rty and. the U'aMfeT of !hci, adminnu..tion '0 !he finan<:ial dO... n. OM disoonc~nlllJ point in aJ.l;llllm'f Irtatnwnt of the Coprs _ hif 0'Wll mocher ....-as a oms. !ian. This ....,.,.." _ not withcloK lnllucncc on the calipb al··Aztz.. sinc~ We h.d two of her b..lIhen appointN 10 hi&h positions io the eedesiauical hi· enrchy: one. ~•• patria«:h of J~~m; the oWr. Ar$cnius. m~ropoliwt of Akaandria. A,rwni. us _ on~ cI al-I;lildm's Yk:timl, ""hile Arfs4b was impris<>Mt' Muslims withOOlI ~ In. truly eon~~ned. Wll~n ,he aUlhorities became more bYOnbI~ to non·Mus!itm, many of these Copts I'tVcnNtO Christianity, and wer~ considered by lhe A1uslims 10 be guilty of aposw;y. RelQIio..s with lite 8yted tel'lK as in the limes of al. 'Am. Early in ,he reign, Ibljawln obtained a few mi!ila'}' suceuses, such as. the vie tory of Tyre and the laking of Apame. He then SCnl an embassy to Ihe emperor B:lSil II, in which Arlf!ls of Jerusalem look pan. The "cbanges produced a truee in 1001 lhal was supposed to last ten ~ars. The treaty re· qui,..,d greater li~ny for Chrisllans In the fallmid territories. espedally the permission to TCbulld their churehef. and to fupply wheat for Egypt. BUI very soon the ,reaty w&!' broken on aceOunl of aJ· I:Ukim'a penccution and abov~ .11 the denruetion of Ihe Church of the Holy ~pukher.

w.t

1203

IlIBUOCRAI'HY

'AI>d a1-Mun'im MAjid. AUldl PO 18 and 13 (1924 and 1932).

HALL, HENRY REGINALD HOLLAND (1&73-1910). Engli$h F.a:wtol." and hlstorial>. Hall ..... born in Londol> and educated at Saint John's CoII~, Chfonl. 5UppIemenlini hia ch"....1 $Iud.... with Ec~ IanlU&Ce and hisotory unda F. L Griffith·s guidance. He joincaJ"iinal to his imm~m.e OUt""t. In that field. he published C..prie ere,le TUls of Ille ChristiQn Period i.. IIr~ Brimh M"seum (London. 19(5). He
Q""

BlBl.JOCRAPHY

Dawson. W. R.• and E. r. Uphill. Who W"" Who in EDP,oI00, pp. 131-32, London, 1972. K.ammeTCr. W" compo A Coptic Bibliof7Qph" Ann Aroo" Mkh .. 1950; repro New Yon.., 1969.

.un S. ATlVA HALO. Su Symbolism in Coptic An: Nimbus.

HAMAl OF KAHYOR, SAINT. a fifth·cenlury monk who was manYTCd (feast day: II Amshlr), Hli euh is attesled by some Coptk documenlS, in par-

\204

HAMBURG PAPYRUS

som~

rypib (boolu conu..ining ndoes and rubna f« di"",~ s.e"n) from Da1' Anbl. ShlnCidah. bul IUs Iii<: has ben> J'"S""""d only by a fairly 10"1

lieU ....

nolic~

in a "ABle mlII>uscripI of the recension from Upper £cpt 01 the Copto-Anobic: 5Y1olUAUON. In IUs youlh. Hamal became a mon.... in lhe Pachomi.an monasIery 01 OaJ'ryiir. II ..-as founded by nlEOOOlUS Off lABDilmlan congregalion. ;>Sling him 10 come 10 Alexan· drla 10 dis<'u....ith him lhe difficulties the Arta"" were causing the church. We CannOi say precisely what herC1ics or dis· sidenls he mean!. for the lenn "Arians" rcmains vagu~ in the medieval Arabic vocabulary and may dcslgn.l~ Ihe Melilians as ",ell as lhe I"'~ Arlans. Pachomius the Younger embarked on a journey on Ih~ Nile wilh two oo:her old m.n, YOnob (Jonas) of Bakhln.s-Tmousoons (a FOIlndation of PlIChomiu$ him~lf. a litll. to the nonh of !'bow in Ihrc diocese of Hiwl and NIb\is of LuJomiaD con~lion 10 tak~ him in his II"ain 10 Aleundria. In the r:oursc of the journey. YQnis. 31 the 'cque.i of Pachomius. re"les a >'isloII or ral""r double risX>n "" has had. oflhe ark cI the coYe1I81Il and the lwo 00us<:s dcsIincd in the OIher ""OIid !or the sons of Padlomius. Ol>e In hen. con· SCI\lClN of piu:h and oulfur llrld '-lied "'lIh 're, l"CKI"O"K1 for the failltks5 ..-.Iu; lhe 0Iher in "",,,v· ~n. made of pure gold wilh a hiP sunvundi"l ..'all Mar the Irce of life, .... ukated ..ith an nqu.isil~ I'novane:~ on which !he hrtthren f«d. The'" Pach· omius and h~ fai.hful b.--c1hrcn dwell. Thqo hAo"~ access 10 God before all the OIMr inhabilanlS of ""radise and wilhoul the mediation of thrc arehan· 1l~1 Michael, .... ho scrves as "ham~rlajn. n.e lUI lpeaks brie~y. of lItei' arrival in Aluandria and Ih~ visil 10 lh~ an;hbishop Cyril. T1w: $tory describes the prefecI of lhe city;u boastful. concelled. and of evil conducl. This is evidently the p,er~cl O,estes (412415). whose quarrels wilh the patriarch Cyril and the monlu of Nitria are related by the hi$lorians (Socrates fli5rori4 Ecc!es;QSr;C4 7.14). One of the monks. "mmonius. is said 10 ha"e Injured lhe pre·

£ca, .... ho had him ~ted and IOnured 10 dc3lh. Cyril ordered Ammoni"" 10 hrc Jiven the bonon d<>c '0 rnar1)n.. In our $\Ory...f>ich -Ioft'OIS par.alkl to Ihal of the historian Socrates. th~ Pachom;"" monks are recei\'cd by 1It~ p",r..c.. and Hamal in· '""&ft$ again$! him. In a .... the prrittl bas the )'OWlS rnon.k "ruo:lfl.ed. dt~n orden him britcadcd. n,.. IC1I of the upper £&ypcian S~ Ihen describes Hamal', ascen. to hawn, his buri.al at A1~undria. and the fel'Vt'nl v~ra.tion ntndtrtd to him by .h~ monks and lallY. In "ontns! 10 the Coptic movtyrdoms. thet-~ are hen no inlem>plions inl~nperxd with IOrturc5 hclWeftl the pmoel and I"" monk; the pre£ca docs nol a"empl 10 ma....~ the "andidate fo, manyrdorn nnounce his bilh. and Hama; only reproa<:hes Ihe prefooct for hk pride and hardness of hean. This $lory 'CMmbl"" much mo« a monk's life. and Pachomi"n ch;uacteri$l!cs are numeroU$: names of the monasterics. th~ place of the superio' al Pbow, the devotion of the monks 10 Ihe palriarch's caus.e, the distribution of the IoOUls ;nlO dilferen! hOUles, ;>s in Ihe Pachornian monllSleriU. On the nth.. hand lite te~t re~ec:1S "'cll the dlmale of the relalions bet"'een lhe prefect Orest~1 and the Egyplian cleri. t:a.I and """'....ic world II Ih~ beginning of Cyril'$ ponl'ficate. Finally, lhis noIi<::e in the Synaxarion has certainly been .ranslaled and summarizal on the basis of;l CopIk: lif~. It Is, lben, a ..itn<"S$ 10 the CopIic hagiographic: lilenllure. BJBUOGRAPHl'

Coqum, R.-G. "Api Himly. m8n)T pooc:homien all V' sikle." In flom"'4ftU ii /Q mimoiu de ~ Sozunemll, Vol.. 2. pp. 14S-~J. Cai.... 1979. lU..... r.
HAMBURG PAPYRUS {Slate and Unive:rsily

(j.

brary of Hamburg. in'"UllOry 110. Papyrus bilinguis I (Pap. hil. I]; no. 998. ac"ordilll 10 th~ lis! of Greek """"'kripu in the Gllllingcn Se",uaginl projeCl), Pl'PY"'s "ooslsling of IWeIIly-eilht Ica.u (fifly-siJ< paJn) of .... ori,;natly ulcnsive codon. In the firs! pan f'ngmen15 of a pre¥i.,....]y unknown version of the Greek .4c14 P4",/i are preserved on e1e,en pag'$. Th;~ lUI w... published in 1936 by C. Schmidt and W. Schuhan. Th. second part "on· lains fony·fivc page~ of fragmem$ of Old TeOlament writings in lhe Coptic and Greek languag.s: Song of Songs in Coplk (sc"en pagn). Lamentations of 1o!'~mialt in Coptic (l~n pagesl, lIS well as Ecde$iaste$

I:IAMIDAT. AL~

.....,.

in Cr«k (rooM...,n pages) and Coplic (I"'IM...,n

aw"...,.,

....,.

in lhe Coptic cburch of lhe third and fo,nth cenWr· ,~

The plac~ when me Papyn.L'l " .." " found has nOlI been dClennincd ..ith ccnainl)l. and 'ery. The papyru5 scroll came into !he p"..es...... of m" Stal" and Uni'Y"nily Library of Hambul'& in 1927. 1hc lea¥es of 1M co00 measure about 10.5 inches (26 em) Iona &tid • ir>c:hcs (2{I em) wtdt. '1M. ~ngth and brudth of tIM: spKe ~ by ..-nang on !he ""~B1l! paces amounlS 10 about 8.S inches by 6.2 indtes (22 em by IS.S em). The pages of the Cud.. S«1ions of !he tUI ha~ an of thirty-fi".., Ii""",; tho5e of th" COplle pan. an a,..,rag" of thirty-two lines of Inl. The is in at ~ two diff"r"nt hancb and can be posilion of Ih" ..,nl· incs pr~ in !he fnogrnentary code:>. allows one to "'flP05" lhal the miginaf from which it "''lIS copied ... an cccles....iral book of deVOliofl Of" a Iec-

"""'pt

1205

"'On

A eom~rison between the Creri: &:dcsiaSics and the Coptic Ecclesiasles of Pap. bU. I and of both lexU wilh CodcK Yaricanus C......eus 1109 (B). as well as other grea1 ~ t codices. poinu to a clofer affinily of !he CilJk Vorl"ce of Coptic ~. clcsWtes to B than can be observed in C....ek &:. elcsiasles lransmined in m" same codex. Al all .......ms. Creek ~clcsiasles.is nOi th" Vorlnil of Songs. Lamenlations. and Ecc1""iasles are impor· tanl in lhe inv"sligation of early Coptic dialects, ney also have significance for the history of the lext nf lhe Old Testamenl and nol leut for the hi510ry of interpl""IRlion. since Ihe examlnatlnn of lh" lechnique of the Coptic nOlnslators olFers a glimpse of the inlerpretation of Old T""tamenl lexu

BIBUOGRAI'HY

Diebner. B. J. ''Di" bibliiehe.n T""te des Ham~ Pap,TUS bilingui! I (Cam, Lam. eo.. &:d ar. et Co.) in ihrem Verltlilmis mm T.... t der Sepcuagil>Ia. besonde.. des Kocie>: B (Vat. Go-. 1:r(9).-&obacbtungea lind mc!hodiKbe BemerlwllF'.~ In F~I6"bc fur Cltr. Su,dl4rtl tum SO. CWUTt$llll. Hcidelbe~

1981.

DicbneT. B. J•• and R.

Kauer. H"mburger Paf'P"W

hil. 1.- ~ mneJIame"t/klN" TUJ<: d~ Papyrus lrilinguis 1 tkr SI""". tond Un"",,,ililohibliolh,,t H"""""~. Cahier$ d'Onentallsme II. Geneva.

,....

Schmidt, c.. and W. Schuban. npA:=ElI nAYAOY. Ael.. P"uli ""eh d"... P"py".. du H"mbur-gn Staats. u"d lhoivtrsillitohiblioth.t. Y"rlltlemlichung"n aus dcr Hambu~r St..,u- lOnd Universit~ubibli<)lhek. n.S. 2. OlUcbtadt and Hamburg. 1936. BERND J. DrlOBNlOR

I;IAMIDAT. AI.-. a convenl of nuns :silualed on an island upposile {};n'. ,,"ccordinll 10 A80 $AUH THE

(bcginninll of thin.enth «nlu,,·). at lhe time ".men Marwin II (144-7S0) ..... "...,ing before the lC""ral of me Abbasi,. and had summoned lhe Buhmurites 10 his. aid. Ihey came 10 auack this con'"CJI1. It nun "''''0 had entered the COn~nt very )'
818L1OGAAI'HY Mu~amrnad Rarn~l. AI'Q~"'as Mi~1fyy"h.

"f.1ughr""'1 Iii·BiI~d QJ 3 ¥ol•. in 6 pans. Cairo, 19S3-1%8.

1206

HANDBAGS

Vida, L della. "Ch,wian U~d in MOIkm Carb.~ BYl.'lnliott IS {1940-1941):I.... -IS7. RENt-GllOw:>es COOViN MAUKIC£ M/dTIN, SJ.

IlIlJ.

HANDBAGS. 5u Coswme. Ciril HANDS, LAYlNG·ON OF.

~" I..a);... ~n ~

H.....

HANNA

army, joining the BaUlil10n des ChaMetrni d"Orienl II its formalion in Marseilles in 1&02. With his cous.in• ...no had abo left Ec:>"Pl. he panicipated in most of the Napoleonic war$. He was a .........b.-r oJ. the regimen. thai fouahl in Dalmatia (YugoobYia). the Ionian islands. and IWy IIntil irs dissolwion in

u...

HacagtI was a.......rded tzPon of H""or in 1&06 annel in Il108. He was lht'O p1loCftl 011 ~ for • while but later reSlImed acti.... s.-rrice.. He "''U killed 11 the B.anle oJ. Wa.erloo. IS JuM 11115.

HERKEL 5u .......1, J..an.

BlBUOCItArHY Ramlf Tadr1tl.. AI-Aqb.l{

/I .I.()dl'>l ./:r.ltri". 3 vol•.

Cairo. 1911.

J:lANNA $ALlB SA'D (1880-1928). Egwli.an td\l<:ator. Ht ",u ddtpt..n in 19'04 by the Eg)'pti.an lO"emment to study the needs of modem tduca. tlon In Ethiopia. He went to E1hiopia in 1906 at lhe head of an educalional mission and stayed lhere umll his death in 1928. Emperor Mendik [I offered to I"nl him Elhi<>pian citizenship. whleh he de· dined. He was appointed director of educallon of Elhiopia and abo became a penonal adviser to Em· peror Menelik. With the help of Abuna MJlb'OIS (see E'llIIOI'tAN 1'IillA'rel), J:IannS ~llb Wali able 10 obIain funds from the Eduopian 80\'emmenl and from E&YJ'Ilo build W Mtndik II schoolln 1909. h beume an eslablimed tr.odition thaI the lex-htl'S should be Copts from Egypl. but this was broUn wilh lhe Iwian occupation In 1935. followina: lhe ....lUra of W .. mperor in 1941. lhe tradition _ resumed under the dir.-.:ip of -'lINd) lCA.IttlMlUrl" Boonos GIUU

HARAGU, JEAN (1776-ISIS). a Copt...no be· came an officer in NijpoIcon's annies.

Ha~

was

bam IS May 1776 III Manfalul. Upper f.c)1ll, the SOn of Ghubriyil Hangli and MAlakiyel. H.. obtained a fair edw:..Iion from the lown priest. who _ll\ilted him as deacon of his ehllrch and con.in. ued to inslruc. him ;n the Copti<: lan..... ~. ",";ch """" then nearly defunct. As a )'<>Ung man, on the orden of his cousin Colonel Gabri.-l SIIlAllOS, he .Ioined the Coptic Legion. newly founded by Gentnal Va·qo.b (see Y~·Q()6. GENEAAL) in Cairo. lnd served as an officer. Apparently Haragli lelt Egypt wilh the retreallng French anny of Napoleon Bllonlparte. He conlin' ued his military ca..... r as IJ1 officer In lhe French

HARDY, EDWARD R. (1908_1981), American theologian who wrote eMensi....ly on the enly church in Egypt. He was educated al Columbia Uni· versity (1923 - 1931) and a number of noted theological ""minan.-s (1929-1934). Hardy'. ac"","m;" career .lane;nily School, N.. w Ha,·en, Conne<:licu.t (1944-1969). Afterward he accepted a lecltll"Ohip 11 the dlvini.y school of the Univ<:~ly of Cambridge (1969-1975). Concurt\':ntly he _ dean oJ. chapel II Jesus o,llqe (I912-1975). He publ~ MIt;I.", in E.rtIt, T...'OIry C.,,,I.ma of doe Spwul oj Clrristi"..ity (Oxford. 19-40) and Clrri<.;"n EcJpr. Cltlm:1t 10M PeopU m die PlOIriU' C/",,,U of A!UilMri. (Oxford 1952); ,ran:
Ben"''')'

Az.Iz S. Anu

J:lARIT AL_RCM, COpl;" quarter in old Cairo and lhe re!lidence of lhe Coptic ""Inan:;h~ from John XVI (1676-1718) to Cyril IV (1854-1861). who mov"d lhe patriarchal seal to the Azbakiyyah quarter in modem Cairo, T1le name !;iArit al·Rum mean. "alley of lhe G~eks."

I;IARIT ZUWAYlAH

The di\.lri(". of I:U,ril a1·lbim ("ould be rftChcd from .he S\llbriyyah d ..trict by the SibIl (drinkin, font) ol M~...-l. All, ",hich had an old pte '0 lock tile entire quartl!T lOt- security. 1be g~.e e'~n· tually became Muck in the "",cumulaled Nile sill and could be closed no more. The churdtel' ..,;thin th.. qu,ut1!T aft die: Olurch ol ..... Vi..,in and tIlc ClIurch ol Sain, GeorvThe Church of the Virgin lies 10 feel below tM i\neI In'd and .. rnchcd by a sW1'WlIy. The ITOO&l ilriking ~• ....., ol this church .. the .wdve domQ ,hal surmoun' il$ building$. Inside. IheK domes rclol on si~ piers conne<1ed by t'OUJ>d llI'Ches. ol ""hich ,wo •..., inside .he oan<:Twlry spac", The do..... dire<:tly abo..., lbc ahar bas an apcnure $<erv· in, as ,. ..indow wi,h stained glass; other domes ha..., slmi'-r "';ndows that admil a kind ol dim lightin. into ,h., churd. Small in dimensions. Ih., chur<:h has a Olav<: and I choir Ihat are cOlllinuou>c at lround level wilh no p"nilion. Wilhin ,he na.'e, a beam s.retching be,ween ,wo pien carries a cruci· form pain ling of Jesus hanging from the CrO$l, a skull and bones below His feel signifying ,h., ap· proach'n. en'ombment of Ihe Lord, On each side of the piclure, there also is a cal"\'ed wooden "aile sl.,.ng;;ng a serpen" Each of the IWO e"iles carries on iu head a tabltl. on which an an,el is jNoinled. The canopy SlImtounling .be alUlr is adomcO wi.h pain.inp ol Chri.. and angels. The body of Ihe church is adorned ",ith icon", These lncluU> tombo ciatnl ..·ith many evenu in Coplle his.ory. bolll majOIJand miAOr. PatriaTchal Ind episcopal consecratiot. ..·~e oIien confirmed in ':liri. al·Rum. Church counc:ibi wen: also held h""". $UCh IS .he cpnc:opal synod tha. repudiated lhc simonia<:.1 bcha.·ior of CYtUL III IBN u.olAO (IBS-IZ.J). No predse dale can be hed for tIli~ chur<:h.

BIBUOGRAPHY

Butler, A, The AMcielll Captic Ch,,'ches 01 Egypl. 2 vols. O~ford, 1887. Reprint, 1970. Coquin. Ch. Les Edifices chritie"s d.. Coire. Biblio'h.!que d'E,udes Coptes. Cairo. 1~4.

1207

Munier, H. kc..eil d.u lw.u IpiuopoJcs de I'i:/ur <:<>pfr. Cairo, 1943. Raouf Habib. Doe A""ir..t Coptic CIt.. ~1ta of Coiro. Cairo, 1919. ,ull. S. AnY'"

I:lARiT ZUWAYlAH, tosethe:r with l/-lI.Tt .u. lIIe oldcsc qllat1er in Cairo lhaI .... inhabited by • Coptic community. I:llrio W"""l-bh is situated in die: .mtriCl ol a1·Jlmrnlli))'all OT Khunmfish. 1be conc:cttlnl.1on of CopIs in Ihis area durinA tbr: M;ddlr A.... led '0 thr founda,ion of somr of lhe mo!iI ancient churches ;n Cairo. Of these. lIu"'" have ...",iYcO 10 .he present day: lbc Chltn:h of Ihe Virzin (Sin 11·'Adhrl')•• he Church of SainI Mercunus (AbU Say!ayn). and ,he Church of SainI Gr>o<"ge (M~r Jirji$). The firs' two were probably originally built althe itreel level. At presem they Ioa>'e sunk to a sul>lel"r,l· nean depth of about 18 feci (6.5 mele",) on accoum of the accumula,ion of Nile silt Ihrough Ihe centuries. lhe third, smaller in dimension, was constructed a, • later date abo"e the olher t the mod· em >iree! lcycl. Apparently ,h" ana was mlr.ed as onc of the spa'" where lbc Holy Family Slopped during ilS RJGIIT INTO ECn'T, immediately aner their p-rerious restinl."lace. wilh ils .radidon.al sycamore Ir.,.,. aI al·NATAIlIYTAII. A. the time of the C<>nsIruetioa ol !he lim ollhcsc churches. ,hll seclion ol the area may h2ve been .still .... ati¥el,. open vound utilized by Ihc CopIs as a d"P. in the sense of I cemclety norM than • regular monaucry inhabiled by

UIM. probably

,wo . .

-"-

The Churcb ol 1M Vil'Jin (a!-'Adhrll is lhe oIdca of lite u..- in J:llrit. z........,lah. It is Kcessible from (he SOlJlh~ and th., southeast by lWO en(raM~ one lOt- .....men and .he 0lheT for men. The church .. de:dicaJed to the Vi... in, 1:_... .he nllM Copes ~ lite .ille of ··l:\a1lal al·Hachd," lhaI is. she wilo mel.. the iron fel.e", of Ma.lllias. die: di§ciple who replaced Judas bcarioo:. 1hough if is difficult to Ii.... I p<"CCise date for foundallon••h., hi.rorian ,,1·Maqrtzi says it WIS built 270 yean priQr 10 the Arab conques! of Ea:YP!, that is, approximately in .I.,n. 'SO. After the advent of Islam, it suffer«! numerous destruc,ions and JubSC'quenl resl<>rations. 11 w.... attacked in 101. in Fatlmld 'Imes. and r<:peatedly in the following centuries, notlbly under lhe Mamluk. and the beginnIng of Ottoman rul" around 1~~'J,

'0

i.,

1208

I:IARlT ZUWAYLAH

In L"" yur 1301, Lhe church btc......., I~ I"'trnor· chal sora! LIUII IUId previousl}' bttn I.... nlfe~ from A~ria 10 the Church of a1-Uu'albqah and Lhen 10 the Chun:h of Abu Saybyn in Old Cairo.. II remained in I:iirll Zuwaybh for a1mOill thl'ft cenlur· ia amid the veazer securit)· of a CopIic comrm.oni· ty. The fim pope to reo-ide in J:UriI Zu""l)'w. ...... JOKl1 \1Ll (llOO- 1l20). the eicJ>tieth paU'la~h; lhe IISI ..... the I02nd pwian:h. IUTTHE'IIII I\' (1660161S). S~ popes """"edIO lhe nriJbborins I:lArit al·lWm_ AbU al-Makarim. the rwelflh-cenLtuy hisloNn of the Copcic churches and mONlloleriQ. cile:J this church .. !he cenler of ecclesiastical aclivilies and lhe plac'" of "deb... Lion of major fnsts 51.1Ch ~ Ih", feast of the Sun5<:t5. and candlQ. After lhe Gospel readins and praying for Lhe calipl1 and Yi· ~ier. Ihey reLurned Ie Ihe churrh for lhe compl~lion of Ihe officef. Thif funclien was repealed twice an· nually On Lhe third day of Easter and the feast of the Cross en 17 Tfit, HoweY·er. the.re celeb"'lions were $Uppre~ under the rule of the Kurds in 1169. The architeclu",1 componenLf of the church are ImereslinS. Besides the narth.,.. the nave comprises five rows of marole columns and a 5i~th In red I",nite to signify the Leaching of Juda.o! Iscarioi and the blood of Christ. The na"" is flanked by "vo alsles "'ilh Lwo row> of 1"~W g",)'ish marble col· umns surmounled b}' Corinthian and 8)Unline apilals adorned with crosses "",one foliaF- The marble ambo r<:slS on four columns shaped like

,"""".

The choir a1i&n' "ith the n.,,'t on an e1e-lIled platform, and this again is fol""""ftI by 1M princi~1 sancluary llf>Ildler fow IIrps hiJther th.atI tM d.e';e. "The' """cinar)' and Iht nn" ...~ sep;t.tlIN by a 1..-dfltH:enlu<}· iconQ$t9$is eo_ructN of old ftlony di,-ided into !W'eh inlaid "ith i>'Ol')' and lCulplurcd "'ith geomd'ricaI desilP" and animal fig. ures. This is 'unnowlled by a row of thineen icons of lhoe I....,"" dis.:iples with lhe VilJin in lheir midsl. a gmt ctOiS$ above her head. "The """CIUliory itsoelf. at the "*5t end. tontain' the reclangular allar with a w<>
("'''''all.

On th~ nonh and soolh sides of the main oan~tu ary. beyond the «tIlrai colonnade. lhe southern sancluary io dedicated 10 Saint Gabriel In fronl of il there i5 a "ell o:onlaininl _Ier pnsumably of a miraculous healing power. To !he right stands a chapel dedit:ated 10 the mil1loCl,.....vrJr;ing Virgin Mary_ The north aisle has another dupel dedicaled In !he archantel Micbel, To the left of il. lhere is a sanctuary dedicated 10 Saim .Ioftn !he BaptiU. This aide conlains 1M relia of four unidetlli6ed ainlS. In lh~ Chapel of Our Lady statMh a wooden icon. ~y rising water lable hu be,un 10 endanger this strue· tu ... Contiguous to the ",bterra-nnn Church of the Virgin i. tbe Church of Saint M~rrurius, better known among the Copts as Ab(t Sayfayn. litera.lly Itt! who is in pos$tS$lon of lhe tWO s""'Ot
C'O""

J:lASABALLAH

Church of lhe Virgin. Abo.'e it i. a convent by lhe name of Saint George thai has direct access to lhe church. The church has lo.t many fealures of its antiquity on accounl of the numerous modem restorations. It contain. four sanctuaries, two of them surrounded by domes, This church is highly revered by COplS, who throng ilS building as pilgrims on the commemoration day of Saint George (7 Hatur)_ The date of lhe foundalion of lhis church is un· known, but the oldest part of the building is its medieval iconostasis. It eon lain. a multitude of icons, of which one representing Saint George is dated 1782_ Its library comprises a number of inter· esting manuscripts. Some of them are the Life of Saint Cyprian (1391) and the life of Saint Bartbolomew (1438). More dated manuscripts include Saints' Miracles (1342) and the Liturgies of Saint Basil. Saint Gregory, and Saint Cyril (1344),

1209

His life is preserved by .everal Arabic manu· scripts: Coptic Museum. Historical 475; Paris, Ara· bic 148, folios 295r-33h; 4787, folios 158v-195v; Saint Ah'JONY, HislOry 130, 2 and 140. 2: Muyser, 1943. pp. i59-236 (translalion of the Coptic Muse· urn MS incomplete at Ihe end). This Life is interesting becau.e il de.cribe, a fOl1l1 of itinerant monasticism like the Life of PAUL OF TAMMAH, HarmlnA died al Tkow and was buried near the church of this lawn. although h. had asked his companions Anba Hur, Anb! YusAb. and others 10 bury his body in a "",ret place. BIBUOGRAPHY Muyser, J_ "Ennite peregrinant et pelerin infaligable." Bulletin d. 10 Sociere d'Archeologie copte 9 (1943P59-236, RE.N£-GOORGES COQUIN

BIBUOGRAPHY Buder, A. The A>1cient Coplic Ch,ueh" of EK)pl, 2 vols. Oxford. 1887. Reprinte<:l 1970. Coquin, C. Le. Edifices chrelie'" du Cai'e, Biblio' theque d'Etudes Caples, Cairo, 1974, Habib, Raoul, Tht Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo_ Cairo. 1979. Mas')'. I. al-. The Story of Ihe Co,m. Cairo, 1978. MYRIA.., WISSA

HARMiNA. SAINT, a wondering monk (feaslda)': 2 Kiyakh). Harmin,;;, was a nalive of Ihe province of O"YRHYNCHUS (a.l·Bahnasa). and the son of Christian parents. When he was an adolescent and watching his parents' Aocks, the apostle. John and Peter appeared to him to invile him to embrace Ihe monaslic life. Following them, he ,,"'ent up 10 the monastery of Saint James.~\!luat.d no doubt in lhe nome of O"yrhyncbus, altl'rough the notice about him in lbe SY~A""RION dod, nol say so. The abbol nf Ihis monaslery was Saini Jame,: not otherwise known. who clothed him in the monk's habil_ The ceremony took place with the active participation of a cherub. Ihe psalmist David. and the apostles Paul. John, and Peler, wbo ~ntrusted Harmlnll to lhis abbot James, Some time aher, the apostle .lobn appeared to Hannin,;;, to enjoin him 10 go to Ihe south. There he mel AnM Hur (Hor), from Prehl. wilh whom he wenl 10 Ihe mountain (i.e., Ihe desert) to the north of the town of Tkow,

HARRANIYYAH. Set Ramses Wi.... Was.ef,

I:IASABALLAH, Bishop of Shanshli (thirteenth centut~:;),

On 28 June 1240 a confrontation between the bishnp, of Upper and Lower Egypt look place in Cairo in Ihe presence of the Coptic palriarch cYRI~ "' IBN. UQI.'.Q in order 10 settle questions of prece· dence. The te"t of lhis meeting has survived in a sale manu$Cripl (Vatican Library, Arabic 162. copied in 1365: ed .. trans" and commenlary bl G. Graf. 1927). In the appendh added to the texi between 1300 and 1365, J:lasaballab is mentioned four times. Howner. Graf did not realize this "'"as. a proper name, and therefore translated it as "in Gem~heil Colles,"' sometimes modif);ng the rest of Ihe sentence accordingly (of. Gmf. 1927. pp. 318-21: can· cerning tltis te"t, see also Gra£. 1947. Vol. 2, p. 363. no. 6), 1;!asabaUah ""'as consecrated bishop in October or November 1268 by the "",'entl·eighth patriareh. GA_ BRIB. 1lt. He look the name Anbli Bu\ru. and .e· ceived tbe see of Shanshll (which is today pronounced SIIANASlIA according to Muyser, p, 157; d. Graf. 1927, p. 318). On 4 July 1294 J:lasaballab was the senior bishop from Lower E8)1'I, and a. such consecrated the seventy-ninth patriarch THEOOOSJU. If, koo""" as Ibn Raw!1 al.lfranjiyyah. in spite of the facl tbal YOsA.!l, bishop of Akhmim, preceded him in seniority during the reign of the three pre>'ious po· lriarchs (Graf, 1927, p. 320).

1210

HAUSER, WALTER

DurinS lhe concoclion of the chrism perfonned by 1lIeodo5i", II on 12 April 1299. ArMli &!ru5 was concurrently bi.hop of stuonshi. SandUb, TandKi, and Samannlld. 11 is not stated that he .... the W'nior bishop of to..- EcJ>t, bu' he it rnentio..ed .. ,he head of tIte 1m On 14 Febnury 1300. it _ apin J:lasabaIlah "'..... eOrtJUnoted tIte ei&htieth patriarch. JOHN VTIl. dapite IN p,,"W',,", of Anb.l YUsM! 01 Akhmlm uwl AlIbI. Mikhl·ll. ~ mdrOpnlimn 01 Jenosalem (ct. Craf, 1927, P. JlO). Duri... the concoction of the chrism peri"ormcd by John VllI on IZ April 1l05, Anbt Bull\l$ 1:1balWl was co""",m!OtIy bishop of Shanshi. San. dUb. TandiotJ. ;md SamannUod. and was. of course. the W'nior bishop of Lower E.cPt (d. Munier. p. 37; and Samir. 1971. pp. 358-59, wl>ere he ;5 refel"rN to as bishop of Sand"b and Shansh.i). AI Hasabotl1ilb's death. hi5 is<< was dlvlded Imo al leasl ,wo ..,,,,,nte sees. that of ra"dall wllh A"bi AkhrlsJAdulll as bishop. and thai of Samannlld with Anbl Yll'anni5 as bishop.

lis in Khatp Oasis" (MerropoJila" Museu... Bullen.. 27, 1932. pp. 38-SO). BIBLIOCRArtfT

Dawwn. W. R... and Eo P. Uphill. Who w... Wloo in EClPIOJoD, pp.. Il
ww ARAH,

\oeallon of !he brick pynmid of Amenemhet III cr_lfth Dynasly. 1142-1797 ILC-). ~ gipnlie and maanfficlO1ltly fumished temple dislricl thaI goes with ;t is to be idmrified (Uoyd. 1970, pp. Sill.) wilh the bbyrimh of lhe c1as.1oical

HA

.,

,, ,

,, ,, , ,

BIBUQGRAPHY

Oraf. G. "Die Rangordnung der BI~hl)fe AlYJXens ~h

einem protokoUari9chen Beri<:hl des Palri· archen Kyrillos ibn u.~~" QrU,,) CJtriJli'In"~ 24 (1927):J06-3J7. Khalil Samir. cd MifbdlJ "'·ful..."'Jt If '4'1] ",. KJrjd..,,,It. /i-SJr."nu "I-Riy's",Jo AllI ",/.8<>,,,,'" ",I· ......,u/ bHb" 1U>b
i

-

I

,, ', ,

K.Il.uJl. SANIIl, SJ.

HAUSER, WALT¥ (IS9J-I960). American;ar· chaeolopst and arehu~. He ...-as born at Middl~ fi...d. M»sacm-.... and "'"1lS t..-ined lIS an an:hil~ al lhe Massachusem Im!inlle of Te<:hnoloo". He ;oined lhe staff ohhe Metropoli..... MUleUm or New York's EcYPtian expedi,>on, workin. mai .. ly on the un~atiou of. lhe dynastic period at DAY~"'~ PHO!· IWol/llOr< and of the early Coptic period at Khargah Oasis. He remained with the Melropoli,an Museum for nearly fony years as libnorlan and CuratOr of Near E&.lern archaeology. He con'ributed >everal _"[clell lhe MertopoUla" Ml,scum B~/leli.. , of which II><: masl rcle''''nl is ''Th. ChriSII..n N«croPQ'

'0

,, ,

,, ,,

l.

•

•

_

,... --- -- - -- ---- - -----

,,, , .n

~~-~

• • • • • • __ ._

:

_ __ . _ J

Plan of lhe church lo<:aled near Ihe pyramid at Ha..-wlrah. Cou",e.y Pelu Grossma" ...

r

HAWWARIYYAH

aUlho,," (above all Herodotus, Histories 2.148, and Pliny. Natural History 36.13). Howe,er, only a small part of the temple remains, be<:ause Ihe area se.....ed as a n«ropolis up to the late Roman period. The famous mummy portraits, which were found in even greater number:< ;0 Haww:lrah (Parlasca, 1966, pp. 32-34), rome from the Roman tombs of the fiTSl 10 the fourth cemuries A.D. In the early Christian period, a 'mall ..,nlemenl am.., to 1M nonhwest of the pyramid, the eromeler of which has nOI yet been fully identified, It is possible that the inhabitants worked in the service of the necropolis. The settlement had a small .huIT" that had already been laid bare by W. M. Flinde,." Petne (Petrie, 18'.10, p. 21, pI. 4). Today the church is in a badly ruined Slate. although to some extent its ground structure can still reliably be rn;tde out. The almoot square nam was once .ubdivided by inserted columns to form th"'e aisles. In from and to the west was a narthex, In addition to the central apse, the sanctuary contained lwo approximately square side rooms. No lrace remains of the side passageway, recorded by Petrie. leading from the al"e into the south side room, and it is also doubtful whether such a one exisled. Perhaps it was, after all, only a wall nkhe. Two pilaster capitals of limestone. now in the Fit:<william Museum (nos. 17c>. 177) in Cambridge. were part of the church furnishings. One of these (no. i 77) could have served as a support for the apse opening. Since both pieces were spoils from the sixth century and had probably been used originally in Ihe necropolis. Ihe church could have been built al Ihe eadiest in the middle of the seventh century.

HA\VWARIVYAH. The ruins now in the domain of the present village of Haww~ri))'3h (west of ·Am·

riyyah) are frequently idemified with the ancient Marea, The excavations W1d.rta.~en there for $Orne years by the University of Alexandria have, howev· er. SO fn brought to light only the remains of lat~ antique buildings of the foomh c~ntury and later. R~rnains of the hamor, today become marshy. and several moles were always visible. A new discovery was a wide paved street on the ban~. with a co\'e",d portico on Ih~ landward sid~. Behind it stood som~ granary buildings. as well as a large, two·part bathhouse with Iw<> communal rooms (npodyurin), each built as a double·apse halL The aClual bath chambers have so br not been cleared. This bathhouse rna)' belong to the fourth or early fifth century. Farther to th~ ~asl, on a projeet· ing peninsula, a public latrine, a mill. and at the eastern border of this peninsula a large ,ransepl basilica have c<)me to light. the lasl so br only partly e~ca'''ted. The lransept of this church had

, j

r

pt LL

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amold, D. "Das Llbyrimh und seine Vorbilder." Mitteilungen des DeUl,c"en A'ehaololllschen jnsriIUls-Al>leilurrg K(liro (llh9j'1-9. Budde. L. and R. Nicholis. Greek ond Roman Sculplure In rhe FiQwjJ[i(l~ Museum. Cambridge. 19(,4. HaOOchi, L Lexicon der AgyplOlogie, Vol. 2. cols. 1072-74. Wiesbaden, 1977. Uoyd, A. B, "The Egyptian lAbyrimh." Journal of Egyplian Mche%gy 56 (1970j:81-IOO. Parlasca, K. Mumienportral. urrd verwarrd'e D,"kmaier. Wiesbaden. 196(). Petrie. W. M. F. Kahrm, Gurob, and Howara. London, 1890.

1211

i'

I,

..

Plan of the basilica that has been partially ~xc.vated near the village of Ha"..w~ril'Yah. Counes,v Peter Grossmalln.

1212

HAYKAL

th~

.;sics like the other eumplQ of this kind in EcYI't (A80 MINA. al-ASHMU!U.YN). and th~ ~nds of it _~ haJr....,.,nde<\. Inland. finally. - n discoVoet'ed • wln~ J"'CK :and • simpJy con5Iruatd building, poobably 10 be regarded as an inn or \nIV~WI haltin, pl.;l«. II contains hoIQ CQUrt)vds dewloped M peristyles lhrough simpl~ amotlCertlenll of col· umna. t.rOUoo which the Jt.I~ rooms are dilU'ibut· N. In .ddition, me b"ildi", «ICIWru: • larp t. nine, _ _11 lI$ a ..,,all cMpd ",ilh an IInusw./1y lich opws ~Cfile (~) l\oor on the etif silk. It Is pbc..d be....'een two perist)'Ie. BIBUOGaAI'lIl'

Fa""'ran;. F. al-. RUml Eu:o"olio>u ./ Ma~. ;" Ern", pp. 175~86. Das RiimiKIt·Oyu.ntlnische ,i.gypten. Akten des internalioonalen Symposlans 197. i.. Tri~r. Mainz. 1983. Ga~l. C.. and K. Pelruso. "Mare..: A Byza.nlin~ Port on Egypt's Northwestern Fronlier." Al'l:h
HAYKAL. SU Allar. Archilectural El_1S of Churehes.: s.n.:tuary_

HEADDRESS.

Sue C-:ume, Ci\il.

HEALlNGS IN COPTIC LITERATURE. When Christianity

beBat the conqu~ of f&ypt. u..e

countl)" had behind it both .. vel)" old literature and a wry Ionl rd.igK>us lmition. The inhabitants of !he Nile Valley had from time immemorial had reO::OUJ'N 10 t~ir di>';nities 10 obcain cuRs when Ira· dilioonat mtdic:al praclke proved powerless. Just tIS anclene ~icine continued to be pl"a(:tincl, as Ihc lreatlsa in Coptic prove. 10 £e
bllen ~ whic:h had I>«n degnld..d tnary puT"'"

....

Accordinl lO the ancleru idea, bodr I"lP" and Christian, illness came from a ,.,d or a demon, as a puni£hment from a lad « as th'l' Yt'..,..anc:t of an enl spirit. Thus God or me dj>inity con<:~rrvd could hnJ and retoi"l: h.eaJth. We should not cultivate tOO many illusions about the ..,ntimenlS lhal moci>."ttd piou& Copts in Egypc 10 _k sltelter in their fai!h. They ne no dillettt'lt From people of odler ~ligjons who IUm 10 Cod for help either through lrue bhh Or because OIh"r means failO'd. The ~rlessncss of lhe docton is some1;me:s described in the tnlS. which even portray lhem as ~ing aided by rn;ogicians anti enchant~rs. What this means is that rhe li.t of illnnsts cured mir.w:uloudy coincides more or I"" with thai of the aflli<:tions the dOClOrs could not cure or relieve, In listing lOme 120 miraculous cures from CopTic reXl., we find a wide range of illnesses. To compare $lIch a li$1 with that of diseases trutetl by me.'ever. IIlOlIt diseues classified by TIll are nol fouoo among lho5e ",ith mi...,ul....... cuns. Thus no mention is made of trichial.is. bJ~pharilis. xerophthalmia. $CI~ropl..haImla. amblyopia. disease; of the ear (other than deafness). diseaxs of the mouth. haem0pty5i1. stomach trouble, disca'M of tbe bladder, and smallpos. On Ihe other hand, I..", of mi· raculOUIS cum inclt>de disuses not in m..dkal boob. Such diseasel.. ncept.. perhaps, for blindness in one eye. can be nplalned _ stemming from ps)·chosomazic Cau5Q. n..,... mmtionc medically treared o::ould be rarely diagllOSed by a modem doclor using p,esomt-day I.nninoIo/:Y. for they are nOl characeerized by ""hat caus· Q them bul are doscribed only as symptom•• in view of ehe still rudimenlllry Slate olthe science of lhat age. Cases of demon JXlIMession pmvide lhe largest group, The medical texIS are silent on ther;e, for lhey were perhaps nOl ~gard"d il$ true diseases, For lhem. illness Came from God. ,lollhough it ....... vel)' often a punishment From heaven, it remain.

HEAUNGS IN COPTIC UTERATURE

......ethtloeu lrue thai between di..mily and "",n Ih~ _ an intermediaie enlily. a call1lysl. as we would say !oday, in the shape of the illness i!Self, On wl\ich the OOcwrs could ~mes .ct. ~'" JI'OS" ...-.I ... Ilw direcI inlrumn of an infernal ~r into tile viclim'l body. Property ~L il did POI belanS 10 the 6dd of medicine and (like epilepsy) Iw only r«ently-in the nineleenth oenlurybeen inclu6ecl in Ihe btler. Hen: is the lis! of the oIher diw_ that art common to the h.v fields of medldne and mincles: migraine. acule ~nful _iris. hepllliris. pains in Ihe side, abdominal ..mo., Ih,..,., iO!lWKell of penom wilh hemorTholdJ: ""ted of Iheir ICOUble. pain. in the lo.....,r limbs, nine iMlances of crippled ""no.... lame and in~nn, fractures. dlslocallons. one c.o5e of lOut. skin diseases (bul 't is difficuh 10 deline ·cutaneous·). caieS of leprosy (bul we cannool be absolutely ."re it is the diICI.ie ca"..,d by Hansen's bacillus), One case of fe...er, and a snakebite, Such. then, is the picture obtained from Coptic accounts, There is no tack of inter",l, but many inaccuracies frequently prevent posilive identifica· tions. As to the veracity of the.e accounls, only an u~ustive lIudy going into Ihe liniest delails would enable US (if even the,,) 10 decide what is properly hislorical a"d "'·..... t i. Wer imaRination i" the Ii.,,," of some Copolc sai" ... For Ihere is evffy likelihood that many of titeso: persons are sheer inventioM. ..... some of the odte", have had their biov:aphies ""pa~ t.,. in..enled ~ . 10 the Utent thai if Ihese apocl)'J)hal """.Ions an' dimi,gted. OM risks redud", lhem to mere names. The Coptic l'I!Cord could nOC be aken into acCOUDt foe a scienlific stucIy of 'M phenQtnellOn of miracles (whe"'er ~ beOO"el In ohern 0<" not) such a5 is carried on .1 Lourdes loday. But il mighl be appropriate 10 be Ieso sUpI.la1 rq:arding the CUJ'"CS dfceled on the tomh5 of !hoe Jalnts: We know of ~mirxl",," el~ ",ioe~, obtained &om saint!"'t>o never uisl:ed. Of sreaou ~Iicious i"leresl is lhe comparison d"l1 an be IIllIde• ..,d !hal cannot rail 10 be J»rllc· uluiy inSlrucli..e. between Ih""" luIS and lhe mino· cles ~laled in .he New Testamenl. Apllrl from. blind and deaf penon ",,-tw was 1"'"....50(1, • hunch· b.ck, and a <:&5<' of dysentery, .Illhe other diseases or In~rmlties milllculou~ly cured in the New TeSlll' men! Ire cured, on one occasion or anolher. In one I>T more Coptic lexlS. And such panallels are nol al 011 arbitrary, Jince """eral times the Coptic lo,tS dearly refer lO such cur"" effecle
1213

median", and lIlat God ... effecting the healing thn::>uah them. These ex!nordinary healinp could be produ«d in Vllriow; drcumslanCes and by vwious means: "'" ~ e of the a sbp he giws, "'" ...., of walCT or of tM oil of the I.s1'nfl belon: the ollar, a pT'llye1" of the saint's, In order he gives. 1m breath. toucbina his clothe!.. !he blood of a manyr, in one instance _ e who ..... the \icIin:l of demon possession ..... hunl up by Saini Menas. Miracles likewise
Yi"'.

burn,,,.

~)

It i, possible to glean other Informatinn here and there about Ihe live, of 1M sick in Chri.tian E!m>t.

Those whom we call "mentally ill" were nOi .hut up in an asylum but ",,.ndered freely, Doubtless the clinical accounos provided in Coplic hagiography often lea,.., .somethina 10 bot desired M 10 accuraC)'_ The authors wen' not doclors. and enn if !hey had been. Ihelr descriptions would hardly .'iiatisfy a modem praailioner. 'M mO<"e so sinee the historicily of these miracles is a mailer for c.a... lon. Bur. """'1 of lhese cures could be ""plained p!lYChosomallCllly. Healinp ~ 10 ." empiriaal kind of p;rcholhenpy must su.ely ha,.., 0<:' curnd sometimes. It Is noI knowu ...-helber thq' 1Mled. Oearly lhen is no lUI .bat ,ells us .... but if ""e may """",,,,1 an origin In !he p;yd>e for "elUin headaches. dumbness. some IJP"$ of paralysis. and """" ...methlng .....1 inil;.lly mieh' seem 10 be epi. Iepsy. i1 is quue cI.,., thac. ",,~J1_b1ished leprosy <:llJl1\(II dear up instan.....eowly ewn if Ihe p;yclooJopcal bctor in ".."'" insuonces had a pan 10 play. M 10 resurrections (if I. is noc catalep>y or snming death lhal is inyolved). titeso: ...., mere ""pi.,.. of Gmpel miracles. It is a qUCSlion of faith ra!her than of science. If the doclor son>elimes proved PG",..,rleSll, we musl not conclude th~t he wall the objecl of mockery or deri.ion, Luke the evangeli5t was a doclor, as were Coltuth". the Copllc martyr and Sain.. COSM.os AND DAMI""', who, though nOI EJYptian, were held in honor in E!m>1. If the Egypti~n of pharaonic daY" prized fim and fonmost ancient lllthcr than new

1214

HEAVEN

remedies, and perhaps because of that attitude abstained from medical research, we must, neverthe· less, note that the hope of cures by otber (supernat· ural) means left the door open for progress. Without having a clear idea of what they were actu' aJiy doing, the Copts, by reading and hearing these pious stories, maintained the hope of improved medicine. BIBLIOGRAPlty

Amelineau, E. C. Les Actes des many,. de Ngli.. eoplt:, Paris, 1890. ___. Mo>wm",ls pour servir ;, /'hiSloire de I'Egyplt: chr~/ierme. Musee Guimet, Annales 25. Paris, 1894. Barnes, J. W. B" and A, E. A, Reymond. Faur Martyrdoms from Ihe Pierpont Morgan Coptic Coaices. Oxford, 1973. Budge, E. A. W. Coptic Martyrdoms, eIC., in the DialeCI 01 Upper Egypl. london, 1914. Hyvemat, H. Les ACles aes martyrs de I'Egyplt, pts. 1-4. Paris, 1886-t887, Lemm, O. E. BruchSIiJcke koplischer Marlyrerak/m. St. Petersburg, 1913. Till, W. Koplische Heiligen· una Marlyrerlegurae", 2 vols. Orientalia Christiana Analecta 102, lOS. Rome, 1935-1936. ___. Die An.neikunde der Kopten. Berlin, 1951. GooRD GoDROII

HEAVEN, term used in the Holy Scriptures to indicate the sky overhead created by God (Gn. 1:1) and the dwelling place of God (Pt;. 2:4: 11:4; 103:19; 123:1; 129:7-8). The Jewish mystics adopted the concept of the plurality of heavens rising above one another; the first as the upanse of space sUlTOunding the earth: the second as the firrrojrnent containing the sun, moon, and stars: and tbe third (or heaven of heavens) as the abode of God. The concept held by the Coptic Orthodox Church differs as far as the third heaven is concemed and is based On the teachings of Saint Paul, ""here he tells the Corinthians (2 Cor. 12:2-4) of his vision and revelations: '" kl'lOw a man in Christ who fourteen years ago ",'as caught up to lhe third hea.en-whether ill tbe body or out of the body I do not know, God knows. And I know that this man was caught up into Paradisewhether iv the body Or out of the body [ do not know, God knows-and he heard things that cannot be lold, which man may nol utter." Here the

third heaven is paradise, the resting place of tbe souls of the righteous awaiting the day of judgment. Thus, hea,'en and paradise are quite distinct. This view is supported by evidence from the New Testament. Heaven is Ihe place from which Cbrist came down and to which He was raised. He said to Nicodemus, "No one has ascended into heaven bUI he who descended from heaven, Son of Mav, who is in hea"en" (In. 3:13). Again, at His ascension, as the disciples were watching steadfastly into heaven as He was lihed up, "behold, two mev stood beside them in while robes, and said, 'Men of Galil.,." why do you .tand looking inlO heaven? This Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven'" (Acts 1:10-11). The Revelation to John (21:1-23) draws a symbolical rep.esentation of heaven. The new Jerusa· loom is a realm that kno,,"'S nO hunger or thirst, no scorching heat. "Fo. the lamb in the midst of the throne will he thei. shepherd, and he will guide them to springs of living water; and God will ",ipe away evel)' tear from their eyes" (7:17). "The.e ,hall vo more be anything accursed, bUl the throne of God and of the Lamb shall be in it, and his ,e",ants shall worship him; they shall see his face, and bis name shall be on their foreheads. And night shall be no more; the)' need vo light of lamp or sun, lor the Lord God will be their light, and they shall reign for ever and ever" (22:3-5). Many of the early fathers described Iheir impres· sions of heaven and the beatific vision: Clement of Rome (Epislola I ad Conn/hlos, PG I, col. 2IS); Athenagoras of Athens ("Supplication for the Christians" 31, 1970); lrenaeus (Advusus om"es hae· re.ses, 1857, 1.10.1 and 4.20.5), The following "". cerpt from Saint Augustine deserves quotation in Ihis respect: How great ",ill be that happiness ... where there will be leisure for the praises of God, who shall be all in all! ... There the reward of virtue shall be God Himself, the Author of virtue: and He promised Himself, than whom the... cav be nothing bener or greater.... For thus tOO is that to be rightly understood which the Apostle sa)'S, "That God may be all in all." He Himself will be the end of our desires. He ,hall be seen without end. He shall he loved withoul surfeit. He shall be pmised without weariness, . _There we shall resl and we shall behold, we shall behold and we shalllo\'<:, we shall 10.'00 and we shall praise. This i. what shall be iv the end without end. (1979, p. 108)

HEGUMENQS

IUBUOGIVd"HY

AtheNlg0ra5 of A!hens. ''Supplicalion for !he Ch~ li~." In 1Jle FQiIIt of dte ElJrty FaiMrs, Vol. I, f
,"".

1M Sdinl.' El'eriAslitt, Res:. London,

Simon., U. E. Hu>'m in tJu C/rrislifl" Tratli/iort. Lon· dorI, 1951l Smith. W. M. TIoe Biblicll1 Doclri>u of H,("'en, Lon· don. 1968.

HEBBEL YNCK,

ADOLPHE

(1559- ''il39). Belgian Kholar and reetor of the Univershe calholique of Louvain. He was a student of C. de Harle~ and J, 8. AbbelC>OJ, G. Maspero, and E.. Revlllout. As a COp1olog;~I, he Sludied the Coplic lran.lallons of (he Bible and Coptic ~odicoloiY (C(>plic manu· iCripts of lhe Vatican Library). BIBLIOGRAPHY llldeule, r. "EIege acadtmiqu. de Mgr. Hebbe· Iynck." A"nllQire de rU"h'e.. i/i c.rlrolique de Loll' ....m 84, pl. 2 (1930~1939):127-44. Lefon, L T. "Adolphe Hebbelynck. 1859-1939:' L.e Mlluon 52 (1939):1'77-98. RL"(&(;EQU;ES COOOJIIl

HEFELE,

KARL

10SEPH

(1~-l893),

Ctmun dlurdun..., educator, and ecclesiticX:.al hlslorian. He ......g:bl a1 Tiibint;en from IU6, beaIM full ptofusl,,- in 18"0, and ...,.. eltcled bishop of Rothenbu,. in 1869. He visiled Ilome jwl befoll' his elotclion, and his ~'aSI k_'ledge U> lbe 6eld of church coun<:ils, was chale-n by the Valian as consul..nt on the' orpniUlion of the fonlw;om· inl Valican Courx:i1 of 1870. In the work! of s<:hol. aoi!ip, howe...,r, he ~me beller known for his classic work on the' history of the tccltsiaSlical coundls. Co""ilie~guch;d./~ (7 ''015., fribot.>rg, 1855-1874). TlIii wor\ ,,'as conlinued by CanJinal J. A. G. Her.enrblher. who publi~h~d Volum~s 8 and 9 (1887-189Q). The final work w&:ll Iran~laled inlO English by W. R. Clark &:II A. Hislory 0/ Ihe Cowncils of/he Church from Ihe Odginai Orx;um,UlS (5 ..015., Edinbur,h, 1883-1896). It was lrallslale<:! into French wilh addil,.",. by H. Leclercq as His/·

owingJj:

1215

we des coneil... (8 vol$... Pam. 1907~1921)_ The French edition has been ffCOJIli:ted as w.>tandanJ work of rd~en<:~ on the SUbjecL

HEGUMENOS. a litl~ giwn to some presb)1en, as a rule .....0 lOIelheT ...ilh !he lille prt3byt",.,.. The term derivo from lhe Grttk ht6'JMmentn, .........., primaJy meaninl was "ruler." wdl k"o,.... in progan Grffk and also ~ by Christian authon to denote a bishop. In lalt Gtwk leXl!l I'mm EfD'J'C and

in Coptic t""IS, this lide rtk'"'" 10 clerics and monb and .....,. given 10 whoe>'e' played lhe leading role in the' group. The c1~ U$Iot" of ltetumell(ls was the resuh of Ihe n~ to lind a tille lhal would emphasize the position of that presbyter who hadedorlf, 1912, P. 13). In the mona:stic conl.....1, Iw:p _ _s can clenole !he ... pc,ino and was .-sed m communities of.,.,.;. <>US I)pes and ma One CanllOO ""etude the po5Si. biIity that oriDnaIly het,""ellos described a monk who en~ higher M"horily, an elder ...ito pbyoed the ..,Ie of infonnal leader in a semi"tilOChoIl'Iic commullily. An ucellenl uample is furnished by the Htsroll1A MONACliOII.UN (Fesll.lgi~ll'. 196-4), ",ilere some monb are described .. "fathen of many mollaMenes," allhough here "monaslery" has a differenl meanina: lTom lhe one pven 10 it later on. Ho_ver, ranadius, who was in Egypl al the same time"" the aulhor of lhe Hisloria mOHocho'um al the end of the fourth cenlury, used Ireg" ... enos wilh the le~hnical meaning thaI was 10 become usual laler on, such lIS In a passage ...here UCHO.llIUS is mention.,d.

1216

HEGUMENOS, ORDINATION OF A

P. Kahle was of the opinion that the application of the term with a monastic ~onnotalion was limit· ed to the regions of Thebes and Aphrodito. This hypothesis does not seem to be ~orre~l, sin~e the tille appears in DAYR APA JERE.M1AK at Saqqara and in literary texts that refer to ENATON. near Alexandria. It also oc~urs in the life of $oWO'IL OF QAlAMDN, which was written in the Fayy(lm (see Alcock, 1984, index), The borderline belween tbe meanings mentioned ~ould be obliterated, It is. for """",pie, difficult to detennine the sense of ~.gume~oj in reference 10 priests of KELUA who played a leading Tole in this semi-ana~horetic center, sin~e the role of those mO· nastic officials was strictly connected with the ract th.t they headed a church that sel"\'ed ascetics, Today ~egummos memo "abbot." or the head of a monaster)'. The hegum.~os is usually chosen by the monlo from thdr own community and approved by Ihe patriarch, metropolitan, or bishop within whose jurisdiction the monastery lies. The hegumenate is the highest rank of the ['riest· hood to which ['riests, mamed or celibate, sel"\'ing in cathedrals or large ['arishes, may be raised, The Arabic equivalent term for ~egume"'J5 is qummus (protopri"'t). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alcock, A., ed. Life of Samuel 01 Qalomu". London, 1984. Crum, W, E., and G. Steindorff, eds. Kopt;sch. Rechtsurku"den d.s achlm Jahr~u~JulS aus Vi.m •. Leip"ig, 1912. Festugitre, A. 1. us Mo!~es d'Ori..1I. 4 vols. in 7. Vol. 4, E"qu;te sur les mo;"es d'Egypl. IHisroria mo"achorum i~ Aegypto), p. 66, Paris, 1964. Kahle, P_ Bala'!~h: Coptic T'~ls Irom Ddr d· Balai1ah, Vol. L Pl'. 33-34. London, 1954, Till. W, C.. ed, Carpus Papyrorum Rai"~ri, Vol. 4. Vienna, 1958, OJ EWA WIPS2YCKA

HEGUMENOS, ORDINATION OF A. The sel"\;ce of promoting a priest to the hegumenate is similar to thai of ordination 10 the prie.thood, ex· cept that in the prayers said by the bishop and the archdeacon, th. word "priesthood" is replaced by "h~gum~nat~" and the bishop .ecites the following prayer of Epic/e.!s, Ihat is, the descen. of the Holy Spirit, inaudibly: Master, Lord God almighty, F~ther of our Lord and our God and our Sa"lor Jesus Christ, who

knowe" all things before they e~ist: Thou hast chosen Thy servant [Name] 10 be a father md hegumenos 10 Thy servants his fellow·presbyters, working logether in full accord for Thy name's sake, We therefore ask Thee, 0 Lover of man· kind, to proted him, hless him and purify him by th~ descent of Thy Holy Spirit on him. Do Thou $upport him in every good work, granting him wisdom and power through Thy Holy Spirit, to """,e Thee day and nighl without blame. Bestow th~ Spiril of good leadership upon him, togelner with humility, love, forbearanc~, and righleousness, that he may pleas~ Th"" lhrough his good works, providing Ihe righl example to In(>Se under him, and teaching them Ihe commandments of Thy law, looking after them in purity and love, thai they may become blamdes. and worthy 10 be offered as a li>ins, pu.e and acceptahle sacrifice to 1esus Chri.t the heavenly bridegroom, ful· filling Thy words: "lei your light so .hine before men, thai Ihey may see your good works, and glorify your Father which i$ in heaven." Through the grace and compassion of Thy only·begotten Son, our God and Savior 1esus Christ, wilh whom and wilh the Holy Spiril Thou art blessed now and for~ver, Amen, The third modification comes in the ~atechesis speech read by the bishop, where great emphasis is laid on lhe impol1ance of Ihe hegumenos' role as teacher 10 his people fo. whom he is held responsible before God. "Watch over them, direct Ihem 10 good deeds. Admoni.h the sinners with kindness and comp..,..ion in accordance with lhe apostolic law. Strive to draw them towards repentance, knowing thai they are part of thee, and Ihat you have become Iheir guide. Beware lest the wolf come near the Aod. Fulfill the words of the Scrip' ture: 'We that are strong ought to bear the infirmi· tie. of the weak, and not 10 please ourselves· (Rom. 15:1J, so that you, too, may be told: 'Well done, good md faithful servant, thou hast been faithful o,er a few things, J will make thee ruler over many things: enter ;nlO Ihe joy of thy lord' [Mt. 25:23]," The bishop then continues Ihe celebration of the liturgy, wilhoul insufflating Ihe hegum.nos, as he ah'ead)' received Ihe breath of the Holy Spirit when be was ordained ['riest, IS.~ also: Ordination, ClericaL] BIBUOGRAPHY

Abft al-BaraUt ibn Kaba.. M!~b(lh a/.?ulmah II 14iil} a/-Khidmah, pp. 435-46. Repr. Cairo, 1971.

Bunnester, 0, H. E, The Egyprian or COpl;" Church, pp, 164-66, Cairo, 1967.

HENOTICON

Ibn Sibl;' Y~"* ibn .... bl bUr1y.L KiJ.lb .14.._ Iuu.h .l/-N../i.." Ii Ulum ../.luml.
HEJ.WAN. Su IJih.'ln.

HENEIN MAKARIOUS, SU

MaUrus l:Iufta}·n.

HENGSTENBERG, WILHELM (1885-1963). profe$.sor of Ea,nern Chriatianity at the Un;nrsity of Munich. He lau&I>t the Ianl"a&cs of Eas'em Cb..ulianily. ir>clud!lI& Copcic. Among his pupils "'..,..., J. Asshlf: and A. BOltI;,. His doctonJ lhcsas. "Koptioche trmmden unci Brid'e"' (\Jnl..eniry of Munich, 1921)...-as not pub.li~. but M did publisIt i,"poNnt a"ides about mona>tic;s.... in EcYP1. notably "I'acbomiana. mit cine.... ....nhallJ tiber die Ulurtie 'IOn .... lexandlitn.. (in 8.ilTlige wy Guc"icht. des christlic"'" A;/",rll",$ II"d du !ry,anti"isch." LiIUal"y,' FUlrab. Alberr E.hrhard, Bonn and Leip:zig. 1922. pp. 228-52) and "Bcmcrkungm mr Emwid,lung)geo<:lIichte des ;;gyptischen Mt\ncmul1lS"' (in Mis 01 1M ~Ih /nttUtit,,' IITCUoIOJiqIU lIt.!riJre 9. 1935. P1'- 355-62). His och"" wrilinp include "Die gricchisch-kopltochen ~,. (~il$l:hrifl fUr l411'tuclu: Sprache und Allertu"..k""tde 66, 1931. pp. 51-6S) and "Der Dnchenitampf oks heilisen T1M:o<\o<"' (Ori."s Chrisl;iJnI's n.5. 2. 1912. pp. 78-106, 241-80. and n.5. 3. 1913. PP.. 135-37)_ His book l"C\'iews (W, Ka~erer, A Coptic Bibliog· ,aphy. Ann .... rbor. Mieb., t'~. Po 181. under HengO1CIlbc.... Criliclol Ilevioew) contlOin much addilional mateoial and ..., therefore i,"p0rlartt. BlIILIOGIAnn"

BIlhlic........Wilhel.... Henplenberp,." B1t""tiniwhe Zei/seIlri" 56 (1963):478-31. MARTIN KUUSE

HENOTICON, fifth·cenlury ,mperial edict that was one of lhe basic Mate",en~ of impcn..l Iheolof3 and «df$WIical polky of Ibe early Byanline

1217

period. 11 is the ""me gi>..,n 10 Ih. instnlmenl oJ. union addrcsse wilhdrew "''''e edict opens with ",hal had bee...... the lradi· I*"" ........'101 thai .be safely of lhe empire depend· ed on il£ onhodo.y: "Considerin, Ihe source .nd con.,itution of (HJr "",,,,ocr and the invincible shield Qf our empire .s the only riShl and lrue faith, which through divine intel'o'emion lh. 31S Holy Fa· Illers aMembled in Niun e.pQUnded. and Ihe 150 Holy Fathers 'onvencd similarly in Constantinopl. conlirmcd. .. ," Faithful obseT>'aI"ICe of this bi.h aIld pr;aisc of God, In. Savior Jesw Christ, and the VlrJi-n T1l~ will .nable Ille entmia of tile empire 10 be desu'oy«land the fruils oflhe tanh 10 be brou&ht hmh abundantly_ The .mpcrw lO" on 10 Male lhal he has received many beanfdt pelilions from "archimandriles. htr· mhs and other holy men" 10 knit the churches togelht, one. more in unity. Scuu"" of diS3jr<=e· ments "'iIMn lhe church. $.Icramenu h""e not bet.. dispensed. and N. rt5U!tthcre have been riotS and bloodshed Therefo..., those 10 whoom the edlcl is addrn&e creed other th2n Nicaca COttfirmed by the councils 01 aINST"-lmtoOl'U. and El'HESUS. "",tlere tile impious NestOri"5 and lhose ""ho v.-ere I"'.... of lhat one'5 mind·' are condemned. N(STORnJS and EUTYCHES are .nathern.atittd. bul Ibe Twelye Analhrma, of Saini C¥RIL I are 10 be acc.pt· ed as canoni~ ..l. Tb••dict conclude, wilh a slat.· nwnl of Christological belief: Ihat J.sus Christ if consubstanlial with botb God and man and Is '·incarnale from lbe Holy Spiril and Mary the VitIin.

1218

HENOTICON

Theolokos. is One and n<>l IWO. foI- ...·e uy lhal both his mlnode. and his 5IIlFerinp which he u~.....enl by lac! of} will in the Boh arc of one penon:' Anyone ""'0 "has thought or lItinks an)'lhing else now or aI any lime ei1her in Chakedoo'I or In any olher .)nod whale'.-cr, we analhemalize.·· 1besc were the foundalions on ...·hich aU were enjoined 10 WIne in 11M: emlx.ce of the ehurch. The HenOIkon. a ....entn>/ and Chakcdon; Zeno ....id lhat he was not p..... pa ....d 10 do SO (Evagrius HiSlori« e«luuutic4 3. 22).

In Eg)'J'I the Henolicon had a mixtd ~~Iion; the bishop of Anli~. lwo "&",al an;hbnandrilcs:' and n'..M ..... monks joined in rejecli"l II (beha· rial IthHQr HiMori. ueluUulie. 6. 2; Micl>IoI:l me Syrian ChTflnicon 9. 6; and Ubenrus BretNuW... 9). Tbtse d_nle~ 1>«_ kllown as ACEl'tl.ot.Ol (.. the hadless'1. having rejected the empet'Ol' and palrian:h of AJeuJldria as their hado.. Pete.- III Mongus. however. and Pder 01 Iberia. the do¥en 01 ascetics. acc~ the Hen(llicon. 'fht documenl ...... abo acCoepltd gcnenlly. !hough "'M degtecs of rcl\le· tanc~. Ihroughoul lite 1\J1;I. nOi IeasI by lhe anti· C~lcedonian .-lriarch -er•.lhe Soil.....'ion..,.. different. Pope Leo had br;mded all who rejec,ed his Tonie as ''Eulychiaos'' tUllers 111 and 112. ",rilten In 453). and his wie.." ...e .... accepted by his SU<:Ces&On. In 482. Pope Simplkius w,," already angry wilh Acac· !w for lhe lau....·s alleged "double dealing" in aC· cepling Peler Mongus as p
felix III in 483 lhal lhe sianl6cance of lhe Henoli· COD became apparenl lhere. Fell>. had 10 be a1entd by opponents c1 Aeacius in CoO$Wltinople, !he

Sleepless Monr.... befOf'e he xled. He lIten accused the palriarch of _nil\l that he ...... ''head of the whole church" (Felix. 10 Acacius. in PNblizislisl:he Sormml""lm 1M'" iKACY,.;"Mr. Sd!ism., p. 13). A papal de1qlUion 10 Constalllinopic was dtteiw:d inw taking communion ,,'hh Acac;w durinC a sen-icc al which lhe names of both Peler M<>o;gm and OIOSCORUS l palriarch of AloAndria. ......., com· _morattd by being mod from Ihe diplyells. In anl'Y retalialion a council held by Felix a. Rome on 28 July 484 solemnly excommunicated Acaciu$ but mo,e for "hypocrisy" titan for heray_ Pet.... Mongus "'ther than Ihe Heno1kon remained the source of oII'e ..."" (Ihus. Feli~. 10 Zeno. in Publitist.sche S .....ml.. HI"H. p, 248). Only when lhe schi.m hardened did Ihe Henotlc:on Itself bec..,me a major i~ue.

The Henoticon was a s'ale aCI. a pronouncem...nt by the ",igoing emperor on a malleI of doctrine. It went funher than the d«ree of Theodosius I on 27 fehllJa'1' 380 (Cod~x Theodosia",.. 16. l. 2). for Theodosiu. de<;i;lred only that Ihe trinitarian l...ach. ing of Rome and Alexandtia was <:anoni.,.,!. withoul mentioning his own views. Zeno. howell",,". does nOi refer to !he >iews of any !oeC bul states ",hat be hin~elf beli",-es. lbus. he foreshao:l<-.. JUStinian', religi..... decrees and documenl5. lhe Ecthesi. of Heraclius I. and the Tyf'O' of C_ns II. 'fht Hen· <>Ikon. lIterrio......... a lon, Slep laward Byzanline cac:sampapism. The Henolicon abo pnnided a doetrinaI basis for !he ~ $CHISM. wbich I_ed &-om ~ to S19. It hl&htichled the unbridleable differences be1~ !he ~ and eccle5iast;.. cal oulloob of Olel and Hew kome. AI the same time. il aided lhe _nliaJ unity of E&sIem Chrislendom. consolidalin, il around !he lheology of Cyril and !he I~ip of Constantioople and Alexandria. The period of lhe schism wilh Old Rome ....... a Lime of relali,.., relJaiou$ peace in the easI Roman p<'O\'inces, and this conlribuled loward an internal prosperily thaI made possible the aa:e of Spanline g",alness under JUSl'II'll.\N. BIBLIOGIlAP'Hl'

No contemporary wrller presened the complete text of the Henotkon. but different version. have enabled it to be '«OnSlru<:led and published by E. Schwanz. "Codex Valicanus Graecus 1431, eine anti-.ehalkedonisehe Sammlun. au. der Zeit K:oiser ZenOS'." AbhQHdl..",en de, Kllnirlkhen BQy~rische"

HERACLEON

A.kadem;~

de. Wiss<usc},"ft.", Philosophisch. hisloriseh. AbteHung, Vol. 32.6 (Munich, 1927), no, 75. pp. 52-54. Surviving versions are Zachari", Rhelor, His/an.a ecdesitutica. ed. E.. W. Brooks. CSCO, ScriptoTes Syri III. 5 and 6 (Paris and Louvain, 1919-1924), English lrans. by F. J. Hamilton and E. W. Brooks, V. 8 (London, 1899); Evagrius Scholastic\l$. Hislario eccl~io$tiCIl, ed. J. Bidez and L. Pannemier, III. 14 (London, 1898); NicephonJ$ Calli.tus, HislOria ecclesiasrica, XVI. 12 Palrologia eraeell 146 (Paris. 1846): Liberatus of Canhage, BMviari"m cau,ae NeslQri<momm .1 e"lychia".,. rum, ed. E. Schwartz, XVII. 112, ACIa condliOlUm oecumenirorum 2.V (Berlin and Leipzig. 1932); Facuncius of Hermiana. Pro del.mione mum capilul.,. rum, XII. 4, Parr%gio Latina, ed. J,-P. Migo., Vol. 67, cols. 845-48 (BTepol! and Turnhout, n,d.), An anonymous Armenian partial ve...ion is published in English translation by F. C. Conybeare in Amen· c"" Journal of Theology 9 (1905)'735-37, Foc an English translation ",ith nOles, see P, R Coleman·Norton, Roman S/au and Chrisr;"" Church, Vol. 3. Soci bis Hormis
1219

He retained hi, veneration for his mentor. though he differed Wilh him 00 many theoiogical issue. and supported the decisions of Ihe synod. COll\'ened by Dl:Me-r~lllS I in condemning Origen's teachings and doctrine•. He was eleele
Allaner. B. Patrology. Eng. lrans. H. Graef. London. 1958. Bardenhewer, O. Geschichle der altkirchliche" Lile· Talur. 3 vols. Freiburg. Germany, 1902-1912, Duchesne. L Early Hislmy of Ihe C~rislian Ch~rc~, Val. I, pp. 3411f. Lund<>n, 1909, Quasten, J. Palrology, 3 ,·ols. Ulrecht and Antwerp. 1975. AlII S. ATtY.'.

HERACLAS, SAINT, thirteenlh palriarch oflhe See of Saint Mark (231-247) (feast day. 8 Ki)'ahk). He sludied theology al the CATECHE:JlCAL SCHOOL OF M.EXANDRIA under ORIGEN. who seleeted him as his assistam to teach beginning students (Eusebius His· lori" eccle.iaslicQ 6. 15). When Origen had difficul· ties with the authorities. Herod.. succeeded him as head of the s-chool; he taught the advanced dasses.

HERACLEON, GnO!ltic teacher in Alexandria about 170-180. who had great inAuence on Saint CLEMENT Of ALEXANDRIA and ORIGEN. Clement de· scribed him as "the most esteemed {d"k;matotos]"" disciple of VAl.ENTINUS (Clemenl SlTOmaleis 4. 9. 71.

,

).

Heradeon is the first known commentatoc on the

1220

HERACLEOPOLlS MAGNA

N"", Tt:Stam"m after BAStUDES, and fragments of his commentaries on Luke and, in panicular, John have survived. He seems to ha,'e made a large con· llibUlion to ORlCEN'S great Comm~,,'ary 0" Joh" lstaned c. 227), which sought to explain th.. Founh Gospel within the framework of orthodox teaching. He",cleon believed that there was significance in every .ingle word in the Gospels. The Gospels, especially the Founh Gospel, were the "","",ge of the Oivine Logos, proper undt:rstanding of which provided the means of spiritual ""ivation to the believer. Thus, the ime'l'reter must look at every "'ord and understand why that, aud not some other, expre,;.sion had been used. In the fragment of his comm"ntary on Luk" 12,B ("Whosoover conf".s,," in me b<:fore men, in him also will the Son of Man confess ""fore the angels of God. But whoev"r dt:nies m" ""fou m"n will also be denied before th" angel< of God"), Herad"",n make. much of the fact thaI Luk wriles "conf""",,. in me" and not '·confesses me," He poims oUi thaI simple confe..ion of Jesus could be verbal only, whil" the force of "in m,," was the implication of a right auitud" of mind, for "whoev· er lives in him can never deny him" (Clement 4. 9. 72. 4). The passages prest:rved by Orig"n from Heradeon·. Commenlary 0" Joh". chapters I. 2. 4, and B, show a concern for the equalion of moral with spiritual valu",. Thi' underli"s an oft"n fanci· ful allegori.ation of what he i$ interpreting. There is also aUemion to Ihe exact wording of each text, as in his work on Luke. Thus. he points out that Jesus spoke of salvation being "or' Ihe Jew, and not "in" th"m (Origen CommeMary 0" Joh" 13. 52), and emphasi:tes that Jesus "went up" 10 Jerusalem (Origen 10. 33). meaning that he ";l$(:ended from the realm of the material to the psychic place which is an imag" of Jerusalem."' The whole tenor of Herad"on's interp,..,tation of John shows that its m~e was that the true Christian must progress from Ihe material or pagan "iew of the world, through ;Ihe "psychic" Jewish or or· thodox understanding of scripiure and liturgy, 10 lhe real and spiritual ipprehensi()n of divine truth. Thus hi. inte'l'retation of John 4,22 indudes the injunction quoted from The Preaching of Peler. thaI we must not worship as Ihe Greeks do, who believe in materiallhings and worship wo:>od and stooe. n()r worship lhe divine as the Jew, do. for they wh() Ihink they alon" know God d() not know Him but worship angels. lhe month, and Ihe moon. "Onl>od()x" Christians also "worshiped, in nesh and in error. him who is not the Father: they wOr5hiped

Ihe c,"""tion and not the lrue c""'tor" (cited in Origen Commmtary 0" Joh" 13. 17. 19). Spiritual beings "comp,..,hended the Passion of Ihe Savior as the symbol of their r"storalion 10 Ihe Falher" (Origen 10. 19.1. Similarly. "psychic'· (i.e., orthodox) baplism was only bodily and imperlect, "the bap· tism of John," where... baptism by the Gnostics was "for perfection" and was "spiritual." Origen dismissed som" of Hemcleon·, interpretation' as speculative. but others he was prepared to accepl. "Not improbably:' he writes concerning H"rodeon's exegesis of John 4:12-15. "the springing up" (verse (4) refers to those "who recei"e what is richly supplieared the ground for those of the Christian Platonists of Alex' andria. They also saw th" Word speaking through scripture and therefore r<,quiring a spirilual and allegorical interpretation. Clement and Origen ma)' both be seen in chis respect as the Ih"",logical de· scendants of H"md""'n. BIBUOGRAPHY Ftlrsc"r, W, Gno.i.: ,4 Sdection 01 Gnostic Texl', Vol. I, Palnstit Evidence, trans. R. MeL. Wiloon, chap. 10, Oxford, 1972. Pagel<. E. "A Valeminian Interp,..,tation of Baptism and Eucharist."' Harvard Theological Review 65 (1972): 153 -69, Salmon, G. "Heradenn (I)." ln DCB 2. pp, 897900. Rep'- New York, 1974. W. H, C. F!l.ENO

HERACLEOPOLIS MAGNA. HERACLES,

'n.

SU AhnU,

Su Mythological Subjects in Coptic

HERACLIDES, SAINT, martyr in founh· century Egypt. Heradides is kn()wn only from the fragmentary text of a Sahidic Passion and fragmcms of a codex from OAYR ANB,I, SHtNIlOAH (the White Monaslery). (For a complele list . ..,., Till, 1935, pp, 33lf.; and Von i.t:mm. 1913. no. 4,) He is not men· lioned in the Copto·Arabic SYNAMRlON, and the

HERAISCUS

Heradides mentioned in the Passion of Didymus along with four (Jther martyrs appears to be quite a different person. The Passion belongs to those of the Cycle of Jul· ius of Aqfah~, and the seene tIlkes place in Alexandria under the Roman prefect Anneniu•. We no..... possess only an initial apparilion of Jesus, who pre· dicts that Heraclides will be martyred; the mention of the witness of Julius of Aqfah~; sonle scenes of lerrible torture. followed by miraculous cures; and finally the death senlen"e pronoun"ed by Annenius. Before dying, Heraclide. prays that the land where he is buried may proliferate with froit and animal•. This prayer is an indicalion of the dose relalion.hip between piety and cultic &>'olion 10 the martyr in hope of benefits. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baumei.ler. T. MarlyF Invictus, DeF MiiFI";rer als Slnnbiid du Erl6su"g In d" ugende uod 1m Ku/t der (Fuhen koptischen Kirche. Munster, 1972. Lt:mm, O. E., von. 8ruchslUck< koplischer Martyr.r. ak/en, Vols, 1-4, St. Petersburg, 1913. Till, w. C, Kop/ische Hdlige". und Mar/yrerle. genden. Vol. 1_ Orien/alia Christiana Ana/Ula ](12, Rome. 1935. T,IO

ORLANDI

HERACLlUS, FAST OF. See Fasts,

HERAI, SAINT, fourth·centu!)' >irgin martyr in EIDpt (feast day: 14 Tilbah); she is brieAy mentioned also in the Greek calendar (5 and 23 sep' lember). The legenda!)' Passion of Herai sundv,," in a single Sahidic manuseript (Eg)ptian Museum. Turin. cat. 63000, 111. 65-72), which is now incomplete, The missing portJans can be reconSlnocted from the brief summa!)' In the Copto·Arabic SYNAX· ~RION ("Theban" red3Cti~n: d. Coquin, 1978). Herai. we are told. ",as an outstandingly beautiful twelve-year·old virgin, arrested 3.< a Christian along with a group of other ,'irgins: while Ihey we,e going 10 dra", waler in their nalive village of Tammah in Middle Eg)pt. Herai foresaw that she ",ould soon be a mallyr and made a long farewell speech to her companions. They ",ere all mken by boat to Antinoopolis and broughl before the prefect Culcianus, who ",as sinock by Herai's beauty and desired 10 save her by having her offer a sacrifIce. Cukianus was alw

lnl

struck by the fact-interesting for us in the framework of Ihe legend-that Herai understood Greek. In ""cordance with the usual structure of the.e Passions, there follows a scene of allercation be· tween Culcianus and Herai, interspersed with Ihreals of tOllure. There is also a divine inten'enlion, just before lhe execution of Herai. which concludes the Coptic lext. The legend of Herai must have been known local· Iy in and around Tammah. since it was inselled into Ihe S}'naxarion of Upper Egypt but not in Ihat of lower Eg)'Pt (cf. Cequin, 1978), which eventually prevailed, Furthennore. as far as can be judged from the surviving text, it doe. not belong to one of the major hagiographical CYClES. although the figure of Culdanus is well known from olher Passions. It is possible. however. tltat the Passion of Herai may be the basis for the later Passion of the martyrs TtR ~ND EM!. composed as part of the cycle of BASIlI[)ES the General. Herai is menlione
Baumeister, T. MOrl)'1 Invicrus. Der MiJnyr.r als $innl>,ld der EFliJsung '" der Legende "nd im Kult der fruh ... kOpli$chen Kirche, p_ 103. Mun.ter, 1972Coquin, R.-C. "Le Synaxaire des Coptes. Un Nouveau temoin de la recension de Haute·Eg)pte." Analecr" Bolla"dla~a 96 (1978):351-65. Rossi, F. I Paplri COpl' del Museo Egizio di Ton'Flo. 2 vols. Tunn, 1887-1892. Trw ORLINm

HERAISCUS, an Alexandrian Neoplatonic philosopher of the late fifth cenlu!), and a pagan priest. He came from an Egyplian family that owned an ancest,."l estate at Phenebythis in the nome Panopolis. Three primary sources mention him: Oamascius' Life of Isidore. composed in the early sixth centu!)'. olfers fragmentary infonnatioll about Her· aiseus' role as a pagan religious figure; the Syriac Life of Severos, written by Zachariah of Mit}'lene, numbers him as one of six NeoplalonistS connected with an outbreak of religious violence near Alexan' dria in 485: a papyrus letter composed in Greek by Flavius 1l0lUlPOllON and found at Kom lshqll.w has been lranslated and studied by J. Maspero (1914). who demonstrated thaI Herai..,us. although not named in the leller, was both the uncle and the

1222

HERESY

blhn-in·law of HOI3pollon and the bl'OlheT of AStU'.PlAOES. lwo liomous profesM>l"S .. lhe Alexan-

drian Muwon. What Inleresled Dan.....c.... abou. HeraiiCllS was. that he. &lonk ""ith his older brolhe.- Asclepiades. was usinS native J't'1;p:.us conctpl$ 10 addJ't'IlI phil060pbk:al issI.Ies. In his. commentary (),., Fim Pmociplu (ed. Ruelle, chap. 1l5), Damasclus cbimed lhat !hey uuths hiddnl in EcYJxian myths, _h as the tradition that Unknown DaItne:sa .... !he bqinnins of all creation_ In an exe~ka1traa eompoced by Heniscus and to J>roc..... head of the Athenilut philosophical school. lhe brolhets' ........ well' round 10 diW!rse conceminSlhe ....\uJ't' of the inielligible cO$Dl()$. conOkl of opinion pl'Ompled Damasc:ius 10 remark .hal ~n E,yptians mspuled ov.... concepts and 10 acknowledce a .Ii,. linelion betw«n Coptic and Greek philosophers. A few fn,sments From the life of bJdore allude to HeralllCus' prieslly actiyity. He spent much of his time In lemples tending to the paternal cult in £cpt and elsewhere, By .imple observation, while approaching a sac..w image. he W"li pJd to Mnse whether It was diyinely animated. for he would eJl· perience a leaping senption in his 50ul as If pos. sessed by a god. At Heraiscu..· death. his br'Olher Aiclepiades lended In the funeral rit"" and pre· pared to hand """,r In the prinu the CUSlOmary fianerar)' objects. which includcd the bandages of Osiris in "'hich the body was 10 be wrapped, II Is nOlewonhy lhat HeraiKus' rclic:ious bchaviOO' COn· forms 10 the principles of Iheu.., • explained by the Iounh-eenlury Syrian NeopWonist lamblich.. in his It'arl On I1te Etfl>til.n A4yslvic.J.

""."xl

Krl'

kaqi. W. "The Fifth Ceniliry Twili&l" of Byzanline Paganism." Cumi.... el Med'''e»
".

Mlts:pcro. J. "HorapoUon CI b fin du paganismc

Bulletin Ik I'InJliJ..1 Inn,,,is d'Qrch~ "';enl.le 2 (1914):16J-95. Remondon. R. "L'£cple CI 18 suprtn>c ~ au chrislianismc (V'-vlr sOkles)." B..llni-rt de rJulitul ,....... is 4'~ ariD""le 51 (1952):63-78. Zlntzen, C. ~MJSlik unci Ma:gic ill der neupIaIonischell l'triIo$opMe." Rh<'iniscMs 108 (196.5):71-100. ~"

"""5£.....

n.e

-'5......., R. "'Zur Rdmnsuuklion ''OD Ihmasciw: Lebctt des lsidoros." Br""nw.iscM Ze;tsclori/t 18 (1909):424-80; 19 (19101:U;S-84. _--; DpJr.tn I~ _ 0... "'aslios """ D.mrad4S. lLipzig. 1911. Boyance, P. "rheurgk et leleKiq~ neo-plalOnideones." Revue de ."Iristoire ia reli,;QIU 147 (195S): 189-109. Cllmnnt. r. "I.e Culte otgypiien el Ie ml'"'ticisme de Plotl"." MOtlllme"" eI menwiru pub/lis p'" I'A· cQdimlt des 1"x-";pl;Q'<$ tt lullts-Ielt,ts 24 (1921>'77-92. Eitrem. S, "Die : le~ n~o·plalonlclenJ et danf les papyrus magiqucs." Symbo/Qt Osloensls 22 (1942):42-79.

HERESY. lnns!iter:aI!On of 1M Grttk },,,iresis. wltM:h denoted <:itMr a SCI of principles or lbo.se who adhered 10 such principles as a secl "r schooL """""ially among Chrislians and Jews.. the term Clme to refer to thoM holdln, false doctrines or teachinJ$. obviously sO clesi,nated by Ihose who professed to have the lroe doctrines and 10 belong 10 Ihe correcl pany or SCCI (Ulmpe, 1961. p. 51). Early Egyptian ChriSlianity is no! chamclelized by an easily identified orpnl Demetrius and subsequent 10 thai time. 8f'I'I'Cd that the ne-.iyan"'Cd CathoIk faith ,"'U i~1f Mretkal. and chaq;n and countercbargcs of heresy continued for centuries. E....n beiore the time of Deolnftr'ius, there "<ere some who l.ye become known as Mll'6cs and founders of herecical n'lQYCnlents.- So>clt designa· tions are mcanin&ful primarily for rltose wlto Wf:rf: per«i~ as having establithed belie& or practices not accqlWsle to olhers da:mlng IC>1Idersbip in the Christian chlln:hc'I'. While most so-called heretics of carly f.cyplian Christianily are a1so included under Ihe generic lenn "enOSlic:' there is Iilde juslifit:a· tion for considerinllhem to be anything olher lhan diotinci and dispante ~uba:roups within the larger Christian community. Some of the more famous early heretic.. associated with Chrisllan Egypt were Basilidcs, CARI'OC"'TES, CERIN1ll1JS, and VALENTINUS. Herelical groups with no specifically Idenlified founder included the Ophltes and the Sethians. among other'i.

HERMES TRISMEGISTUS

1223

BIBUOGRAPUl'

BIBUOGRAPUl'

Grigg$, C. W. Early Egyptian Christiani/)'. Brill, 1989. Lampe, G, W. H, A Patristic Gruk Laico". Oxford, 19M. Schlier, H...A.'ptojlD..... In Th~o;,'gicai Dictionary of Ihe New TeS/arnent, ed. G, Kine!, Vo1. I, pp, 18085. Grand Rapids, Mich. 1964.

Ahaner, 6., and A. Stuiber. Patrol/ogie, 8th ed., pp. 55-58. Freiburg, Basel. and Vienna, 1978. Joly, R. Hermas. Le Pas/our, 2nd cd. Sources chretiennes 53, Paris, 1968. lefort, L·T. L,e, Pores aposlOliquu en Copu. CSCQ 135, 136, Scriplor~ Cop/ici 17, 18. Louvain, 1952. Lucchesi, E. "Complements aux peres aposlOliques en Copte." Anaiec/a BoUandia"a 99 (1981):395-

C. WilfRED GRIGGS

HERMAS, ..,cond-century Roman author of The Sh~pherd,

an apo<:alyptic work that is a call to repentance. He is included unong the apostolic fa· thers. The Greek original has not come down compl~te. Alongside rdatively small papyrus fmgmenlS, men_ tion should be made of the CODEx SINAITIC1J$, an Athas Codex, and a papyrus at the University of Michigan (there is a su"'CY of the mmsmission of the Greek text and of the translations in the editions of M. WhitLaker, 1956, pp. h-xxvi, and R. Joly, 1968, pp. 58-68). There are Iwo complete ullin translations and one complete Ethiopic transla· tion, portion, in Coptic. and remnants in Middle Pe",ian. The Coptic fmgrnents were collected or first published by L-T. Lefon (1952). In addition, there is the Paris folio (National U· brary, Paris, Copte 130.2 ["Schenoudi 2"], fa1. 114), recently discovered by E. Lucchesi. In panicular, there are eight folios of a papyrus codex in Akhmimic and the remnants of two parchment man· uscripts in Sahidic, which 1.<:fon calls, respectively, A and B. B consists of just a single folio (Louvain, no. 26, burned in the library fir~ of 1940). The new Paris folio belongs to codex A, so thai we now have founeen folios of this manuscript of the "Shepherd of Hermas" (Lucchesi, WI. pp. 400-404). The Akhmimic lext may have teen pan of a biblical manuscript. Probably the: Akhmimic "Shepherd" and that of the Sahidic codex A did not include ~isions 1 to 4 but only began at vision 5 as an introduction to the manda/a and the similitudines, This can be regarded as a suppan for the hypothesis that visions I to 4 and vision 5 to similitude 8 came into existence independently of each other, Similitudes 9 and 10 may have been added ""hen Ihe two books ""ere joined. Both books and the linking of them very likely go back to the same author (Vielhauer, 1975, pp. 516f.).

....

Nautin, P. Dizionario pa/Tis/icc • di amichila crisliane I (1983);1197f. Quasten, J. Pa/rorogy, Vol. L pp. 92-105, Utre<:ht and Brussels, 1950. Vielhauer, P. Ge,ehi<:hte der urchri$Ilicho" Li/· eralu., pp. 513-23. Berlin and Nev.' York, 1975, Whittaker, M. Dor Hir/ des normas. Griechischen christlichen Schriftstctler der ersten Jahrhunclerte: Die apostolischen Vater 1. Berlin, 1956. THEOFRIED BAUMEtSTER

HERMES TRISMEGISTUS ("Thrice·greatest Hermes"). This name is a Greek adaptation of an Egyptian title, Thoth the Very Great the Egyptian god-name l1Joth being translated from at least the time of Herodotus to the Greek Hermes. The literature associated with Hermes Trismegi.tus is kno""n as the Corpus Herrneticum and compri..,s some se~enteen writings of diverse origin ;md authorship. There are also a dlscour= of Hermes 10 Asclepius, Hermetic ""ritings in the anthology of Stobaeus, and miscellaneous fragments. This literature is generally thought 10 have originated in Egypt betwecn the second Century B.C. and the third century A.D. Schola", have attempted 10 .how connections wilh Egyptian religion, Hellenistic my3lery religions, gnosticism, Christianity, and e~en Iranian and Far Eastern religions. There is no consensus regarding such relationships, although most agr"C1' that there was some type of Hermetic community and cultic activity associated with the litemlUra, lbe theology of the Corpus Hermeticum is diverse and not easily subjected to systematic analysis. The first tractate, "Poimandres," is ;m apocalyptic theogony, including the creation of the world and a Gnostic account of salvation, Most of the following traclates are discourses or dialogues with two disciples, Asclepius and Tat, conceming metaphysiC$, ethics, salvation, and related themes. Tractate 13 is a dialogue on rebirth, and some have SUn Christian influences in that panicular writing. The

1224

last

HERMIT

trac!at~

is an

~ssa'r'

on music and musicians, ~mphasiling th~ir rol~ in praising God. The Latin Asclepius I~Xl contains a hook of Humes TrismegiSlus given to ""depius. Tat. and Am· mono Th~ .setting is a sanctuary in which the four men w~re inspir~d and H~nnes discouTS~d on vari· ous theological mailers, including creation. the cos· mos. man. salvation, and immortality. The Hermetic excerpts in the antholo8)' of SlObaeus like""ise contain dialogues between Hermes and Tat and between Hermes and Ammon on the subjects not~d abo,'~, together with miscellaneous teachings of Hermes. There are lengthy passages rece>rded by Hennes as discourses of Isis to Horus, and they are casl into apocalyptic dialogues relating te> heavenly cl>lmcils, creation, reincarnation, and the salvation of the souls of men. Throughout the Corpus Hermetkum. elements of the pre·Socratics, Plato, and ArislOtle mingle with Gnostic. Jewish, and Christian ide... prevalent at the time of Ihe composition of the tractates. No undisputed connection exists between the Hermetic literature and Egyptian Christianity during its first three centuries. bul Egyptian Christian leadeTS quoted widely from th~se documents from the fout1h century onward. BIBLIOGRAPHY Grese. w, C. Corpus Hermuicum Xlii and Early Christian LiMMlur~. Leiden. 1979, Me.d, G. R. S. rhriu-Greatest Hermes: Studies in Hellenistic rheowphy and Gno,,·s. Being a Trans· lation of the btanl Sermons and FragmenlS of the Trismegistic Ulera/ure, with Prolegomma, Com· men/an'es, and Notes, 3 ,'ols. London, 1949. Nock, A. D., and Feslugiere, A,·J. Corpus Hermet;· cum, 4 vols. Paris, 1954-1960. Reitzenstein, R. Poimandres. Studien Iur griechisch·;;gyptischen und £liihchristlichen LiteralUr, Leipzig. 1'l(I4, . ScO{{, W., ed. and'krans, The Ancie"t Greet and Latin Writillgs Wliich Coma;" Relig'I>us or Pltil". sopltic reachillgs Ascribed t,l> Hermes Trismegisws, 4 vols. Repr. BosT,i>n, 19S5. C. WJlI'!<E[) GRIGGS

HERMIT. Su AnchOrite. HERMITAGE, tlte lodging or dwt'lling house of a hennit, "one li~ing in the desert," or anchorite, "one living far removed." They were probably at first only single-roomed Ituts !hat wt're built, ac·

cording 10 geographic;>l circumstances, of 'lOne, wood, or bricks; but at an early time they had al· ready developed into houses with se>'eral rooms. Early descriptions are those of Pallad;u.~ (HislOria Lauslac" 8. hennitage of Amun; IS, of Macarius of Ale""ndria; 35, of John of Lycopolis), and the Hisroria monacltornm (20.\1. hermitage of Ammonius), Many anchorites settled in tombs (Hisroria Lausiaca 5, 45.49) Or caves in abandoned quarries. In the neighborhood of bna, fut1hennore, some monks dug subterranean ca~es for themselves, If several h~rmitages became linked together in a loose association, with due regard for more Or less interven_ ing space between them. we speak of a lau",. fa· mous lauras a", those of SCETI' (today Wadi al· Naltiin), NITRJA, KUllA. and ENATON. Other lauras hav~ been identified at ABU MINA. in KO'y NAMRU[). and on Sinai. in the neighborhood of Saint Catherine's monastery (see M[)UNT SlNAt Mo""-STERY [)F SAJNT CATHeRJ!'E).

The oldest hennitages so far, belonging to the }",ginning of the fifth century, we", excavated in the KeTlia. These are brid buildings half sunk in the ground and containing "'>"'ntl small rooms, but they do not yet allow us 10 recognize any definite system in tlte arrangement of the individual rooms. Only in the course of the sixtlt century does a cer· tain regularity in the form of the ground plan hegin to pre>"il. The buildings developed into large ",c· !angular courtyards witlt Ii>'ing quat1ers usually ac· commodated in the nortltwest comer. These quar· ters were in eacb case intended for two bermits. an old father and hi, disciple, and contained a sleeping room with cupboard rooms for each, as well as a common devotional room for both, or oraIDrium. Tltis oralory was equipped witlt a benclt in front of the west wall and a prayer niche ,et into th~ east ""all. To the east in front of this group of rooms, on a somewhat wider basis. there was a kitchen with a slOreroom and also a visiting room. Finally, there are in the courtyard a small garden, a washing place. and a toilet. With increased necd for space owing to the arrival of more monks, or even juS! occasional visitoTS, fut1lter rooms were added, Some of these hermitages grew into stately build· ings, several of which e~en possessed churches of their own. Vel)' similar comple~es, although divergem in their detailed arrangemem, ltave been e~cavated in Kom Namnld (not1hwest of Sam..ltlt), The main building in each case consist< of a wide room fur· nished with niches, 10 which are attached two smaller rooms as well as a staircase on the east

HERPAESE AND JUUANUS, SAINTS

sI,k uuer a courtyanl was added on the south side. whh ~raJ sinlle room!! an;mged on the aide Iy;nl oppo$ile. hermilagc:o of Seclis may have had a differenl aJlpcararlCC. bu! these have not so fou- been invntipled. from the rubbish heaps Uw can he 1oeCC\. they WffC built of quarried stone instead 01 bricks. and had flat root. of wood. Sub&u.ntially "."plu an: the bcnnita,aes that have beftI i6mlificd in the lauD ill the call of AbQ Mlfll. ThC)' h;oyc fWO ronna, of "'hich the Ia,..er m:.nl room se...-cd as a noccption room and workroom. ..nile lhe smaller back room " . for &Jeepinl and for prayer. In 5CYenol cases the laner room was di.ide
n.c

BIBUOGRAI'HY

Daumas, F.• and A. Guillaumom. 1I.1Ii" I 110m 219. foullles de l'lnslitul fra~i. d·An:hW.... i. ori.ntal. 28. Cairo, 1969. Crossmann. P. "Die Siedlung im Kornrlng A,",4rc~iJololisc~u A~ZO'iglr (1967):463 -73, Kasser. R, s~......,y drC~;otogique du lIelli". R"pport d. I" c"mp"V'. 198/, Vol•. t. 2. leuvcn. 1983. Sauncron. S.. a~d J. Jaqud. Los .""U"I!U c~rbi.J1S du dtse,1 d'Es"". 2 Y01$. Caim. 1972.

1225

Vol. I. pp. 16-I4), J. E, Oulhell (1906. pp. 8-10). and R. Monel and W. 8. Em
Bado....y. A. "Us premicn etabl:isscmcnl.S chritiens dans les anciennes lombes d·£cypIe.- In Tom. COfI1nKm.."ti( d.. minb!l/;re de '" Itihlw!hequ. Pf',nan.,]. ,NJeuuodrie. I'll. 69-89. Alaandria. 1953. Baedeker. K.. &cdder" £rypI. 1929. Repr. N~"tOn Abbol. 1974. Doruse. J. "MollSl!ltke$ copies aUl" enYimrn; d'ATmanl en Th
t'ETU~'oIfoI

M.>uaiCE MARTIS. SJ_

HERMONTHIS_ S •• Annanl. HERMITAGES, mEBAN. Many Christian sila on the Icft bank of the Nil. ~icc Lw
cannot he de6nitely label.ed ccnuine _erics. a1ihoou&tl \he local inhabitants UK the name uyr (rr>onastery). ...."hac ".., know of these hcnaitalles

"'-

HERMOPOLIS MAGNA. Se.

A$hmolllllyt1. a1-.

HERMOPOUS PARVA. Sec Daminhllr.

In the Valley of the Kinp. wv..... ulebralC'd wmbs p ~ veWl"S of their ottI.IJ>"lion by hef' milS. We may cite the tOmbs of ~ IV, lhat clcstined for Ramsa III. ~ also thai of Ramscs Vl. They an: $Ummarily de.en~ b,I O. McinardllS (hi cd.. 1%5. p. 315; 2nd «1... 1m. p. 429). SeYeraI tolO\b$ s,;1..... ed it SHAY~ ·...an .u.QI..IRltA1l .. ill puse....., trues of Christian occupllilon, 11Ie tombs were ~lIed up, and Creek ()<' Coptic iRKriplions bearing witness 10 their last Q<;<;up.anu are nOled by A. Badawy (1953. pp. 69-89) and U. Monneret de Villard (Baedeker. 1929. 1974, p, (87). The hennilallcs 10 the nonb of MAlllNAT HA1l0 and as far as beyond Ihe Valley of the Kings. which arc of Ihe ",enlh or eighlh century. are b~Ry de. scribed by H. E. Winlock and w. E. Crum (1926.

.,,,-era!.

HERPAESE AND JUUANUS, SAINTS, <wo ~ of founh-cenlul')'

EfD-"..

T...'O Sahidic

fragments (Berliner P"nTUs..",mh."c. 1"22122; cd. Satzingcr. 1967~ 1968. n. J24) an allthal remain of a Pas
".., lexl is clearly p"" of lhc Cycl. of ARIASUS, perhaps from the fifth Qr sixth c~nlllry. bUI m,," belong to a minor. local tradition Ihat was not indueled in laler works. The SI)'le b that typical of kopnscher Kons."s, the recurrinl Ihe."e of "inde·
1226

HESYCHIAN BIBLE

The pfael'\'ed p"n of lhe IU' be&ins ...,j,h CAUIEL inte ...·enill& be'...-een me 1Ral1yr$ and an unknown opponenL He WeT Tea5SeJnblao lhe IQlle~ limbs 01 JulianO1$; !hen the ,....0 martyn ani! brouchl to the perlect Arianu~ and pbced in a boillll& cauldron. Jesus himodf ;oppealS and Y''el lhem• • nd Ihcn do:li~ • 10"1': speech. 1l>e I...... ....n)'n are bf'OUlhl bKk to ArW!l&

Soumetstft", T. Mat1}T Invictu •. rH, MIJ"yur

SI"othild do ErlOsune'" Je.

U~"U

.w

und .... Kult

de' friilwn kDplisclten J(lrc!u. Mli"'I.... 1972SUzinae•. H. J(opliot:h, Ud;und",. vol. 3. A,yp. Ilsche Urkunden _ d,n s.....llicMn MlIWflL Berlin. 1961-1963. TlTo OR1.N
HESYCHIAN BIBLE, the lUI of the Sepmagint revised by He.ychillS, Egyptian bishop of an un.!"'· ~ified diocese in the third cenlury. He was a nalive of Aleundria. often ....rongl)' IMntified .... ilh hi, namesake 1M luicollraph.., of Ihe s.econd cemul)'. wbo was a pagan. H(5)'Chius Ihe bisl>op is crediled wilh the revision no( 0«1)' of lhe Stpluat:inl bu' aloo of the N~ Tes,tame:nt or al Ie_ ,he four Gospels In cin:ulation in EcYJ>t- This rettnslon Is memlonoed by Jerome as the work of Hesy<:hiUl with lhe col· bbomioo of Wcian of Antioch. Accordina 10 Ell· sebius. H«Y"hius ........ manyred untler 1lOOCI.eT1A.'l ..ilh Ihrff ~onlemporaries: Pachomius. Phileas. and Theoclonu.. The four rnanp"S had ..rillen • M:tlft" dated l.D. 296. now a\'3ilable in a LMin -.t:rsion. '0 the ~h;sma1ic Irotdilius, Bishop of Lycopolis ;n Upper EaYPt. reprimanding him ft,. irnJlllar ordiNl-

....

,

CritkisntS h,,,,,,. been made oIlhe Hesy
Kenyon, f. A. "H""ychi"" and lhe Te~1 of Ii.. N~ Tesqm,nl:' In Clnquonlenol,e d. l'Ecol. blbUque .1 ~rchtoJotique fr~"I;~ise de Urus~IUtl (15 """ ve",bre 1890-15 "ov,,,,bre 194Q), Mt",o,lol Lo·

HESYCHIt/S, a bWlop in !.ole Ihird-- and early founh~lury Eel'! and a bibliall scholar_ n.e Dame "He5}'Ch,U1S:' bmilia. in bte anliquity. :appears lwenly-seven I,mes in W. Smith·, and H. W:ac,'s Dic6<>""'7 of CIIrislUf" Biot;rllpJr,. One n:k:reD~e st:ales lhM fi.-e bishops 01 WI naJne attended Ihe Council oIlilCAEA in 3ll. The JDOOt falll<>m is Ihe Hesydlius .....ho _ bishop 01 an unknO'WTl Ec'J'lian diocese probably duri.,. the patriarchate of I"ETU ~ He il known In biblical studi<:s .. an aegete .... ho re\;sN ,he le:\1 of the Se~nl on ..... Itas.Is 01 the Hdnw ori,inal and complied Ihe Gospel<. His rec:.. nsion was ...itIely used in tJ>e chun:h· es of £cyp. and AIe.andria instead of the lexl of OJJGEN, but ;1 was se'<erely criticized in Ihe West. Jerome speaks 01 ime'l'Olalions :and bbe :addilions 10 the Hesychian rettns>on of Ihe Bibl,. The Dec,et"", GeldS....n..'" (c. .... D_ 500, described Ihe "'"OTk of H""ychi", as "'apoc')l'hal."' Modem eri,i· cisrn 01 'he laoors of H",,)'~hius, however, appears 10 be le>5 severe. As a ehur~hman, "esy~hlus pankipaled in 'he condemnalion of Ihe MHUTlAr< SCHISM, Aboul 296 he. Phil.,., Theo<\orul. and h~homiu. wrole " leI' ler addressed 10 MELITIUS. schism.,i( bishop of Ly. ~opolis. repudi,,"na hi. errors and his irregular or. dina/;ons outside hi. diocese. Ua,er Eu....'us (His.rorio eccluloSllc" 8.13) lUies thai Hesychitls :and his Ihree cOl"llP<'roions ...-ere ....rtyred at Alexan· dri2 duringlhe pene<:UllonJ by- D1OCL£nA.'<. BJBUOGIUPHY

A11aJ>er. B. P"tro/OC. lrans.. H. C. CI'Hf. pp. 240-41. Freihurg, Germany. 1960. Bardenhe.....,r. O. ""In>/orie, 2nd ed.• pp. 212-1". Freibu!'i. Gn'many. 1901. Keo)'Od. F. A. Ht~-''''s a..J lire Text 0; me New

Tut.....nl. Paris. 19-tO. -,,-: Our Bibl. ""d ,-'t .4""':'''1 MSS, rn. ed. A. W. Adams. New York, 1958. Qu:asl:en, J. Pa!rOloD. Vol. 2, p. I Ill. lh.-echl, Brus· scls. and Wesuninslu. Md .. 1950. Vogels. H. J. Ho"dbuc/' ur ne"Ie
,ra"te,

Paris. 1940. Venables. E. "'Hesychius (3)," In DCB, Vol. 3. pp_ 7-8,

Allz S, I\"H

HESYCHIUS OF ALEXANDRIA, Alexandri. an Gruk I(xicographer probably of the fotlnh or fifth cenltll)'_ Little Is known aboul ~is backllround.

HEXAPLA AND TETRAPLA

He is sometimes described in later rources as a pagan. To the world of scholan;hip, he is known solely through his monumental Creek dictionary, in which he dealt with the varied Greek dialects and incorporated a vocabulary ¢f patristic letlers, nota' bly that of Saint CYRIL t, patriarch of Alexandria, However, his work is based on the second-century Greek dictionary of Diogenianus ¢f Heraelca as well as the work of a number of other Greek lexicogra· phers. His compilation has sUIVi,'ed in a mutilated fifteenth-eentury manuscript preserved at Venice (National Marean library, no. 622) and edited by J. Alberti in the eighteenth century and M. Schmidt in the nineteenth century. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ptl.uly'; Rea!.Encyc!opiidie der claS1;;chen Allum..,;w;>senscho!l, ed. G, Wissowa, Vol. 16, cols. 13171322. Stuugart, 1913. ..utZ S. ATIYA

HEUSER, GUSTAV (1892-1937). German Cop· 101ogist. After studying thelllogy at Heidelberg, he published two important Coptic studies, Die Person· "'namen du Kopr"n (1929) and Pro,oPo8raphie von AID'pI"n (1938). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dawson, W, R" and E. P. Uphill. Who Wa, Who in E/:)'pto!ogy, p. 141. London, 1972, Kammerer, W., compo A Coplic Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mich., 19~; repro New York, 1969. Alil 5, AnYA

HEXAPLA AND TETRAPLA, two editions of the Old Testament by ORlGEN. The Bible was the center of Origen's religi0J\.r.and nQ church father lived more in it tl>an he did: The foundation, how· ever, of all study of the Bibl~ was the establishment of an accurate lext. Fairly early in 'his career (c. nO) Origen was confmmed' with tM fact that Jews disputed whether some Christian proof texts were to be found in scripture, while Christians accused the Jews of removing embarrassing lexlS from ."ripIUre. It was not, however, until his long exile in C~esa rea (232-254) that Origen had the opponunity to undenake his major work of textual criticism, EllSEa,uS (Hi,rori~ ecclesiaslica 6, 16) tell, us that "he

1227

even made a thorough study of the Hebrew language," an exaggeration; but with the help of a Jewish teacher he learned enough Hebrew to be able to compare the various Jewish and Jewish· Chri.tian "er,;ions of the Old Testament that were eXiant in the third century. Jerome (De vin, iIIus/ribus 54) adds that knowledge of Hebrew was "contrary to 'he spirit of his period and his race:' an interesting sidelight on how Greeks and Jews remaine Origen identified while at Nicopolis in Epiru, and the other from a jar discoyered near Jericho during the reign of Caracalla (211-217)an early anticipation of the Dead Sea Scrolls! Epiphaniu. (Pa"ari"" 64. 3) indicates that aoout 370 the Heupla included a column in Hebrew alongside the GrCt'k transliteration. The most re· Unt critic. P. Nautin, has argued, however, that the term "Hexapla" referred to six transla.ions or versions: the Sep.uagint, the versions of the three named authors (Theodolion, Aquila, and Symma· chus), and the "fifth" and ".ixth" unnamed, added later (l977, chap. 9). Wl>ateyer tl>e precise arrange~nt of the col· umns of text, the objective was clear. Origen had found that the Septuagint was outdated, superseded by the Greek versions of Aquila and Thcodotion by the end of the socond century, and now by that of his contentporary S)'mmachu•. He was determined to rectify this situation for the benefit of the church. He explains about 247 in his Commentary on Matthew (15. 14): By the grace of God, we have sought to remedy the divergences which are 10 be found in copies of the Old Testament, by using other editions a, a

1228

HIBAT·ALLAH 'ABn·ALLAH IBN SA'ln AL·DAWLAH AL.QIBTl

means of control. In places where there has been a lack of certainty in the copies of LXX because of differences in the text of lhese copies, we have used other editions [of the Greek Old Testament] in harmonizing the LXX with th~. We have marked with an Obelus (+) passages which are not to be found in lhe Hebrew. nol daring to ouppress these completely. Elsewhere, we have added an asterisk, so that it is made dear whert we have added passago; which are not to be found in Ihe LXX in agre<:m"nt with the Hebrew t"xt. in taking these passages from other versions.

er with N:t~ir ai-Din ibn al·Mul).assini, who bore the title mush" (coundllor), He was a noted Arabic calligraph"r. In pri"at" life, he took care of the poor and needy. The sources indicat" that he distinguished himself for his in· COTnlptibility and high moral standards, He married a concubine of Sultan al·saW.' IsmA'II, a black woman called Ittifaq. Hi. friends told of his great lo.'e for this woman. He died in April or May 1354.

Origen thus applied lhe critical methods of his time 10 establish an updated version nf the Sepllla· gint, which was the texi aUlhorized by the church. It was a bold step, and it is interesting that Origen never attempted 10 treal the New Testament in the same way. Though the Tetrapla and He~apla were huge and unwieldy productions, copies were retained in lhe library at C""sarea, where Jerome used them f{lr hi. commentaries on the Psalms. Not surpri.ingly, only fragments have survi"ed. Ihe most imponam being derived from a Syriac lrnoslation of the SepllIagint text by Paul. Monophysite hishop {If Tella in Mesopotamia, aboUl 616,

Ch.ikho. L vhi" el ",crlil~ires araMs c;,rbiens e" Is/am 622-1517. ed, C. Hecha'irne. AI·Tumth al.'Arnbi al·Mas'!:'; Ii. Rome. 1987. Text in Arabic. Title pages in Arabic and Frtnch. Introduc· tion in Arnbk and French. Ibn J:lajar al.'AsqalanI. AI·Du,a, a/·K
BIBUOGRAPHY

us

SUBm y, UBIB

HIBAT ALLAH IBN 'ASSAL, AL·. See AwlAd al·
HICKMANN, HANS. SU Music, Coptic: Musi·

BIBLIOGRIloPHY

cologists.

Danielou. J. O'ige"e, PI'. 139-144, Paris. 1948. Field, F. Origenis H,,"",plorum qu~e supersuni. 2 vols. london, 1867-1875. Nautin. P. O,igene, St. vi~ ~r SO" oeuvre. chap, 9. Paris, 1977. Taylor, C. "H"",apla.'" In Diclion~ry of Chri5li~n Hi· OgT~P;'Y, ed. W. Smith and H. Wace. Vol. 3. pp. 14-23. Repr. New York, 1974. W. H, C. FllEND

HIBAT-ALUH 'AQP·ALUH IBN SA'ID AL-DAWLAH AL.qIBTI, fourteenth·century Copt whQ converted to; Islam. The sources do not give us any etear details aOOut his acceptanCe of Islam. His career in gov"rnment tooK him frQm lhe post of n~.a, a/·dawdwIn (sec"'tary of /inance) at the end {If the reign of Sultan al-N~ir Muhummad ibn Qalliwiin to that of n~",' al-d~wl~;, (secretary of slate). He then filled th'e office of n~"'T ~1·kh
HIERACAS

OF

LEONTOPOLIS,

thirdcem,,!)' here.iarch. Hieracas and his leaching,; are chieily known from lhe nOlice devoled to the "Hiemcites" by Epiphanius of Salamis In his Pano,· ion (PC 42. chap. 67). Il is veT)' doublful thai Epiphanius ever met Hiernc... himself, as report"d by Ihe Ufe of Epiphanius (PC 41, col. 57), the aUlhenlidty of which is debatable, but he probably knew some of his disdples, and his informali,," i. drawn from g<:><>d sources. In addition we have available two document. in Coptic: a "Letter to VirgIn." of SainI ~TH~NASIUS publishen belween MACARIUS THE EGYPTI~N and a disciple of HiernCa5, published by M. Chaine (1925-1926. pp. 232-75). The dales {If his life aN: imp<>ssible to delermine with predsion, but he must have lived in the last third of Ihe third century and the firsl half of the fourth. According to Epiphanius. h~ resided at L.e. onl<Jp<>lis, and died at the age of ninety; he was well

HIERARCHY, CHURCH

instructed in the knowledge of the Greeks and the Egyptians, and particularly versed in the exegesi, of the Old and New Testaments, which he had memo· rized. He professed heterodox opinions, which he claimed to base upon Holy Scripture; he denied the resurrection of the flesh. affinning th.t only the soul revives. an opinion also reported by the story concerning Macarius, which adds that his disciples also denied the reality of the incarnation of Christ, He rejected marriage, holding that though legiti· mate under the Old Covenant it had been abolished by the Go:spel, an opinion also reported by Saint Athanasius. He admitted as disdples only those who were celibate Or had renounced marriage. He be· lieved that asceticism is necessary for salvation, and for this reason he excluded from the Kingdom those who died at an early age. He affinned that paradise is purely ,pirituaL His Iheology. according to Epiphanius, was orthodox, but he identified the Holy Spirit with MELCHIZEDEK, basing this opinion on the letter to the Hebrews. To this the story aboul Macari.... adds that his disciples affirmed t~ exis· tence of three principles: God. matter. and evil. It is impossible to yerify the correctness of these allegations. Of the numerous books, commentaries on scripture, and psalms which. according to Epiphaniu" Hieracas compo:sed in Greek and Coptic, nothing has survived. E. Pelerson (1947, pp, 257-bO) thoughl to recogniu a m.gment of one of hi. psalms in a Coptic te.t, in the Akhmimic dia· lect, but this identification is very doubtful. Hi' opinions spread as far as the region of Arsinne and in the Fayyflm. Epiphanius asserts Ihat Hierae"" mad" numerous disciples. especially among the monks. Thos;: disciples not only renounced marriage but led an ascetic life, abstaining from meat and wine. Nevertheless Epiphanius reproaches them for living each in cohabitation with a worn· an. in conformily with the practice of the subitl1rod"clae (virgins who live ~er t~ same roof as the monastics) curren! in the 'church of t~ early cell' turies. This allows one to :Ihink that Hie.-.cas and his disciples did not liye ·in a mOllastery, as K. Heussi thought (1936, pp.' 58-(5), in reliance on the life of Epiphanius, but according to the way of life of the ascetics of the premonastk period. HislOnanS, it seems, have had a tendency to exag· gerate the role of Hieracas in history. [n the eight· unlh cenlury I. de Beausobre, still followed by sOme modem historians although this opinion is without solid fOllndation, made of Hieracas a disci· pIe of Mani, thus establishing a bond between MANI.

1229

CllAElSM and monasticism. A. Hamack (1931, VoL I, p. 777) saw in him "the intermediate link between Origen and Coptic monasticism." More recently F. Wisse (1978, pp. 431-40) has ad.'anced the thesis that one of the books discovered al NAO HAMMAOI, the Testimonium veritatis (Nag Hammadi Codex 9.3) may have been authored by Hieracas or one of his disciples, which would allow us to forge a link between GNOSTlCtSM and monaslicism. See a crilical examination of this thesis by A. Guillaumont (19801981. pp 411_13). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ba,..,ille. G. "Hieracas OU Hie.-.x." In Dicti<mnalre de Thea/ogle calholique. Vol. 6. cols.. 2359-61Paris, 1920. Chaine. M. "La double recension de l'histoire lausiaque dans la version copte." Revue d. /'Oriem cheilien 25 ser. 3, 5 (1925-26):232-75. Guillaumon!. A. "Hieracas de Uontopolis et les leUes de Nag Hammadi." Annuaire d" College de France {l98O- 1981):411 -413. Harnack. A. Realencyklopiidie (ur protestanrische ThMiogie und Kirch •. 3ed ed.. Vol, 8. pp. 38-39. ___. Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte. 3 vols. Tubingen, 1931Heussi. K. De, U"prung des Mij"chwm,. Tubingen. 1936. Lefort. L. T. "Leltee aux .'iorges." Le Museon 42 (1929): 197-264, Peterson, E. "E.in Fragment des Hierakas (?)" Le Museo" 60 (l947):257-60. Preuschen, E. Palla.dius ""d Rr
HIERARCHY, CHURCH, the collective body of organized ecclesiastical ranks, in successive or· der. one above anolher. The pyramidal structure consists of a hierarch, the pope as the head of the church, in subordination to whom are the episcopacy composed of METROPOLITANS. ARCHBlSll0PS, and BISIIO,," as well as the prcsbJ'lery of ptolopriests (,ee HEGUMENOS), Pl\tESTh, and MONKS. NowadaJs. they can perform the lilUrgy in Ihe absence of a priest. The hierarchy also includes the diaconate corn· posed of ARCHDEACONS, OEACONS. SUBDEACONS, and READEIl.S. whose members, although originally inlended to "serve tables'" (Acts 6:2). soon developed into a definite rank peJforming an indispensable task in the liturgy and other church se,..,~ces.

1230

HIGHER

INSTITUTE OF COPTIC STUDIES

Prayers On behalf of the hienon:hy arc offered as pan of the greiller inten:essions in Ibe COUrsol: of !he celebration of t"'" Divine U1UlI)'. AItOl8lSHOl' BASlUOS

HIGHER INSTITUTE OF COPTIC STUD. IES. foul>dcd with a modcsl budget by lhe COM.IoIU';ITY «M.l«;tL on 21 January 19S4.

th.. hmilule was

up«ted 10 become ;m imponant faclOr in 1M mi· val of Copt:ic slUdies in E«;ypl. lu restricted mnns IWTe supplemenled by meager donalions from pli. ...te. indiridual soun:e:s, which enabled lu initial admin;w;.tion 10 bunch _ $Iud)' pr'OIram In Cop(0101)'. This prognm _ facilitated by the volun· leer services of its pn:.idenl. ~ S. Atiya. _r>d two vice-presidents. lolUItM> liMtt and SIoMt GASItA. wOO in tum recruited volunleers among nOled !!Cholars and specialis15 to serve as a leachinl body and 10 conslitute lh. Institute Council. The idel of lhe In51ilule was universall}' acclaimed. and a number of eminenl profe5S0l"$ al the uni\'erslllCll of Oxford, Uverpool. Michigan. Princeton, and Hartford, among othen, 3tCcepted hononry fellowship$ in lhe new foundallon. The Initial sections of 1M i_ilute included Ihft>l· 01Y, Copt:ic language and lileralure, Copic history. _rchaeolocY. so<:iology, Copt:ic Ia-w. Copik: music. and Coptic art. A library _ $IaI'led. and seven! collections were assembled in it from >vIous orp. niations and indi",duab- Besides lhe eolleetie>ns 01 lhe CUl.IO.L OOI.U(;I; and lhe u1>rary 01 the Commlnee of Cop;ic History, pli,..le collwions incW cd th:>5e of ".,IlL MlDU1L 'JUlD ~mD, MiW~" ~Ib. SaIni ~ and olhers.. ..... ich fonncd alOlid IN.I.. of a specialiLed ....,mne ~arch libfll}' in lhe Mid of Copt<Mog,. The bcginni"l! c4sscs of the ill$titule Included mainly Coptic: en\h~. 'OCether with a number of Muslim and Jewish !!Cholan, which sl.... ilied the ~ncral intercst io this DleW ¥tntu",. R"'luil"ffl!ents fo:,- admission included a bachelor's dog,..,., from " .-ecOiniLed "n'versil, Or the diploma of the Clerical CoIIq:e. Publicalion of " journal was contemplaled, bul was abandoned for lack of funds, The Institule conllnucs to functlon in " modesl way. with severely limited financial re· r.oo.orces, voluntary academic Soel'Vices are rcnde",d by supporte~. and Its library, IOcelher Wilh lhe col· lectlons of Ihe Society of Coptic Archaeotoi)' and lhe PBtritorchal Ubrary, offers admirable research oppor1un;liCll in the field of Coptic 5lUdlCll, The p".

ItUrchal Ubrary has been enriched by the man... "",ow colkction ..;lled to it by Murad. Kamil The Coptic collection of Am S. Ali)'l is also deposited II tIris library_ lbe t-. oecrions thM hr..., lIourisbcd on their _on sclf~ninc ~es &«' the Section of Cop6I; "tusic. under Il.acheb Moftil.t. and lhe Section of Coptk Art. under luoac flllOW, ...-hose: icons IilJcd ""'* of lhe ...... churches in Egypt and _ romp .cOUntlY,. The irutiWie Nos serwd ... " center for >isil'ne Coptolopu from other- pam of the world. It has awarded doctoral degrees 10 5pecialized rncarchers, und... the pIlTOoage oJ Pope Shenouda III and the pl"1'Sid~y of ADb6 Gregorios, bishop in Caim for higher thcologj<:al studiC$, C""JI" lic cult"........ d s<:ienllfic research.

ba,..,

AZIZ S. Ann

mJAs.

Sec lconOlOta$ls.

HIJAZAH. Sec Pilgrimages.

HILARlA, SAINT, elder daughler 01

the fourth·

ttntury emperor Zeno, woo according 10 legend became a monk eFeast day: 21 TUbahl_ ZcnQ had.wo dau&h.e..... The legend is as follows. The elder. Hilaria. seeks the lnOnIlstic life bUI Theopiste. lhe )'OII~r. doea not enlenaio such desires. Hilaria secretly. in male anin..... ¥'CIs to Ako;an. dria. wbcft ..... pn.ys in the churchCll of Saini Pet... lhe Martyr and SainI Marllthe E...ngdisl. The ~ tie:. aD5W'Cr her ;nlM affinn&liYe through the ..'OI'di; of scriptun:. She then en\lUftl hcrHlI to I1x:ocIo< us tlM: dea::on. who a«Qmpania It« 10 lhe motlISIcry-. SIIc lO" firs< 10 SainI JIIfMS..hen to SCETl$ 10 Saini roUolllO. The: ascetic doea not recognize her as _ wom...., for she is only ei"'...,n, and he ~ her to go 10 ENATON. where life is less stricL Bu. w insists on _ying. and earns lhe monastic habit. T"ll..It.,.. they discuss Ktipturc wilh AnW Mal"\)"' nus. the phlloR>pher. Tltn:~ yea~ Ialcr, Pambo learns Ihrough l"e\'e1alion lhal Hilaria Is • WOman and asks her not 10 .-eveal herself. in order to avoid any ..,andaL Nine years laler, still being beardl~••, she becom~. known as Hllanon, lhe eunuch, A demon enters her youn&: siSler, who is al Con· stantinople. The emperor Zeno, nol knowing whal 10 do, leaves the m.ner 10 Ihe monks of Sectis. As"

HILARIA, SAINT

consequence, Theopiste is brought before Saint Pambo. To everyone's astonishment, the eunuch Hilarion'. reaction i. e~treme; she drenches the ground "ith a flood of tears. Touched by such com· passion. Pambo entlUSts the afllicted young woman to Hilarion. For a week th" laner prays~consoling and finally curing ""r young sister. who d""s not recognize her. Once cured. Theopiste r"ceh.,,; the sacraments and returns to her father in the palace. Sh" t"lIs th" emp"ror that, to comfort her. Hilario" the monk kissed her on the mouth and slept in the same bed with her. Shocked, the emp"ror Zeno summonS the healing monk to come to him on the prete~t that there is another cure to be done at Constantinople itself. Taking Hilarion aside. z"no discloses thaI his mind is troubled. To avoid any scandal. Hilarion unveils herself to the emperor alone. provided he lets her go back in p"ace to her monastery. For an hour the emperor Zeno remain. slUp"fied. Only the empre$S and th" younger sister are infonned. The recogni· tion results in tender tears. Hilaria again become. th" eunuch Hilarion in the monastery of Seetis, and twelve years later .he dies. Pambo then writes the life of the saint, who is burie
1231

subjects are thus apponioned to match th" th"ologital pre becomes a monk but integrate~ it in a symbolic ac<:ount. The abbot Pambo i. a fictional characler. borrowed from the founh century. In the pro· logue of the story itself. the author app"ars to he very much aware of the literary genre that he is tackling. God bad provided believers not oniy with preachers hm also with authors, intended for their guidance. The legend of Hilaria, daughter of ZENO. was published by Drescher in 1947. based on the foHowing sources: MS Pierpom-Morgan 583 dated A.O. S4S (Vol. 37 of tbe photographic edition); four parcbments from the White Monastery (DAYR ,\Npli ,HIS· ODAH) now in the John Rylands library at Manchester; alld three parchments of another manuscript now at Paris, Coptic />IS 132', fols. 19-21; a leaf of the sam. manuscript from the Museum of Antiqui. ties at leiden; an isolated leaf from Paris MS 78. fo!. 39; and finally a papyros fragment from the British Museum. Only the text for 848 is complete. 11 Greek original is not probable; moreover, lhe legend does not exist in Greek.

1232

HlLAR10N, SAINT

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Drescher, J. Th,u Copli<: ugends: Hilaria, Arc~el· lites, t~e Seven Slupers, Cairo. 1947. Esbrocck. M. ''''''. "u sainI comme ~ymbole." In The 8)'1.an/in" S"in/. pp. 128-40. S. Hackel. Chester.1981. Wen.inck, A. J. "The Legend of HHaria." In Leg.

end, of Bas/ern S",nl' Chiepy from Syriac Sources, Vol. 2. Leiden, 1913. MICHEL VAN

EsBROECK

HILA-KION. SAINT, fourth·century monk of Palesline (feasl day: 24 BaramhAt). AlmOSI our only ~ource of information about SainI Hilarion is Ihe Vii" Hilo.ri"nis wrillen in Lalin by Saint JEROME shortly after 390. in Ikthlehem. This is a narrati"e "f a fairly romantic character. Ihe hi~lorical value "f which has "ften been conlested. He was born aboul 293 at Thavatha in the neichborhood of Gaza, and at Ihe age of fifteen was sent by his pagan parents 10 smdy at Alexandria. Hilarion be<:ame converted 10 Christianity and. having heard lalk of Saint I\NJQNY, went 10 stay wilh him and was clothed by him in the monastic habit. AI the end of Iwo month~, he returned to Palestine. Hi~ parent~ being dead, he di~tributed his gooo:l!l to the poor and went off to live in SOlilUde in a hUI, which he built for himself in Ihe marshy region on the edge of the sea in Ihe neighborhood of Majuma, the port of Gaza, According 10 his biographer, he there had to undergo violent assaults by demo"",, similar to th06e related in the lJfe of Saint Antony, Soon disciples came to join him. Harassed by the crowds allracled hy his miracles, he resolved to leave his homeland. Accompanied by a few dis· ciples. he arri"ed in Egypt and went 10 visit the places where SainI Anlony had lived (he had died a year earlier. in 356).. But even in Egypl Ihe crowds flocked 10 him as to !flew Antony. Then follows, in Jerome'~ narrative, a most imaginative series of journeys around the Mediterranean. Hilarion being unable 10 find any place where he could li.e secluded and unknown. He wenl firsl to Libya. shortl)' after the dealh of Julian (363), Ihen to Sicily. where he was rejoined by his disciple Hesychius, but everywhe.. his miracles and his renown for sancti· Iy led 10 his delection. Later he _nl to Epiru~, and finally to C)'prus, where he died at the age of eighty, hence about 373. His disciple Hesychius secretly conveyed his body to Majuma, Al Ihis period Saint E1'IPHM
dear intention of presenting his hero as a disciple and emulator of Saint Anlony. as the founder of Ihe monastic life in Palestine, just as Antony had been in Egypt, He says upre..ly (§l4) that before Hilarion the.. had not yet been any monks in the whole of Syria. But that is incorrect. We know now thai the anchorite life had already been pracliced. inde· pendently it appears of any Egyptian influence. in Ihe deset"1 of Judah, to Ihe east of Jerusalem, as is attested notably by the Life of Saint Chariton (Chit· Iy, 1966, pp, 13-14). There is a Coplic .'ersion of the Life of Hilarion, which has been published with an Jtalian tran~la tion by F. Rossi. This was probahly made from a Greek version. which has also been p=erved. The SYNAXARlON devotes a notice to Saint Hilarion on 24 BAbah. The awhor has manifestly used the Ufe wrilten by Saint Jerome but. a remarkable thing, he makes n() menlion of Ihe relations Hilarion " sup' posed to have had wilh Saini Antony, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chilly. D. J. The Desert a City: An 'nrrod",:tion to Ihe Stud)' of Egypl;,,,, "nd PaleSlinian Manasridsm under the Chri'li"n Empire. Oxford. 1966. Jerome. ViM S. HiI"rion;s. PL 23, pp. 29-54. Turn· hout, fi. d. Rossi, F. Vita di San/'llarione _ Martin'o d; Sanl' 19nazw ".scovo d'Anriocha. Transcribed and translated from the Papiri Copri d.1 MuS<':o di Tori· no, Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, $Cr. 2, pI. 38, Scienu mOFali. storiche e fi'ologiche, pp. 7-52. 75-94. Turin. 1888. AIaoINe GUIu.lUMOI
J:lILWAN. [This .rride conslsls of

p"'IS, one "ction on lite history and one on Chri5llan buildings in lh_ town of 1!ilwlW. Tltis IOwn is On the ea$! bank of Ihe Nili 14 miles (20 km) somlt of Cairo. II has always bun known for its curative sulfuric wa· ters,] /w(I

,,,,,,II

History According to the HISTORY OF THE PMlllARCHS, the govemorofEgypt 'Abd al-'A2Iz ibn Marv.·an (seventheighth century) huilt !;Iilw"'n and commanded the bishops to build two churches. However, it seems Ihat l:Iilwan already possessed a bishop before the arrival of the Arabs. The monastery of l;Iilwan existed during Ihe patriarchate of ALEXANDER II (705-730),

I:IILWAN: Christian Buildings

According 10 Ihe life of Patriarch ISAAC (686689), wrinen al the beginning of the eighth century by Mena., bishop of Pohati, 'Abd al'Azle ibn Marw!n made J:lilw~n hi. npital because the doctors had re<:ommended Ihe waler of J:lilw:ln to him, and the air of th;. place wa1l mo,.., favorable Ihan that of al·Fus1Ji! (Old Cairo). Abil $AliI) Ihe Annenian (beginning of thirteenth century) mentions a mon""tery at l:Iilw~n dedicated 10 the Holy Virgin, According to Abu ~li~, this monaslery "'" founded at lhe expense of the bioh· OJ>< under the patriarchates of tsanc and Simon [ (689-701) and under the gowmorship of 'Abd al· 'M. ibn Marw~n. It i. called Ihe monaslery of Abu Qarqurah, Abu !;i~li~ al.o ,..,cords the restoration of a .econd monaslery, according to the decree of 'Abd aI'A,., ibn Marw~n and by the ca,.., 01 hi. Melchile major· domos, under Ihe palronage of Saini George. A[·Maqrl'i (d. [441) does nol speak of it. nor does any amhor after him. Whatever ils origin., exca,,,,lion. in [945-1947 have brought 10 light a mona.'lery at l:IiIw~n. The monk BUW5 ~l'l;I~Bls, a ,..,cluse martyred by Baybar5, lh'ed in Ihe monastery of l:Iilwiiin in the thineemh century (u.bib, [982). This saint is also memioned by Ibn al-Suqiii'i,

:'

1233

"

.,

,,

" '.'

..

r' '; " "

BIBUOGItAPHY Am~lineau,

E, "FragmenlS coptes pour .e.-vir iii l·hisloi,.., de la conqu~le de l'Egypte par les Ara· be$." Journal Asi(ltique, ser. 8. 12 (1888),36 I _4 [0. ___ "Histoire do patriarche copte [sane," Bulle· tin de Corr"l"'ndance A/ricaine 2 (1890). Ibn a[·Suqi'l. TMi Kilab Wa/ayM al·A'yan, ed, J. Sob[el. Damascus. 1974. Labib, S. Bulus (ll-Jf(lbis ein Koptischer Martyrer auS dem 13. Jahrhuuderl. PI" 233-40. Acte. du ler Congres d'Etudes Arabes Ch""tiennes. Orientalia Christiana Analecta 2111.-!l-01ll", 1982. Saad. Z. Y. "Royal E.ca"alion. at Helwan (194547)," Supplemenl to A,,,,a'ies du Service des ",Hi· quilis de /'Egyple 14 (1951). RENE GEORGES OJQUtN MAURtCE MA!lTIN. S.J.

Christian Buildings Of the Christi.n buildings that were erected in

l:Iilwoln by the order of 'Abd aleAziz ibn Marv.'tin. the remains of two buildings located dose lOgelher on Ihe west side of Ihe lown had remained standing, hut they were destroyed during the course of

Pl.n of the basilica situated in the front section of complex A, l:Iilwan. Courtesy Peler Grossmann.

forcible land reclamation for new buildings in 1983. They consisted of two rather large and more or less .quare Siructures. the inner counyards of which were surrounded on all sides by in.erconn«ted rows of room •. _Both buildings appear to have been e-re<:led during a single building opera· tion and revealed only a few later alteration•. In both cases Ihe entrances had Ihe design of large gate structures. Inside, besides numcrous accommodalion units and toilets. each of Ihe buildings had a church and nexl to Ihe church a dining room (tridinium) in the shape of a triconch. In Ihe somewhat mo,.., subslamial complex A, the originally unified counyard .....as divided into two sections by a later lransverse wall. The church situ· ated in the front,facing ..,.,tion was a basilica with ils eastern pan subdivided by four central pillars. side chambers, and a projecting ap6e. The large dining room lay ill the wesl counyard. It was a ,..,gularly shaped triconch wilh each conch ha.'ing

1234

f:lILWAN: Christian Buildings

Plan <>f th., monas-tie eompl .." al l::Iil""in. Counesy PelU

whal appean to M a bunl·'":Ioult.ed J.y in &on,. ColtMq""ntly. it ,,-as close in IypC to the tric:Hrtia of iaI.. arnlquily (Gr050mann. 19U, p. &-4. n. )72). In the building complct a... hieh h.t :0. JiOn\ewlul clearer arrangemenl, the chureh ...d lhor tri· clinium _n: fully int~ed inw the buildinl aT~men, on th.- $O~ .u& of the- <;ounyard. 1'bc ehureh was a four-«Jlum<>ed building willt lAurdy auoifonn piers and deep th..., room<"d sanctu· ary. In Ihe lric:onch al1ached 10 I chureh In Ihe east. ",hioh is ......., also regarded as :0. tticlinlum. only Ih" lwo conchs siluat"d in t.... tnulI""rse axis ,",'..re provided with bays, while in the principal ""is th.., .....re missing because the building was .Ii,hl In deplh. The remaining room. oOTresponde
a

e.........""".

bad t='!<:r """"bOn. x.'~ installations w.".., abo Mmd in 'M counyanl. among "i1.icll ... a fish pond pn>'rided ,,-ith numcl"'OUS pipes for- tweed· ; Complex B lenenlly Jaw a mo..., de\..,lopcd im· pNSSion. II apptand to ~ the 1:o.Ier Gl the n..... The bet Ih:o.t ...... merous ..1011 nichn ..~ found in ;1$ walls is simply due. however. 10 il$ bette. ....te of ~l'V:tlion. Wt Un usume dun Ihey ..-en: also part of eompkx Alair. in..a1latiOM and alltralions were "rry £tw. Compltx 1I contained a seritS of buildinp on ,hor north sidt that mlghl ha.t servtd.as .talls for oaule. Thr 1"''''''''' of lh" IWO buildings is also unclrar. In .tylr lhry ....,mblrd lhe areat h.,rmitages found in ",EWA (K.....,r, 1972). They were, howe".,r. in comparison 10 th.,.." far too lavish. and, if onr i. prepared to regard ,h.,m as monasti. living quarIe",. pro'-ided room for very few monk•. One might have expeOled II> find at leut a number of .maller

...

...,wivel,.

HIPPOLYTUS building~

of the same kind in Ihe neighborllood. but Ihi. is not the 'e u..,<J seve",l guestbou""s. BIBLlOGR"PHY

Grossmann, P. },fil1elall£rliclre Lang"auskuppelkir~·Ir. en un" vetwandle Typen in Obuiillypten. pp. 8384, GllicKstadt, 1982. Kasser. R. Kellia Topographie. Recherches suisses d'archeologie copte 2. Geneva, 1972. Rostan. O. R. "ldenli~calion of a Complex of Build· ings DiscO\'ered al Hulwlln." In Selected Essays on Many Subjects, pp. 113-20. Beirul. 1972. PETER GROSSMANN

HIPPOLYTUS (c. 170-c. 236), a pre.b}1er and probably a schismalic bishop of Rome. who wrote numerous works in Grttk on theological and ecde· .i",tical .ubjects. Some of their tilles are lisled on the basis of an early statue of him, found in Rome in 1551. now in the Vatican lJbrary, Two of the most importanl are Philolls: il acquired the name of Egyptian Church Order. pr,e""rved in the canonical oollection Sinodos of the Coptic palriarchate. The Bohaitic version of a manuscript formerly in Berlin (now at Tubingen Universily Ubrary, nol in Ihe Btilish Museum, as B. Bolle said in 1963), wrillen in 1804, is a translation of a Sahidic texl rendered wilh some Arabic influence. The earliesl Coptic lexl of a prayer from the Apostolic TyadNkm is found in the Coptic Euchologion of Ihe DHR ANM ~H1N(JD~H (PO 28, 2, pp. 393ff.), The Sahidic te"I, translaled from a Greek lext. was edile
1235

(Aegyptiaca 1883) and was based on a .ingle manu· script (Btitish Museum Or, 1320) of A,M, 722!A.D. 1006. A more recenl edition by W. Till and Johan· nes ~ipoldt (1954) makes a few correClions. This Sahidic version omits the prayers for Ihe ordina· tions and the anaphora, which are presel'>'ed in the latin "ersion. The Arabie "ersion is based on a complete Sahidie text, the oldest text possibly of ~.M. 1011!~.n. 1295, It is based on Valican Arabic 149. There is also a critical edition by A. Petier (1912). The Ethiopic version, a lran~lation from the Arabic, " based on British Museum Oriental 793. A critical edition by H. Duensing (1946) is based On Vatican Borgia Aethiopic 2 (fiheemh century) and seven other manuscripts, and has a good critical apparalus. II conlains more variants Ihan Dix (1937) was able to use. Besides lhe Latin version. translated from the Greek, we have pans preserved in Sytiac (Testamentum DominO and parts of the Greek original in the AposlOUc Constitutions. Book VlII and its epilome (ed. Funk, 1891), as well as a number of scatlere
1236

HIPPOlYTUS, CANONS OF

osroUc Co"sJitwkms vm (oroinations of a bishop). It contains five chapters, of which tbe title "Consti. tutions of the Holy Apostles Through Hippol)1u, Concerning Ordinations" belongs to Chapter 2, Some scholars have extended the title to the whole of the Epitome. The Epi/ome is of some value for the reconstruction of Hippolytus' Apostolic Trodi· tions and it is the only source of the Greek text of two paMages. BIBLIOGRAPHY Acheli•• H. Die ~lleSI"n QueUen des oriullalischen KirchenrechMs, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1904. Bolte. B. La Tradi/ion apasto/iq"e de saint Hip· polyte. Essai d. recom/i/U/ion. Liturgiewissen"",haftliche Quellen und Forschungen 39. Mun· ster. 1963. Coquin, Dom M. CO"Siitwio"s Through Hippo/yt"s. A new edition. Dix. G. Th" Treatise of rhe Apostolk Tradllion of Sr. Hippolyws of Rome_ New York. 1937. With English translation. Reissued with additional materi· ai, corrections, and preface b)' H. Chadwick. Lon· don, 1968. Duensing, H. Du "e,hiopisch. Texl du Kirchenord71U"8 des Hippolyt. GOningen, 1946, Funk. F. X, "Vas achte Buch der Apostolischen Konstitutionen in der koptischen Uberlieferung," In his Kirchengeschichrliche Abha"dlwwen utld Umersuch""g,,,. VoL 3. pp. 362-81. Paderbom, 1891-1907. Haneberg, Bishop D. B. von, Canmus S. Hippolyli arabice e codibus Romanis. Munich. 1870. First published version. Hanssens, J. M. La Lirurgie d'Hippolyle, Oriens Christlanus Analecta 155. Rome. 1959. Homer. G. The Statules of the Apostlts. London, 1904. The Arabic version. Lagarde. P. A. de. Aegypliaca. GOllingen. 1883. perier. A. Les 127 canon. des apiJlres. PO 8. 4, Paris, 1912. A critical edition. Riedel, W. Die Kirchetllffhtquelletl des Patriarchals A/exandrien. pp. 200-230. Leip7.ig, 19OO. A better edition than von Haneberg. Tidner, E. Didascalitl" 'apostolorum canon""" ec· c1esjasticorum Iradiljimis apostolwae versionl, Il1li"ao. Texte und Untersuchungen 75, Berlin. 1963. Till, W.. and J. Leipold!. HyppolyluS. Antipope, co. 170-235 or 6. Berlin, 1954. ERIC

SEGELBERG

HIPPOLYTVS, CANONS OF. See Hippolytus.

Canons of

HISAB DOBIA. See Account. and Accounting, Histol)" of Coptic,

J:lISBAH, or il)ljslib, the "promotion of good and the forbidding of evil'· as one of the principal religious dutif;"$ of evel)" Muslim and as tbe dut)' of a specially appointed person in each town, panicular· ly in regard to the supervision of markets, anisans, and moral behavior in public. This person, called the mu~tMjb. was concerned with such mallel> as fraud in the manufacture of goods and swindling in their ""Ie. In that r"speel he supervised the conduct of both Muslims and the AHL AL-DHtMMAH ("People of the Covenant"), or Dhimmis. His supervision had two aspects. one religious, one legislative. Th" rdigious aspect was the injunction on all Muslims to "promote good and forbid evil:' There is a strong historical eonnection between this formula and Chrislianit), in Islamic tradition, for Christ, according to Islam, was the first person to enforce "what is legally rigbt and prevent illegality,"' which he did on Palm Sunday, The legislative ...peel is that the coveted status of Dhimmi was authori<ed only by th" imam or his representative and was goanted only to those nonMuslims who had a religion re,'ealed in scripture. that is, Jews. Copts and other Christians, and Magi· ans. Polytheists. idolalors. apostates. and atheists were not emilled to .uch statuS and therefore had no stable social mnk in D~r a/·ls/am (the "Land of Islam") unless they convened to Islam. In addition to supervi,ing commerce. the mul)raslb also saw that the Copts and other Dhimmis obser.ed the religious obligations of their status as laid down b)' 'Umar ibn al·Khal!ab in thc seventh centul)'. These obligations included payment of the JlZYAH (poll tax), wearing a girdle around the waist, wearing a cross around the neck, and stricti)' adhering 10 discriminatory rule, in dealing with Muslims-rules meant 10 humiliate the Dhirnmi and eult the Muslim. Despite the fact that the terms l)/sbah, i~lisflb. and mU~lasib rarely appeared in Coptic books-panicu· lady the HiSlOry of the Palriarchs-in the Middle Ages. the)' reveal the object of the call to Islam in a different mode, This object is made clear in tbe J,isbah register. established b)' the q~4i ("supreme judge") al.F~il in the twelfth century, as shown i" the following quotation: "Know the Copts and Jews, the transgressors. by their discriminating dress. by their girdle, this is proof enougb nf the

HISTORIA MONACHORUM IN AEGYPTO

glol')' of Islam and the humility of the transgresso,". It is a p",paratol')' Slllge for th~m to pro<;~ed to hellfire, and it is dis<:riminalion between believers and alheists:' BIBLIOGRAPHY Gaudefroy·Demombynes, London. 1919.

M. Muslim

Instilution.'.

SUSHI Y. U.DlD

J:lI~N, a rampart or defensive waH. The word is

also used in this .. nse for Ihe fortificalion walls of tOWOl. In the Egyptiao "enobile monasteries the "irn has lhe significance of a protective wall and is equally important as a defense against hostile ..... saults and to p",vent uncontrolled intercourse between the inhabitants of the monastery and the outsid~ world (Palladius H;su,.ia la''''aca 59). 10 Ihe Coplic monasteries of today. the ~~n is as a rul. very high and is also always provided with a high parapet in which various lookout holes have been let in. The walk on the crown of the wall is accessible by several staircases. but is ;t~lf so narrow that any large number of men cannOI mOve along it. To increase stability. there are frequently towers al the <:Dmers and in the middle of the curtain walls. Despite these consolidation measures, apart from a few e~ceptions. the value of these monastery walls as fortifications is small. lbey were not suited 10 active defense against a hostile attack. Indeed, such an acti,'e defense ""'OS no part of the customary behavior of the monks. Determined att.;>ckers could easily sunnount the "i~n, In "ase of a stroog assault. it offered only the possibility of gaining time. in order thaI all the inhabilants might promptly withdraw with their possessions and th. church's obje<;ts of value ..if to the keep. Th. drcumvallation 0( cenobite monasteries cam~ into praclic. at an ~ar1y date. By Ih~ fourth centnry PACHOMIUS provid~d for th~ walling of the different monaliteri~s of his society. In this he cerlainly had in view not only the "",uring of the cohesion of his monastk commuoities and theiT shielding from the out.ide world hut also defense against hostile auacks. During the inro
1237

anchorites followed later. The firs, of these was a monastery precinct surrounded by a strong defen. sive wall, the present monastery of Saint Catherine. built for the monks on Sinai b~' the emperor Justini· an. It was intended only for c<>sos of danger. and down to the temh cemury was n",'er pennanemly inhabited, The walling of the monastery DAYR ANBA MAQAR in WMI aI-Nalrun wa, firsl taken in hand by

SHU
"

Kasser, R. SalVey arch;ologiqt<e des KeWa, Rapport de la campagne /98/. Vol •. 1,2. Leuven. 1983. Leipoldt, J. $chwt
HISTORIA LAUSIACA.

SU Palladius.

HISTORIA MONACHORUM IN AEGYP. TO, the story of a vi.it made to the monks of Egypt during the winter of 394-395 by a group of seven persons, among them the writer of Ihe book. The story exists in two recensions: one in Greek (edi· tions by Pr.uschen and Fe,tugi(>re). Ihe other in latin, the work of Rufinu. of Aquileia. The connee·

1238

HISTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS OF ALEXANDRIA

mcensions hu Ions bet-n lh SO'~I of cfis~nn. E. Pm.oschen Ihoughl 1....1 lhe C~k 1,",,1 "'35 a t~atioJl of Ihe ulin Iftl of Rufin.., whom he rqankd as 1M rnI ....thor of lbe book. R. Rt-i~nstrin also considered 1M Creek lUI .. lnlllslalion of the leu of Rulin.., bus he lhoutltu thaI IWfinus had himso:lf lntI~att¥>", to us.. C Butk~ (119&. Vol I, pp. 10-15, 2S7-60') demonsuated that the Cr«lr. .UI is the ori&l~1 and R.. lin.. a uanslator; this >'iew. conlinne.d by the COmpat"3Uff .Iudy of lhe two te:J.1$ made by ..... J. Feslu~re (1955), is no.... generally ao;eepK Rufin.., aceordi"ll to his habits, I....nsbled ralher freely, 5Qm01imq adding In the Grttk le:IU, which he peT' haps kn...... in a form s1igh.1y differenl from Ihe One we know. So.omen', a.senion (HillOria ~ecl~liol/ic. O. 29) lhal the author WItS "l1mOlhy, bishop of Alexandria.'" who died ""me len years before lhe joum~y look pl""c. cann"l be mainlained, Buder's conjec· lUre (1898. pp. 276-77). slill accepled In SOme handbooks, Ihal the aUlhor "'all One TimOlhy, deacOn of Aleundria in 412, whom Sozomen cont1u~d Wilh lhe bishop of the ... me name. also remains \lnconnmw:d. In lhe prolo,;ue lbe aUlhor "'Y' he Wrole al Ihe request of the members of "Ihe pious fraternity established on Ihe M<MInl of OIi.....:' an expr~ion thai eenainly indica!.,. Ih~ monaslic community of Rufinus and Meb.nia. The lno,'d~T", Woo are ~'" by ""lUin ~es in lhe lUI 10 be of Latin speech, probably themsel>u belo. 10 llUs commUJIity. and arnona: lhem the .ulhor. 11>ey ~m to ........ g""e direcll} by the Nile to As)i'lL n.. fi~ dU'J"ler ...,laIes thtir visil to J(lIf.'ol Of !.looP· IlU5.. but.hry cIo l'I(lt ..... l'1l 10 11.>."0' cone any bnhn-. TIwy ..... ited nurnenJUO monb in lhe Tbebaill n<>Iabt,. lhose in Ihe rqion of Oayritynchus. Then they c:lIlM back dov." !he N~e as br as lite
",,'0

u.,

largely 10 lhe spt'n(Iing of the fame of.he monks of Eg,pt. both in ,he bst and in .be West. From Ihis point of ,-iew tho: boolo; played a role <:o il U"M often cklsely _;"lft;! in tht manu· script lradilion. Se,'et'II1 andenl versions jn Syriac or in Armenian b<:en prescn-ed. In Coptic fj,,,, lea....,. ha"e come dooon from .. Sahidlc codex caet· tainin. fragments of lhe firsc chapter, dcYole.d to John of Lycopolis (ft;!. De_. 1969). The<-<' are ......· eral U1Mlations inlo modem languages; a ~en, English translMion can be found in The Uva at 11K De~1 F.ulrers.

Ita,,,,

tlll!IUOCRAPHY

Butler. C. T1u Lil...."c HUlary oj P"II.di.... Vol. 1. Cambridle. 1198. De,-os, P. "FragmenlS copt" de I"'Hislona mona· chorum' (S. Jean de Lycopo!is)," Im"lu/a B"IlQ'" di".." 17 (1969):411-40, Festug;ere, A, J. "Le probl~me HUhaire de I·Hi.lO· ria monachorum,"Uerlflu I! (1955):257-84 _ ___, His/o,i" in A~p'p/o_ Edition eririqu. du rute I'ee e/ troduetion ~""o/~e. 8m,.. .ets, 1971. Trans. in E:1glish by N. Russen as n.~ Lives of Ihe Duerr F.,rh.,s. 1C;>lama:z:oo< Mich., 19l1a. rreu5Ch~n. E. P~lIl1di"s ....d RJ<{i" Ei.. Beil"''' u-r Q_/I~nJc....d., des Iitutu MOnd" TtJlle und Untermchungen. Cieswn, 1397. Reitzenstrin. R. HiJlorill M"norclw...... u"d Hi.loritJ Lilusi""•. £i.. SI..d.. ....' w:schkhre hs MoochlJmlf .."d d.~ friJ~hrUJlich~.. &vrlfe Wrostilu ....d Prte""'II'1U•. COllinsen, 1916.

"'0...,,,110''''''

AJn01NE

GuuLo.L~'"

I-flSTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS OF ALEXANDRIA, lhe lit'" commonly used for lhe principal 1",,1 of l:op(k histotiocraphy. which actu· ally bean the Ii.... III·BI''''' <J1-A,fuq"dJ"S1 his predeces""r. The early histori· ans in Ihis &erici w..... l~ in Coplic, and lheir succe,.. sors from the de"enth century on wrole in Arabic. The thl as we know It loday consisls Ihus partly of Anbic lnonslations of Coplic originals and panly of

Sly.,

HISTORY OF THE PATRlARCHS OF ALEXANDRlA

original "'rabi~ works, and as a whole it ~ove"" the history from the Ii,..t to the thirteenth ~en1Uries_ Mo,..,over, the,.., are brief continuations of the His_ tory of Ihe Patriarch.' that deal with the fourteenth to the early twentieth ~entury. As for the contents, most lives of the History of the Patriarchs are much more than a biography of a patriarch. The authOr:< endeavored to record all kinds of e,'enl~, including 'hose belonging to political or social history. But there is nO uniformity on this point, Sonte of the authors concentrated on the patriarch's personalit}', whereas others limited themselves to using the p;>_ triarch's reign as a general framework in whi~h other events are dealt with. Al any rate, the History 01 lire Patnarclrs conslitutes our main literary source for Coplic history, and, if used with some caution, an important complcmentary source for Egyptian history io generaL Traditionally, the name of sAwtRUS rBN ~L·MVQAFFA· has been attached to the text of the History 01 the Pmnarclrs, but the exa~t nature of his contriburion ro il has been uncertain for a long rime. Most scholars regard him as the redactor of the earlier series of biographies written in Coptic, whi~h he ~olle~red in order to have them translated into "'rabic, Subsequent aurho"", starting wirh MlKIIHr.. bishop of Tinnis, are considered saW!rus' successor:<. However, some doubt has been expressed conceming Ihe role "",ribed to 8awirus ibn al-Muqaffa'. In particular, more arrention has been paid ro the redacrional acriviry of rhe Alexandrian deacon MA\OiHOB IBN MAN· 'OR rBN MUFARRIJ. D. W. Johnson discusses Ihe pulzling similarities in the descriptions of editOrial work gi"en in tne prefa~es and redactional notes ""'ribed to 5aw'frus and 10 Mawho.b, respectively (1977, pp. I 08-116), J~n dHeijer suggests ascribing all redactional worl ro MawhOb, rhus denying any contrihurion <)1 S~wlru. (1984, cols. 346-347, 1989, PI>. 81-116). The latter. conclusion is mainl}' based on a .tudy of the rel.t~ betwun rhe two ,..,cen· sions of rhe Hiswry 0/ !!,e Patria,ch~, the "primirive" recension, extanl iTj the Hamburg manus~ript edited by C. F. Seybold'(1912) 'with unpublished continuation. in a Pari. and a Cairo manuscript, and the "Vulgate," wbich i' the ,'ersion of all other lnown manuscripts edired by Seybold (1904-1910) and b)I B. T. A. Eveus (1904-1915), continued by rbe Socio't~ d'.rcheologie copte (1943-1974).

The AUlhors What follow, is a mere enumerarion of rhe aurhors who wrorc rhe various series of patria
1239

texIs are hown only (wilh some exceptions for which Coptic originals ha"e been found) through the Arabi<' r.da~tion ascribed to Sawtru, ibn al· Muqaffa' or to Mawhub. No account i, talen here of th,..,e texts appearing .r rhe beginning of the Hi,to')' of (he Pat.-iQ'ch5, but not entirely belonging to it, the treati.e on the P.-i..thooa of Christ, the Life of Saim Mark, and the Martyrdom 0/ Saim Mark (fragments of a Bohairic original published by Evelyn-Whire, 1926, pp. 46-47; d. the remarks by John.on, 1973, pp. 68-70). The identificalion of the biographers of the patri· archs is based on a number of edirorial notes in which those authors describe rheir worl and thar of their predecessor:<, as well as On (mosrly scant) aurobiographieal data Ihey provide in their lives. A brief analysis of th05C notes was made, nuher inaccurately, by Gurschmid (1890, pp. 401-403). The mo,t detailed study on this ,ubject is by KAmil (1943, pp, 9-45), who not only sludied the abovementioned notes bur also examined all Coptic po. tential source. for the History of the Patriarchs. Wilh ,..,gard 10 some of them. however, Johnson demonsrrates that rhey have at rhe mosr been used as indirect sources (1973, pp, 67-74), His study On the authors and their cOntribulions is limited to those included in MawhClb's reda~tion (1973, pp. 6-26; 1977), as a,.., the additional ,..,marks by den Heijer (1984, 1989). As for the first series of biographie" th¢se of Anianus to Cyril 1 (numbe... 2_24), much attention has been given to them by Coptologist., sin~e ",me fragmenls of the Coptic (Sahidic) original, known as Ihe History ¢f the Church, have been idenrified, Certain srudies, particulariy hj.. O. von lemm (1888) and by W. E.. Crum (1902), demonstrate this text', dep"nden~e On Eusebius of Caesarea', Historia ecc1~sia5tica. All fragments lnown are now published in the editions made by T. Orlandi (1968-1970) and by J¢hnson (1973 and 1976; cf. also Bralmann, 1974, and Farag, 1973). Although Crum considered the possibility of regarding TtMOTHY 11 (458-480) as rhe author of rhis series, mo,r authors now tend 10 agree on ascribing these liv~" though with ,orne hesitarion, to th~ oth~rwise unknown scribe Menas, who may ha,.., been a monk ¢f the Dayr Anb~ Shinudah (Johnson, 1973, pp. 53-56; d. also "'mil. 1943, p. 10; John,on, 1977, pp. 114-115; den Heijer, 1984, 1989). The second Copric text used as a source for rhe JUswry ¢j th~ Patriarchs must have included rhe lives starting from Cyril I (412-444)-thus overlapping wirh the first series-to the life of Simon 1 (692-700). From this lost Copti~ source, Ihe History

1240

HISTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS OF ALEXANDRIA

of t~ P"'triotclu fai.. 10 botTow the lire 01 ();o. seo"'" I. ....hich is strikingl)' ~nl in the A"","" toe>lL nw, author 01 thtst Coptic lives is One Jirjl (George) the MchdeacOl>, spiritual SOfl of the 40th plIIriarch, JOMS III {671-686), scrilx of the 42nd, 51101O>I I (bft9-101), and himself lhe spirllWtJ bother of Cwmas.. ,,'no ~ame ttl<: 44th PMriarch (1 JO131), In one of lhe h~ by Jiojl the Archdeacon. the HiJIory of the P",tri""du p""a 10 mUe uSC of an additional source. The bller pan of the bios" phyof Benjamin I (6U-66I) contains an abrid:Bed version of lhe Book of lin- Consec''''tioor of the 5",,,,,· ,,,,,,., of Be"iD"'i", ;to demo...."'tfll ntensi",,1y by Coquin (1915. c'a". of hi. own 10 MU'hA'I!'s lext. MlkU'JI's ldenll~catlon as Ihe aUlhor of Ihe Llves S6-6S is alin Imponall1 in thaI II eliminates Stwlrus ibn ai-

Muqalf:a: lIS. biographer of palriarchs (el. Johnson, 1911. pp. 115-116), and, accoldins 10 den Heijcr, ... compiler or the Coptic lJves and edilor of Iheir Arnbic tTaMlation. The Iauer author th"" discerns a c!tar boundary bet""ff!l the 61'SI fiw series of liws (1-65) coI~,ed and lralUbued from d.., Coptic in a si,.Je campa.n kd b}- Ma"'htib ibn ~ ibn Mubnij. and lhe ~uet11 I.ioies, written diredly in Arabic by M.a""i\ob ;wd his w.ccC1OOO"J,. tb.ring comple~ his Arabi<:: redac'ion cf the .....• lie.- Coptic Lives. ~n 1088 and 10'J4, Ma..-+tUb ibn Mant"1r Mufarrij wrote the Lives of the 65th and M.th po.triarchs, ctI'-1STOD01!Ul5 (1041-1017) and CUll. II (1011.1092). The bet tha' his predecessor. Michael of Tinois, wrote in Coptic makes Ma...-htib emerge ... Ihe 61'$' biographer in this series 10 write in Arabi<:, and probllb1y eWn as Ihe 6...1 Coplic hislorian who expressed himS/;'lf in Arabic. At Ille same lime, Ma""hllb is lhe Ii,-,I laym;\J1 among Ihe authOl'$ of II><: History ollh" P'lIri~'Ch., an indica· tion of Ih. lransfonnation lhe Coptic communilY underwenl in his limes (d. Martin, 19S5, p. 26). Although Mawhl1b's authul'$hip of Ihe two pall;' arch li,e~ is obvious, G. Gm, In Ilis Crsch;cht< d" chris/lich,," GT~bjsche" U/UannJi ibn $"id (1947, p. JOI, per'" haps inspired by th, same mistab in Culschmid, 1890, p. 4(2). Yulpom>i does OCcur in 'he talter life, bul only in his capaci'y 01 scribe, ... ho, ..-+tile c0pying MawMb's lexl, wlded a few personal remarb (den Heijcr, 1983, pp. 114-119, and 1989, P. Ill). Y".......'" ibn $'·Id ibn YaI,,1yi ibn Mint., kl1O""'11 as Ibn aI-Quhumi aI·talib (the scribe), also a ia)man and a high offtdal from Cairo. cot'ied and rtaI' ranl'ed the li.,es ediled by Ma,,-ttUb, and tI-. ,,'en, on lO wrM dowol lhe biot;1 aphies of lhe palliard", of his 0W11 times. MIctIA.EI. IV (1092-1102) and MAC.UlICS II (1102. 1128~ The: Hid patriarc:h. Mark III ibn Zur'ah (1161_ 1189)....TOte the b10srapbles of his pr-e
HISTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS OF ALEXANDRIA

respectively, as well as a separate account of the events taking place after 1216, when a nineteenyear vacancy of the patriarchate began. Some note. in his text seem 10 indicate that he wrote in se,·e.-al stagcs, over a long period of time. He wrote his lirst biography in 1207, slaMed his account of the V>lCancy of the patriarchate in 1221, and appcars to have completed it in 1229 (Kamil, 1943, pp. 40-42). Kami! ~Ii!). Nakhlah (1943, p. 42) tends to regard the contributions of the nine aUlho", treated above as constituting the History of the Pntrio,chs properly speaking, and the subsequent biog.-aphies of patriarchs as a continuation of it. This demarcation is ceMainly cOlToborated by many manu.cripts of Ihe History of the Palriarchs, which are limited to the firsl 74 lives, and by the fact that for the remaining patriarchs, we ha"e generally anon)'mous and very brief biographies-while a separate, elaborate, life of the 75th patriarch exists (see below). Of IItme very abridged lives (patriarchs 76-113, period of 1250-1942), original, longer versions may have ex· isted in the past, but the te,t presently available is often limited to the main dates (consecration, death) of tlte patriarch. There are scm. exceptions. The life of the 87th patriarch, Matthew I (13781409), is lengthy and resumes the tradition of the earlier lives. K~mil (1943, Pl'. 43-45) ha< been able to identify its aUlhor ... the bishop of the monastery of DHR AL-KHANDAQ. who must have written it shonIy after the patriarch's death. The lJves 88-97 are e.tremely brief again, and in this form they may have been written by the patriarchal scribes. The biographiu of the patriarchs 98-109 (1409-1852) are wmewhat longer and anonymous, although with regard 10 the life of the 103r
1241

f'Cl'Wns are quoted: a cenain Yu!)ann! ibn Wahb ibn Yii!).anna ibn Ya!)y" ibn Biilus and a shaykh called 'Alam al-Mulk ibn al-I:la.jj Shams al-Riy;\sah. The editors appear to regard the former as a coauthor and Ihe latter as the compiler. A collation of this te,t with the Dayr al-Su')'~n manu.cript, done by Nablh Kamil D~wiid, howe.-er, has established that both texts are in fact identical, which implies that the life of Cyril ibn Laqlaq as e
1242

HIW

Olher Worlu Quoled

Amtlinuu. E. "1...e!I lkmlen joun ella man du Khalile Merouan II. d'apr~ I'Histoire des Palriarches d'Alexandrie:' )0"1'''0/ A~otiq..e 4. ser. 11 (1914);411-49. BJllk~nn, H. "BAC oder zwei koptische KiuhcnIf'SChicluen:' U M"U07l 81 (1914):119-42. Cerulli. E. "La 'ConqUiOb perslana di c.r:.... usalemmc' ed allre fond orienlali ~riS1ianc di un l'pisodio dell' 'Orbndo furioto.··· OrKnlo/", 15 (1946):439-8l. Coquin. R. G. Livr.. de III C<>,U«1'O';OI< du $41"'" 'uoire de & ..;.",i". eibllolh~ue d·.,l""'n copec:. 13. Cairo. 1975. erum. W. E. "Ewcbius and Coptic Church H"toria." Proceedmp 01 fhe Sod..." of 8iltiitt:01 ATc1luo/OO 24 (1901):68-84. E...lyn-Wbile. H. E. fife MOtIfUUrittS of 1M Woldi'" Nall"im, Vol. I: Ii_ Cornie TOI$ In:- 1M A40nrJ 0I1he ...."4$le,;... 0{ Nmi,a .."d QI Sntis. Now York. 1926, 1932. Fa",,&- f, Jl.. "A Com~rison of Sttverus Ibn aI· M".qaffa'. Uleraty Technique in His: Two Works. the 'His:I.ory of m.. Palriarelu' and 1M 'Book 01 lhe Coul>Cils' 1 .. 2.~ A"......I of ,Joe LudJ U"lWl'~ Orie,,'ol $odeI)' 1 (l969-1913):SO-SJ. "The Technique of Rcscan:h of a T""Uo~C'ftl"'" Cbristian Anob Wriler: Sewnas Ibn aIMuqaIf.." u 86 (1913):31-66. ''The ~ of lhe Coptie uncuace as a C<mSlituem Ele~1 of the Uler10ry Fonn 01 lie,.~ Ibn aHo1uqa1f.:' Bibliof1lec. Orie"I.lis 33 (1916):274-83. _ _ ~The Usa8e of lhe brly W.mic Terminology as a Constiluenl Ete",enl of the Ule...ry Fonn ofa T",nth-c",nlUry Chrisli... Arab Writ",,, Sc>""rus Ibn al·Muqalb.~ JoumQI 01 Ihe A.....ricQ" Oril:nJ~ S«itt:1)' 99 (1979):49-57. G.,J. G. (ol./06"e de m."USCrfl' oroM< ~hf'iM"s ~",,-,erY:ar Ibn Mumrri!: el I·Hi,· lo;re des PQ/,;"rrhes d',I,/ua"drie, nOle. sur une elude en cool1l:' ACUJ d" de"..iem. COnt1'eJ i,,/ern"I;O>Io/ d'I,,,de8 orob... ch,ili."".... Oriental;a Chri.tiana AnaJeelll 26, Rome. 1986. _ _. "Sawlru.lbn al,Muqafla', Mawhob Ibn Mil':!' .ilr Ibn Mufarrig el la gen~ de l·H;JlQ;1'. d••

"""Won

Patrn:.,.hes d·Aluondrie." 8ibliOlh..a Orl,"toli. 41 (1984):33(,-47. _ _. "L'RiSl,,;re de. Plltri.:r.rehe. d'A/oo"dri', re~", ...ion primili.,,,, et Vulgate," B"II.,,'.. de IQ SQciili .r"rrllio1t>gi. cop'e 27 (1985),1-29. ___ M"",lIiib Urn M"...,,1' ibn M,,/omg rllisror!ogroplI;e cop'e... Elude '''1' IQ co",po.irio" d" rHiSloi1'e de. P,,/riQrrlles d'A!oQ"dritt:. Lou •.,.in, 1989.

e'

r,,".

Johnson, D. W. COpl;" So..'CttS

of ,lie History of /Irtt:

PlIlri"rcl.. of AI....."driQ. Ph. D. diss.. TM Catholic: Uni'iffSily 01 A"""rica. Washinaton, D. C.• 1971. "Funha Fraj""""15 of a Coptic HiSlor)" of Ihe Ch...-.:h: Camboi..no:d de Sl. Pmn· boourz 7. 36, II. 51. PelenbuTJ. 1m. Ln; Della Vida. C. "A Christian lqe'nd In Moslem Gub." B}...ntion IS (1940-41):144-57. Martin, M. M. "lIM LecI1ln: de 1'H~oire des Paltl· arc""'" d'A10exan0\ri.,." ~he Orienl ClrtilUn 35 (1985):15-36Orlandi. T. SU>ri" delltl Chia, II. D
r_,eo

JOHA.-.ltlES

~

HF.lIER

HIW, a city in Up!"'r

EgypI, located on the weSI bank of Ih", Nile some 4 mil... (aboul 6.5 km) "Ol.,,!>,

easl of N"ll Hammadi. In Cred the clty "''all kno""n as UpP"'r Diospolis or Diospoll$ Mlk .... til Coptic sources the city i. called Hou or Ho. Hiw was a bl$hoprl~ b..fore 325, ali evidenced by frequent mention in the life of PACHOMlllS of an unnamed bishop of Diospoli. (Zoe&". 1810, pp, 71, 75). AI·w,ORI:!Cl wrole Ihal in his day (the fooneonlh and filleenth ~enturies) there was " ~hu~h 01 lhe

HOLY CROSS DAY

Virgin and ~ church of ABO MINA in Hiw (1845, p. 14 I). The Abu Mina church later became a m
HOLY CROSS DAY. The COplic Church annual· Iy commemorates Iwo event. relaled 10 the Holy Cross on which Jesu. was crucified: Ihe finding of Ihe croSS al Je",salem by the empress lIelena, mother of Constantine, in A.D, 326, the feast day being 17 Tut; and Ihe restoralion of the cross in 628 from the hands of the Pe... ians. whose King Cho'ariably falls during the Great lent, Ihe celebration of Holy Cross Day takes place on 17 Tut, which is lhe day that follows Ihe consecration day of Ihe church on the sites of the Holy Sepulcher and CalvaI)'. The earliest mention of the glorious event of Ihe finding of the Holy Cross in patrislic writings is in Ihe Caleehelical Lectures of Saint Cyril of Jerusa· lem (c. 315-386), In a sennon ba>ed on I Corinthi· ans 8'5-6 and delivered in the Church of the Resurrection in 348, Ihat ;s, tw~ty.two years aher Ihe discovery of the Holy Crqs, Saim Cyril speaks about the witnesses and testimonie, concerning Christ, and adds, '·The holy wood of Ihe Cross bears witness, ,een among uS to this day, and fr-Qrn this place now almrn;1 fining the whole world, by means of IhQSt' who in faith take portions from it" (Catechetical Lecturos 10.19). In anOlhersermon on the Iheme of the crucifixion (based on Is. 53:17), Saint Cyril dcclares, "He was crucified, and we deny it not, nay, I rather glol)' to. spe~k Qf ii, For though I should now deny ii, here is Golgotha to confule me, near which we are now assembled; Ihe

1243

wood of the Cross confutes me, which was afterwards distribuled piecemeal from hence to all the world" (Lecture 13,4). -Saint JOH" CHRVSOSI"OM (c. 347-407) te.lifie. 10 Ihe man;festalion of the lIoly Cross ;n the fQllowing words, "For since the wood of lhe cross was buried, because no one was careful 10 take il up, inas· much as fe~r was pressing, and the believers were hUlT)'ing 10 Iheir urgenl matters; and since ;t was in after times to he sought for, and it was likel}' thaI three crosses would lie logelher, in order that the lord's mighl not be unknown, it was made manifest 10 all, firsl by it. lying in the m;ddle, and then by Ihe t;tle·' (Homily on Saini John 85). Ambrose, bishop of Milan (c. 339-397), refers 10 Ihe discovery of the HoI)' Cros.~ in the cour:se nf a scrmon delivered at a memorial service in 395 for Empc",< Theodosius, in Ihe presence of Empemr Honoriu•. Socmtes (c. 380-450) kepi a record of relevam reports he heard from ,'ariQUS sc>UfCes of how the empress Helena was direcled by a divine dream 10 go to Jerusalem and lIart 'earching for Ihe cross. She found that a temple to Venus had been erecled on the .ite of the Holy Sepulcher to mislead pil· grims, She had the ground cleared and searched umil three crosses were eventually found, as wcll as the tablct
1244

HOLY HORSEMAN

ny of aiteNime has e.tablished il< truth? He ,;aid thai about noon. when the day was already begin. ning to decline, he saw with his own eyes Ihe trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, "ConqueT By Thi•. " AI this sight he himself was struck wilh amattmenl, and his whole anny alro, which followed him on this apedition. and witnessed the miracle, (The Life 0/ Co"slanli"e 1.27) The 5e<:ond was to Gallus Caesar, According to Socrates, "Ihe Emperor Constantius having creat· ed Gallus his kinsntan CaeSaT and given him his own name, sent him to Anlioch in Syria, provid· ing thus fur Ihe guarding of the eastern parts. When Gallus was emering this city, the Saviour's sign appeared in the East: for a pillar in the fonn of a cross "'en in the hea"ens gave occasion of great amattment to the Speclators" (Ecclesiasti. cal HiS/Dry 2.28). Third, Saint Cyril of Jerusalem was an eyewit· ness to Ihe apparition of Ihe sign of Ihe cross in the sky at Jerusalem on 7 May 351, particulars of which he sent in a letter 10 Emperor Constantius: "Ouring the blessed days of Pentecost. and, to be precise, on 7 May 351 ~.D.. a\>out 3 o'dock [in the afternoon) a huge cross appeared in the sky over Golgotha, reaching as far as the Mount of Olives. It was seen. not by oOe or lwo poople, but by all the inhabitants of the city, with Ihe utmost clarity. Rather Ihan fade away as we e~pected it would soon do, il continued 10 shine for many hours. in a most resplendent brightness, more brilliant than Ihe sun ilself., .. All Ihe city hurried 10 a man in awe and wonder, but also in joy to see this celestial sight. They Aocke
, BlBU~RAPHY

Butcher, E. L. rite Siory of Ihe Church of Egypl. London. 1897. Butler, A. J. The Arab Conquesl of Egypl, and Ihe LAsl Thirty Years of Ih~ Roman Dominion, Oxford, 19(12. ARCHBtSHOP BASIUOS

HOLY HORSEMAN, SU Christian Subjects in Coptic An.

HOLY LAND, COPTIC CHURCHES IN THE. Th~re are five Coptic churches in Ihe Holy u.nd in addition to the churches in Jerusalem. Theo Church of the Nativity in Bethleheorn This i. one of the oldest Christian churches in the Hoi)' land. built by Constantine the Greal in ~.D, 326. A pilgrim from Sordeaux writing in 333 said that the tomh of Rachel is two kilometers from Bethlehem. where Christ was born and where a church was built at the orders of Constantine (Crowfoot. 1971. pp. 11, 17,22.30; Stewan, 1887, p. 27). The church was rebuilt by Justinian in 529 afler the revoh of Ihe Samaritans. II survived the Persian invasion of 614 and avoided the destruction that befell other churches in lhe reign of al·J:I~kim. When the Crusaders ",izedthe Holy land in 1099, they found the church inta~l. Ao anonymous pil· grim writing in the twelfth cenlury said, "At Bethlehem there is a church built with pillars of marble, wherein i. Ihe place where Christ was born. Not far from hence. on the right hand. is the Lord's man· ger" (Stewart, 1894. pp. 4-5). [n 1167 Ihe church was renovated, and many olher rcnovatkms have I&ken place since. The entrance to Ihe church is through a small door in Ihe counyard of Ihe manger in front of Ihe church. This door leads to the ehurch's gallery. from where another door leads 10 the church itsclf. In Ihe body of the church are fony·four columns. Portions of Ihe early mosaic Hoor have been found. Beyond the columns the building is di.-ided into three. The middle seclion, higher than lhe other two. is Catholic, and this is where the Greek Onho· do~ pray. The Armenians, the Copt., and Ihe Syri· ans hold their prayers at altars in the """tion on the left. E. T. Richmond, writing about the Nativity Church, commented that pilgrim. Ie> the Nali"ity Church continued 10 come in the founeenth centu· ry, particularly duriog Christmas (Harvey, 1935, pp. 11-12). Writing in August 1335. Jacques de Verone panicipated in Ihe feasl held in memory of the Virgin's "isil 10 the ca"e three days before her as' cent to heaven. He des<:ribes the eYellt thus' "[n the morning each sect went to the allar specified for Ihem. The main altar in Ihe upper church was for the Romans. while Ihe Franks had the allar in the vault near the manger. To the left of the church [in the nonhern wing] are three ahars and a water

HOLY LAND, COPTIC CHURCHES IN THE

reservoir. On each of Ihese altars Ihe Indians, Nubi· ans and NeSlorians hold their mass. In the soulh aisle is an altar where twenty·four children killed by Herod are buried (Ml. 16,2). Al this altar lhe Jacobites [CoplS] hold their mass," Mori,ini in 1514 reponed lhat the Annenians held their mass at lhe altar of the Three Magi, while the Jacobite. held their masS at a nearby allar (CeroW, \943, p. 314). The Copts go to the Church of the Nativity in a formal procession in June of evel)' year, They visil the Cave of Ihe Nativity and relurn in procession, Later Ihey hold the evening prayers, On the feast "f Baramun they <:elebrate mass at Ihe allar of the Ihree Magi, then go out to recei~e Ihe procession of the archbishop of the see of Jerusalem, which ar· ri,'cs al Bethlehem in Janual)', The archbishop then ~isilS Ihe mangcr and al sunsel prayer, Ihe Copts descend 10 Ihc Ca,'C of the Nati~ity, where they pray before returning 1<:> resume the ,unlCt prayers. On Christmas Eve Ihey celebrate mass in Ihc same place and Ihen return in formal procession to the patriarchale in Jerusalem. Anha Yacobos, archbishop of the see of Jeru...· lem from 1946 to 1956, bought four hou,es facing the Church of Ihe Nativity where he planned to build a Coptic church and monasICl)', but he died before accomplishing this task. Archbishop Basili<:>s turned one of the hou.e. into a monastery and e'labli.hed a small church dedicated 10 the Holy Virgin, where prayers are held every Sunday. Some Coptic monks now li~e pennanently in Ihe monas· lery. Saint Andrew's Church In Jericho In Ihe day, of Anha Timotheos, archbishop of the see of Jerusalem from 1899 10 1925, a church and monastery were buill in Jericho for Coplic-pilgrims on Iheir way to the Jordan. 'lI'e church was ioaugu· "'ted in 1924, and the pau'iarchate in Jerusalem sent some of its monks to live al lhe monastery, The patriarchate looked for more propeny, and in 1935 a piece of land was purchased in the piace Ihat was belie~ed t<> be the site of the house of Zac<:haeus, in which he recei~ed Jesus (Ll<. 19:2), When the place was cleared, the remains of a Byz· antine church of Saint Andrew were discovered. The Church of Saint Andrew lies in the southweSI of Jericho, on the north hank of al-Oalt valle)'. On arri~ing at Jericho from Jerusalem, one reaches the remains of the church by walking along the firsl

1245

.treet 10 the west after crossing the bridge of the AI·QaIt valley. AI the soUlhern end of the streel, there is a small monastery <>f live rooms sel in the middle of an orchard, where usually one or more Coptic monks live. Among the Roman monuments there is a pool that was apparently once used for fishing. There is also a water reservoir and two others to lhe west. Saint Andrew's Church was built .sometime he· tween the founh and .i.th cemuries, like all the BJ'l>Intine churches in the area. The antiquity of this church is pro,'ed by the mosaic that COVeTS its floor, this being of the black and white unrefined kind used in Ihe firsl centuries of Chri.lianity. The church was damaged by the Persians in 614, It seems that it was one of Ihe first churches reached by pilgrims, monks, and hennit. who spread into the al.Qall ~alley al this time. Today there are still monasteries and hermit ca~es in the are•. Mosaic co"ers the floors of the building that was constructed over the ruins of Saint Andrew's Church, It seems that Saint Andrew'. Church was built over a cemetery, for many ancient tombs can be seen in the ~icinity. The mosaic conlains tWQ Greek inscription., The first COnSiSIS of .ix lines, while the second contains ten lines, The first reads: "Magnianos the soldier thanks Saint Andrew. The mosaic is made with the help of the priest Heraclios and Constanlino, the deacon and Polikhronios." Polikhronio. is probably the name of the aniSl who made the mosaic. Presumabl)' Magnianos cau.ed the church to be built after his prayers had heen answered by SainI Andrew. The second inscription is on a tomb, tone and reads, "Here re.t. the blessed Triphon, the selVanl of Jesus, who died on 20 February, on the lifth day of the tcnth decade." The dale gi~en would be Thursday, 20 February 592. There are some Roman, BJ'l>Intine, and Arabic antiquities from the church preselVed in one of the rooms of the monaslery. These include columns, capilal., and ",me old jars. Prayers are now conducted over a mobile ahar, which is pul in one of the rooms before prayers. In view of the religious and archaeological importance of the church, the patriarch of Ihe see of Jeru...lem and the Near East decided to establi.h a large church on the top floor of the same building dedicated to Saini Andrew, and to maintain and preseT'.'e the mosaics in the floor of the original church.

1246

HOLY lAND, COPTIC CHURCHES IN THE

The Church and MonllSl~1')' or John Ihe Bapllst near Ih~ River Jordan Copfic" pilgrims who 10 ro tilt Holy ~nd visil the 1lJ,'er Jordan. when Jesus \lo'aS baptiud. C. I. lroy, ",ho vlsil~ th.. Holy lind in IUS, 0lUd thai he saw OllillWu aI me River Jordan numbcrillJ uuund ~ I'--"d. includln« Gr~d;s. eopct, .nd [Ih.",.· am (IS6lI. p. (00). this holy $pOI nOl Oftl)· altnclS pilarims bul also monks aM hcnnils "'00 dcdicaIe lheir liYn to w0rship ie lhe JORbni:an destrt. OIle or Ihe 6Qt of Ihew hennils _ Saini Mary ..... Ec-pllan. who spenl iony ynn !be.., :after heT pi\a;rin\ll(le 10 lhe Holy Sepukher in 382. At lime ....,nl on >0"'" or Ihe Coptic monb ......0 "'enl to lhe Holy ~nd .tayed 10 worship in Ihe dese". Among those woo "''''m \here II Ihe begin· nina of Ihe I_n,ieu. cenillry _.., ShinUdah al. An\unl .nd th.. archpriest Pllllubbul al·M~rI". The CoplS ha~ a monasl.. ry by lhe Jordan called .ft..r John Ih.. Bap,ist_ H...., Anba TheophilOll. arch. bishop of Ih.. see 01 Jerusalem from 1935 to 1945. laid Ihe roundalion stone of th.. Chun:h of Saini John Ihe Baplis'. bUI Ihi, church is Mill not com· pleted. An~ Yacobo<. archbishop from 1946 10 19S6, added som .. rOOms to Ih.. monasl.. ry. Ih.. Iarg"1 of ",hich is used as a church. n.e OIber room. ..... for Ihe resid..nce of CopIic pUlrirm .;sitin, ,he Rl~r Jordan. N""I 10 the monasl..ry is some bnd ..hich ,he palriarch..... in Jerusal..m In..ed from Ihe lO".. mm..nl and ",hich is used lor ..... crowinll of vqeuble:s. fruit. and palm and oli,'" trft$. In order 10 i«Ure the comfort of pil¢ms >isilinJ ..... rnolUSUry...... pauiarchate in Je~m plalll' ed IrftS on the ba.nks or !he Rh-er Jordan Pd I"ooi&!d aeariAg lor 1M hundred peopie. The pal ...."'hale conducts annual ,,",~l"!I and celC'bntM>ni on the feasl of Baramun and Epiphan)' .. lbe IDOnastery_ Usualb" 011 0C'CUi0n • big procession tak.... plac... ,),tu, the ckrp and deacOl'i preceded by Boy Scouts' and Girl Sc:OOI5 pla)inc lnst"u"enlt. Tbe)' proceed from the monwery 10 th.. ri.er .nd th..re conduCl pr,l)U'S befou l"C'1umins to the monaslery. Sin~ ,he "'.... of June 1967. t"is has been. mili· tary ana and the monks have been !o<-bidden 10 liv~ at the monastery_

,"is

The Church and Monastery of Anbl AnlOn1yOs In Jericho During Ih.. da}'S of Jesuo ehri". J.. ric!>o ",as ,h.. Ii", chy In lhe Holy ~nd after J..rusal.. m, [t ",as

he... thai Chrisl made the blind see and lha, H ....... a CUC'Sl in Ih<: house of Zacchuus. In ilS fonress Simeon the Mxchabee "'IS murdered. and Hemd the Gmt died lhere, when Ihe populMion ""as 100.000. In lhe C"ristian en il ~ame the headquarten- oJ tilt dioc::ese. UDde, the C~n the city became !he plope"! of !he Kni&hts oJ the HoI)' Sepukber. It ...... they "'00 buih the J"'<:"Cfl1 ciIadel. and the houses sutrOIoIndinC lilt ciladd. ionned th.. nucleus of the presem <;oily. 1M old dt)· of krid>o lies abo\n 3 mile:s (5 kin) 10 lhe wC'S\ of Ihc. presenl ci1y. "The nearby mounwn "'.... the "",ling fw Chris\·s .......m in u.e ..ildemns when he "'= templed by SaUln. eop'ic pilgri.... visited ,he holy pllloC'"' rrom lite earliest limes. and prob.ably spenl Ihe niChl in Jm cho on their way to Inc River Jordan, and also reMed there on Ih.. ir "'Ily back '0 J.. rusal.. m. "The pn,.... nt CoptiC church in Jericho is named aIler AnbA An!uniyiis. The land upon which the chllrch lind monaslery arc built w.... bought by Anba 8a5ilios It (1856-1899). Th.. building of Ihe church was begun in 1922 lind ""as complel..d in 1924 under Anbl Timolh~O\l (1899-1925). The monaslery was built in th.. time of AnM &.silios 1lI (1925-1935). Th.. church was renovaled in 1%2_ Th<: icons on th.. icollOO-ta5" w .. re rdolored .nd new _IS- w....... inlroduced. ~yers are perfonned '"''<:r). Sunday. Th.. church and mona.ot...,. are surrounded by a larze orchard and .,.., vlsll~ by COplic and OIbcr pit¢ms. Th~ Church and MOIiUlef)" of Anba

Anfunlyiil: In Jaffa In 1'S6.lhe ...."'iy oonsecnte-d archbishop nt the ...... of JnusaI.. m. An~ 8as1lio1 II. Slopped al Jaffa on hi< "''aJ 10 Jerusalem.....'hile ..':Iilln& Ior~· men.. 10 br: made lor h.. ,rip 10 JentSlOi..m. he .... ""'en 10 .... Armenian monaslC'ry, the.., being no Coptic irmilUlion in the area. H............ mo>'f:d a, s.crin, numbers of CopIS galhered outside Ih<: mOll· loSIer)' thai he ~ ... ned immediately to look for anOlh· ...- p1ac:.. ,""ere h.. could ,tay with his fellow Copts. A rich (;re,:,k Onhodox off..red Ie> Jelilhe archbish· op a big garden comainin, a small emply house, Th.. archbishop IOCcC'pl..d Immediately. and Ihus. on th~ very day of hi, arrhal In Jaffa. secured a penna· nenl place for th.. Coptic pilgrims. When he reillmed 10 EIlYJ't. h~ collected ten~r· 0115 donation. from his larlJe diocese, which comprised mOll! of th.. go~morale:s of northern Egypl.

HOLY SATURDAY

and with these donations h~ nOl only purchased tM property in Jaffa but also built th~re th~ church and monast~ry of Anbt Anluniyiis. The church, complet~d in 1858, has on~ sanctuary and it. icono.lasi. and icon, are in th~ B}'Zantin~ style, Prayers at"<' perfonned weekly at the altar. AoM Basilios II and Anb
Quorrerly '" Ihe Deporlment of A"liquilies of Pal· estill. 9 (1940). Baramki. D. C. "An Early Byzantine Ba
ries 0/ Palesrin. (1936). Brownlow, W. R., tran •. Th. Pilgrimage of Saewull. The Library of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society 4, pt. 2, London, 1896, Cerulli. E. Etiopi in Pales/ina, Vol. I, p, 374. Rome, 1943Colbi, S. P. Chri.liaMily in the Holy Land, P"st and Presml. Tel Aviv, 1969. . Crowfoot, J. W, Early Chur<4rs in Palestine. Collese Park, Md., 1971. , Cust, L. G. A. The Slaws Qu;, in Ih. Holy Places, p. 63. Jerusalem, 1929. Ha..... ey, W. Slr"Clurol S"rvey of the Church of Ih. Narivity in Bt/hefehem, pp. II - 12. London, 1935. Hoade, E. Guide to rhe 1/oly Land, 4th ed. Jerusalem, 1971. [my, C, L Tra"els in Egypt and Nubia, Syria a"d rho Holy Land. London, 1868. Meinardus, O. F. A. The Copts i" Jerusalem, pp. 79-W. Cairo, 1960. ___, "The Byzantine Church of Saint Andrew in Jericho." Bul/eli" de la SOCiele d'arch'ologi. copre 18 (1965/1966):181-96.

1247

___, The BY'''"lin. Church of Saint A"drew in Jericho, Studi di antkhit
HOLY SATURDAY, the Saturda}' between Good Friday and East~r Sunday, It is also referred 10 as Great Saturday, as in the Constitutions of the Holy Apostle. (1951. p. 447) and in al·$AFI ihn al-'Assal's Xildb al.Qawdnln (1927, p. 140). Also, in .pite of the fuct that it commemorates the resting of Christ's body in the tomb, it is designated the Satul' day of Joy because it heralds the Resurrection of Christ, ....hich He had proclaimed to His disciples. Christ also promised them that they W(>uld see Him again, "and your Marts will rejoice, and nO One will take )'our joy from you" (In. 16:22). It is a day of joy not only for the living but also for the dead who died in Christ (Is. 56:1-4; U:. 4:18-21; Pl. 3:19), for on Holy Saturday Christ', spirit descend· ed into HADES, the re.ting place of the souls of the dead. A. Good Friday draws to a dose, the church pre· pares to celebrate the ri,inS of the Sa.,wr from the dead, by abandoning the emblems of mourning pul up throughout Holy Week, particularly on Good Friday.

Events or the Day According to Mallhew 27:62-66, the chiefpriesls and the Pharise"" went to Pilate and told him that ....hile Jesus was still ali"e, H~ said that He would be noised from the dead after three days. Th"Y asked Pilate 10 give orders for tbe gnove to be made secure until the third day, lest the disciples steal Christ's body and toll the people that He had been raised from th. dead, "and the last deception would be worse than the firs!." Pilate granted Ihem tbeir t"<'quest: the stone was sealed over the grave, and a guard was posted.

Day or FllIIllng Holy Saturday i. the only Saturday of the year on which total abstention from food is recommended;

1248

HOLY SATIJRDAY

Not that 1M Sabbath-'u, begin· Dlnl rrom !he oecond day of the "wk .. ntil the prt"flll"'lK>n, and 1M Sabbath, Ih dayL ... Do J'OU who ano able . . al Ihe day of the Pft'I*nI. lion lind the Sabbath-day entird" ~inC nothinC till th~ cock"''-;llJ oJ the nicN; but if anyone ill nol able to join them Doth t<JC.e
The Cuemony or the Holy Llghl Every )'CU' on Holy Salurday, the C\~ oi Easter, the low- Orth<:>dCflian. Coptic, and Syrian) participate in the celcbmion oi the Apparition oi 1M Hoi, ll&hL A lallJC numbn of people join in, e""h hol<J. inC thirty-three candJ.CI, S)'mbolic of the thln)'-l~ )'Uri of C!triu's Ih on nn.h.. Ckrgy representing 1M h~hy of thc.~ four ehu rd1es. all robed and uorrying Cro5!lC!l, fbI", cenKrll, and Gospels. Conducl procClSions Defore and after the Apparition oflhe Holy Ugh•. chanting hymns rel_nt 10 lhe ocC&Oion. Early in Ihe morning all sanCluary lamps hlSlde th. Holy Sepulcher a~ utin...,i$hed and ~finCil with new oil and new wicks. AI abotll .leven o'dock. the entrance to the Holy Sepulcher is closed and seale
by lbe Coptic monastery DUll ALSIILIAK and the ....,o ct.apo,ls of,he Four U>ina Crealures (see CHIUST, TlU· lJ...... 01) and of lbe a
.....hAt about one o'dock, foUowina the cd~n of the Apparition of the Holy l.iBh1. a Coptic priest ....d " Coptic byman lake the light &om the acdicub 10 1M Copric chapel adjacent 10 the Hnly Sepulcher >ia the them portion of the n)1uncIa. AI the same time, Other member of the Coptic community rccci"cs the light from !he IOtIthem 0>..1 wi ... dow of the aedicula and proceeds via the same: rOttte to the Coptic chapel, where the c....dle lartlJ'l' arc lit from the Holy Ught and the congregation lighl their own candlel. The Coptic proce..lon stam immediately. making Ihr.., circultl around the rotunda, followed by tho Syrian Orthodo., all chanti"i, At Ihe third circuit, they stop opposite the Holy Sepulchcr. where a Coptic pries.! recitn the Intercession of Ihe Gospel. Then Ih. Coptic metropolitan reads tho Iection from Ihe Go5pd in Coptic Inside the Holy Sepul· cher and is followed by " deacon who reads it in Arabic at Ihe mtl'll"'. 10 lhe $epulchct'. n.e pmcession then moves to"..ard the Coptic chapelI'I the Chu.-eh of the Rcsurt'Klion. Here again a priCSl: .-cads the InlCreCMion, and the me Coptic, .followed by a deacon in Ai'll' hie. FInally, the mttropolital> li"" the bltssinc. and the prncr:s.loion 10 lhe pII1riudulle reou"""" via Day.. al<in.

An evo:rn of J».rIicular mterat ill the modem histOl'}' of E«YPt is especwly rde..ant htte. Follo..i"l: the success of his Syrian campai.n in 1&32, ibrahim Paifta, son of M~mad "All, desirc<1 to asce" Lain for hilmelf the troth of the Apparilion of 1M Holy Light. He SCtIt for Pope I'EIU. vn (Rutru, aiJliwli) and discloseinl,'d lin1<', Ih,' licht suddcnly burst into the Sepulcher and, passing throuah the pillars, appeared outside Ihe church. lbmhim Pasha

HOLY SPIRIT, COPTIC DOCfRINE OF THE

.... uceedi!1dy amazed. TM Coptic pacriuch reo 11,l~ 10 his.ott in pr:a<:e_

The Sen1ce of Holy Saturday Sl.afIing "'" Sarurdoy ew. this ...,nice oompril.es

Ihe Iollowins IRllin p...ts: Th..... lmody. Wearins ",h'le _mellIs and beinS lhe chief prien reads lhe Copl:ic version of P»Im 151 (MustS. 1954). "I Wi15 tmall among my hrelhren. and a youth in Ille house of my Falher." then. with Ihe psalter book w.... pped in while .i1k and holding lighted candlel, Ihe re.t of Ihe clergy and deacon. make a proce.sion around lhe church, ,inging in Coplic, "Lei uS ~ve thank.. 10 Chriot and God," Th")' lhen .it down being each olher in t"'o ro_ Then 1M foIl"",ing plIS50Iges from Ihe Scripturo are read:: the tint ode €A Mosa (Ell. IS:I-18); the JeCOnd ode of Moses (Ot. 32:1-43): the pnyer of Hannah. rnotI>e. of Samuel 11 Sm. 2:1-10); the pn,'er of Haballuk (Hb. 3:2·19); the p",,·e. of Jonah (Jon- 2:2-9): the ~ of Heukiah (b. 38:1020): Ihe pnyer of MaO'""""" (2 Olr. 33:13); the fuv. prayer of Isaiah (Is. 26:9-20); the second ode of laiah (b. 2.5:1-12); the third ode of kaiah (Is. 26'1-9); lhe ode of Je....miah (Lam. 5:1&-22); the ode of Bamch (Bar. 2:11-26); Ihe ode of Elijah (I Kp. 16;16-39); lhe pl'llye. of David (I Chr, 29:1013): the prayer of Solomon (I Kg,. g:22-3O); Ihe prayer of Daniel (On. 9:4·19): Ihe vi,ion of Daniel (On, 3:1-23): Ihe pntyer of Aurlas (On. 3:30-.51): Ihe ode of the three youtha (On, 3:.52-100: 3:2430); I.... od.. of Ih.. Virzin Mary (Lk. 1:46-55); Ihe p""ye. of Zechariah (U. 1:67_79); Ihe prayer of S;m~ the E1de. (Lk. 2:29·32); and I.... 0101')' of Susaonan ([apoc.] On. 13:1-6.5)The Monoh'l otrerl"l of hte'nM. n... momins olferinl of incense is COndOCled In the usual rrun· ""r, fol.lo....'ed by the I'n)oer
"'1.

1249

be followed io .-dinl Ihe Pauli.... epistle, lhe Poalm and the Gospel, namely the firs< ba1f must be ....ad in a eenaio in. lone, .. hUe Iho: remainder is read in Ihe usual mw lone. This is 10 reIIea moumins while Chri. is still bu.. ied, whereas the laller 5K1ion, in a Mful lone, rdeas antidp..iQn 01 the Rt:surTCClion. It is euenlial that Ihe panaldol nf Holy Commu· nlon on Holy SaNrday be completed ;n lime 10 allo", for lhe p~ribf:d minimum period of nioe hOlJrs of faslinl prior to Ihe commuolon of Easle, Sunday,

,·enid.,.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CllmminiS. D. Th~ Rudder, p, 110. Chicago. 19.57. Ibn d-' A.ssal. al-sall. /(i,lb ..1·0.....1"1,,. Repr. Cairo. 1917. lbo SibI' yiitmoni ibn Abf-hbriya. J(illb ..I·i..... 1o.. ,.,J, ..1·N.. fi 'WOO... .. /-/(_UaIr. W. Vi,"O. MatISI1r. pp. 164-66. Cairo. 1902. Lalin ..... nion "'~Iio1iJ Mc>rr-ril.. d. Sciutili: &clesi4sricis. tranl. Vincent Mlsllt1h, Cairo. 19&6. MllSCS. C. A... <:d. The ~'" Bibl~, lrtlns. C. Thormon. Indian Hills, Colo.. 1954. PhlIOI""'", »-Ma iu...'., .I-Auun "'. '14 ,,/.Fill! ..I-M..pd. /!
ru..1o

,,,,,Ith

HOLY SPIRIT, COPTIC DOCTRINE Of TH E. The Coptic doclrioe of Ihe Holy Spiril is the doclrine of the undividf:d church of the lirst three ecumenical COWId.... The EaYPtian anachon:lic: and ce!>Obilie monastic tradition has ",,,"'ys OIrongly ~ """elie"", and rnysricism closely .... lat· ed to t.... acmily, pm. and fnliu of the Holy Spirit. Saini 1LI
1250

HOLY SPIRIT, COPTIC DOCTRINE OF THE

!'IASI\I5 ~ fonh his doclrine on the divinily and

prol:ftSion of the Holy Spirit. He .o.rgued lhal the }Ioly Spirit mUSl ....ve the divine J\alu<e In order 10 divinil:C and sanaify human beinp. The church of Alcund" ..... fully nprnnIled al the l«ond «umenical council, CONSJ....' ffiI«lI'U I (3SI), and aliopt. ed Its oiIicial credal fonnub. concernl... the tk>Iy Sp;ril, which ttJday In a modified form reads: '"Truly ...., bel;ew, In the Holy Spirit and in the Lord, Ci.,.,r of lift. Who forthly proceetW is nprt5st'd in INd)c doaolosiots in "'·hieh "the consubstantial and life-giving 'Holy Spirit'- is frequently men· tioMd. Otht:r formula. read: " .......·holly b1cucd ",i!h the JlSCe of. the Hot)" Spirit," ~pure a«Of'd;nl to tlte Pft of the Holy SpiriI~ and ~ ... a co~ lion thai Is sanctifotd by Hit; Holy Sptril... The eucharistic Er1CI.ESIS ;", directed to God t1'H: falher. "We bel Thee, 0 ~ ... lhaI Thine Holy Spirit

The

a~M$S 01

may descend upon US and upon IheK obl.,ions; purify, ,........bstantia,e and manifcst them in SlItcti· I)' 01\10 TlUne hoi)" pewle" (Ishak, 1973, Po %). The ACrarnel\l of chrismation (confirmation) is unde.....ood as an ar>ointins ....ith the Holy Spinl accompanied by anoinling with lhe holy chrism consecrated by the Coptic pope of Aleundna. The rile of chn.marion includes an epicltli. asklnS the falher for lhe pouring oUl of the Holy Spirit. It i. abo descrit>ed as an impanition of Ilim, and kal· InS by Him and His grace for the angelic, eternal. and Immonal life. The rile of the ucr:ament of the

unction of the sick (s« A~""NG) conWn. also an epicl....os: "We pr1l)' 10 Thee, 0 Lord, for Thine OCTnnl [name). lhat the &fXe 01 the HoJ}' Spirit JII3}' descend upon him I~rl... ." TM CopIic: ritn of ordination con...i" dilfewnl fonnul.. 01 tpiclesis entreali", God the F"ne.- 10 send <>r pour out the Holy Spirit 001 the ol'daiMnled very sokmnly with prol:essioll$, a spKiaJ pn.}'.... 10 the Holy Spiril taken from the third hour of the book of Cl._1C04. ISCJlIaS. Ihe ollice of genuflec:tioa, and distribulion of watermelons 10 the poor in commemoration of the deceased. BtBlIOGRAI'HY Bilaniuk, p, B. T, T/leolOO' ~"d Economy u/ Ihe 1101] Spiril.' A~ EUlOm Appro~ch. BangaJore. 1980. Bonne.ur. O. H. E. "The Office of Genuflection on Whitsunday." Le Muslo" 47 (1934):205-2S7. _ _, The Rite of CO~secralio" o/Ihe Palri~rch of Alcxandri(J. pp, 303-311, CaIro, 1960. _ _. The Egyp/ian or Coptic Church. Cairo. 1967. Chaine, M. "La Conskr:ation el 1'~ic1ese dan. Ie missel «>pIe." In Re.ue de "oriem rh,birn t7 (1912):225- 4 3. Dcnzinger, H.. and A. SctKlnmetrJ:r. Enchirid.,m .,...bolorum. Fribou'1. Barcelona. and Rome, I%S. EarI.,r etf;tion of Demin""r .ran$. Roy J. De/fcrer all n.~ SouI'U~ of C.,JlOlic Dogm". 51. Louis, f~"",,1.

t~S7_

M. ''}a S~cnmtrll$ de j";n;ti.olion chr+-

licnne dam I'i&!iu coptIC. In u Pn>c"~ritrlt chritien 7 (1957):7-25, Harnmcrscl>midt, E. Die Uipriscllc GrecorioS9. Unlle. E. "l.e$ Ordi~lK>nS dal\3 Ie rile Caple." L'Ori...t.yrie" ~ (1%0):81-106. Macai"" G. L'E(IiJe copte, Sa foi d'aujoul'd'h",' com· porie ovec la fol de Se' ptres. Cairo. 1893. Yassa 'Abd al·M,,"!~. The F.. lth "nd Practice< of lire Copric Church. CaIro, I ~~3, R

PETRO B, T, BIUNlllK

HOLY WEEK

HOLY WEEK, Ihe Wffk immedialely preelNlinc the feast of the Rtsu~ion ($tt fFA$TS. ,,",OIl), a period rich in reminiscences otlhe ullimalee " . of ~I ... tion. Follo,"",ng Ihe celeb..uion of Ihee DMM Lilurgy on I"alm Sun. W Last scenecs of 1M liee of Chruc. wi!.h ~es snodually risinll In IOleem· nity 10 Maundy Thursday and Good friday. To enlno mof'l' fully inlO lhe pn>fItI" spirit 01 .... f· '-rin& and lleclf·rroonil>e.lion.!.hee norly Chrislians m· duncl S'lricl pe I!:'inll$ !hal lOOk place durina lbe laso -..,11: of tht: life of Jesus OIriM on earth. A lew sene~ions lain. lhis compilalion un· de.... '""1 a meliculous rec:astins at lhe hands 01 BUI' rus. btshop of IWlSASAH. for the purpose of makins lhe nadin,s of individual .:t,'S rno~ ~nly dislro U1N ....ft" Ihe ,...""'" CANONICAl. lIOl'IlS. InlO .hese: ltclions were incorporalN homilies and sermons from the early fathers. 'oaW- with a <:ommenl.llry o~ e:xposition on the e....,nl5 of each pIInicul.. day. The p....y"n; also included a night· lim of Maundy Thursday, ;., characterized by Ihe follo....inj distlncllve fealUres:

me·

1251

J. II is a period of deep mournin. in con"nemur.llioo of the ...lferinl of Chri6t. As SOOn a:s the church has ceelebralN J~' .riumphanl en.ry iIJlo Jenosolem On 'AU' SC;"'''''Y•• he pl""Sbyten and deoacons rf:1TKl\.., their colorful ~"",nlS, ... d all pillars and kctel1lll are decklNl wilh black ribbons.. Henceforth all pra~. readinp, and chanl$ are ~ ..tn"d in a mournful. 'one called Ubfbi (see JWSJC: Des<:riplion of lhe Corpus and Pr-esenl Musical P'hctice). 2. n.e sanch.ary (",,>'11:"1) cunains are clice is th~ld. II refen 10 OIrisl'S crucifu.ion II Go\gotho ou\$idee leJ"U5lllem. "So Inus also sullered ou'· Wde the gate in order to sanctify the peoplee 1hrt:JUgh his own blood. Therefore let us 10 forth to him (lall$ide !.he amp. be:arins abuse for him" (He!>. 13,12-13).1"'1;u in Old Te$lamenl ritual the sin olf~rings, Ihe blood of which was broughl within the veil 10 make explallon In the sancluary, were taken outside the camp and destroyed. so Christ suWereec souls 01. who mi&tK depart this life during !.his ,",,'eeL All ~mnit-ies ol.......m.ip can thus be directed 10000nl one objec:lr..., only, the passion of OW" S"",ior. .t. n.e Psal.... 01 lhe eanonioca! hours are reo pbclNl by lbe IJ'Il"CIW doMlosY. As each hour iIJ· c1ud.,. lWelw: ~ms. Ibis dowIotY is chanted lwei •.., times anlipbonally. each lime followed ""th Ihe Lord'$ Pnl)"f:r said inaudibly. The \IIOI"ds of Ihe dlnolocY are talen I'mm the concluding vel51'; of lhe Lord's I"rayer. and I'mm Revelalion 5:12-13: ''Thine is the power, the Ilory. 1M: blessing. and !.he majesty Fore,·er. Amen: Emmanuel O\Ir (,od and our King. Thine is th~ power. the glory, lhe blessing and Ihe majesly forever. Amen; my Lonl Jesus Chris!. Thine is lhe power, lhe glo')', lhe blessing and lhe majesry forever. Amen, Our Falher who art ;n Heaven. etc."

",bd\J.ed

u.o..e

1252

HOMILETIC CYCLES

To 1M above words i5 added the followin, see· lion as from the e~nth hour 01. T.....y: ··0 my Lord Je_ Christ. my Good Sa,ior.~ A funher seetioeal$ "KY'-lt £Lf:tso/<·· a hundred limn toward Ihe ......t, well. north. and soulh, and ends wilh twelve limes towan!the eut. Then the deacons and derBY 110 in a proceulon areund the altar three times, and three tim<:$ around lhe church, followed by one more time around the altaL Finally. the crucifix icon is Wf1lpped in ",'hlte lin· en. and placed on lhe altar. covered wilh the erou. rose petals. and spices. The chalice and p.>1", veil (10« I!I.lCKAAIST1C VEILS) is opuad O\..,r lhem. and t\
an"

......

HOMILETIC CyclEs.

~

......

.xc Cy<:1ca.

HOMOEANS. II p-oup fannin, the middle I'"O"nd of Ihe anli·Nicen<: and anti·Athanasian p.>ny in the last decade of the reign of Emptror ConStamiul II (3l7-l611: their ";"""5 came cI~Sl to those of the emperor. Under their leader• .o.o.CtV$ Of' Vt5AREA, they held Ihat Christ was "like G<>d.•• They repudiat· ed all reference to ousia ("suMlance") in the creed as beilll un""riptural but altractcd .. la..e propel' 1;01'1 of ciergy in bolh East and Wett. who by l5S

were .....,..lyin' of Ihe sc:emlnsly perpetual controversy over Ihe rne3nin, of o«sia. This had been emhrined ... the SUI"CllI way 01. proclaiming Ihe Son as HlJm«JMsion to Parri (01. the same subuance ... the Falher) in the Nicene Creed. The lerm Itc>moifU first occuR;n 145 in the Creed 01. the Long lJlIe5 (the Mammic/o(l<}. It is DOl mentio.-l speci6cally in tile Second Creed of Sirmiura ;n 357 (the ~8I.upMmy" of Sirmium)...-hich left the Son subordinate to the Father and banned the use of ousior ..,;m reference 10 Him. Two ye>rs IMer. how",,",. in the Daled Cnled Or Fourth Creed of Sinnium (22 May lS9l. ;1 had become a lest ...-ord (th.... Socnot<:$ Schol~icus. Histaria ""Iesiastica 11.37.18-24: Athanasius, Epist"la de synDdis 8). By lhi$ lime Conslanti... had come around 10 the "iew lhal the be51 hope of seeuri"ll IInive"..1 "Ilreement on Ihe faith was Ihrouah .. formula lhat was less vague lhan "lhe Blasphemy of Sirmium·' but did 1'101 contain Ihe term nuS;d. To say lhat the Son was "like the Father" would enable the largest measure of ag.... ment possible. Accordina:ly. in the summer of l59 councils were held al Ariminum (Rimini) in Italy and Seleucia in lsauria almosl simultaneously. to represent the western and easlern halvn of the empire. After a mixilire 01. persuasion and coercion. and being pla~ by the hoi halian summer. the 400 Or SO Western hiohops accepted a formula that declared the "Son was like the Fathe•. ~ n.e CauDeil of $eo lcucia met for .. milch shorter lime (27 Scptem· her-I October 359) ",;th 160 bishops pnscnL The conclusion _ Indeclsh~ ...i111 arpn>CIIIS rating oY'er a definit.... thai -..Id Include the words '1ike in aD things,N refcrrin, to the 5001', rewioMhip 10 the Fatheo-. In January 360. the HomoealI fonnula "'as adopled by .he East •• a council hel!lUnlinopie. h ..-aj these councils !hat elicited Jerome's ""rdict, thIN '1'1Ic ..·hole wurid poaned 10 find i_If Arian" (Dic>
HOMOOUSION

",hoot: v~",.. "''ere rtf>r~fl1ed by the oppooilion of Eunomiw of CyVcus (bi>.hop c. J60: deJl<*d l64: d. c' 3!lO1· The Hom......n polIition lost .round and ........ r~te«! by a mob on 24 Decembet- 361. B'BUOOIl4P'HY

iU"11y. J. N. D. &lrly Christian CrerJJ. pp. 2&s-95. ~don. 1952. __ u,/y CItriJn.n Docrrinu, 5d1 ed.• pp. 24751. Lc>ndon. 1978. Kidd, B. J. H;JI«]' 0/ 1M Chtl'cJo '0 A.D. 46J. Vol. 2, chap. 6. o..ftm1. 1922. Prestiee. G. L GoJ in 1100«11<1, 2nd cd. ~don,

'"rrislic

19S2.

W. H. C. flW
HOMOIOUSION, term manina ~of like sub_e"' and used by many who were cau&ht be-tween lhe ex're"," of die Nicenr party (tI(lfoI(I(IOJSID"'- "of the sa.n>r subMllnce") and the radiuJ Atians who had ~d about l55. The veat majoriry of modenlCII rallied under Buil of "ncyra around the e<>mplOmi~ lto"'Oio
Kelly. J. N. 0, Early Chris/ian DoclrintJ, 41h ed.

Edinbul"llh, 1968. C, WIL1'1tED GRIOGS

1253

HOMOOUSION. a won:! with • century·lonl his· lOry in eariy Christianily hefore it became celeb",I' ed when employed in Ihe Nicrne Creed (325) .nd appliescu"" but cenain moments in its history .....nd out. lhe Gnolitici !IOmetimes UKd it 10 de5cribr sorne _I, "" "consuhotantial with the devil"': oaJGEN used it occasionally, bu. the IC'Iidrnce ,hat he applied il 10 the Son ill doubUul. Paul of Sarnosalll appllrently used it in defendin. himself against a charve ol heray beIween 264 and 263, al~ his ..... of the word is difficult to determine. " link before lhis, Dionysius, bishott 01 Rome, and DI(ltIYStus., bishop of "Juan. dria, came ,nlO an am>nble cont,."...e.-sy in which 1M former .-epr.-chcd the Iaue-r k>r no! accept in. Itomooou'os as :applied to the Son. The bUhop of A1e.laDdria finally accepted the tenn, lhou'" with ...." reluctance. 1be exac1 meaning of I r _........ in the Nicene Crred has been much debated. The theory was widely aocoepleaock and by loo& lhat tile main inftuence m.... ha.'e been dial of Ossius, bish· op of COrdoba, ...me ...as plftioden. olthe Council of >;0ClI0A and ,"i.ose "'eoIocic:al tradition, like lhal of winuaRy all Western theolocians of the time. stemmed from Tenullian. Tenullian had declared thai the Son was "of one ,ubstance" (.."itlJ WbSltlfl.....) or"of the same substanclt" (..iMsdtm wbs/l'/1/;· " ..) with Ihe Father, ."d a. first $igh. dlis seems to _Ie the problem. But Jludy of Ihe subjecl by C. Stead has seen reason 10 revi$e Ihis judllmenL In the lint place, Tenullian's consubstant~ity is in bCI '"'J dilferenl from lOunh.ce'llury conceptS of Ihe ..... rd. being ~d OIl a Stoic conc..ption of God as " substance. In lhe second place, it I!as been shown lhal the term was IJM'd in a much less pre· cise way Ih.n had been thought, and ;1 is a w<ml of Greek, nol of Ullin, ori&in. lu ,ery imprecision, """ordinglo E. SCh....artz, was iu value for Emperor CONSTANTINE I.... ho dominated Ihe council. Ot~rs have Il>oughl lhat Ihe chief reO$OTI for lis inclusion was Ihal in hi, Th"iei". ARllIS hd rejected it, and it would therefore sene as a specific poinl of doclrine "Ilainst ARIANISM. Sl>ortly after 12S the w
1254

HOP OF TUKH, APA

malely suca::s4ul, to p<:rstJ.aC'd II aplnil AnnC'CnsaJY, apinst lhe: .ltC'!' anism and aho, • native ~ (~ol $imilar wbs!anu') bdO\~ C'd of some: Eastern ;ull;"Arians, cospeclally Basil of Ancyn. Ikt ...... n 368 and l80 lhe' IJUI Capptdociu tl>eolocians driended and apow>
..1..,,,

BIBUOGIlAI'Hl"

Iklhune·BlIkC'T. l. f. 11,., th~ Conll"nt;"opolit~n

,w,,,";", of HomOOUJiOl in Crud, TUIS and 51\1<,1i«1.

Cambridge, 1901. HanJOn, R. P. C. The S~"r"h lor the Chris/I'"n Do<:· trine of God, Edinb\lrgh, 1988. Hamack, A, History 0/ Dogma, Vol. 4. p, 56, New York, 1958. Kraft, H. "Homoomios.'· Ze;tttin IOtd ,Ii
HOP OF TOKH, APA, or HUb, a saini who was a holy ....... .1< 01 l1ppet" Egypc (feu! day: 16 Hilllr). The CopIo-A~ SYNJ.X.UJON ""Iys w:ry lillIe "c~ lhal he h«! in • ClIO"' ol tM mountain of TOkh. It e"nalnly meant the rocky asu OIlPoslt~ 005. for the rea:noion of the Syniprion &urn IIpper EaYPt "'''' drawn up in tbe n.,;gh&orhood ol ~ He- ...~ bu.... led in Ihe Church of ~~~ the Great or ,he Eldn, a PCrsonallC mentioned !llCYerallirnei in Ihis Synaxanon. This church w.as' al Q;4. The Syn....rion retounta "lJ"'Cially lbe- mi",de of a ""'na·. cllb, which w.as born lame and ",'hieh Ihe mot""r broughl to the feel of th~ sainI. who healfll it by rubbing il' paw. This r«aJls a limilar miracle a,· lribuled 10 MACARIUS TIlE EGVPTIAN in chapler 21of the ItlS'TORJA MONACHORUM IN AEGVPTO (ed. F~ltu· g.I~~, 1911, p. I21) and 10 MACARlIJ$ TilE ALEMNtllU· AN by PaUadius, Y;>toria laus;ata. chapl~r 18 (1904, p. 51).

BI8UOGaA'"Y

f'e..tugi"'rr:, A. J., <'d. His«wN ",.,.,.chorwn in MDP10. Subsidia Hqioeraphiea n. Brussels. 19711lEs&-CI'£IIlGES CoQ!;IIo:

HOR, obscure fifth-wnh-cenlUl')' holy penon ...no ...... tbe componion of Ambroaius (few day: 2l Til!>ah). &w:ral Coptic: inscriptions from DAn uol lOtEMLUI III Saqqat;Io memloa him. aJ..,-a).. in tbe company ci Ambrosius, a pc-noo ol whom we know DOIhing at all (QuibeJl. 1901-190&, Vol. l, inscriplions nos. 26, 36, 16; 1908-1910, Vol. 4, iMCription no. 95). H. G. E'/RVN·W}iIT£ Ihlnks \h;I1 he was conternponuy with Saim JEt-EMlAH of Saqqano, who liver in relation to Saint Jeremiah of Saqqarll (Crum, 1913, p. 1604, n_ I; MU)'ocr, 1944. p. 181). Crum sees in the spelling BadoaMy;;s in the- SVllAXAltlON from Uppc-r Eg)"pf a corrup,ion ol Ambrosius, .nd eo>= in~ !be name of Epiphatlius. "'hkh 5C'ems quite g>-aII1ilOUS (1926, Vol. I, p. 216), Muyser (1944. p. 181) thinks that he i!5 !be ...,..., as ApR HOI' of Abr.ol.w. because the- .ta,.. ci commemoration indicaled on the one hand in 1M rc-c~nsic>n of the- $TPl.\XAItION of !be Copts from Upper f"«)'J'I (2l T\Ibah) and on lhe OIbc-or in the Cairo leaf published by E,-dyn-Whi~ ace the' same; but he' does nOl eq>Iain ....-10)· the 0.... is a companion of Aml>rc>Mus and not !be OIher. Aceortling 10 lhese 5OU~a Apo Hor wrore ro Saini J~~iah. lhe: one of Saqqara, and Wll$ !be companion of Ambrosius, ....-hoK name is of WcY· corn origin and r.on among EaYPtian proper names. H" S<'~ms 10 have li_flI in the ~ of Pa6bcn, "'hk" we ClIOn idtnlify wllh the- "~n"' of ,he' nC>ffiC of AKHIAI.... named in the Life of Shen"le (csco 41. p. II, l. 27), and with the of A~n· ab. which $liIl ~xlsts.

_mage

1l181.10GRAPHl"

Crum, W. E. "Hagiogr.ophica from leipzig Manu· scripts." Proceed;"g$ of th~ Sodet)" of Bib/kll/Ar· chae%t}' 29 (1907):289-96,301-301.

HORAPOUQN

___ Theolo8;C~1 THIS from Coptic Papyri. Oxford. 1913. Crum. W. E., and H. E. Winlod. The Monas/cry of Epiphan;us at Thebes. 2 va's. New York, 1926, E_elyn·White. H. G. The Mondsreries of Ihe Wadi'" Nat",,,, pt. 1. New Cupric Texis from the Mona •. tery o{ Saini Macaril<$. Nev.' York. 1926. Muyser. J. "fum!!e peregrina'll et ""Ierin infat;· gable." BulieUn de 10 Societe d'arche%gie cople 9 (1944):159-236. Ouibell, J. E. E:. RamI!, M. AI.Q~m"s ,,!·!ughr?i(i IiI-Bilad 01 M4nyyah. Vol. 2, pt. 4, p. 124. Cairo. 1953-1968. s..uneron, $. Viii"" el /fgendes a'Egypte, pp. SO-54. Cairo, 1974. RENt·GEORGES COQUIN

1255

maJOrity of the manuscripts of the Syn""arion of th~ Copts from Lower EgypT wrongly name it "Atrib in Upper Egypt" in pl""e of Abrai)at. Hor became a monk and retired inTO the desell. In orou To tempI him, a demon suggested tbat he should go to ALllXANDRIA, which he did, He gave drink to the pri.oners and by the .imple sign of the cn,.. restored to life a child who had been killed by the horse of a rider passing through the lown. Later he retired inTo a monastery to escape dlO~ who wished 10 honor him. He seem. to have gathered disciples. He became the ~nd and biographer of Anbi Harrnina, and traveled with him to visiT lhe Christian sancltlari~ of EgypT. He seems to have resided at Psoun (Absllnah, on the west bank of Akhmlm), and no doubt lived under the emperor Anastasi... (491-518), BIBLIOGRAPHY

HOR, APA, a saint who was a hermit (feast day: 4 Ba'unah). He i. mentioned in the Calendar of Abu a1·BaraUT (1913, p. 272). H~ is also mentioued in Th~ Coplo·Arabi<: SYNAXARION, Th~r~ i. a fullh~r m~nlion in the Life of Abu Phi. (unpublish~d MS Lit. 23 of The library of lhe church of l:IHtT w WAY.... 'I; Muys~" 1943. p. 187). His Life is also pre' S~lVed in two man~ripts in lhe National Library, Paris (Arabe 212. wI. 276r; 477, foJ. 250r), Apa Hn' was a nalh'e of Bahjurah, bUl lh~ iocation of "lh~ mountain with lhe column, TO lhe easT" where he establish~d his hcnnitage is not known.

Evel)lI·While, H. G. The Montl.stuie; of the Wadi'n NalrilmUs al·}ughr>lfj IiI·BiI~d ~I Misrlyyah, 3 vols. in 6 pIS, Cairo, 1953-1968. RE"t.(;EOR(;ES CooUlN

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abu al·Barakat. C~lendrier, ed. E. Tisserant. PO 10. Paris, 1913. Muy",r, J. "Ermile pe'~grinam et ""lerin infaligable." Bulletin de fa Sac;'I, d'Arcntologk Cople 9 (1943):159-236. RENE-GEOI
•• HOR OF ABRAI:IAT, SAINT, fifth-sixTh·cen· tury monk (feasT day: 2 Kijahk). lnfonnalion on this monk is supplied by snme Coptic fragments (Evelyn·White, 1926, pp. 168-70); the sYN.o.xARTON in the lwo recensions "f Upper and Lower Egypl; and the Life of Anba HARM[N~ (Mu}'~r, i943, pp. 159ff.). Hor wa, a nalive of Preht (in Arabic, Abral;tat or ~r Abral;tat), a military poST .iluated near al· Shaykh 'AbAdah. Mul;tammad RamI! (1953-1954, Vol. L pI. 2) identifi~ it wiTh DAYR Al.-8ARSHAH. The

HORAPOLLON, an inlellecltlal active during the late fifth cenTUry, He came from an Eg}ptian family who owned an ancesTral estaTe at PhenebyThis in the nome Panopolis. He was a leading Neoplatoni~ philosopher aud religious figure in Alexandria. Three primary sources pro,'ide infonnation about him: Damascius' Life af Is/dore, composed in the early sixth century, preselV~ a description of Horapollon', culluml en~ironment; the Syriac !-ife af Severns, written b)' Zachariah of Mitylene (also known as Zacharia Scholasticus), narraTes an out· break of religious .';olenee around Alexandria in 485 in which Horapollon was a k,y figure; The Third document is a papyrus letTer, composed in Greek by Horarollon and found aT Kom Ishqliw. which has been translated and studied by J. Mas!"'ro (i914). H<>rapoIIon came from a family of long-standing phiI()6Qphical tradition. He claimed in the Kom Ish· qaw letter both ThaI he inherited hi. profession

1256

HORAPOLLON

from his aneeslors and that his own father, """lIOJ'I· AI:>ES, who spent a lifetime teaching at the Museon, was his teacher. He called himsdf a "clarnsimus:' a nmk that would place him among the elite of late Roman society. Zachariah confirmed that Horapol· lon, whom he calls a grammarian, was known as an outstanding lucher who knew his profession reo markably well. But these vinues, he added, were offset by his admimlion for demons and magic. In the Life of Seve""s, HompoJlon appears as the most imponanl personality in a group of si~ Ale.andrian Neoplatonists: HorapoHon, Heraiscus, Asclepiades, AmmoniU$, AsciepiodolUS, and lsidores. They were affiliated with the paganism still secretly practiced in outlying communities such as Menouthis, Can<>pus, and Astu. Horapollon married his cousin in order to keep the ancestral estate at Phenebythis intact, A$ophical speculation, HorapoHon's grandfather may have been the Horapollon named in the S..da La.· con who also came from Phenebythis and taught grammar in Ale~andria as well as Constantinople under Emperor Theodesius. Regrettably, the S"d~ does not say whether the TheodosiU$ in question was The<> hippopotamus elaws turned down, This is so be· cause the hippopotamus will kill its o.....n lather if not permitted to mate with its mother (Hiuoglyph" ca 1.56).

!l is evident from this that the author of the Hiero-

glyphica and Horapollon lived in the same intellcctoal and cultural milieu, Several reasons persuaded Maspero (1914) that the Horapollon of the Alexan' drian circle wrote the Hiorot:/yphica: the name is the same: when his circle was studying hieroglyph· ics, Horapollon was a pagan writing sympathetically on pagan antiquities; he carne from a family of grammarians that produced literature on both Greek and Egyptian culture; and the cultural milieu of Egypt in the late fifth centu'}' was conducive.to a work like the Hieroglyphica. While these arguments do not prove that Horapollon was the author, they strongly suggest that he and the author were at least directly related. In the Kom lshq~w letter, Horapollon spoke of his forefathers, from ,""hom he obtained his inheritance and education. The author of the Hieroglyphica could have been one of ,hem, if not HorapoHon himself, BIBUOGRAI'HY

Asmus, R, "Zur Rekonstruktion von Dama.scius' It:bcn des Isidoros," Byzanlinische Zeil$chrif! 18 (1909):424-80; 19 (1910):265-84. ___. Vas Leben des Philosophen I,idoros von Va· rnaskios aI's V~m~sko,. Leipzig, 1911. Cumont, F. "Le culte egyptien et Ie mysticisme de Plotin." Mon"ments el m~moirs p"blih par rAca· dbnie d_s i"$criptions el bel/e,·/elires 24 (1921):17-92. Damascius. Dama.cii vilae Isido,i renses 8 (1929):49-53, ___. "La theurgie chez les neoplatoniciens "t dans les papyrus magi que." Symbol~e O,/oenses 22 (1942):42-79. Horapollo. Hon "pollini. Hieroglyphica, ed. F. Sbo,.. dane. Naples, 1940. Kaegi, W. "The Fifth Cenlury T""ilight of Byutntine Paganism." Classica "I Mediaevalia 27 (1966): 243-75. Maspero, J. "Horapollon et 1a fin du paganisme egyptien." B"lIuin de J'lnSlil,,1 f,a,,~ais d'Archiologie ~Ti""lo/e 2 (1914):163-95. R.mondon, R. "L'Egypte et la supr~me resistance au christianisme ("'-VII' siecles)," Bul1eri" de I'fnsril,,1 franfois d'Aorcheologie o,ie"I~le 51 (1952):63-78, Zachariah Scholastic.... Vie de Shire, ed, and Iran5, M. A, Kugener. PO 2, pp. 7-45, Zintzen, C. "Mystik und Magie in der neupbtoni. schen Philosophie." Rheinisches MuseI'm 108 (1965):71-100. Sn?,wART L. KARREN

HORSIESIOS, SAINT

HORNER, GEORGE W. (180-1930), English theologian and CoplOlogist. He studied with Georg SfEtNDORFF and published .tudies on Coptic theological text. (Didl1che, Pisti. Sophia). His main pub· lication is a criticll edition of the New Testament. The Coptic Version <J/ Ihe New Tesl"ment in the Nonhern DiateC/. Otherwise Called Memphitic and Bohairie (4 vols" london, 1898-1905) and The Cop. ric Versio" 01 the New TeSlamenl in Ihe Southern Di"lect. Oth"wist Called Sahid,-c "ml Thebaic (1 vols.. OUord, 1911-1924). BIBUOGRAPHY

Dawson. W. R.. and E. P. Uphill. Who W"" Wh" in Egyptology. p. 145. london, 1972. MAI
HOROLOGION. See Canonical Bours, Book of,

HORSESHOE ARCH. See Architectural Elements of Churche•.

HORSIESIOS, SAINT, founh-century monk who was head of the Pachomian Koinoni" and author of the Liber Orsie.i;' On his deathbed PACHOMIUS asked one of hi. disciples, Horsioesi"", 10 go around and 10 lSk Ihe brothers whom they wished to beCQme their father. The ancient brothers certainly wanted his disciple llIEOOORUS Of" TAB_ ENNB~. but they did not walll to give any name, and Pachomiu. appointM PETllONIUS (the Life of Pachomiu. known through Ihe 8<>hairic version and several fragmentary Sahidic manuscrit1ts; here· after listed as S&>. 121; IPG first Greek Life of Pachomiu., hereafter li.ted·~ , G'. 114). Petronius, hov.'ew,r, was a .ick man, an~ when he died a few months later, he appointed Harsie.ios as his succes· sor (SB<> 130; C', 117)_ Horsiesios' nomination as the -head of the whole Koin'mia (the congregation of all manasteries founded by Pac hom ins) certainly did not please the ancient brothers_ Although he was a relatively y<>Ung member of the Kai»on;", Pachomim had app<>inted him supenor of Ihe Monastery of Shene.et (Qaj;r al'$a'ryAd, near Nag Hammadi) a few years before, and that appointment had met some protest from the brothers.

1257

Horsie.ios was not a charismatic speaker like Pa· chomius and Theodo.....s, but he was a very humble and holy man, and he was able ta win the accept· ance of the brothers. Things went well enough for a few years, but after fi"e years there was a strong mavement af revolt fomented by a certain Ap<>lloni· us, superior of Tmoushon. (S8<> 139; G' 128). Horsiesi06, who had accepted his office anly aut of obMience, did not he'itate to step down for fear that .ouls might be lost because of him, for he had the unity of the Koinonia wry much at hean. After spending a whole night in prayer, he callM the ancient brothers and told them that Theodorus-at long last-would be lheir .upenor. Then he retired to the Monastery af ShenesH. Toward the end of his eighteen years at the head of the Koi"'''''o TheodolUs, tired and somewhat discouraged. brought Horsiesi'" back to' share hi. reo sp<>nsibiliJie. with him (SBa 204; G' 145), And after the death of Theooorus in 368, Horsiesio. was again in p<>ssession of "his" rank, to use the expression of the Life, He was a very good superior for several more years, until his death at some unknown dale after 387 (S&> 208; G' 149). Throughoul the centuries the name of Horsie.ios has been a.sociated mo.tly with his most imponant work, his spiritual "Te.tamcnt," known through Saint JEROME'S translati<>n under the title of Liber Orstes,i, Four letters of Borsiesios are also extanl in Coptic, as are a few fragment. of ,'anom instruc· tion. given to the monks. The Uber O,-,i.,ii is ""tam only in the mOll.lation made by Saint Jerome in 404. The book was wrillen On the occasion of an internal crisis within the Pachomian Congregation, perhaps the one that led to' the resignation of HQrsiesios. The crisis had to do with the increasing wealth of Ihe communities and itll appropnatiQn by individual monasteries or individual monks. Barsiesi'" reacted very .trongly to the tendency, which appeared to him to undermine the whole reality of the community itself. The Liber Orsiesii contains long enumerations of the duJies and obligation. of all the superiors at various levels, and because of that it has been called a "mirror of the superior." Among the Pa· chomian literature, it is certainly the one "'Titing in which we find the most complete and most aniculate presentatian of the Pachamian ideal af oscuis and community life. Holy Scripture was very dear to Horsies;os, and his "Testament" contains a long uries of quota· tions from almast all the \xxJks of the Old and New Testaments.

1258

HORUS, THE AVENGING HORSEMAN

818L1OGRAPHY

Bacht. H. "Studien rum 'Likr Drsiesii."" Hislori· .clre. 1<,hrbuch 77 (1958):98-1 24. ___. . . Vex ilium crocis sequ; (Horsie.iu.). Monchmm als Kreuzesnachfolge."' Martyria-Lei· lU'Kia-Diakonia. pp. 149-62. Festschrift fur H. Volk. Bischof von Main;:, zurn 65, G.bumlag. Mainz, 1968. ___. Das V.rmlichmi. des Ursprtmgs. Studien zum Frtihen Monchtum I. Wti"burg. 1972. Boon, A. PachorniMlQ lal;na. Regl. el rnian Koinonia. VoL 3. /nslrncIwns. Lellers, and Other Writings of $l"ma.oo. 1982. Vogui, A. de. "Epilres inedile. d'Horsi"" et de Theooore."· In Cornmandements du Seigneu, el Liberalion ivan,ilKju., pp. 244-57, Studia Ansel· miana 70, Rome. 1\177. .~ ARMAND VEIlLEUX

HORUS, THE AVENGING HORSEMAN. See Mythological Subjects in Coptic An,

nOs. See MU$ic.

eoplic: Description.

HOSANNA, a Hebrew term signifYing "Sa..e us.

Th..,:·

we be.eech which occurs in Psalm 118:25. During the Feast of the Tabemacles it formed pan

of the refrain sung by 1M peopl~ of Jcrosalem while waving palms and olive branches. When Christ enlered Jerosalem, the joyous multitude. sa· luted him with the word. "Hosanna to the Son of David! Blesse
KiM!> Khidmal al-ShammJs wa.al.AI~/m. 2nd ed.. pp. 253-73. Cairo, 1951. YahannA SaIAmah. AI·L
HUNTING IN COPTIC ART. The hunl i. a frequent theme in Coptic art. Hunt~rs on foot and on horseback are olien depicted in paimings, reo liefs, and I'-"'tites. Two e>amples from the monas· tery of B~wtr are panicularly notewonhy. One, on a sancmal)' walt in a chapel, illustrate. a pas.O'ilion. Among them is Zechariah (Clidat, 1904, p. 62. pI. 37), It probably allude. to Zechariah 11:3, "Hark the roaring of th~ young lions." Other example. of the hunting theme indude gao utte hunl•. One. detached from a walt and pre· sen'ed in the Coptic Museum in Cairo, shows a lion stalking and gazelles bounding, Another, in <:hapel S al BAwl!. depicts Iwo glUelle. in flight (CI"'lat. 1904. pp. 49-52. pI. 30). A third, in chapel 37 at BAw'!.•hows a hunt in a fOfe.t; .ome of tM hunt· ers. wearing sword. at their sides, are in Persian

HUNTING IN COPTIC ART

coslume (Cledal, 1916, pp, 38-39). Thio ..,ems 10 illustrale the words, "lhen like a hunted gazelle" (Is. 13,14). In a sketch (p. 40) of a ..,ene at ~wi!, linked wilh a ..,ene of gazelle hUOling, Cledat has captured lite essential elements of a hippopotamus hunl. The hunters are depi<:ted as pUll; (cherubs) among wa· ter lil'e•. The meaning of thIs ..,ene IS que.tlonable in so far as Christian iconography is concerned, since the hippopotamus does nO! appear in the fau· na mentlone
1259

relief showing lhe victorious Horus (see MY1lIOLOGI· CAL SUBJECTS) piercing a Typhonian animal from the back of his horse. But lhe piece must dale from the sevenlh century, and despite the Creco·Roman unifonn and the harness, the presentation of Horus with a falcon's head presuppose. the use of this relief in a sancluary of belaled adherenlS 10 the pharaonic gods. The borrowing of the Me
1260

HUNTINGTON, ROBERT

Cledat, l. L€ Monosler< €I /0 ni!crople de Baouil. Memoires de l'lnstitu\ fran~'ais d'Archeologie ori· entale 12, 39. Cairo, 1904; 1916. Duthuit. G, La Sculprur€ copu. Paris. 1931. Seringe. P, us S)'mbole. dons tOri. dan, les religions tl dans 10 vie de lOus les ;ou". Geneva. 1985. PrERI\E aU BouRG\lE"J. S.l.

HUNTINGTON, ROBERT (1637-1701), Brir· ish Orientaiisi. He wenr to rhe Levanr in 1671 and spenr more rhan ten years there. From Ale[>pO. he visited Palestine, Cyprus, and Egypt_ In Egypt he bought rare manuscript5, among which were some Coptic te"ts. These manuscripts evenrually made their way inro the collections of Merton College and the Bodleian Library, Oxfo
HUSEIN KAMEL.

Sa Mul)ammad 'All D)/nasty.

HYMNS, AUTHORS OF, SU Music. Coptic; History.

HYMNS, MELODIES OF.

Sa Music, Coptic:

Descriplion.

HYMNS, MONASTIC USE OF. See Music, Coptic: History. ,~

HYMNS, SAINTS' AND MARTYRS' COM· MEMORATIVE. See Music, Coptic: De",ription.

HYMNS, TEXTS OF.

Sa Music, Copric: De·

scription.

HYPOSTASIS, a word destined to playa large and complicated pan in Christian theology from the late third century on. It does not appear in classical

Greek in a philosophical sense but became an imponant word in Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism. 1t could mean "that which underlies" (hence it can be used to mean "substance") or "that which gives support" (hence it can be used to mean "individual reality"), At Wisdom 16:/2 (the nnly signili· cant occurrence in the Greek Old Te.tament) it denotes God's nature, and this meaning reappears in the expression "impression of [God's] nature" (Heb. 1:3), Elsewhere in the New Testament it means "confidence, assumnce. guarantee" (2 Cor. 9:4; 11:17: Heb. 3:14; 11:11). Until the appearance of the Cappadocian fathers, the word was used indi",riminately to mean "sub· stance" or "individual entity." It was often taken to be a synonym of "usia (substance), apparently in the anathema of the Nicene Cree
HYPOSTASIS OF THE ARCHONS

constitutionally, oDtologically united. The ehakedonian formula stated that in Jesus Christ twO dislinct nalures. divine and human, combined. without confusion, in a single prosopon (visible impression) and a single hypostasis (rea.lity), and thi' union was hypostatic, Dol merely moral. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grillmeier, A. Chrisl in Chris/in" Tradition, trans. J. S. Bowden, chap. 5. london, 1964. Jouassard, G, "Un problem., d'anlhropologie el de chrnlOlogie che< saint Cytille d'Al"""ndrie." Recherches de sciences ,dig;e",.,. 43 (1955):361-19. Noms, R. A, Manhood and Christ: A Study of Ihe Ckriswlng)' 01 Theodore of Mopsuestia, Oxford, 1963. Richar
R. P. C. HANSON

HYPOSTASIS OF THE ARCHONS. This, the fourth tractate of Codex II of the N~G HAMM~Dt UIlRAIIY. is a Gnostic exposition of the origin. nature. and function of angelic po",ers like those mentioned in the New Testament at Ephesians 6:1Z and Colossians 1: 13. In the cosmology of lhe document, the universe is divide
1261

Adam. At first Adam i. unabie to rise from the ground out of which he was created, fOT while the archons can gh'e him pbysicallife, mere animation, they cannot give him what is found only in the upper world, an incorruptible soul. However, when the incorruptible Spirit above sees Adam belo,",', it descends to the lower realm and inhabits his ph)'.i· eal hody. Exactly why the decoy Adam is successful in luring the Spirit from above is not explained. The archons then put Adam inlO the Garden, and while he sleep.s, they take Eve from his side. In this division, the incorruptible Spirit that dwelt in Adam remains with the part that becomes Eve. The ar· chons, in their lust for thi. spiritual entity, rape Eve and beget Cain, bm before they do, the Spirit passes from Eve into a serpent and so remains undefiled. It is this spiritual serpent that then teaches Adam and Eve to defy th~ evil archons, to partake of the fruit of the Garden, and to gain knowledge. The Spirit then passes from the serpent into Norea, tlte daughter of Adam and Eve. When the archons attempt to rape Norea, as they had her mother, Eve, she resists. and calls upon the god of the upper realm, who sends the angel Eleleth to rescue heL Eleleth teaches Nore. how the first archon, lalda· baoth, was created oUl of the incorruptible Sophia, and how laldabaoth subsequemly created the physi· cal universe and begot the other archons, For blasphemy against the upper realm, Ialdabaoth is finally consigne
Barc, B. L'I/JposIGse d~$ archonUS. Bibliotheque copte de Nag Hammadi S. Quebec, 19S0.

1262

HYPOSTATIC UNION

Bullard. R. A. ~ HypoSlIUi. uf 1M A",Aon1C The Coptic Tut witll Tr"tuI,,1ion "ltd Corn"'e,,'''/)', P.o.· trislixn.. TUle und Studien 10. &r1in. 1910. Bullard,. R. A.. and B. laylOR. '-n,., HYJ"Xltiis oi tIM: Archons."" In The N"K HfJlmlladi Libr'Ilry. ed. James M. Robinson, PI'- IS1~60. New York. 1971. fa/loft, f. T. 1M E"lhnmmum of Sabdotl!: J... E1_~nts ;" e-z>o:- C'el.ation. Noce5, and Indues.·· Hv..",d N.toloKictd RnWw 61 (1974):JS1-U5. and 69 (1976):]1-101. _ _ "Tbc RnJiIy of tn.. Rukrs." In 1M GJ>OStOc Scrip",,"s. pp. 65-16. Ga.den City, N.Y .• 1981. STvttEN E. ROIllSSOl<

.w.

(421-431), in hill third Ieller(4JO), Christ ..suff....ed impa~"hly:' In his secOlld letl.... (429). he allempl· ed 10 uphin how .. the Word Ita"ing united 10 Him· ""If in H" own hypm'a'is, in an ineffable and inconceivable man ....., lIeslt animated with a .....tiona! soul. becam~ Man and "'J!S called Son of Man.Union Lzdt· hypou...m appears in tht Twelve Anathetn. appended 00 Cyril', thm:l kilt< to Neslorius (Anathema Z). The Anathemas ..",", accepted as eatI
HYPOSTATIC UNION. the onhodo~ doclrin~ on the rcla.tion of the divine and huma.n in Ch ....l. H..,(Jsis katll' hypr)S/as;n ......... lhe terTII used by Sa.int CYRI~ I, p~uriard of Ale~andria in Ihe fihh cenlury, 10 make dear l>eyond all argument the complete unity of the Divine Word and \h~ Aesh In Christ. For Cyril Ih~ Word is the only HYI'OST"-SlS ("subst.onu"), a.nd il "a»umed Aesh" (J~n 1:14) wilh· OUI c~asinJ la be th<' Word. The "Word made Anh" "'" nOt ... compound oi lwo ;ntkprn~nl rta.Cures, manhood and godhead, bur one nature, lhal 01 the Word "inside man a.nd filIl~.·' Cyril', ChristoioD was based on that 01 Sa.im AlItAI"ASIIl5 l palrian-h of Ale:ftdotr. ..,orIt..... Pope Julius, and Athanasius (Sft Al'Ql.UK.\RIAHl:S/Il), ThO!! Cyril uoed lhe same phrases a.nd ....... ments thai AplIJirWis had used 00 assen Ihe compao.ile unily of ~·s person whiM: S1~nuous· Iy opposing Apollinarianism. This is the key 10 undenlandinl Cyril', peculiar lerm'nolog. The of Chrisl Is made real only by recoune 10 a doclrine of h"osis ("""If· emplY;nll"). by which the Won:! pennits His h"ma.n soul and body assumed at the Incarnation to uperi· enCe h"man needs and feelings and ~nally to suffer and die On Ihe
manhood

GriJlmeier. A. Chrisl in Cltrls!itm Traditio"_ Irall5. J. S. Bowden. pl. 3. se<:1. 1. chap. 3. and sect. 2. chap. 2. London. 1%4, Kell)', J. N. D, Early Christi"n Doc'Ti"~$. chap. t2. London. 1~78. W. H. C. heND

HYPSIPHRONE. a GnostiC worlt

in the NAG 1Wtl·

UB.....V. 11 occupies I.... final fOlJr pages of Code>. XI (XI.4.69.21-72..lH. "'Ih lhe missing con. elusion most likely al the bottom oi p;lge 12). A tilul..- SUft'"!$Cript, HYPSIPH[RONE). is given at 69.21 ••uland "'th confidence 01\ tIM: basi~ of the """ of this name .0.1 XU.b9.2l-24. 70.11-23, and 12.21; tIt~ tIKWe also p«ten1S i1sc:1f in the incipit as '"!he book laboul the thlnp) ..-hich ,,-ue se<'II [by] Hypsiphrone, I~..-Icd) in tht place of Ihe.1 ";right-eyed one:' Unfonunalely, ~ause of Ihe deterioraled condi· lion of the 1<'>.', the precise ConlenlS of Ihe di... COUISe are impossible 10 determine. /IUD!

bel".

BIBl.IOGRAPHY

Fnc$i... i[~ Edi/,'cn cf Ihe Na, Hnmmndi Codices: Codkes XI, XU alld XlfI. Lelden, 1973. Turner, J. O. "H~iphrone (Xl. 4):' [n Th~ No, HtJ....mtJ.di Lib,ary I" En,lilh, p. 453. l.<:iden and San Francisco, 1971,

HYVERNAT, HENRI EUGENE XAVIER LOUIS

_ _. "Xl. 4, Hypsiphrone." In Nag Hammadi Co· di<:u Xl, XlI, ,md XlIf, ed. C. W. Hedrick. Nag Hammadi Studies.' The Coptic enostic Library. Leiden, fonhcoming, MARY'" W. MEYER

guage. at Catholic Uni""...it)' in Washington, D.C. (1889). He published many works. some of the m<>
HYVERNAT, HENRI EUGENE XAVIER LOUIS (1858-1941), French Orientalist. He was born in Saint-Julien·en·Ja,,-e!. Loire, He was edu· cated at the seminaire de Saint Jean at Lyons and th. Unive ...ity of Lyon•. He then studied theology in Pari. (882) and served as doctor of the<;>logy at lhe Pontifical Uni.'e...ity in Rome (1882-IS85). He be· came professor of Oriental archaeology and Ian·

1263

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dawson, W. R., Egyptology. p. Kammerer, W., Arbor, Mich"

and E. P, Uphill. Who Wa, Wh.;> in 148, London, 1972. compo A Copti<: Bibliography, Ann 1950; repr, New York, 1969. AZll S. ATln

IAMBLICHUS (c. 250-325), Born in Chalcis in Code-Syria, lamblichus was a successor of Porphyry in Ihe Neoplalonisl lradilion. Whereas Ploh· nus and Porphyry were skeplical and disapproved of magic, he is reported to have defended theurgy, as it was called. Tradition also includes his perfonning acts of levitation and conjuring spirits. Among his e~lani writings are "On the Pythagorean Life," "Exhonation to Philosophy," three \reatises on mathematics, and a lengthy defense of ritualistic magic, "De Mysteriis." Modem evaJuaticm of his works runs from "superficial" to "worthless," but he did advance the theory thaI evil has its origin in the will, and he disputed Plotinu.' doclrine of the soul'. divinily. He placed great emphasis on the myslicism of numbers, sanctified myth., and speculated on an infinitely increased number of Divine Being.'l, e~panding and glorifying Ihe Olympic relig· ion of Ihe G""eks. Lo.t writings include a I""atise "On the Soul" (e~cerpt. preserved in the antholollY of SIOOaeUS), "On the Gods," and commentarit'$ on Plato and Aristotle (quoted by Proclus),

IBN AL-'AMID, Sa Makin Ibn al 'AmId, al·, IBN AL-BATRiQ, 'ISA, SU Ibn al·Bitrlq, '1... IBN AL-BATRIQ, SA'ID, See Ibn al-Bilrlq, Sa'id.

IBN AL.BITRlQ, 'lsA, a Chri.tian physician of Old Cairo and the brother of Sa'id tBN AL-BqRIQ thc physician, patriarch, and historian, who dedicated 10 him his historical work No"" al-Jawhor (Cheik· ho, 1909, p. 4SS). 'I.. ibn a1-Bitrlq was knowledseable in all branche. 01 medicine, especially medicaments and treatmen!. He remained in Old Cairo umiI his death, Ihe year of which is not gh'en by Ibn Abl U~ybi'ah.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cheikho, L. "Al-Taw:l.rlkh al·N~raniyyah fi al·'Arab· iyyah." AI-Mash";q 12 (1909). Ibn Abl U!"ybi'ah. 'U;-un o/·Anba' fi foboqlil al,A~. ibM', Vol. 2, p. 57. Cairo, ISS2,

",

BIBUOGRAPHY ,

Deubner, L., ed. De v;la Pylhagorica' IibeF. Leip.ig, 1937, Dodd.., E. R. Produ" Elemenls qf Theology, 2nd ed. O~ford, 1963. Fe.ta, Nicolaus, ed. De communi malkema/ica ,denti
PENEUOPEJOHNSTONE

IBN AL-BITRIQ, SA'ID, a Melchite palriarch of Alexandria, known in his ecclesiastical capacity as Eutychius. He was born in A.D. 877 in the old capital of Egypt, al-Fus!:l.!, was elected to the Mel· chite palriarchate in 933, and died in 940. His original v""ation as a layman w.... the practice of medicine, in which he, in collaboration with his physician brothcr IS'\' IBN AL·BlfllIQ, wrote several

1265

1266

IBN AL-DAHiRi

medical treati'os. After hi' election to the patriarchate. ho.....ever. he di.tingui,hed himself as a historian. and, according 10 Ibn Abi U~ybi'ah, his ele\'enth·century bit,graphcr. wrotc a .oluminous .....ork entitled NaV" ol·jawhar. a uni.'ersal history from Adam to hi. own day in the reign of Abbasid Caliph al·Ra"i (934-940), Apart from the detailed annals of the caliphate. he incorporated into his text the story of the Melchite patriarchs and detail. of their feast> and rn"ts. His reign was rather turbulem; he also wrote a treatise of disputation between him and his ad,'e""'ries in an altempt to establish the Melchitc over the onhodo~ rule of the Coptic church, lt ""'" his chronicle, howe~er. thai brought him special attention. It. text was first edited with a Latin tran,lation by the famou, Engli'h Orientali,t Edward Pocockc in 1654. Since then, the authori'.ed Arabic te~t of his annals has been compiled from the a,'~ilabl. manu,cript, and edited by L. Cheikho, B. Carra de Vatu, ~nd H. Zayyat under a new lille, KilJb al-Tilrikh al-Maim£<' 'alJ al-Ta~q,q wa.al.Ta~dlq. The work was addressed. or perhaps r,lIher dedicated, by the patriarch to his brother

IBN AL-DAHiRI, a Ihirteenth·century bishop of Damietta who wrote a grammar called M"qaddim,,' ibn al·Dahlrl. G. Graf lists him under the name al. Thiqah ibn al-Duhayrt and as one .....ho e:
Kircher. A, Li"gua aegypl/aca ,""srirma. Rome. 1648. VINCENt' FREDERICK

·Isa. lt was further continued in a massive supplement

by Yah~ ibn Sa'rd al-An!~k" .....hose annals cover the period of the late Abbasid caliphs- from aI-JUdI to the accession of the Fatimid d)'nasty up to the rule of al·~ir (1020-1035). This supplement appeared in the same series as the original history; its te:uS categories. Ihough in the main he lried t" foHo,"" the general sdeme established by hi. prede· cesoor, The MelchiTe patriarch Eutychius. BI110GlUPHV ,

,

CheikllO, L.; B. Carra' de Vau~; and H. Zayyal. Euty-ehii Parriareha' A/Handrini Annaln, cseQ. Scrjptores Amblci. ser. 3, 6 and 7. Beirut and Paris, 1905-1909. "Christian Historical Worh in Arabic" (AI· Tawilrlkh al·Na~rilni))'ah fI al··Arabiyyah). AIMashriq. 12 (1909),488-89. Ibn U"aybi'an, Muwaffaq ai-DIn Abu-a!··Abbas, Vy"n "I'~nb
IBN HAWQAL. Abu al·Qil.sim Muhammad ibn . . J:lawqal al·N""bj (d. 988) was an Arab t",veler who seems to have visiTed Nubia and The Sudan in 955. He later wrote a hook hased 011 his 1",,,,,,ls. of which Iwo versions survi"",: an earlier ve",ion called Kjt
Kramers, J. H.. and G, Wict. trans. La Configuralion d~ la leITe. Paris, 1965. MiqueL A. "Ibn l;Iaw!
IBN KABAR

IBN AL.'IBRI. Su Bar Hebraeus.

IBN KABAR (al-Shaykh al.Mu'taman Shams al·Ri· yAsah ibn al-5haykh al·As'ad AbU al·BaraUt ibn Ka· bar), .s<;holar born 10 a .....ealthy Coptic family toward Ihe end of the Ihineemh cemury: he lived 10 Ihe early decades of the founeenlh. His parems' palatial residence in Old Cairo Was frequented by state dignitaries. Ibn Kabar received hi. early edu· cation in the Coplic school., where under Ihe be" leache" of his day he mastered bolh Ihe A.rabic and Coplic longues, He emerged as a great scholar al Ihe end of Ihe golden age of Coplic lilerary aCcom· plishment. Like many literale Copt. of his lime, after Ihe completion of his educalion he joined Ihe governmem service as a ""ribe and soon rose to Ihe posilion of chief scribe of Prince Bay'bars Rukn ai-Din al-Dawad>1.r al·Man~I1r1 (d. 1323), Ibn Kabar aided al-Man~ilr1 in the composition of a historical .....ork entilled ZubJai al--Fihah Ii Tankh al·Hijrah, as ceni· fied by Ihe historians al·Maqrfzj (1364-1442) and Ibn J:Iajar al·'Asqa[anj \1372~1449), 1n Ihe meanlime, he continued his immense slUdies of all avail· able religious and secular lilenoture ooth in Coptic and in Arabic, where his competence is revealed in subsequent literary products. The height of his elo· quence is clearly demonslrate
wa.'.

1267

continued 10 occupy Ihis ecclesiastical ]XIsition until his dealh. He was a contem]XIrary of several popes and patria«"hs of the church including j<JHN VII (1262-1268, 1271-1293), THEODOSJUS II (12941300), JOHN VIll (1300-1320) and JOHN IX (13201327). All revered him for his profound theological kn"""ledge and piery. In the year 1321, another ""ave of Islamic perse· cutions swept Ihe Copts, The Muslim mob sought Ibn Kabar, who disappeared from sighl; il is said that Ihe Mamluk prince Rukn al·Din Bayba!> al· Man~uri, his old sponsor, e>tended hi. protection to the great scholar, keeping him hidden umil his dealh on 10 May 1324. We must a.,;ume that in lhe seclusion of Ihese lasl Ihree or four years of his life, he was able 10 edit and finali~e his monumental works; these may he classified in several calegories, The first and most importanl calegory is Iheological studie•. He produced Ih" mosl comprer.ensive -and still unsurpassed-encyclopedia of Coptic religi"Us knowledge in tv.'enty-four sections, .....ith numerous supplements, under the tille of Mish/ll] a/-Zulmah, Ii It/Ill] a/-Khidmah. Several manuscripts of Ihis work have been found in varied reposilories; Ihe mosl ancient is Ihe Valican manuscripI
1268

IBN KATIB QAY$AR

1324. He was probably Church in Old Cairo.

bu~

in the ;>l-Mu'allaqah

m.~

~iJ;l

NakhW>_ Kitllh T,rilJI .....J.dI...·jJ ok· /'tiUt d1.1si.,.d~
IC.&... II

IBN KAnB OAY~AR (c. 1260). accordinc lOG. Graf. a IhinftntIK:en.ury Copcic: plIilolOJisl and scripI 4L-'~ ..1>0 had conneclions ..ilh ,,11 the 'leamed people of his time. I'3ted him hllhly beau... of his """'aOrdinary knowl~ and ;,..dIW his book on Copdc grammar OUUlanding. This was lhe bub for his; being appreciated as a phl101ogiSl, but his Importance .. a wriler is ",ther as a commenta· tOr on lhe scriplures. AmOnl his worb. Gmf tislS a grammar with lhe tille A/·Tal>~i",h (Source of Insighl). a reworking of the grammar of Yul}ann;l.. bl.hop of S
won

00_. IIlBuOG.....r,.v I:lliIb&I.hl Shalt a1·Blnniwi. Tdfsfr RU'ydl DI-Qjd<1/s Y"./:ID'mll al·UhiiU Ii ibn Killib Oay[.". Cairo,

1939.

IBN LAOLAQ. Se. Cyril III Ibn Laqlaq,

IBN MAMMATI, surname of a celebrated Coptic dyna>ly from MyU! in the d~nlh al\d twelfth ttnwries under the Ialer Fallmids and early Ayyubids. 'Ibrft $UCceui« """",bers of thai dynaoty Sian
The fouoder, AbU al·NaIIt), b«ame oec~ and gene",l intendmt of the ,ii...... undet- the vWerale of Baodr aI-JamAll In the reiJn of the Falimid caliph a1-Musunoir (1035-10904). He .... a popular adminiw3Ior and ..... eulopz.ed by !he ~ of "is age. He was "ble to retain his CopIic: bith side by side ",ith his official position ill the Wamic SUlle unlil his death -ne lime toWard the end of !be elc\~n!b centwy_ The oecond in lhe line _ a1.Maiilfs son. al-Mu"adhdhab Abol al'Ma!l~ lakariyyf,. ",110 succeeded his &th.r in the Importanl position of .........,ury o£ promOOled later 10 the secretaryshJp 01 "'Ilhe di.. ·.DU of the ~overn meel machinery durin, lhe lI!ilnS of bot.h Saladin (1l69-1192) and. ",.'~ (1193-1193) of Ihe An:u, bid dynasIy_ lb. third in the Ilne .... the rna" rellOWned o£ the bmily. AI·MAQIIIzt. th. fiftce:nth-ccntury Arab historian. quotes his full ""me 1.$ al-A$'ad Ibn Mu· hadhdhab ibn lakariyyfi ibn MId Sharaf ",1·Din AbU al-Makirim ibn Sa"ld ibn Abl sl·Mall~ ibn Mammat!. His fame was not bued merely on hil; lofty polilion in the administration of the country as head of all the diwo", but also on his literary accomplishmel\lI in Arabic and his productivity as a writer and u a poel ",110 left hit mark on that age. The source.

IBN QAYYIM AL-JAWZIYYAH

have recorded at least twenty_three worts under the name of al-As'l> the vizierate with disaslrous consequences t<> Ibn MammAl!. Ibn Shuh conspired against him at the suhan's court, bringing aoout the confiscation of all his property and slripping him of his position in the slate, In these untoward circumstances, al-As'ad decided to flee to "'leppo, where he found refuge at Ihe court of al-:?Ahir (1186-1216), a son of Saladin. There he remained unt;] his dealh in exile and ob· scurity in 1209 at the age of sixt)"IWO, He was in· lerred in Damascus, according to Ibn KhallikAn, at Ihe cemetery of BAb al,l;Iakam by the roadside near the mausoleum of al·Shaykh 'Ali al·Harawi. BIBLlOGR"'PHY Ati)'., A. S., ed. KiUJ.b Qawilnln al.Dawawln, pp. 32-40. Cairo, 1943, AZIl S, ATlu

IBN QAYTIM AL-JAWZIYYAH (al-Salafl Sham. al·Din Abu "AIx! AllAh Mu~ammad ibn Abi Bah ibn A))'l1b ibn Sa'd ibn l;Iariz ,,1·Zar'i al· Dimashql), fourteenth-century encyclope
1269

he com mentens het"'een the Dhimmis and the Muslims. He discusses the regulations binding the Dhimmis in their own financial affairs, the regulations relevanl to Iheir waqfs (religious property) and the waqfs endowed upon them by the Muslims, the laW$ of inheritance applying to the Dhimmis among themselves, and whether transmission by in· heritan<:e hetween Muslims and Dhimmis is legal. Ibn Qan-im also considers Ihe stalus of the Dhimmis' marriages and their dowries, Ihe maintenance they receive from their relatives, Ihe conditions binding their .sacrifices, the conditions of hiT_ ing Ihem or of hiring a Mu.lim 10 work for them, the decorum that should be adopted when meeting them, the treatmem of their sick, participalion in their funerals, and how to condole them on these occasions. Indccd, when discussinll their children, he does not fuil to stipulate the conditions binding these children in this world a, in the world to come.

1270

IBN AL·$A'IGH

It can thus be cnnduded that Ibn Qayyim al·Jaw-

ziyyah considered 'Uma.'s Covenant as law that should be enforced, and lhat it was not optional, This covenant is a legal act, so that whoevu breaks any pan of it violates his own Status as Dhimmi. BIBUOGRAPHY

Thc Encyclopedia of is/am, I...tidcn, 1913-1942. New edition, Leiden, 194Off, Gaudefroy'D<:mombynes, M, Muslim {nstilutions, London, 1919, Ibn Qayyim al·JawLiyyah, Ahk~m AhE al,D~immah, 2 vol•. , ed. Sub!)i al·~ali!). Damascus, 1961. ___. Hid~yal "/'F!ay(lr(.h ff Aiwwal al· Yahud waal-Na!"r~, Cairo, 1978. ___. MjfM!; D(lr al·So'adah wa Monsht1r Wildyat ,,1.'lIm w".a/.irfld"h, ed. Ma!)miid J:lasan Rabr. 3rd ed. Alexandria, 1979. SU6H' Y. Ll6'6

IBN AL.$A'IGH, nickname, meaning "son of the goldsmilh," given to two Copts in references of the founeemh century. They are probably the same person. In 1325-1326 the monk TUmA ibn al':?A'igh copicd a manus<:ript of the four Gospel. Iran slated from the Greek. This rnanus<:ript wa. in Jerusalem in 1903, at the Copts' Dayr MAr Jirjis, and was d~cribed by HannA Mana. (Meistermann, 1904, p. 125). L. Cheikho (1903) ident;~cd it with another Egyptian manuscript da,ed 1227. But in 1915 when G. Gra! cataloged the library, it had disappeared. In October 134(1 the monk Tumo., nicknamed Ibn al-SA'igh, is mentioned at Damascus. In the compa· ny of }.nbi Butrus, metrop<>litan of u.e Copts in Jerusalem and Syria, he was collating a manuscript of the four Gospels thai had just been copied by thc Coptic priest Jirjis Abu aI·Fadl ibn wtfall!h (to be read as: Jirjis ibn AblW-I.MUfa#a!) the original m~nus<:ripl of al·As',..] ibn al.'Assal. This is now the bmous manuscript in the Coptic Museum, Cairo (Bible 90; Graf, nO, 180; Simaykah no. 13). On 26 November '1347 the monk TumA ibn al· ~'igh al·Mutarahhib is again mentioned (Uri, 1787, p. 29, n. a), finishing the transcription of the text of Genesis (see lhe colophon On fot 5Sr in Rhode, p. Sl). This manuscript of 235 folia, des<:ribed by J. Uri as being "splendidissime exarallJm" and by J, F, Rhode (1921, p. 80) as "magnificent," is the Laud. Or. 272 of the Bodleian library, Oxford (olim Laud. A 182; Uri, 1787, p. I). It contains an Arabic ve",ion of the entire Pentateuch, translated directly from the Greek of the Septuagint (and not from the He·

n-on:.

brew, as Uri states). 11 has imerlinear and marginal notes written in blue, red, and hl""k ink (Rhode, 1921, p, 80). This manuscript "was used by Holmes and Pa",ons in their famous edition of the Greek Old Testament" (Rhooe, p. 80), where it is cited as Arabic 3. In 1789, H. E, G, Paulus (1789, pp. 69-70) used it in his critical notes and reproduced extracts from it (Gn. 1:1-5; 4:6-8; 49:1-36: and Nm. 24:7-9). Rhode (pp. 18-35) collaled this manu· s<:ript (code E) in order to edil the text of Genesis 1-6, 18, and 50 (Group 2), At this date the monk Tum! was a priest. He copied this manuscript on a commission for the shaykh al·~aft A",anl ibn al-Qass Da""d ibn al·Qa.. al·Amjad Hihatallah (Uri, 1787, p. 29, o. b), On 14 Ba'iinah A.M. 1071 8 June 1355, JlR.I" '0'0 Al.-OASS AD! Al-MUFA.(>I{AL completed in Cairo his copy of Ihe large I-IOMOCANON anribuled to Ibn al·'''''''!. In Damascus he had begun the copy from the original manuscript up to folio 238 (Coptic numbering: 233 present numbering), He writes t1tat folios 23479 in the present numbering were copied from a manuscript copied by Anba Klrillus, bishop of As· )'iI!, nicknamed Ibn al·~'igh. According to a manus<:ript at Cambridge University (Add, 3283), copied al Mossul by the hieromonk IUbban lsJ:>lq ibn al-Shammh 'AI>d al-Hayy on 21 March 1678, this manuscript of AnbA Klrillus was copied at the Monastery of Saint John Kama, which was his monastery of origin (d. fol. IS two notes). Now it is known that "after the destruction of the Monastery of Saint John Kama belween 1330 and 1442, the monks of that monastery migr;lted to the S)'rian Monastery. at the same time transferring the relics of lheir Patron Saint" (Meinardus, 1965, p. 159; E\'elyn-White ghes us no further details of lhis period). This explains how the Syrian Orthodox ob· tained the manuscript. However, the copyist in Mossul, who did not know Anbo. Kfrillus personally, does not mention his nickname of Ibn al~l'igh. In short. if th~ persons are one and the same, Tiima known as Ibn al~'igh was a monk of the monastery of Saint John Kama. He was subsequent· I)' sent to the dioceses of Jerusalem and all of Syria to help the emigrant Copts. If the destruction of the mon""tery took place ahout 1330, this could be the approximate datC at which he was sent. He took with him his manus<:ript of the four Gospels, copied in 1325, and later left it at Jerusalem, In 1340, he was in Damascus. In 1347, when he was a hieromonk, he copied a very fine manu.~ript of the Pentateuch for the library of a prominent Copt (Bodlei. an library, Oxford. Laud. or. 272). He later became bishop of As}"! and took ,he name Kirillus. He

IBN SAUM AL-ASWANI

copied a manus<:ript of the large Namo
Cheikha, L "flljil 'arabi "adim." AI-Mashriq 6 (1903):238-40. Gabrieli, G. "Varieta poliglotte." BelSario"", ser, 2, 4, Vol. 13 (1903),272-85, especially 275-76, where he analyzes Cheikho. Gmf. G. "Katalog christlich·arabischer Handschrif· ten in Jerusalem, II. Die Handschriften der Koplen." Orie"s Chris/ia"us, n.s. 5, (1915),132-36. ___. Catalog"e de ma""scripts arabes cnrbiens conserves a" Caire, pp. 77-80. Vatican Clly, 1934. Meinardus, O. F, A. Christian Egypt A"cie"t and }.Jadu", pp. 159-61. Caim, 1965. Meistermann, B. La Palrie de Jca".Bop/iste, p. 125. Paris, 1904. Munier, H. Rec"eil d". listes episcopo/es de Ng/ise coP/c. Caim, 1943. Muyser, J. "Cantribulian ill'etude des liste' ~pisc' opales de I'egli... capte." B"lIe/in de /0 Sacie/e d'archio/agie caple 10 (1944):115_76. Paulus. H, E. G. Specimina versia""m Pe"lale",:hi seplem orobica"'m "and"m edita"'''' e biblialh. Oxon, BoJ/ew."a aMbila. Jena, 1789. Rhode, J, F, The Arabic V.rs;a". of Ihe Penlate"ch in Ihe Ch"rch of Egypt. St. Louis, 1921. Rieu, C. S"pp/emenl 10 the Calalag,,~ of the A.rabic Man"scriprs i" Ih~ Bri/i,h M~seu"" p. 18 (no. 23). London, 1894. Photocopy Iks Moines, Iowa, ., 1987. . . Uri, J, Blblwth.cae Badle"'nae cadic~", man,,scripta"'''' ar;enlalium. ,:ca/a/ag"s, Val. I, p. 29 (no. l). Odard, 1787, Wright, W. A COIa/agu" of the Syriac Man"scripts Preserved in Ihe Library a/II,. U"iversily of Cam· bridge, pp. 862-84, Cambridge, 19'01, KHAliL SMlJ~, S.J.

IBN SALIM AL-AswANi. 'Abdallah ibn AI).mad ibn Salim, familiarly known 10 hi.larians as Ibn SalIm al·Aswlinl. lived in the lauer half of the tenth century. Almost nothing is known of his life or his career, cxcepl that at SOme lime between 969

1271

and 973 he undertook a diplomatic mission 10 the Nubian kiogdom of MJlKOURIA. The account of his travels, presen.·ed in e~tra.cts by al'MAOR!ZI and alMinuft, is the only sUTVivlng eyewitn~ss de.cription of medieval Nubia, ather than the very brief ac· counl of lBS I;IAWOAL When Ihe Falimid. took possession of Egypt in 969, one of their 6r:st concern. w"" to ""cure their sOUlhern frontier by normalizing relation. with the kingdom of Makouria, which contmlle
1272

IBN smA'. YUHANNA IBN ABl ZAKARIYVA

ha,..,

and the Nile). This work mtJ$t a, one time been fairly ",..,11 known. for- i, i$ quotcd dil'<:Ctly by al Icast thrcc later autho~. and it C'ridcndy fur· nished Infomwion for OlheB as wdl. MOSI 01 the Nubian informalioo contained in the Ch"rdoa lI"d M....II$lct'ies of. ...... $AUH Jlt( ........a."1AN C'ridcntly carne from Ibn Salim. All copies 01 the KiJal> AAItbar .1-Ni.lraclS arc cd in doe KiJdl> .1· M""..I" (The Grca/. Chronicle of £aypt) and the Killl> .1....' .....·;: (['he Bool< of Wi$dom\ 01 al· (The 800. or W"tsdnm) of a/·Maqrlzl. Somc P - l " arc also .....,......"cd in the KiElb "I· F"yd (The 800k of. GrcaUlCSS) cl Minuft. The only full Englilohlno.... Lation of Ibn Salim's ''''''. as rcponcd by al·MaqM. Is lltat made by J. L Burckhardl mone than l!lO years alO. A Frcnch lran.la.ion was madc by G. Troupcau (1954). Ibn ~llm ""a> a to!cram and sympathctk: writer as wcll as a fairly "b.., .....ant one. and he has Icft a word picture of life in Nubia that i. ""'thout pal1lllel in ancient or medieval litera'ure, In addition to dcscribinglhe kingdom of Makouria, which hc observed al first hand, he also gives much Informarion about .he more """theriy kingdom of. ·AL....·A, This ,nformation was e\'idCflt!y pined at second ""nd, _inee Ibn Salim had no "fficial busin..... wi.h ·"Iwi. but i... almoo.! the only descrip'i\"C information poossascd about this littlt-known Chrisdan kingdom or lhe cent ...1Sudan. Other plOS$ljIU. alio based on hearsay infonnalion. deal with .hoe sources of the Ni'" and ",;th the BEJA DlIES. IIlBUOGaAPHY

Adams. W. Y. N..m•. Corridor 10 Afric., pp. 4ti1-61. Princcton. NJ.• 1977. Burckhardt. J. L r,-"wu in NIlbitJ. pp. 4')}-SlO. London. 1819. Trou~, G. "La '~ription de Is I'lubie' d·"l· lIs~i." Au,hi". WI9S4):276-88. Vantini. G. Cltristi"niry in me 51<1/1I". pp. 1l9-B. 1l2-lB. BoI"B"S, 1981.

WtUl/o.Il Y.

"DooMS

imponant ";ork on doe tradi.ions and ri.ua1s of tM Copcic church. a near approach Ibn Kabar's, although n blk ~ of .IM: ",~loa>c:>l "xpatl$C of

'0

"'" Mtlhilh.

Ibn 5ibl". oompreh..ml..e work, AJ-JawiuJralt 111NIlfi.
me

"'" period or JfSUS Chrisl. n.e fICIll section dcsIs with 1M rise and sprad of Chrislianily. Bu. the bu.lk of !he malerial «Inc"ntrat" on Coptic churclt orpni>ation and lI'adidom. as ....cl[ as on a """ic..... 10<\5 ~ of hs li.urgics. The Coptic m..... is ana· I~ and Coptic rasu and kasts enumcr.ucd. "~,ith spKial anenlinn doc.....cd to major £cas.s such as those 01 Holy Week and Easter. AU"raIe detail. arc prcsenled on tile church hiCn'lrchy from deacon to priest. hegumen05 (arch. priest) to bishOJ) and th" plltriarch. One chapter discusses the patriarchal duty to aosemble the en· tirc priesthood e,'ery week in order to instmct them on their moral dutie.. Thc patriarch is re· qUC'lted 10 care for his Ao·d in gcnentl. as well. Another spccial chapl"r trcall the burial ofliccs .I\d the oIferinp fOT the JOUls of the depancd. The fil\aI chapter ""plaiTlS the significance or the ringing of church bells durin. "'" cdcbration of church offices. Manuocripu of AJ.J.""I"'rtlh ,,1-NII{isIlh fi 'Ulum .d· KIln...h arc deposited in many collections. V. Mi5t· rill. editor 01 the IsI$ critical edition, used eighl' een manmc:ripts in hOs res.earch. manuscripts that an seallercel ,~, diff.,...,...1 wori
IBN 518"\:, YUHANNA IBN ADt ZAKAR· IVY A, a notcd ~i<: Iheologian of the thincenth century. whose life may have utcndcd into the founcenth. Ibn Si~' was a contemporary 01 the famous Cop'ic cburch encyclopedist raN UBAI, whosc ....ork M4ba~ al·;;ulmah is noted for its treat· mcn' of ,h. organizati"n and the liturgy of the Cuptic church. In his own right. Ibn SiW' a"lhored an

Ibn IC;lbar. Mjfba~ tll·?"I",ah f! 'fda/} .I-Khidm.h. Cairo. 1971. Ibn Sibt', Yu!)"nnt ibn "bl labri}')'t. JtI.jawhMah al.Naflsal: fI Ula", al·KanlJ.h. cd. and annotated wirh • latin tran~l"tion by Vincentio P, Mis,ril), O. F. M.. as Preriosa Ma"'."/11 de scicn/Us cecles;· 11S1ld•. Cairo. 1966. AzIZ S. AnH

IBRAHIM IBN SULAVMAN Al·NAJJAR AL-MIRI

IBRAHIM IBN 'AWN, THE NESTORJAN. name _ialed wilh a compoUtion for resol'linlJ quntions called #,,1/ "1·S},,J::ulr. ..,.·"I-R.M "/4 "IY"lIil4; .t·MuJrk'/if (The ~ution of Doubts and Refutlltlon of a J....... h Opponent). By employinlJ lil..... interpretaCion and by using oth"r scriptum ~ ;t ~lains New Testll"",,nl """"~ and sa)" ings of ksw and "'" apostles tha' __ m objectionable to J"",'S and rriutes in(:orrecl cOO<:epIions reIailnl to them. The book and author appear in u,., .."he..- cataloa of AbO aJ.llan.1
IBRAHIM IBN 'ISA, physician who studied un· der and wo,ked with Yul:
Cheikho. L "...I·Ta...'billI ~i»-ah ft .I-A...· biy')'ah':' M..wlll 12 (1909): 482Ibn "bl U..ybi'ah. .Uy.... III·A..W· " r.b.q4I ./. AI~. ed. Nid.r Ridi.. Brinn. 1965. Ibn al-Nadlm Mu~ammad ibn hhiq. A!.FthriJl. Bel· 1%6.

"'t.

IBRAHIM IBN SULAyMAN AI.-NAJJAR AL.MIRI, eillhte<:nth"""ntury copi~< of manu· 5C:riplJ, Ibrlhlm is m"ntione
1273

bu. he ablmooned this \Iaome nece h.. 1lI3S onlained " pri~_ It ,....,ms h~ soon settled in Cairo. if in~ he _ n<>l born theft. He _ . . both Arabi<: and Coptic "'I"'"1ly _n. the ~ of the 103rd pauial'ch. JOHN ;1M (1676- 17(8). in 1702 he copied II manUSoCripc ..,f thor c_ration .x CHIUSM and holy oil in Copfic and Arabic. a IinupcaJ poem b' the ~trian::h ill Anbic. and aD. "",count of how the chrism ~Id ~ placed in the ~b. AI this date he was still a Ind...

"'t

10,..,..,. A. Ih.. ~ of Mu'lIllim .... "'~ a1.~~. i" 1709 he copied a collection 01 149 poems i" .\imple lit '}' Arabic. eom~ by Anb.l Im" n as aJ-l;far1ri (Copeic P.. rian::hate. Theology 190: GraI'. 00. SH; Simaybh. no. 333). In 1720 he copie~rah in Old Cairo (Coplic Museum. Cairo. Lilu'%'! 3/8: Simaykah, no. 210; Graf, no. (90). At th .. request of th. ardon al·Mu·aIJim Bi.'lh~rah Abu Yui)ann~ al-TiIkhr. in 1729 he copied a lectionary for the Sundays of lhe firal six months of th .. year in Arabic only. This rm.nuscript "'ll$ Jiwn "" a bequest by''''' archon 10 the Church of Saints Serglus and Bacchus at Old C.iro. At this date, Ibr.lhim was .. HEGl'NENOS still servinl at the Church of Sill Barbirah at Old Cairo (Copik Museum. W"'C 187: Simaykah. no. 212; Gntf. no. 6&7). In 170. he copied "'" lSI Psalms and the Canti· cleo in two columns. Coplic and A~. He donated lhis manuscript 10 tIw: Church of Sill BarttAralt (Copl:;c Pa1riarclJate. Bible 7: stma)'bh. no. $2; GraI'. no. 275)last. in Dec"",ber 17.9, H~pnte_lbnhim<:<>piled. all th.. .-equal: of ManqlnyQs Abil Bi.twah, II eollection in Araobic 01 an essentially canonical charact"r, oOlltaininc Ille 0I0ASCAlIA of the Apostles. the G\."O~ OF CUNENT. 1M eiahty-one ApmwIic Cano.... and (\0.'0 homilies for J NasI' in honor of th" Arehan&els Michael and Raphael (Coptic Patriarelw", Ctmrm 28; G !'. no. SSJ: Sima-ybh. no. S73)_ Th", rnanmcrip! Iliven as • beq....., '0
Bisu""""

BIBUOGIIA'JlY

Am<':lineall. F.. Lq. GiogT/Jphic de l'EOPle ir C()PI~. p, 402. Paris. 1893.

I·.poqu~

1274

IBRAHIM AL·jAWHARi

Coquin, C. Los Edi/icu chretietl. dl< Viel<~·Cai .., VoL 1, p. 122. Bibliothequ. d·emd.. coptes II. Cairo, 1974. Graf, G, Catalagl<e d. ma.l"scrit< arabes chretien. c(m.erv~. al< Caire. pp. Hl8 (no. 275), 200 {no. 533). 208 (no_ 553). 253-54 (nos. 687 and 690). Vatican City. 1934. KHALIL SMltR, SJ.

IBRAHIM AL-JAWHARI (d. 1795). minist.r of financ. in Ottoman Egypt who was the most impor. tant Coptic political figure and peTSOnality in the last quarter of the eighteenth c.ntury. Hi. bth.r, Yilsuf al-lawharl. was. according 10 oral nadition, a C0110n weav.r. Ibrah!m I.arn.d the prof...ion of secretary and worked for som. time in the -Sen'ice of a Mamluk amir, then for the Coptic patriarch MARK VU and his .UCC.<50r, JOHN XVTll. H. was probably an apprentice and protege of Mu'allim Rizq, the Coptic .secretary and administrator of hnance. of 'Ali Bey. The basis of his career and his reputation was .stablish.d in this period. After th. ov.rthrow of 'All Bey and Mu'allim Rizq, Ibrflhlm's social rise began under Mul)ammad Bey, The peak of his influence and fame cam. aft.r 1775, under the joint reign of Ibnl.him Bey and Mum.! Bey. Ibrahim Bey especially favored him and made him a son of minister of finance. He con· troll.d and managed not only the privale properties of the bey, which consi.ted mostly of tax farms, but also the public income and .xpenditur•. H. was, so to speak, th. d. facto chief of the supreme revenue ollie. in Ottoman Egypt. Hc was also the director of tbc corporation of tax collecto.. and state ",rilles, who administered the finances of the whol. COUntry. These positions w.r. held almost exclusively by Copts at th••nd of lh••ighteenth century. A. al·laban! (1879-1880) describes Ibrahim al· lawhat1 as One of the.!!"'st influential and capabl. personalitie, of hi. tiill'e, a pe..on who deal! with everyone prop.rly and:who acquired sympathy on , all ,ides through his charily and gencrosity. His deferemial aUitudc to ...i ard thc political leade.. and his presentation of gifts to people in power earned him th.ir friendship and support. Hi. influ.nce among th. dominant class was.o great that h. was able to construct, reslOr., and maintain Coptic churc~.s and manasl.ri.s, and his actions wcrc .upported by jurislic opinions of famous '"lama' (religious chief justices). Muslim resistance against Ihi. renaissance of Coptic self·confidence was stirre
,

Hasan Pasha to punisb the obstinatc beys in 1786. Throughout this time and during the following role of Isma'll Bey in Cairo, Ibrahim stayed in safety in Upper Egypl und.r Ibrabim Bey, Murad Bey, and th.ir follow.... His poss...ions in Low.r Egypt wcre confiscated b}' l;Iasan Pasha. After the death of tsma'l! Bey, he retumed with hi. protecto.. to Gri· ro in 1791 and resumed his form.r function•. When Ibrahim al·Jawhari died On 31 May 1795, Ibrihim Bey was d••ply afflicted by the loss of bis friend. Even though it was improper for a Muslim to do '0, he did not refraio from giving him the lasl far.well and accompanying his mortal remain. to the c.m'lery. AI·Jawharf left tb. Coptic patriar· chat. some real estat. in the al·Azbakiyyah quancr of Cairo, and he also was able to obtain official permission to start building a church there, which his broth.r mU15 ~UAWlV.Rf lat.r complet.d. Th. Coptic patriarch MARK \'tlI transf.rred his residence 10 tbat plac•. On th. literary side, al-Jawhart left a comm.ntary on th. prophets. In the cou..e of thc nineteenth century several legends arose about hi. pi.ty and hi. care of the poor. IDBUO(;II!oPHY

Mot1.ki, H. Dimma "od igalil~, Die nic!l/m"siimi· sch... Minderhei/en A/lYp"", in der <"-'€;I,n Hiilfl€ d•• /8. jahrhund€ns und die &pdilion Bonaparle. (1798-1801). Bonn, 1979. HAR,A.UJ MOTlKI

IBRAHIM AL.T{JKHI. Su Jahn XVI.

IBSCHER, HUGO (1874-1943), German technician and r.stor.r of manuscripts and papyri, Hc was trained as a bookbind.r, but .ntered the sen'ice of the State Museum of Berlin in 18'fI, where be was entrusted with the mounting and restoring of papyri. While an th. ,taff of the museum, h. was permitt.d to undertake work e1scwhcre, and many important papyri were restore
•

ICONOCLASM

~l

of I)w, impor\ll.~l Coptic p;lpyri, his literary work ... ilS nllll"r IImil~' "Buc~inbiin
and "Koptisch., 8ul:llcinbllnde ...1 AIYPlen" (ibid.. 49. 1928. pp. 86·90). BIBUOCltAnfY

lb._n. W. R.. and E. P. Uphill. Who W"J W/w in

£mroJoo. London, 1972. AzIZ S. ATlTA

lBTO•

.,.;:onlin. 10 S. Tinlln (198-4), the Arabic ~ of IDe el!y thal ~ known In G~k:t$ tJ-mc (Bout"'" and In Copck as IiOY"O or n(tyY'O (BoLIIO, Paulo). The city, ...hkh no Ionaer uists. was Ioa,M in W nonh_ put of 1M EcJpl:ian ~lta in ",io;u it DOW the <:halbiyyM pro¥in«. about 6 miles (10 krics puk"nl$ PUZZ:!inc evidence 011 tile question. The Ibl offen the following ~..moknc Souto Thcros (Greek); PaulO kc .hres (Coptic): Na!_ and Til$lo (Arabic) (Munier. 1943. pp. 4S. 53). WIIile Iht Greek and C.pbnalion lor the ....;..,i~ eq..i..-loffiu "'.1..... nd TIna. Wilh !he u· ~qKion of Ih.. en;smallc ..'imess. lhe sources art .ilent on lhe 51alus of Christlanily hI medieval I~tl.. IltBUOG....'"T

Amelir>ea... f.Ul GIogr(lplr~41I'Ef)."teQ Np<>que COpte. p. lOS-II. Paris, 189~. Mun;"r, H. Recueil des Ii,te.. tpiscop
IBYAR, See Abyar.

ICONOCLASM, ~Slruclion of Images. The great Iconoclaslic Comro,'ersy o~r Ille nature and Fune·

1275

lion of religious images convulsed Byu.mlnc Chns· lianity from \he 720s umil 843. It accentuated lhe division btlwun lhe Easlem and Wn«,m ~I." of Christendom and contributed to a deterionuion of relat;o"" wilh thc papacy lhal led ullimately 10 lhe alliance of the papacy wnh Ihe FrtnQ and the .." eeuion of Italy from Byzant;um. Durin. Ihc period of 550 10 700 Ihe cull of 11TIIlI' es had been infihnoled by abuses, lhe Icndency of some believers 10 '..,n.....le icons of Illinu more !han !he sainu lhemselft$. In 726 EmperoT Leo 1II ~ed ,he 6rst edict api""t !he u.se of iOllies. AJ;, coo ..... indineItks were a special IargeI and were pen.ecuted withoul merty------.: of the _ noiable of the -martyJs ",-as Saini S1epben the Younsn, ..'hose body _ mutilated by a mob. In 77~. ConsWlline was !lIICCceded by bit son Leo IV ,he KJw:ar, wlto, although IlIOn' bYOrable toward the rDOnlts, contino ued 10 Mlppon iconcd....;., meuures. n.e cull of images ",-as IttSUoblished by Leo'$ lUCCessor. Empr,.,.. Irene. and ....elioned by lhe Se1.'CItlh Ecumenkal CoulK:il. held al Nicaea in 787, Irene's reign be....6led the monb and lhe rnonu· leries. After many intrigu.... in 797 I~e blinded and deposed her $OR. ColUlaruine VI. ""Ito ..... in I«&ue "';Ih ioonoclam in the army. In S02 Irene was ovenhrown b)' Nicepboru$. ..tin ll"''<: only a lukewann suppon for images. The eon· troversy conlinued fitfully until the death of Empe... or Leo V tilt Armenio.n in 820, Onhoeld in Constantinople, which "confirmed Ihe so"en ecu, menical coundl. and re.. ore
1276

ICONOGRAPHY

uccMingly complu. II jnvol~ the whol~ Byzantinc popul;lolion-empero", bishops. monb. Ihco!alian•• c.....n officialb. civil ~rv;lonl$- ... well ;as lhe popula~ Ihc ~a, chlu of Ihc Byzanline

Martin. E. J. A Hi.lOry of 1M .
la"'r><:I(/SI;~

Conlro",r.

or

_d.

or

Thc p.cct,e ~ _ for 1M .....Ibreak iconO' dasm a~ obscure. Thc follo-..·ir1ll ha,'C been sugpled: (I) Wamic InAucncc....hich was opposnllo I"'*CCS livl... Ihinp. mediated Ihroull" a circle dO!lC to Leo III; (2) a dai~ on Ihc pan of lhe: ic:onoclasl cmperon 10 purify lhe: peoplc m011llly and Inlcllcc....lIy after the: disaurous mcotInln'$ willl.he Muslims in 1M oevmth Cl!1lI"ry; (3);lo 'Cae· lion a.piMl ~ 01 .... cuh 01 ImllJes; (4) a dcsl~ 10 I!'flforce the: J'O"'~ of thc _lc """er lhe: church. lhal is, ~papism; (5) the Inlluence of monophysitisnl...tac:h bid Ions: been opposed 10 the rulines of !he Council of CHAlCDlOH; (6') the JUlien ~i1n, 01 • prorincla.l cull"", """om! :on alien icoDOdule pioeIy 01 CaltSWllinople; and (1) ,he inlluence 01 various Christian 5«1S. It K'eJm pn>blr. blc that the main InllM:l'lccs wen: Imoemal to ~ lme Christia.nity. The position 01 .... empet'Of' WlI.S im~1 in 9yDntillm, ."d ;1 may be thai Leo III lI.SM>Cwed the military ~tsS of .... empl~ in the S<'W'nlh cenlUry ..iIh ldoIa.try. In opminl a nmpa.lp! apinsl ifN&eS he rlIlly h....e been f'CIUnt' illl 10 ;lo ",.,filioNI ,,;ew 01 the dominanl place 01 thc cmpero' In lhe: Chri",ia.n &dIema. which .._t back I(> thc: fourth cenll<')'. OIher I'.....ps involved in the controversy no doubc had oth" mOli,=the: doccrinal issue _ lmponam for ccdcsia.slics. Yft In llIe lui reson neil""" side in the conll'<>ffB}' clunl 10 i... rell&ious opinions wilh the pcrIlna.cily shown earlier by the MOfIoph,siles. 11M: iconodasl emperors Ihroughoul undcreslimlllcd Ihe hold of lhe icons Oll ,hc 8)'U1ontlnc popIllalion and, in parlicular. Ihc dup.snIed belief th.l tM Vi
or

81BLlOGRAPHY

Alcnn
ICONOGRAPHY.

Su 8iblical Subjcc... in Cop'ic Art; Chri
ICONOSTASIS. Set A""hi'l'<:'ural Elemcms of Churt:hcs.

ICONS, COPTIC, holy pant! painlings of Chris!. the Virgin Mary, WDts, or .... bjects from lhe Old and New Tf:SIamtnu.. The won! icon is derived from 1he Gred __d eihlol. moeani"l "imllic" (lI" "»<>r1rail.- loons are .pnbols of ,he invisiblc p,", 'IKC 01 Ch~. the Vi",n Mary. and the saims. They arc the connection belWftn the d.uo;:h on "nh a.nd the church in heaven. There is • dlrecl conQ(:t heI~ the hclicYer and 1he saini. "'ho is ...iblt: lhn:Juth the con,'Cnrional S1y1t: in which the icon is painted Icon painlen ...... ided rca.lism lI.I1d Ih..dimensionality in order 10 Cralc • mClllpb)Sical =0111)" The "en=u:ion sho..... by believers ill IOUChi"l: and kissing icOl'l$ and kneelinl before Ihem is dirtt,cd to .... sairu depic:led on Ihc icon. The be· 1;""'Ct asks !he saini In exercise his bencli~cnl power .... acI as an Inlenncm..ry beN.'ftn lhe hclie>'Cr ..... God In CopIk churches. icons arc placed On lop of Or hunll on the iconost.aSis. Ihe wall thai !IC~""la lhe n,",: from ,he sancluary. They play an lmponam role during lhe ~rvlcc, «ped.11)' on futal days. Icons are gen.",.]ly pa.;nlcd on !bl pi«es of wood covered hy a 1aJ"T of lessa. Thol fits! icons ",en: painled in rilMr enca....lic (hoi wax) or cgg lempera. but late' tempera bl';Cam<: CU$lomary.

Early HI~lory Although il has oflen been sulieSlcd lhal Ihe mumml por-trail$ of EsYPt. also painled in encll.u$lie and lempera, influenced icon painting, othcr objccl$ a~ morc likely 10 havll InAuen<:cd Icon paiming, fur cxamplc. painted panels of lhe pagan gods Isis and Sarapis or soldleNieili«, dating 10 Ihc sccond and Ihi'd cenluries ~.D. Othcr poo.sible influences are ancesto' portrails belonling 10 rich citi,en, and images of famous mon..], honored by religious sects. Thc ""cond·century church failler Ircn"<'us tkscribed a <'U$tom of Ihc Carpocratians, a

ICONS, COPTIC

Gno»llC ~~I: lhn ,,,,nentet'nced icon painhng "'rinen soun::es about icons an" l"'o...n from !he aposlOlic period. The first source. dated 10 the m,ddle 01 the scwnd century, i. an apoel)'phal Mory abuul Ihe life of John lhe E"angeli" (Act< of John 26·29), Early so."'cc$ lI~aking about lhe wnenlli"n of images condemn thi~ eUS'Orn, The 5)'nod of civil'll in Spain in 306 i"ued a prohibition against placing ;"011. in churches. During tne lhird and fourlh c,m· fUries the a'll"ment. for and against the usc of icons were mOre accur:llely fonnulated. "hich pvc "II" to heated conlro,,,,"'''·, T... Q parties can be distill I'mhe- human hands, appeared in the 8)~ anune world. and beli"'...... maintained thai theIr dl,-ine origIn mado- lheir "xim (726-787 and 8IS-843) in the Bynonline empire folk,.... ~~. As EJi:)1't M,d the Si""i penin,uia wen:: nol under the jurisdiction of the O}-;.an'ine emperor. they C$caped the d"v"$tating consequenc.... of this edin After the iconoclaslie period. a ...ie, '~'S1em of icon p"inting was inlToduced in lite llY'antine world: icons ,,'crt'

"0

1277

10 be pain,ed according 10 eenain ~t,lislic rules_ COUnl";'" oulSide the borden 01 the empire, like E&,>JlC. hrn.~r. mainta,ned .h",r free
",In.

Iconl of the Fifth to

s.e...lnth Centuries

So icorn; from the apogolic pl"riod or ,he immediateh IUCCeeding cent"";'" ...., pr"CSC,,"Cd. Tbe oldHt icons a", fro", the .\IOt'LUtc,,· of Sain. Catherine in Sinai. from Ec"JlC.• nd from Rome. A number of icons c.a:isl from the fifth 10 S<'\-eoth «nl,,~ ~ an: .11 on small paJltI~ and are pain,cd in efIC._ie or t"mpc-ra. som"omcs on • a.ueeo grol.llld. T1Ie fig"'""" ,.,... in a more or ICS!I frontal po6ilion and Ire h..,;lvoullined••,ooins realism_ $c'\'eml. nolablv m.... op Ab...ltam ill tlte S,:UC Museum or Berlin and Chrisl and Ihe abOO. Saint Mcna. the Mira· cle M"b'r in 1M Loune, Pari., sho'" Coptic charaelcri .. ic" Ihe hit""", an:: !lquat with large hcads in prt>p<mion 10 the body and wide opcn, Slari"lt eyes. Th~'Y resemble figlll-"S in mural. of the period in DaH "''''' JC1-"mlah, Saqqara. and lJayr At» Apollo, Bawi!, The.... arc two kons of Christ, One on a small IOndo (a cireula,' ,ncdalholl) ~nd a Christ Em·

leon of Apa Al>raham of Lu_,or. Panel. A0 590-600. COlmn)' Slale .U..s... m of Berlm,

1278

ICONS, COPTIC

Iy dated 590-600. Chrisl and Saint Menas in the Louvre is the l"rg~Sl icon al ,,!xlut 26 " 26 in{'hes (57 " 57 cm). ,\ scene of Ihe birth and haptism of Christ is in Ihe Stale Push kin .\luseurn of Fine Arts, Moscow. Lalcr HisTory Although no icons from Ihe period belween Ihe sc,"enlb and Ihe ,,,,'eOleeo,h eentulies have with· stood lh~ mvages of timc, lhe H'STORY of THE PATRI· ARClIS makes reference to Ihe ~xiS1ence of icons in this period. Most SlO.. ;es .... fe .. to appearances of Ihe sah'ls depkled ()O Ihe icons 10 ,he benefil of Ihe belic,"e,". Apan from lhe deliberate destruction of churcbes and the,r conlentS, there arc other rea· sOnS for lite lack of icons in Ihi, period. Icons, when lhe}' were old and broken and the..efo.... \'al· udess, were used as fuel in Ihe fire 10 prepa ..e the hoi)' chrism. Also. Ihere might have been occasion· al outbreaks of iconoclasm during which icons were dc;;Imyed. (In a relativel)' r""em case, io 1854, Pa'riarch (;YR'~ IV galhered manv icoos aod publicly burned them because tOO moch venera lion was gi"en to th..m.) Eigh'een,h·century icon. Saint Juli1\a and her son, Sain' Kyriakos, A.hI 1462/A.O. 1746. Anis\: Ibrahim al·Nisikh, Height (ineludin!: f"'mc): 61 "m~ wid'h: 45 em: thickness: 3 cm. Cairo. Cop,ie Museum (1m·. 3785). Co"rre.y lIans /fondelink. manuel 00 a fragmen', probably from the FaYY"m (Strzygowski. 1901, PI'. 195-97, pI. 34). leon, of areha"gel, arc in the National Library. f'aris. in the Frochner Colle,-'ion; On a modo in the Coplic Museum; on p"rt of a two·sided panel probs· bly from ~"1! in the Coplie MllSCum; and on a f..agment from Antlnoopolis (Robe,1S, 1938, pp. 18891. pI. 2), An angcl, probably part of a triptych, is in Ihe Ashn,"lean Muse..in. Oxford, and a n);ng angel holding pan of a garland is in Ihe Coptic Museum. An icon of SainT Theodorus and a female saint. probably from lite Fayyilm, was in thc State Muscum of Berlin but is now lost. Saint ThcodonJs ,be Oriemal, part of a two-sided panel, probably from Bi,,'l!, is in thc Coptic Muse",n. A $3inl from a chu"h near Wadi Haifa is in the Nalional Museum, Khartoom. Seven saints from a necropolis nea" AntlOoopolis a..e in the Coplie MuseulO, Cairo, and in Ihe Archaeological Museum, Florence. Dayr Apa Apollo has yielded a fragme"t showing Apa Hor, A panel of the ah~, and bi,ho(> Ahmham of Lux· or, io tbe State Museum of Berlin, cao be accurale·

Eighleeoth·cenlury icon. MaiesM. Domini, AM 1464( A.D 1748. Artists: Ibrahim aJ·N~sikh and Yuha""a ,,1·Mm;;o' al·Qudsi. Heighl {ioc luding frame): 70 em; width: 60 0111: lhiekoe,"" 4.5 em. Cairn, Cop,ic Muscum (In", 3-'62). COl"'e.,}" Hall.< H<mddi>lk

ICONS, COPTIC

1279

his w"rk are \'i\'ianna, The inscriplions arc limited 10 Arabic bu' give the same information a< earlier. Fa\'Qrite sub· jects are ,he Virgin Mary with Child, hodigitria (guide,), and soldier-s.ints, as well as biblical themes and local ",ints, Although ,he icon, were probably paintels, Icon painting in Egypt has to b" studied in rela,i"n with Le\'aoline paiming, Nowada}s icon p.inting is widely pra<·t;ccd. Well known painters are I"",c bnou" Y"sul Nasir, and hi. wife. !J"dur La!if. Many monks p.int icons fol' Coptic chul'che,

Eighleenth-eentUl')' icon. Virgin and Child Sur· munded by four angels. Co,,,t,,;)' Coptic Mu;eHm. Cairo

Few kens from lhe ,e\'enteenth cemul)' remain. The eighteenth cemul)', by com",st. witnessed an .normou> production of icon painting, Large quan· titie; uf cighteenth·cen'ul')' icons can be found in the churthes ,hroughout Egj.l't. The majority are signed by lbr:'ihim al·Nasikh and Yell",nna alArmanl al·Qud'l, and man)' paimers We['e inAu.need by their style. The figures depicled on lhe icuns aTe hea\-ily OUllined and ha\'e o\'al faces with large. almend·shaped eyes. Because of some difTe[" ences in st}'le and quality among the icons signed by these ''''0 paimers and be<:ause of the enormOus production, it i. likely ,ha, lJ;Ir:'i.hirn and Yul;>anna were the leading painters of an icon wOTkshop_ In· scriptions in "'rabie and Coptic give information about Ihe theme depicted or the identity of the saint and occasionally rcwal Ihe place of origin uf the icon and the name of the person who e()lnmi.· sioned h. A forllluia of in"'rtcs,ion is often presenl "lord r""o"'pense in Your Kingdom of Heaven him who toiled" Tl1e Coptic and Islamic dales on ,he icons correspond ,,-ilh lhe second half of the eighteenth century. The paimer ASTMI AL.R()MI aJ-Qudsl was respon,i· ble for tbe larger pan of tbe icon production in th" n,i
Eigl\lccnlh-cen'ury [con. SainI Dimyanah, Church of al·Mu'allaqah (Old Caim). C,,,,ru.
1280

IDELER, JULIUS LUDWIG

BlBUOC....PHY

org",,_

Candea, V., ed.. Iconu m"lltilU. Exp...itio>t We "., I" m.. s~" I.'icdu S..,soc.l:. Brirut. 1%9. Habib, R. TIl" ""cienl Copric Ch..rehc of C..iro: " Sh_ .... ~_"'. Cairo, 1961, Mulocl<, c.. and M. T. ~don, I~rnu tJ/ JiJI.""o ".,d n...hi", Ih" &riiH:. London, 19"6O~ary, De L 11u: Saints 0{ Em', AmKerdam. 197•. OwJ)(nKy, L Du Sin" tiL, llone Ik.", 1952, Robem. D...Z ....ei Fmgmnue Antinol!." leusdIrifI fl" die "eUleM"""nlflic/u Wi.swucha/l 37 (1933): 183-91, S1~,",~, J. Ei"" o.lUIJ"t/n'"isclre Weltch.o"ik. pp, 195-97, pL 34_ Vienna. 1900. Wei,unann, K. TIt" Mon
n."

C"",..,."

liNDA U"'CI;N HAl'S HONOEUNI\

IDELER,

In the fift~nlh cenl"')' lhe Muslim hisroriarl aJ· MAQRIzI namell Ihill.....·n sever:al limes. In his cata· log of the names 01 the mona:uerics of ~p1. he ~ 01 the !)AYa, A"aA BI5Al>.\Jt, and places it "in the dislriC1 oil"', opposIle Minshlt Akhmim, 10 ,he ...'eSt." In his list of lhe Christian churches, he ....... tions dial of Pachomiu5 "in the district cI. !lfl. anCe 10 lhe west. The spelli"ll of the name has 10 some exlenl been modified. AI-Maqr1zT and abo Ibn Duqmaq wrile "11ft," which wilh ehe "I" recalb 1M spellinll of andem EtYPtian o. of Creek, while lhe modern name i. "Idfl,"

n;,,,,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

JULIUS LUDWIC

(1809-1842), ~rman scholar who published many worQ on EiYl't. His contribulion 10 Cop'k sludi.,. was the publication of the Pultuiu... Coprice, ad Codic"... Fidem R"u"...i1. mlio"is V"t1eI""'", ." Ps..lmos Apocryphos s..hidicl1 Dio.lu'.. ConscrlplOJ Pri· m....... Woidio Edi'... "d;«;,. (Berlin. IS37).

"c

'Ali Mubirak. Ki'4b 11.1 Khi!tl! 11.1 Tawfitliyyah a[.Ja· dldtlh. Cairo, 1886-1888. Orlandi. T. l/ doss;e. copre del marlire Pmte. Te.ti e Documenti pe, to SuKlio den'Amkhi!i 61. Milan, 1978. Sauneron, S. Vilks " li,e..du d'Egypte. (Firsl appea,ed in larae pan in 8,,11,,;.. de rI... f""'Cfis J',('chlologie om..,ok_, Cairn. 1974.

'i',,'

• IBUOC.... PHY

Ro;t-(;E01IQS

Bnopch, H_ F_ K. !lei" Leben .."d INi" Wond.,.,. p.•5. Berlin, 1894. Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Wlto Wu Who in qyptoJocy. London, 1912. Karrlln"rer. W.• compo ,( Coptic B~. Ann .ltboe, Midi.. , 1950; repro New Yon. 1%9.

A21l S. AnYA

IDFA, cily in the Zlricl ofS"Idj. Calloed heb;n lhe pharaonic period. 'and then in Hellenjscic limes liOn 0' 1105, Idfi is. menlioned in llle Chrislian period only in lhe 5U"''''''''IY lha, the rece .... lon 01 lhe SYAAXAIllO/l of the Copts from Upper Egypt de,'OIe. 10 lhe martyr hermits rA/ll"~ uID tANEU II , Kiyahk. Pan. of lheir Ufe is preserved in Coplic, but nol lhe mention of Ihis smalllown, Afte, ludin, a wande,ini life in lhe Fan....m in Ihe valley of Qalam;;n, Ihey returned nea, 10 Idfii, in lhe dcsert of Adribah, where laler Shenule wlL< 10 found his fam
IDIOLECI. See

IDKtJ,

CoouL~

A~ndu.

eity b:ated in the non",,", Delta of E«ypt about 10 miles (16 km) IOUliI.....1 of lUshid in the Behei,w, prvvil>Coe. The fi"'l certain .etesw>on of Christianity in IdkQ C<)ItV$ from the HlSTOlY Of mE MnWlOlS. ,",'here it is TC"C'O<ded thai when lhe chun:bes of lhe MelcltileJ and Copts in A1eundrla were dosed by order of ..loYinn'! durinl lile petriarchale of CIIJ.lSlUllOlU15 (1047-1077). lhe wAil (sove."or) of Alexandria laW to il Ihal a church ..... rc<)pened in Alexandria and collecled 200 dina", fr<:,m lhe Chriseialls in Rashkl, Idkll, al·ladldiyyah. and MaJ:lallal al-Amlr, which he gave to lhe Copll<: pat';lIr~h, The account suggests lhal lhe Chrbllan community in Idkii in lite elev· enth cenlul)' ....al relatively well·lo-d". In medieval lists of Egyplian bishopric, lhe foI· lowing equi,'alenee of names is given: Menelialou

IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH. SAINT

(Greek); Thbasloor (Coptic); Idkol (Arabk) (Mun~r, 19
and suWSU 1M three dilfeum cilies arc ~fcrnd 10. a Meneliacou wt..- CoptX and Anobic nama Wft"e unknown. a ThNshor whose <:i<"Nk and Arabie names """"" no!: m..wn. anikant Coptic commu.nil)" in the MidcUe Acet. IIII1UOCaAPtn' ""'~ine...

E. LI> Glogr-ap/rie de r£cpu 1I Npoqut OOple. pp. 156·S9. Paris, 1893. MunieT, H. Rec..eil des IUles ipis<:op
IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH, SAINT

(c,

35·

107l. bi$hop of Anlioch who wrole irnportanlleut", 10 OIher ehurch""",n on his way to rnanynlom in Rome (leasl day: 17 Oclobcr in the Vies!. 20 ~. eember in Ihe Easl). Eusebius reports in his NUlorifl 'UkSUUlka (11I.36. 2-11) lhal Bishop Il";tIius of Antioch was broughl 10 Rome from Syria as a prisoMr in the rime 01 Trajan (9S-117) and _ Ihe~ ddivntoIes seclions from the ldIeJ3.. finall)' he draws aliention '0 ....-ide""", in iT........"" of Lyons and Pofyarp of Smyrna rcprlijr1g Ignatius (111.36.

12-15). Amon, OIMr things. he' qU<:JlO; \hoe followinl paMq'" from II><: oepistloe rtf Polyowp 10 lhe church at Philippi, Ihrough which Iplatius \tad passed as" prisoner: ''Thoe I"ne" of Ignalius.....hkh he hu sem m ..... d all ,.... oth"J>; in our po5sesskln, ...." a~ Kndin, to y<.>u in accordance: with your &sire. They are ",nclosed. with ,his leller" (Eusebius. 1II.36, IS; Polyca'l', To Ihe Philippi4"$ 13,2), Thus, &hortly after Ihey were writt"n, Ihe episiles <.>f Ignatius began lO be colloe<:led. MQre leuers in lhe name of Ignalius have ~ome down 10 us in manuscripl form Ihan Eusebiul men· lions. This raises lhe "Halled Isnalian queSlion.

1281

aboul th", a"wn,iei.,. of lh" letlers. There are three fonns 01 'ran.mis.sWn: a Ion" " medium. and a .toort_ The !JO'CaI1cd Longer Roec:enslon. nansrnil1cd in Grt<'k and in an eich,h (?~nlury latin lnlmla· lion. contains in a toni venioa lhe sewn letlen menOOned in E..asebius wgem.,r with sis. <.>ther \esIUS (only &.~ in Lalin). The M"dium Roec:tnS...... the se>-<:allcd mind ~Olloeclion. ItllO>Smitltf these....... leu"'" DH/'IIlioncd in Eusebius and fin or six <.>f the ~Icn nOl found lhere. T1teTe is a Shon Re<:en.ion. prC!iC:rvoed only In S)Tix. <.>f ,he three let'ers 1<'> Ihe Ephesians, Ih", Romam;. and P<.>l)"Ca'l' <.>f Smyrna. 11 was roec:o,nilcd at Ihe ",nd rtf II><: ninelunlh e"ntury as an ucerpt from ,he mi.,,,,,, ~o/"'clion. Sinc", Ihen lhe COnsenSUS has held that the soe,,,n "'lie" menliont<: mix"d v"rsion are auth"ntic lenen of Ignatius. Thcse se"en leners were expanded h addili<.>ns around A.D. 380, The interpol;t!or addtf two codkes, A and B, with leuers of Ignalius. E Luce"""'i discovered a further folio bdonJing 10 Codex B: Cod. Paris C<.>pl. 129".101.79. Ju II><: pans in doublc trall$mission liho,,·. Codex A and Codex B ~n'Sl'nl 1"'0 independem lransilllions. The in· fcrud or Innsmincd Kq""nce of the leu",,,, in C0dex A is as follows: (I.I 10 Her<.>. [1.J 10 lhe Smymans. [3.J 10 Po~. [4.]10 Ihe Ephesians. [S.)~. [6.) 10 th" Trallians. [7.) 10 die Phibd"lphians. [8.) 10 ,hoe Romans. As oumbers 2-4 and 6-8 corTespond proec.... ly t<.> the Annenian rollKIIon. bul II><: "'tier to the Itbgn""Si.ans Kandt bel""""" len<:rs 10 the Ephesians and 10 the Tralliam. Lefon supp0ses the """'" sequence lor Coda A. ThUlo in the pp for numl><:r S II><: len.... to ..... M........... mUSl once have stood. The Coptic colleclion <.>l Cod.... A boeJin. "ith II><: i....ull><:ntic oepist:l", to Hero. Then come ,hc soeven aUlhenlic lellers. The Atrnoenian eollK,ion has Ihese St'vtn len,," ~rsl. followed by lhe iii. lnauth..... tic one•• with ,hat 10 Hero in lhe penuhirnatoe posi'ion. Since Codex A breaks <.>If In Ihe midd'" <.>f ,I><: epis· lIe 10 the Romans. "'" can <.>nly speculale as lO whal morc ,,'as in il. Lefort has inferTed the foll<.>wina: as II><: sequence for Ihe pan of Code. B that can be checked: Polycarp, lhe Antioch"ne•. Hero. Eph"sians. Roman•. This is lhe order of Recension G' L' (d. F. X. Funk and F. Dlekpmp, Parr.s aposlolici [2nd ed" Tubingen. 1913J. Vol. 2. ~vH). Following this soequenee the epistle 10 lhe Phl1adclphians (3,]-

,h"

1282

IHNA$IYYAH AU,tAD1NAH

6.1 on lite folio ediled 1»' Lu~ch<:$i) millt, hlo"e stood In lite ~'enlh JIOI511ion, follo,,-.,,;j b) ,Ite let I... I'S to lhe Smymans and 10 PoI~·carp. 80lh COpltC ' ..nsbllOns ~ Icsoimonles 10 lhe mi.eppo::>sed to the ·'Anuo· che"" .\larI,-rdo;.n·· or ,1/"","",,'" ColHrtm.....). The Grttk ori&i....l could hlo.......... me inlO e\~ence in Ihe fif,h cm'lI" (cr Banknhewoer. 1902. Vol. I. pp. 143-145), The app"r10 lIeron.. is • eulopsl .... and pnl,ionary pra..... r add..... _d 10 II' nallUS (cf BanlenhewCJ". 1902. p 126).

or

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ahaner, IJ" and A. $lui""'r. P",l'(I/oK,e, SIlt ed., PI', 47-50, 551ff Frriburg. Basel. and Virnn". 1978 Bardenh... """,,, O. GeM},ic},'... • ltki....hlic},cr Ultrtllur. 5 ,'ols. J'r... iburg lm Br... isgau and Sf. Lonls, Mo" 1902. Rcpr, Dam1Stadl, 1962. Baumeis,er. T. "Die Aor.nge der Thc'{)l(lllie deo M'I"I)'riumo," MiJ"rl>chen Villcr. Sammlung ausgcv.ahher kirchen· und dogmengescltkhtlkkr O"dlenschritien 2.1.1. Tubingen. 1970. eamek>l. T Itn"...o
.,n.

ILLUMINATION, COPTIC. The po.in'ed d<-cr>ra''''''. or i1Iumlna,ion. ol CoptIC 1>00I<. :appea.. '0 h... e had its origin in pharaonic ~l" 'i:umeTOll. oamples from lhe Ei&hl~nlh o,...... ,~ on...ard grac<' fun<-ran '''~l$ and lhe pap'-ri lhal accompaniotd mummia '0 1hcir 5arcopha.gi. lbough OAt m;p.. think ma. ,h.. Indilion ..""Id hll,.., been pn>lonxed "h, 00-.--.. '0 lhot Coptic period. ;1 .."" nolo n.... C0pt5 "'-en' lOO much SlJppo ,d boo lh... J>toIe. maic. Roman. and 8,-.an,i"" oc..... palIOn. of lhtor c""nll} 10 conlinu~ '0 produce dl'c-oraoe
91'l·N'J:.!'JI:.l U fit :.ur\tr .,-....u..N'1:.u.u/lU -uI-LUT I NXJ

frtITnl-;«'-

rrU ffillYNUI

)t-UNnltjll T WTNU'UH

....A,l.N lTl TT1ifL fTIYLU· N fHI'TWt-O' .lYWNt-HU ...·CION· '1'1 NIYU'WNIY

OttWNLu... tyUlIJrtNi

-.

NfetUlJ1N •

...

:

",,~."'''' l. lIP· 63-76. UlrKhl and Bruosorls. 1950. 'V .... lhll..... r. P. Geseh,ch,...
Qua:sI... n. J.

THEOFRIED BU'\IElSTU

IHNASIYYAU AL·MADINAH. Stt "'hn.is.

IKHSHIDIDS. Set Tulunids and rkhshids. COP15 Und .. ,he

Coplo·"'"bic illuminated manuscript. Par"hmen' Fanum. Tenth c"n,ul)'. ufl ~idc: End of th.. firs"ext of Ihc tnan~rdom of Elias. 1I,.. ltor unknown. Right .ide: Beginning of th... ~ond ,.... t of the mart~nlom and cnComiurll abou' the manH Eli... Writtcn b) Bishop S,ephanoo of Ahnby,,1t Co",,''',,, Coprie Mil'

''''m, Cairo.

ILLUMINATION, COPTIC

1283

si, bie T,,".......anadium of the Calholic [nOlitule in Pa"'"'Isolated figures or seenell ",a"fill a "'hole P"lle:os in 'h" maiori,}' of 1M c,"anl"lisl. of the ''''0 T(,,"K"'"ngelia_ In biblic"l ,",orb from Ihe r\.'W T"~lamcnl Ihnc o.ingle figures rna'" include. in addilion 10 ,he e,,,ntdislS. the- amhon of epiOlles. wch lO' Paul. PetCt'". lallM'«- Jude. an'! John, lIIw;traUnlllltc Old Teotamen. ""e fin'! >careel}' more 'han ,I,lQ5<:s an'! lob "ith his famit~ rc-prc:scmed full face, side b, ,ide. In collce'iom of ~mns or th.. li\"ei of samu and martyn. 'he \'cpn Man Or ...., p""",n ... nUcn aboul is n:prcscmed. alone or ""lh compcutlQl'l5. Angds were olIen dcpicIe.!, ....pec:iallv Mte......1 and GM.riC'1 and Lhosc :KCOmpan};nl .\Ian- or Sain. SI.... phe"-- Especwh' popular am<>"1 lhe manyrs and
Copc<>-Ar.oboc Illuminated manu;;cript. AD 1620. Lppe'l"iC'C.ion. Psalm 54 ~... riC'C.ion; ()uouIlion from Il~ Go5peI of Luke COM.nc<:t Cf>P
I"'"

enOllch in ,)w, Copu elll a",,..- from pharaonic modilion ltv adop!ina: .he Glftk alphabcl. bu' 'h", linked up agaIn "'"h lhal lradilion .hrouch lhe in....n.i'... u""' of decorlillion Such dCCOfalion pt'M'ttl lor lh" nul Iwo cen.u~. u!"n. 'nk "'I/>ou' addiliolrw;i ....ty, pnncl""lI~ on bil>lical and olher relia:ious works. Allor and fig".,.mc mOlifs inc.......ed and ",ere oflen combined ""ilh r...,tangular cal'louches (ornamen.al fl1lmes) u,uall~ fin..d with dccorali.,,, inlerlae,n8- ~ eanouches somelimL"!C we'e at ,h.. lOP of a pale and eanicd a litl.. or continued on on" or bulh stdes of a !>"lIe. ""melimes eor"l'lctel~ fnunin, ;1. They 11""" pfominen"" 10 either lhe leXl or a r.gurn\w.. 5Ccnc, Some· ,imes, ho"ner. 5Cenf/S WilhoUI any r,-ame "'ere in_ ...ned in1U Ihe teXl. "'hich filled lh" rCSt "f the page, An example is th.· Copto-At..bic Tem,,,.-anllclium in Ihe Na\ional Ubr.,.~, Paris, in regard 10 sc.-cn'y·fo". 80spd 5Ccnes QUI of sev"nty-,,,>,,n illu_ minaliollS. O(len the emirc pagc "as didded ;n...

Coplo-Arabic illumina'cd manu"",'ipl. A.I> 1620.1..<)", ef seclion (Iowcf two·third.) comains a quota'ion from the Pfoph~t Isaiah, ("ourtes)' Copric M"se",,,,, Cairo.

ILYAS BUOTUR

1284

'-

.o'oN:!_.U

.U.... 6U'U

·..

hU

n:;

·UC.<-,

n

u.u'u -.·

+...u.l

""'''''''' '4-"A'~O-:U~

•

t•.

ci

..U

..,.~~.U··

..... h

G .... "~U

~I.>

V···· ·..U

'L~ . . "-' ••U

· "•• · U y

U .....

is. 1914, RC\'icwed by R. G. (oquin. Bihli"lheco or;~nlalis. 34 (1917):181-90, ZUnlZ, D. '·Th. Two Slyles uf CoPli", Painling. ' Jo",· "Ill of F.:g,·ptilln Ar,'hoc"logy 21 (1935). PlEIU<E DU BoLFCUET. S.J, MYRlA.\! ROSE~·AYALON

.

~",.

Dayr Anba Maq~r, Church of Sl. "tichael. Manu'OCripl Wilh figures of sa int•. Courtesy the Met'opo!ium MUMum of An, New York.

Another important subject was th, cross. either Ihe emx aMsala (Ioo""d ~ross. or a"kh) or the ~ross enlarged al lIS eXlremities, which was decorated wi'h interlacing or ,,,,rious smaller crosse •. The style of lht'SC illuminmions is in wn[orn,ily wilh lhe general e"olution of Copli~ style. the stag· es of which have been lraced ~lsewhere (see ART, COI'TIC). In the lhit'te"nlh cenlury. if the slyle of lhe C"p'o-Arabic Tell'devangelium in 'he Vatican (COpl. 9, f,gs. 12. 13, 98) i\!pF",ntine. il is all isol~ICd inslance. /I was ralher the Muslim influ~nce thaI infd'ra'e<J 'be COplo-A,..bic T
ILYAs BUQTUR (1784-1821). Icame<J COpl as· ""'ialed with Napoleon Bonapan.'s Fren~h Expedilion 10 E~l't, who produced lh.first Arabic·French diclionary. lIyas lluqlur. known in French soorees as EJbo"" Boeh"'r. wa. boro inlo a highly re'pected family in Asy,;, on 12 April 1184. His pare~t' nOliced his intelle~tual lende~~;es an<J pTO\'idcd a good .arly educalion, In 1801 h, foll"w.d General YA·QC~. his u', lIyb left with lhem in thc ~ompany of Gc~er~1 Ya·qiib. !\flcr landing at Ma .... illes. he lived on the pillanee he .amed as inlerpreler for Ih. Egyplian refugees, 1Iftcrn'ard he moved 10 Paris, where he had an ;mrodUClion 10 the councillor of .late and direclor of poblic inslruc!ion for a posi,ion in lhe Nalional Libra'}' as lra~sla1Or of i\,..~bi~ manus<:ript~. His life in Paris, howc\'er, was imolerable. and he dc~i<Jcd 10 return to Ma...eilles. Apparently this is where he slarted compiling an Arabic-French diclionarv, whicb ~came famous as lhe fi ...1 of ;IS kind. In lR12 he wa" rcerui'e<J by the Minislry of War 10 translate imponant military do~ument~ from Egypl Ihal ",ef(" e'lremc1y difficult 10 d.~iphcr. While per_ forming Ihis lask, he became acqua;n1ed with Edme F",n~ois Jomard. Napoleon's engineer·geographer in Egc,l'l and mem~r of lhe InsTilot d'Egyplc founded during the French occupalion, 10m.rd was ~ommis-~ioncd 10 ,upc,."i"" Ihe publication of lhe utensi,·. Descript;oM d~ j·Egyple. In \818. hi.. col· Iaboralion w;lh J"mard "ffere<J him a stipend. which enabled him 10 continue ~ompilation of his diclional)" In 1819 h. was named pr"fessor al the E<:ole Rople des Langues Orie,ual.., where he dc"eioped ad\'an~cd Course.. in Arabic. nOlably tile ,poken Arabic of Egypl. Hc lx..,amc a~qoain'cd Wilh some of the leaders of Fren~h lilcra')' ~irclc.". such as Chaleaubt'iand. and he wrole anicles for Frcnch Iiter~ry publicalions, He was dccle<J a m.m~r of the lnstitol d·Egyptc.

IMMERSION

During this time, 1I)';1s concentrated on the com· pilation of his Arabic-French dictionan' and collect· ed a stipend of 2,(XlO franc. to encourage completion of that work. He finished it in 182!. In September of the same )'ear, he died, at the age of forty·seven, before hi. work was published, The Marquis Amedee de Clermont·T(mnerre, who took an interest in Oriental studies, decided that such an important work,," Ilyis' dktionary must be publishe
Bochtor, E. Disco~rs prononce ~ /'o~v..tlure du rOuT< d'oro1>e vulgoire ill'Ew/e roy"le u speciale des I""gues orientales vivan'e. pres d. /a Biblio/he"u. du roi, Ie 8 decembre 1819, Paris, 1820. _ _, Dicrio,maire fran9ais·ambe, 3rd ed., rev, and enL b)' A. Cau...in de Perceval. Paris, 1864. ___, Dktionnaire fmn90is,o'abe, rev. and enl. by E. Gallab, 3 vols. in 2. Cairo, 1887. Vol. 3 contains the supplement of E. Gallab, Brockdmann, C. Geschichle der arabische" Lilere vulgai,..,." Revue enrydopUique 5 (January 18101: 33-45. ___ "Notice .ur Elliou. Bocthor." Revu. ency· dopMique 5 (October 1821), Louca, A. "Ellious Boclhor, sa vie et son oeuvre." CohierJ d'h/sloire egypriemu, 5th ser., fascs. 5-6 (December 1953):309-320. Louca, A., and P, Santoni. "Histoire de l'enseigne· ment de la langue arabe il M;>.rseille:' In L'ori,,'" des prO\'"n~aux daMS I'histo)1'e, pp. 113-23. Mar· seilles, 1982. Ramzi Tadn"ls. Al Aqbar fi ol·Q~rn aj.'/.hrln, 3 vols. Cairo, 1911. Riy~
LoucA

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, doclrine held by the Roman Catholic church that from the "ery firsl moment of her conception, the Virgin Mary was free from the stain of original sin, and that,

1285

unlike the rest of mankind, she inherited human nalUre in an unsullied condition to make her worthy of being the Mother of Christ. A fe""l in honor of tlte Immaculate Conception (8 December) was established by Pope Sixtu. [V of Rome in 1476. Pope Pius IX promulgaled the dogma in hi. act /n"/fobi;;. Deus on 8 ~cember 1854. This d<>gma had had man)' opponent. as well as proponents, The Orthodox church, however, repudiates it on the ground.~ that salvalion of all human beings was effected only through the incarnation and crucifixion of Jesu. Christ, and thaI, in the words of P.ul the apostle, "Therefore as sin rame into the worid Ihrough one man. , . , as one man's trespass led to condemnatioJl for all men, so one man's act of righteousne... lead, to .cquinal and life for all men" (Rom. 5:12, 18). The apostle Peter al.o states: "There is salvation in nO One ehe, for there is no other name under heaven given among me" by which we must be ""ved" (Acts 4:11). Again, Ihe Virgin Mary's word. "My spirit rejoices in God my Savior" (Lk. 1:46) confino her need, li~e all human beings, for God's salvation, BIBLIOGRAPHY

f,lablb Jirjis, IJ/.~akhrah a/·Unhudhuk:siyah, pp. 8487. Cairo, 1948. MI1
IMMERSION.

BA.SJUO:S

ordained b)' Jesus Christ that water represents the visible sign of baptism: "Unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God" (In. 3:5). In confonnity with Christ's teachings, the apostles used wate. in administering the sacrament thmugh complete immersion. Thi. practice has since been followed by the church, as stipulated in the DJ[)~CHE (7.1-4): "Baptize in Ibe name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living [Le .. run· ning] water. If)'<>u have no living water, then baptiu in other water; and if you are nol able in cold, then in wann" (Jurgens, 1970-1979, Vol. I, p. 2). The following poinl$ pro,'ide further confirmation of Ihis practice: I. Matthew 3:16 says that after baptism, Jesus came up oUl of Ihe river Jordan, a clear indication thai He ha
w,,"

1286

IMMERSION

2. Had Ihe sprinkling of water been considered proper, it would have been superfluous on the pan of John Ihe Baplist and the apostles to take the persons desirous of baptism to the riwr (MI. 3,6; Mk. 1;5: I.k 3;3; In. 1:28). Act. 8:36-39 make. dear thai Philip and lhe high official of KIlndake, Queen of Ethiopia, went down in the waler. 3. Baptism $ymbolizes the dealh, burial, and reS' urrection of Christ: "Buried with fljm in bapti.m, wherein also yo' are risen with Him through the faith of lhe operalion of God, who hath raised Him from the dead" (wI. 2:12). It i•. therefore. a fonn of ritual death, where the belie"er bC<'omes incorporated with Christ in a dealh similar to His and is united with Him in a resurrection like His. 4. Through complete immersion the early fathers practiced what they preached regarding baptism, a point they S1ress<:d in their writings. Saint Justin Manyr (c. l00~c. 165), the first to mention this praclice as an essential Slep toward regeneration. said, "Whoever is convinced and believes that what they are taught and told by uS is the truth, and professes to be able to live accordingly, i. inslructed to pray and to be=h God in fasting for the remission .of their former sins. while we pray and fast with them. Then they are led by uS to a place where lhere is ""'ter: and there th")' are reborn in the same kind of rebirth in which we ourse!>'e. were reborn" ("Firsl Apology," in Jurgen., 19101979, VoL 1. p, 54), likewise, Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315-386) wrOle. "When you go down into the water. then regard not simply the water, but look (or salvation through the power 01 the Holy Spirit. For without both you cannot atlain to perfection. 11 is not 1 who say this, bUl the Lord Jesus Christ, who has the power in this mauer" ("CalC<'hetical Lecture.•. "' in Jurgens. 1970-1979. Vol. I. p. 349). A funh.. excerpl fmm Saint Augusline sums up the point distinclly: "~t is Ihe Baptism of Christ? 'The washing With wate?' in the word,' Take away Tak~ a""ay the word. water, and it is not Bapt~sm. , and it is not Bapti.m" ("Homilies on the Gospel of 10hn," in Jurgens, 1970":1971. Vol, 2, p. 111), Various equally dear testimonies abound in the writings of Herroas {A. c. 140-155), Tenullian (c. 160-c. 220), G1i~GORY OF N'XSSA (c. 330-c. 395), JOKN CH1t.YSOSt'OM (c. 347-401), and olher early fathe.... 5. Etymologically. the term "baplism," derived from the Greek verb bapli;;p (dip in ""ater). signi~es full immersion. Appropriately Ihe epithet qualifying John the Baptist as used In the diplychs of the Coptic liturgy is the word filbigh. which originally meant "dyer."

Nevertheless. the Coptic church recommends aspersion (i.e .. sprinkling of ""ater) as an e,ceptional dispensalion allowed in cases of baptizing the han· dicapped.. crippled. or sid infants who may be on th~ "erge of death, II person receiving bapti.m is imme"ed three times in waler, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit (Mt. 28). in accordance wilh the Didache, canOn 7. and Ihe teaching. of the early fathers. At times, the.e teachings were diso· !>eyed by some heretical sects, For e.ample, Euno· mias (d_ 395). ""ho held edreme, unorthodox ,'iews, ad"ocated the discontjnualion of baptism in the name of the Trinity. and us<:d words that made it a baptism in lhe name 01 lhe Creator and into the death of Chri.t (see at"" Marrioll, 1908. p. 161), The Aposlolical Canons ",'ere explicit in con· demning such "iews: canon 49 .tipulate. that if any bishop or presbyter baptizes anyone not into the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit in accord· ance with the Lord's ordinance, but into three be· ginningle~ beings or into Ihree sons or into three comforters, let him be deposed. Acconling 10 canon 50, if any bishop or pre.byter doc. not perform three immersions in making one baptism, but a single immersion, that given into the death of the Lord, let him be deposed (Perdval. 1956, p. 597). Canon 7 of the """ond C(lundl of Conslantinople (see CONSTANTINOPLE. cOUSclL OF) reAect. the importance attached to the lhree-immersion baptism: "Eunomians. who are baplized with only one im· mersion. and Montani.t.. wh(l are here called Phrygian•. and Sabellians, whc> teach the identity of Father and Son, and do .undry other misehie,·oW> things, and [the panisan, of] all other here.ies-for there are many such here, panicularly among those who COme from the count')' of the Galalians. all the.e. when Ihey de.ire to turn to (lrthodoxy. we reeeh'e a. heathen, On the first day we make them Christians: on the second, catechumen.: on the Ihird, we exorcise lhem by breathing thrice in their face and ears: and thus we inslruci them and oblige them to spend some time jn the Church. and 10 hear the Scriptures: and then we baptize Ihem" (Percival, 195b. p. 185). BIBLIOGRAPHV

HabIb Jirgis. Asrilr al-Kanlsah al·Sab'ah. 2nd ed .. p. 46. Cairo, 1950. Jurgen" W. A., ed. and trans. The Failh of Ihe Early Fa/hers, 3 vols. Collegeville, Minn., 1970-1979, Marriott. W. B. "Baplism," In A Diclionary of Chrislia" Amiq"ili.., ed. W. Smith and S, Cheelham. Vol, 1,?p. 155-72. London. 1908.

INCARNATION

Perci,,,,I, H. R" trans. "The g.,\'en Ecumenical Coundls." In A. SeI'ct U!Jrary of 110, Nicme ,md posl·Nicene Falher$ of 110, ChrisJ;",,, Church, s
IMPERIAL CULT. SU Peneeution.,

INCARNATION, a central doctrine of Christian lheology affirming thaI the eternal Son of God, who is lhe Divine Logos and second HYI"OSTASIS of lhe Holy Trinit}" took human lIesh from lhe Holy Spirit and lhe Virgin Mal)' in order to accomplish the work of our salvalion, The doctrine is held to be a mystery difficult to understand by unaided human reason. It is revealed in lhe New Testament: "The Word be<:ame flesh" (John 1:14) and ··Greal indeed, we confes', is the mystery of our religion: He was manifested in the flesh" (I Tm, 3:16). As a basic principle of the Christian faith, il fonns part of the NlaNE CREED (A,D, 325); "We believe in one Lord Jesus Chrisl, .. , who for us men and for our salvalion came down from heaven; He was incarnate of lhe Holy Spirit and of lhe Virgin Mar".; and He became man." Referenct1; to the Incarnation appear in two early liturgies. The Liturgy of S
1287

true life in death, both from Mary and from God _., Jesus Christ our Lord" (Ephesians 7.2, in Jur· gens, 1970, Vol. L p, 18). Aristides of Athens saY' that "Christians trace their origin to the Lord Jesw Christ. He that Came down from heaven in the Holy Spirit for the ...Ivation of men is confe""ed to be lhe Son of the MOSI High God. He was born of a holy Virgin without seed of man, and took flesh withom defilement" (Apology 15, in Jurgens, 1970, Vol. I. p. 49). For Te"ullian, "This Word is called His Son; and in the name of God He was seen at various limes by the patriarchs, and has alwaY' been heard in the Prophels; and at last He was brought down from the Spirit and Power of God the Father into the Virgin Mary. and was made nesh in her womb; and having been born from her, came forth as Jesus Christ" (The Demurrer Against 110. Here/ie' 13.1, in Jurgens, 1970, Vol. L p, 120). Saint Alhanasius the Apostolic writes; "In the beginning, indeed, was the Word; but at the consummation of the ages the Virgio conrei"ed in the womb and the Lord was made man. And He that is indicaled by both statements is indeed bm one; for the Word was made flesh" (Letter On the Opln;(m of Dlonysius 9, in Jurgens, 1970, Vol. I, pp. 325-36). And according to CvRIL OF ALExANDRIA, "We confe"" therefore that our Lord Jesus Christ is the Only. begotten Son of God, perfect God and perfect Man, ha"ing a rational soul and a body; according to His divinily, born of the Father before the ages, and in these last days, according to His humanity, born of the Virgin Mary for us and for our salvation" (The Celebrmed Creed of Union 39, in Jurgens, 1979, VoL 3. p. 201), The question of the necessily of the [ncarnalion, thaI i', why the second hypostasis of the Holy Trini· ty had to become man, is closely linked with the doctrine of the ATONEMENT. Besides being the only possible c""nnel to provide proper satisfaction to God the Father and propitiation for man's original sin, Christ's incarnation was also a unique opportunity in the history of mankind to learn from Him at first hand. This WllS " miraculous event, which left the deepest impact upon Christ's followe..,.. Hence the overflowing joy and exultation in the words of the Aposde John: 'ThaI which was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we ""ve looked upon and touched with Our hands concerning the word of life" II In. L1), Hence also the deep sense of conviction con· ,'eyed by Saint Peter's words; "For we do not follow cleverly devised myths when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus

1288

INCARNAnON

Chr;u, but were eyewitnesses of his majesty" (2 PI. 1'16).

In view of the inability of man, with his finite nature, to give satisfaction to the infinite Creator against Whom he sinned, the Incarnation was the only adequate means of reconcillation betweell God's mercy and justice: "But when the goodness alld loving kindness of God our Savior appeared, he saved us, not because of deds done by us in righteousness but in virtue of his Own mercy" (Ti, '>:4,5). No other mode of satisfaction could have ~n as efficacious as the Incarnation of the logos in bringing about full restoration of man to his earHer state of grace, The Incarnation elevated mankind to a more honorable and dignified pmition, and entitled hu· man beings to receive the divine graces and sacra· mental blessings: "B)' which he has granted to us his precious and very great promises, that through these you may eseape from the corruption that is in the world buause of passion, and become partak· ers o( the divine nature" (2 Pt. 1:4). The unfathomable suffering undergone by the in· carnate Son of God is in itself evidence to man of the magnitude of his sin, which necessitated such an immense sacrifice. [n the words of the apostle Paul, "Christ redeemed uS from the curse of the law, having become a curse for us-for it is writ· ten, 'Cursed be evel~Y one who hangs on a tree'" (GaL 3:13), Furthermore, the Incarnation is a clear indication to man of the inestimable merit and sub· lime value of the end to which th. Incarnation was the means, namely, salvation, which no one less Ihan the incarnate Son of God could achieve: "For God so lo,'ed the world that he gave hi,; only Son, that whoever believes in him should nol perish but have etemallife" (In. 3:16), The incomprehensibilily of the myslery of the Incarnation to many unaided minds led to various misconceptions during thieArly centuries of Chris-• • tianity. These misconcepti nS nn be summed up ill . , two mam groups: ,, I, Those who denied Ihe dh'inity of Christ and His miraculous birth from' Ihe Virgin Mary, among them the EBIONlTIS, a Jewish-Christian sect that flourished in the late fil'$t century; Cf.RtNTIll$, a Gnostic heretic of the ~rst century in Palestine who held Ihat Ihe logos had ~n created, not born; Anemas (or Atemon), a Roman heretic of lhe third century; and Paul of Samosata, a Syrian heretic who became the bishop of Antioch (260-268) be· fore he was excommunicated. 2, The Phantasiasts, on Ihe other hand, held that

Chrisl had an ethereal body, thus denying His man, hood. Valentinus, Salurninus, Marcion, Tatian, Bar· daisan (or Bardesanis), Mani (or Manis), Apollinarius, EUrYCHES, and Julian were all Phantasiasts. These heretics were condemned by the falhers of Ihe chnrch and anathematized for their unorthodox leachings, No study of the Incarnation can be complete without reference 10 Ihe subtle perception of this mystery as displayed in On the h'CQrnQlio~ 0/ the Word (De ;~cQrnalione V"mi), a trealise written by Athanasius I before 318. while he was still in his Iwenties, According to J. A, Mohler (1790-18'>8), the German histonan and theologian, it was "tile first attempt Ihat had been made 10 present Christi· anity and Ihe chid circumstances of the life of Je, sus Christ under a scientific aspect" (Bright, 1974, p, 181),

Athanasius open. his discussion of ,he mystery of the Incarnation "which Jews traduce and Greeks laugh to scorn, but we worship" (l.J), by stressing Ihe faci thai the sole remedy for corrupt human nalure was its complete renewal h)' the Divine Word. The sal,'atian of man necessitated the appearance of the Creator, the selfsame Word who made man in the beginning_ To elucidate th. point, Athanasius refutes Ihe erroneous views of the Epi, cnreans (who held thai the creation was a fortuilous ael), the Platonists (who taught the pre·existence of malter). and the Gnoslic. (who drew a distinclion belween the Demiurge and Ihe Divine Being), The following seven main poinls are significant in Ihe course of Athanaslus' argument, In discussing each point. he employs an analogy to illUSlrat. his concept of Ihe Incarnation of the Logos. I. As a result of the fall of man and his loss of God's graces, Ihe human race was wasting, The Creator, in His divine mercy, could not tolerate this stale of affairs for long, The dilemma could be re· solved only by the Word, "He takes to Himself a body capable of dealh, thai it, by partaking of the Word Who is above all, might be worthy to die in Ihe stead of all, and might, because of lhe Word which was come to dwell in it, remain inconupti· ble, and lhat hencefonh conuplion might be stayed from all by the Grace of the Resurreetion" (9,1), A twofold purpose has thus been fulfilled; the Word ga,'e His flesh as an offering for Our souls and, by taking a human nature, He impaned im· monalily 10 us, "like as when a great king has entered into some large cily and laken up his abode in one' of Ihe houses there, such city i. at all e"enL,

INCARNATION

held wonhy of high honour, nor does any enemy or bandit any longer descend upon il and subjecl il; but, On Ihe contrary, il is Ihoughl entitled to all care, l>ecause of Ihe king's having taken up his r"Sidence in a single house Ihere; so, 100, has it 1o«n wilh the Monarch of all" (9.3). 2, Making use of Ihe same monarch ..ubject analogy, Athanasius shows how this great work of redemplion was panicularly suited 10 God's goodness: "For if a king, having founded a house or cily, if it be hesel by bandils from the carelessness of its inmates, does not by any means negieci ii, but avenges and reclaims it as his own work, ha,'ing rega
1289

He was, W far from heing contained by anything, He rather contained allihinp Himself" (17.1). To illustrale this poilll Athanasius uses an analogy based on lhe ubiquit~ and purity of the sun: "For if Ihe sun too, which "'slance said to be an amidote to fire, the stubble no longer dreads the fire, being secured by its enclo· sure in incombuslible maner; in Ihis very way, one

1290

INCENSE

may say with rega
Athanasius. On the /ncarnQtion of Ike Word. In A SeI.ct LibM'Y qf the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of Ihe Christian Church, 2nd ser.. Vol. 4, pp. 36-67, ed. P. Schall" and H. Wace. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1953. Bright, W. "Athanasius.'· In OCB l. pp. 170~203. Repr, New Yori<, 1914. lsidhiJrus. Bishop. AI.Ma(dUb al.Nadh~ri}'yah Ii 0/Mawddr ~1-ilJhiyyah, pp. 158-66. Cairo, 1930. Jurgen•. W. A. The Faith of the Early F~thu., 3 vols. College~iIle, Minn., 1970-1919. Mikhl'il Mina. lim ~1·IAhut. Vol. I, pp. 162~82. Cairo, 1938. Ottley. R. L The Doctrine of the Inc~rnaliot1, 2 vols, London. 1896. Roberts. A" and J. Oonaldson. eds. The Anle·Nic...e F~thu$: TM".I~lio,,< of Ihe Fa/her> Down to A.D, 325. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1951. Seeberg. R. Text·book of the History of Docrrines, Vol. I, pp. 88-89. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1954. Thornton, L S. The Jnc~rn~le Lord. London. 1928. Wilberforce, R. L. Th. Doclrine of Ih. IncarnalWn. London, 1884. ARCHBtSHOP BASJUOS

INCENSE, substance producing a pleasam odor when burned. Ibn SiM'. the thineenth· or foun~nth·century writer. mentions fandarus (Lal' in, sandrax) . .. resin obtained ITom a small coniferous tree Callilr!. q~~driWlU•. f.-om Ja~a or Sumatra. ",bich is ....id never to '/bve been offered to idols; lilia" jJwi (Latin, I~s iav.,n<e); and has~ liMn (latin, olibanum). that is. frankincense. Ibn Sib.1· states that lilian was the incense offered by the Magi to Our Lord. It is not permiued to offer ambergris (Arabic '~nbar), because it is extracted lTom a sea animal. MlxHA'!L, bishop of Damietta, mentions among exc1usi~ely Coptic observances incensing ",ith sandarah alone, and argues against using liMn or m;'ah (styrax) because they were used in the olfering of incense to the d",'ils; as regards aJoeswood and mastic, he says that the fathers did nOl permit these

10 be offered as incense to God, but they permiued them only because they are supposed to repel dev· ils and destroy the works of Ihe magicians. BIBLIOGRAPHY

'Abd-Allah, A. L'OrdiMmento Ulurgico di Gabriel V, 88 Patriarcha COplO. pp. Z87-438. Cairo, 1962. Burmester, O. H. F.. ''The Saying of Michael, Metropolitan of Damieua." Orient~li~ Chris/iana Periodic~ Z, 1-2 (1936):115-16; 1Z6-28. EMILE MAHER ISHAQ

INCENSE BOX, SU Liturgical Instrument,

INSCRIPTIONS, writing on long-lasting materials. Inscriptions. like texts wriuen on papyrus (see UPVROf-.O(;Y). are important primary sOurces of infOllOation about a society. In Egypt the)' appear on stone, plaster, day, wood, metal. and textiles, ThC}' may be scratched, carved. engraved, stamped. painted 0< inked. Or wOVen. Those wriuen on cia)' sherds or limestone fragmenl$ are called O:'lTRACA Those wriuen on coins belong to the study of nu· mismatics. Inscriptions on buildings and IOmbs, ",hich are the majority of Coptic inscriptions, arc dealt with in sepamte sections later in this anicle. In",riptions are found in all paru of Egypt. from Alexandria io the nonh to Aswan and Nubia in the south, and also in the Egyptian oases (sec BAG~WAT). They are often in the open air, on rocks and build· ings visible to all, but they arc also in the interior of buildings, especially monasteries and chapel •. The inscriptions date from the founh 10 the eight· eenth century and are couched in many languages, In the early centuries they are in Greek: later some are in Greek, mo.t arc in Coptic, and some are in both languages. From the beginning of the "'rab'c period. there are also Arabic or bilingual Coptic· Arabic inscriptions. There are i,olated cases in m<)nasteri.s of inscriptions in Syriac. at PAYR At· SUl
INSCRIPTIONS

1912, no. 335; d. Krause. 1983, p. 91). II group of the,e memorial inscriptions on the walls of monas· teries are Identkal with tomb inocriptions (see be· low) and are called "prayers In litany form." These memorials give us the name and date of death of the deceased. Often, as in KEJ..IJA. only these inscrip' tions have survived, not the tomb,tones themselves. In onR EJ'IPIiANJUS at Thebes there are several imponam long dogmatk inscriptions of the sixth· century patriarch Damian and Se\'erus of Aminch, and also Syriac inscriptions. AI50 interesting are slatements about the life of the evangelist Luke and about lhe Gospels of Matthew and Mark In the chapel of a monastk setllemem in Asyt:i! (Cle, found in a cave at Nag Hammadl (Bucher, 1931). II wine list has survived from DnR Al'A JEREMIAH, whkh shows how much wine was drunk on the feast days of the saim (Thompson, 1912, no. 226). A festal calendar has also bun handed down in fragmentary condition from OAYR APA AJ>OlLO, !lAwlT (Cledat, 1904, p. 5). Ins.oriptions al50 allest visits to monasleries and chapels by pilgrims, especially in B~wit and alIlAGAwAT. They often name the place from which the pilgrims tra"ele
1291

translonnation of pagan temples into Christian churche•. " large number of dergy are named, cspedally bishops, of wham there is no other evidence. The same holds for functionaries In Egyptian monasteries. We learn their titles and Iheir names, can draw condusl(lns about Ihe organi'"tion of the mona.teries, and (lbtain material for historical ac· counts. Ins.oriptions are a150 imponam for PROSOJ>OORA?H¥. We learn what names (Egyptian, Christian, or Old Te.tament) the monks and laity of Egypt bore. From graye inscription., we can detennine, in addition to the name, the date of death, and sometimes the age of the doceased. Dated memorial inscriptions in monasteries set up alongside paint· ings sometime. help with dating Ihe wall paintings (d. Krause, 1966,570). Frequently we learn the names of the craftsmen and anislli at work on a building; and from a few inscriptions, in addition to the name, we learn the period at which artists worked. For e~ample, the anist Mercuriu. from the Monastery of Shen".e, who also worked in DAYR ANBA HADRA at Aswan, was painting In DAYR ANBA BtSHOI. SuMj, In the year 1301. In 1124 the IInnenian anist Theodore had already worked in DaJT AnbA Shinudah at Suh:l.j (Crum, 1904, pp, 556f.). The artist's financial spon.or is also named.

There is no collecti\'e edition of inscriptions in Coptic. The .ituation is better for inscriptions in Greek through the works (If G. Lefebvre, panly ,..,. placed by the more r""em work of E, Bernand. Groups of local ins.oriptions are variomly trealed. Of those in Dayr Apa Apollo, for uample, only those dioco"ered by J_ Maspero and edited by E_ Drioton (Maspero, 19:>1) me<:t modern standard. of publication. The publicatl(lns of J, Cli:dat olTer no translation of the ins.oriptions, and the Coptic text must be checked for accuTacy. The Coptie inscriptions from the necropoli. of al·Bagaw:l.t, published by the EID-Ptologlst A. Fakhry in succession to W. de Bock, have l>een ",,·i.,ed and edited by G. Roquet. The digest published by II. Mallon in 1914 is base
1292

INSCRIPTIONS

(1970), G. Wagner (1972), and J, larry (1973), A Copto-Arabic memorial inscription in DAYR ABO HIN_ NES ""as edited by Lefebvre in 1901 (no_ 222) and afresh by M, de Fenoyl in 1964. Until the 1940s only a few late gra.'eslOne., from 912 and 917. in the Bohairic sphere were kn(>wn (Mina. 1939)_ Since then, tWO graveslOnes showing a .emi·Bohairic influen<:e bave been dis<:overed. One, from 887 or 927, i. in Vienna (Till, 1955, PI', 177ff.). One. from 913, i. in the Lom're. Paris. no. E 21.220 (Coquin, 1983. Pl'. 103f); it nameS a local bishop, Victor. alongside Gabriel I, patriarch of AJ· exandria. A greater number of inscriptions in Bo· hairic have be"n found on monaste!)' walls such as in Kellia. The number of g"weSlOnes wilh Fayyumic in· scriptions is larger (Zunt" 1932, pp, 23f. and 2733; Leclant. 1%2). Meanwhile, further gravestones have becomc known (larry, 1969). One was purchtl$ed by the Stale Museum of Berlin,

Building Inscrlpllona Inscriptions appear on religious and secular buildings in both Egypt and Nubia_ Some buildings are inscribed in Greek. othen; in Coptic. Some are in both languages. but the text varies so considera· bly that Ihe Coptic cannol simply be a translation of the Greek (ef. Kubinska, 1974, Pl'. 18ff. with lak· obielski. 1972, pp. 400). Ecclesiaslical inscriptioM may be on churches, such as One daled 710 On the church in Tafah, Nubia (Preisigke, 1913. Il{'_ 1594). Some may refe. 10 the reconst",clion or renovation of a church, such as an inscriplion of 707 in Facas (Kubinska, 1974, pp. 14f.; Jakobielski, 1972, pp. 401., wbere the reference to the renovation is missing). The Coptic inscriptions are in the Sahidic diale
C;U1 be noted from inscriptions that Egyptian lemples were transfunned into Christian churches_ This i. indicated by several inscriplions in Ihe Tern· pie of Isis in PHIIAE. which under Bishop Theodore of Philae was rebuilt into a church dedicated to Saim Stephen (ufebvre, 1907, no. 587), A Coptic inscription in PHIUE dated 753 atleslS the foundation of a workshop given by a layman f"r the Monastery of Saint Mary in Philae (d. WreS2inski, 1902, p, 64; Ihe same inscription was published by Mallon in 1905, ....ilh di"..,rgent readings). This was the second year of the episcopacy of Bishop $e.'erus of Philae. In different monasteries, notably al Dayr Apa Apollo at B,wl!, individual complexes consiSling of a chapel and several dwelling room, were built within the enclosure walls (d. T",l', 1981, plan I), Abo,'e the entrances to Ihese submontl$teries were filled lintel beams of stone or wr:>od, whiel! are ins<:rihed among olher things with the names of Ine inhabit-ants and their offices (Krause, 1988). Often lhe abbols named in the ins<:riptions can be pre-cisely dated. The chapel. were decorated with paimings that were given legends in Greek and Coptic (d. e.g., Clerlat, 1904, PI'. 54-61 and piS. 31 and 34). Occasionally the painters give their names, for example, Phoibammon and Abraham in Saqqara (Thompson, 1909-1912. nos. 92, 319.14). In Saqqara also appear the names of copyists (YJI<>~) (Thompson, 19091912, nos. 13.7 and 203.31). ln B!wj( copyists (Maspera, 1931, nOS. 149.5, 354, 452.20) and painters (nos. 58.1, 60.2, 8Ll) give their names_ Two secular ins<:riptions in Greek allest the build· ing of a tetrapl'lon in Albribis (ATItIB) in the year 374 (Lefeb.'re, 1907, no. 64; Boyaval, 1966, PI'. 36lf.). Inscriptions note the renovation (Lefebvre, 1907, no, 43 and 561) of a series of .ecular buildings in various other places in Egypt. Building inscrip' tions are particularly numerous on the island of Philae. In addition to those already mentioned, olher inscriplions report lhe renovation or repair of walls (ufebvre, 1907, no, 584 from the year 577; nos. 592 and 593 from the time of Bishop Daniel; 00. 594 without rlate; no. 596 from 796; nos. 597603 undated). Ins<:riptions on wooden lintels from le<'ula, hous· es io the Fayyum mention not only the n.mes of the inhahitants but also the name of Ibe builder and the date of conslmction; in the year.; 942-943 (Ro· quet, 1978, p. 342. no, 4), 958-959 (Roquet, p. 342, no. 3), and 959-960 (Roquet. p. 341. no. 2). Inscriptions give the flam .. of a number of craftsIt

INSCRIPTIONS

m~n

wbo w~re a~ti,'e in the building. above all in Dayr Apa ApollQ and Dayr Apa JeTemiah in Saqqa· ra. Named in tbe inscriplions are builders (GKt>T, ,kat) in Bawlt (Maspero. 1931. nos. 100, 348.2, 548.2) and in Saqqara (Thompson. l'i09-1912. nos. 89, 177, 294), ~arpemers (t»lQI6, hQm,he) in B~wll (Maspero, 1931, nos. 96, 108, 124, 149.21. 203.4) and in SACQARA (Tbompson. 1909-1\112, nOS. 6. 78, 89, 145. 146. 157. 177. 182, 192. 198. 202. 224), and SlQne'cult~T!l (M.~) in B~wi! (Chassinat, 1911, plate 36) and in Saqqara (Thompson, 1909-1912. nos, 13. 106. 192.232).

Tomb Inscriptions Gravestone" or STElAE, were pro"ided with in· scriptions that gave the name of the decrased, often the date, and a pmyer in a more or less set formula. On most tombstones the inscriptions are in Greek or Coplie. Occasionally stones bave inscription, in both Greek and Coplie, espedally in Nubia. Stones beating inscriptions in Coptic and Arabie are ""re. The majority of tbe Coptic in",riptions are in the Sahidic diale~t. There are also some in Fa))umic. Akhmimic. and Bchairic, There is an unpublished Akhmimic gravestone in· ,cription in the Coptic Museum in Cairo (no, 17727, d. Liiddedens, 1978, p. 201 and n, 28). In addition to a series of gravestones wl1b element. from neillhborinll diale~ts, the greater pan of the known Coptic tombstQne. from Saqqara as far as Nubia i, ~omposed in Sahidic. The essay' of A. MaHon (1914) reflect the state of work at the heginning of the twentieth cent'll')' (Brown. 1986), There is SO far no catalog of tbe in",ribed gravestones in the la'ller museum colle~· tions, pal1icularly the Coptic Museum in Cairo. W. E, Crum', catalog of 1902 needs to be supplemented, not only by information regarding origin given by G. Daress)' (1914). but also by the works of G. Biondi (1907). Lefelme 1i203, 1908, 1910, 1911. 1915), Muni~r. R. Engdbacr (1937. 1939), and others. In the m~antime these .tdae ha.'e been transferred from the Egyptian,' Museum to the Coptic Museum and have been given new inventory numbers. Numbers of tbe Coptic'Museum are given in the publications by T. Mina (1939. 1941) and Raouf J:[abib (1955), The works of H. Hall (1905) and E. R~villoU1 (1885) should be replac"d and completed by new Ones. The ultimate aim is a COl' pus of the Copti~ and Greek tombstones. In the same way, local set forms must be treated. as was don~ for Aswan by Muniu (1930-1931). w~ may also compare Ihe investigations of the laments

1293

for the dead from ANTlN(J<)POUS by M. Cramer (194i), the Fayyumic g",vestones by J. Ledam (1962), that from Saqin)'a by M, Krause (1975), and that from tSIIA by S. Sauneron and Coquin (1980), Only at the end can we corne to a comprehen.i.'e work such as H. Junker (1925) proposed fOT Ihe Nubian tombstones. Hi, work, however, i, in need of supplementing. owing to the many new discove ... ie. in Nubia. Here the set forms of th~ Greek tombstones mu", be finally compared with those of the Coptie (for Saqinya, d. Krause, 1975, PI'. 781). Umil then any work on tombstones is provisional. Dallng. Munier'. research on the grave.tone. of Dayr AnbA HadrA is important. He identified three distincI long redaction, of the ..,t form of inscrip' tion,. The first tun" "The day of commemoration of the blessed brother." Then follow the name of the deceased and the date of his death (month. day. and indiction year, a fifteen·year cyde). In the ,ec· ond redaction, these data appear before the date of death, with the addition "on which he laid himself down t<> rest," The third redaction expands the text afteT the date of death by a prayer. In tbis, entreaty is made for rest fOT the soul in lhe bosom of Abraham, I.....c, and Jacob. While the tombstones carrying inscriptions of tbe first redaction are dated only according to indiction years, tho.e of the second and third also mention the years of the era of the many,,", beginning with the )'ear 284 (after Diodetian). From this it follows that the three redactions ~an be dated to different periods. Munier sets the first in the sixth centu')'. and the second in the ""vemh, and the third in the eighth to ninth, A funher check (Krause, 1975, p. 79) has Ie
1294

INSCRIPTIONS

indiction cycle) and thus cannot he more precisely dated. [{ is, howe,..,r, to he assumed that many helong to the first redaction. The oldest G,..,.,I: gravestones so far dated according to the martyr era come from the necropolis of Alexandria, al· Dil:haylah. They are dated from 524 to 590. "The blessed singer Abba Dorotheos fell asleep in the lArd on 16 Phannouthi of the eighth indiction, in Ihe year of Diodetian 246." On ",me tombstones even the hour of death is given (Bell, 1932), The oldest Coptic tombstone dated with certainty so far deri>'es from the necropolis of ~NfINOOPOUS and is dated 620 (Lefebvre. 1915. pp. lllllf.). Some toml>Slones are dated both according to the em of the martyrs and also according to the Hegira of Mu· I)ammad, for example, a Greek grnvestone from Jsn~ of Ihe year 119O (ldebvre, 1907. no, 541), Fonnwas. Some prayer fonnulas ar", found all over Egypt. Oth...rs are chamcl...ristic of a particuiar l""ation. A very frequent formulary attested Ihroughout Egypt ghes the quoted fonnulary of al· Dikhaylah expanded by a prayer at the end. F,..,. quernly it is matched by the formula "God is one" or "One is God. who help$." Less frequently auested on Greek tombstones are Ihe fonnula. "God [lArd or Christ] gmm rest to Ihe soul." "God be mindful." and "Lord, God, have mercy on the soul" (Lefeb",e, 1907, XXXI), Typical for gravestones from ~KHMIM i< the formula in the firsl redaclion "Slela of Ihe blessed [name]. H... liv...d [ . . I years [and date of death]," In Ihe second re'en (Lef· ...bvre, 1907. no. 413), In the second redaCTion "be 1'101 .orrowful. none is immortal in this world" is added. On the formula. in Nubia, see Krause (1975. 1'1', 78f,). ~ll The COpIS. 1;k... Iheii'Egyptian forerunners. a"oid , Ihe ose of the verb "1<;> die" (Krause, 1983, p. 92 Wilh references; exceptions: Munier, 1926, and the tombslones with lamentalions for lhe dead), Instead, lhey speak of "going out of the body," "laying asid... Ihe body." and above all "laying oneself to rest." The last description is known also on the Grel'l: tombstones of E.&-vpt, on which lhe e~pres sion "10 end (one's life)" (hf.loi>T>l
their number may be of var'ling size, so that the lenglh of lhe inscriplion also may vary considerably: one of the 10ng"'SI lilani...s is Saqqara no. 203 (Thompson, 1912. Pl'. 6Of.). Thi. in.cription invokes Ihe Trinily, Ihe archangels Michael and Gabriel, Mary, lhe four-and-twenty elders. lhe powers of the Spirit. our fath... r Adam, our mOlher Eve, our faIhers the patriarchs, our fathers the prophelS, the judges, lhe righteous kings, our holy faThers the Aposlles; Ihe Evangelists; lhe archbishops; the mar· tyrs (si~leen names); and monks (Iwenly names). They aTe all to pray for Ihe sool of th... deceased, whose date of death is given as 25 October 775. At Ihis lime, we learn, Mena. "'as archbishop of Alex' andria and George was bishop of Memphis. This in.cription fonnola i, atte.ted in Egypt, from Saqqara as far as Isnil, in monasleries and hermit· ages. II seem, lhal it was prerlominamly, if 1'101 exciusively, used in mona.~lic circles. While tbis inscriplion in $aqqara was chisde'e mercy on th... soul of lhe deceaoed. Both fo.... mula. are, however, also allcsted in other regions. For Middle Egypt the invocaTion of God as "good God" is typical, for Aminoopolis the invocation as "God of CollUlh..s," for Upper Egypt (HennoOlhislsni) lhe affinnalion "One is God, who help$." The fonnula from ~SW~N investigated by Monier i. also auesled al other places in Egypt and Nubia.

INSCRIPTIONS

11 is striking that in Egypt-in contrast 10 Nuhia (Jakobielski, 1972, and Kubinska, 1974)-no lombslone of a bishop has so far ~come known. The stone described as the "gravestone" of Bishop Pus;

of

(Mallon, 1914, 2880 and ilL 3283) does not contain any date of death and i. therefore to be PHIl.>\E

into'l'''''ted as a memorial stone, unless the date of death bas ~n broken off. Bishops are indeed named on other, incompletely preserved. lombSlone. from Aswan (Mun,er, 1930-1931, nos. 121 and 145), bm these a", nOlthe tombstones of bish· ops. Clerro' of lhe rank below the bishop are, however, represented, as are all the offices in monasti-

cism from abbot of a monastery down to monk and hermit_ Among secular occupation•. doctors and a large number of craft'men are named. Tomb.ton... with No Dale or Known Place of OrigIn. Most lombston~ are neither localized nor dated. Although cemeteries of the Christian period with lhe grave,lones in silu were found during the ex~ava\ion, in Nubia and published by schola'" such as Junker, lhe larger part of the tombstones of the Chri"ian ])<'riod in Egypt does not derive from excavations thaI meel modern requirement< for scientific study and publication. Rathe<. 10mbSlones either w~n~ found by people wh" were digging for manure. and lhen reached the museums through the antiquities trade, or else they derive from ninelttnlh-century exca.'alions, of which only brief communications we<e publi,hed, but nO complete excavation reports (for the tombstones of Dayr Anba HadT1 at Aswan. d. Munier, 1930-193i, PI'. 257ff.). Only laler did it become known where the museum lombslones came from. Thus. for example. one mu,t "'ad Daressy's essay to learn the place of discovery of lhe 'telae lhal were in the Egyplian Museum in Cairo, since the volume of Crum's Catalog,," g"~bal (Crum, 1902) often doe, not conlain lhis information, The gravestones from Dayr Apa Jeremiah al Saqqara we<e lI?t excavated in the cemetery of the monastery bur, were buill in inside the monaslery. The tomb'lOnfs from Wadi Satjah were not found in the cemetery bUl' "in various chambers on the hillside. qllile apart from .he cemetery" (Cmm and BeU. 1922. 1', 57). For tbe slelae wilh no information about their derivalion and dating lhere is, therefore. the problem of hnding such i"fonnation. At; aids 10 locali~ ing we may use the material of lhe tomb,tones, their form, lheir decoration, the form of the lette,,;, lhe language (dialecl), and the wording of lhe in· scriplion. Since the gravestones, as a rule, were wrought from local stone, invesligation of lhe malerial is importanl. The tombstone' in the neighbo._

1295

hood of Cairo come from .he nearby Slone quarries of lurah. In the Fa)')'lim, hard while limeslone, which is light gray on lhe upper surface, was u,ed alongside nummulitic limestone. In Luxor people used the local limestone; in Hermonthi,. sand,tone, of a lighl to dark ochre or reddish·yellow to red· di,h·brown; and in bna and Jdfu, light, roft lime· slOne. In Aswan and Nubia. graveslones ""ere made from santion •. The form is nalurally de])<'ndent on the material (whether it is hard or soft and lherefore difficult or easy 10 work) and on lhe abilily of Ihe stone cutters. Alongside ""ell-executed insc
,ood. The a..illnment of

Copt;~

tombstones with a non-

1296

INSCRIPTIONS

Sahidic ins<:ription to the area in which the dialect of the inscription ..... as spoken presents no prolr lems, since the sphere of influence of the several Coptic dialects is known. But the I<><;alization of Sahidic stelae presents great difficulties, because Sahidic can be traced throughout all Egypt and Nuhia. The formula of the Sahidic tomhstones can be ~mplo}'~d for the localization of th~ stelae only ..... ith reservations. since at almost all sites not only one formula but several were utiliz~d-.....hether contemporan~ously or in succession. For the locali",,tion and dating of these tomb.tone•. theTefore. all the aids m~ntioned must b~ brought into play. [Sa ,,1';0: Hayz, al·; DOsh; Jabal al-Tarlf; Jabal Tafnis; Nubian Inscriptions, Medi~val; Q",!r Nislmah; Shams ai-DIn; Umm Dabadih; W6dl Sharkh 'Ali,J

BIBUOGRAPHY

Badawy, A. "La Persistance de I'ideologi~ ~t du fonnulaire paiens dans I~s epitaph~s copt"':' Bul· lelin de /a Socihi d'archeologu cop/< 10 (1944): 1-26. ___ , "La Stele funeroire eopte II motif architectural." Bullelirl de la Socihi d'a'chiologie copi' 11 (1947):1-25. ___. "II Funerary Stela with Coptic Cryptogram eJ:' Bi/1/iolheca Oriemali,; 18 (1961):17-19. Bakry, H. S. K. "Two Coptic Epitaphs." Arlna/e, du Service de, amiquiles d'Sc'ple 55 (1958):263-66, Bell, H. L "II Christian Stele from Qau el-Kebir."· In Sludi", Pre,;emed 10 F. LI. Griffilh. London, 1932. Bernand, E. Le. /"'c,iplio",; gruqu<.< et /olines de Phi/ae. 11: Haul eI ba, ~mpire. Paris. 1969. Biondi, G. "Inscriptions copte.:· An"ale, du Se.-v· ia de,; "..riquiles d'EgJPIe 8 (1907)'77-96; 161-

n

Bock, W. de. Materlaux pour servir a ["archeologie del"Eg)'pte chr~lien"e. St. Petersburg. 1901. Bourianl. U. "Pelite inscription historiqu~ en diatrovaux rela/ifs 10 phillecl th~bain," Recueil ologle yage (Inscription historique bi· lingue. copte el ambe):' ,Ruueil d~ trovoux rela)/{, a 10 philologie eI a {"arche%gie igyplie""e, 15 (1893):176-77. Boya,oaJ. B, "Huit sieles inwites d·Egypte." Cnrorlique d'Egyple 41 (1966):361-70. ___. "Note. sur que!que's documents fun~raires ~gyptiens de langue grecque."' Bullelin df I"JrI,;lilu/ fron~al,; d'arcneol<>gie orien/ale 85 (1985):63-76. Brecchia, E. "Ancorn un epitaffio di monaco Ales' $3ndrino.'· Bulldi" d. la SociilJ roya/~ d'archi<>lo_ gi~ d'A/exa"dri~ 17 (1919):179-81.

d"

a

Brown. K. "Coptic and Creek Inscripll<>ns from Chrislian Egypl, A Brief Review."' In The Root,; of EC'p/ian Chri,;liorllty, ed. B. II_ Pearson and J. E. Goehring. Philadelphia, 1986. Bucher, P. "Les Commencements des psaumes U a XCIlI. Inscription d'une tombe de Kasr es SaijM:' Kerni 4 (1931):157-60. Chassinat. E. Foui/les a Baouir. InslilUl franFis d'archwlogie ori~nlale. Memoire,;, Vol. 13. Cairo. 1911, CI~dat. J. "Notes arcMologiques el philologiques:'

Bullet;" dt fln'lilul franqals d'archealoglt orie"lale I (1901):87-97. ___. Le Monastere el /a "icropo/e de Baoull, 2 ,'ols. InStitut fran~ais d'archeologie orientale, M~moires, Vol., 12 and 39_ Cairo. 1904, 1916, ___. "Notes d'aTcMoiogie copte." Annale; du Service des a"liqu'IJ' d'Egyple 9 (1908):213-30. ___. "Les inscriptions de Saint·Simeon," Recueil de Iravaux rdoti!, a/a phi/ologi. e' a l'o,eMol<>gi~ Jgypli.n,,~' 37 {1915):41-57. Coquin. R. "La Christianj$3tion d~s temples de Karnak:' Bullelin d. nns/im, fra"fai, d'arche%gie oriem"le 72 (1972):169-78. ___. "les Inscriptioru; pari~tales des monasteres d'Esna: Day. al-5huhad<\'-Dayr al-Fahuri:' Bulle/in d~ nn,;rllul fra"fai, d'arehiologie orie"lol. 75 (1975):241-82. ___. "Deu~ st~les funemires eople, (L<>uv," E. 27.220 el 21.221):' Bullelin de tln,;lilUt Iron~al, d'arcneologle ori~nlale 83 (1983): 101 - 105, Coquin. R., and P.-H. Laferri~r", "Les Inscriptions parietales de I'ancienne egli", du monaslere de S. IInloine dan, Ie dese" oriental," Bullelin de /'Irl' ,;tilW fra,,~als d'a'chiologie orie"lal. 78 (1978); 267-321Coquin, R.. and G. Wagn~r. "St~les grecques et coptes d·Egypte." 8ull~lin de I'In,;rlrul fron~ais d'an'hia/ogl, orie>llale 70 (1970):161-12, Costigan, G, H, "Two Funerary Coptic SteJae in the Sahidic Dialect."' Bulleti" de la $<>cieM d'QTCMeologie caple 6 (1940):119-21. Cramer, M. Die TOlenk/age bel den Kopt"n. Mi, Hi,,_ wei,en aul die Tmenklage im Orienl iiberhaupl, Akademie der Wissenschahen in Wien, Philo.ophisch·hi'lOrische Kia"", Sitzungsberichte. VoL 219, pt. 2. Vienna, 194]. ___. Kapll,;che In,;ehriflen 1m Kaisu-Friedrich· Museum '-" Bulin. /hre orr/iche u~d (eir/iche Ein· ord~u"g I" da, Ge,arnlgel,le, topli,;ehor Crabln,chrill'''. Cairo, 1949.

___. Archii%gi,;ehe und .plgraphlsche Klassifika· lion koptischer Dmkrniiler des Melmpolil"n Mu,e. urn of Arl. New York, und de.< Mus~um of Fine AtI,;, Bo'ton, Mas,. Wiesbaden, 1957. Crum, W. E. Copric Mom'm."I$. Catalogue general de. antiqu;tes ~gyptienne. du Muse.. du Caire. nos. 8001-8741. Cairo, 1902.

INSCRIPTIONS

"Coptic Graffiti." In The Os;c,,;on at Abydos, ed. M. A. MUlTIIy. London, 19(14. ___. "inscriptions from ShenOUle's Monastel)'," lou"'o/ of Theologieal Studies 5 (1904):552-69. ~~_. "A Greek Diptych of the Seventh Century."

~~__

Proceedings 01 the Society oj Biblical Arch()wlogy 30 (19(18):255-65; 31 (1909):188. Crum, W. E., and H. Bell. Wadi Sorga. Coptic and Gruk TexIS Irom Ihe EXC
"

I~rin

docum~nlS copt~s."

Bul· de /'lm/ilm f",n~ais d'archealogle oriemale 3

Odber, A. "Notes .ur deux (1903):2(}3 - II.

Oonadoni, S. 1n F"'sehri!t Calderini·Paribenl. VoL 2, pp. 479-89. 1957. ___. "us Inscriplions gre<:ques de Nubie." Cullura delranllco Egil/o (1986)'583-96, Edgerton, W. F. M~dinet Habu Graffili, The Univ"rsi· ty of Chicago. Oriental InSlitule Publicalions. Vol. 36. Cbicago, 1937. Eff"nberg"T. .... "Die Grabslde aus M"din"l d· Fajum. Zum BUd d"r still"nd"n Gottesmuuer in d"r koptischen Kunst:' Forschungen und Btriehte 18 (1971):158-68. Engdb.ach. R. "Coptic Stela of Serne of Damshir." Bulluin de la Socieli d'archiologie coprt 3 (1937)'6-8, ~ "The Coptic Slelae of Leonlc" (Leonlios):' A"",alu du Service des anriquiti. d'Egypte 39 (1939):313-17. Fakbry. A. Th" Necrapoll. af d-Bagawar In Kharga ~. Oasis, Cairo. 1951. Fenoyl, M, de. "Un" Inscripli(>n funeraire bilingue." Bulle/In de la Socitti d'arehiologle cople 17 (1964)'57-61. Firadi, N. Lts SI
rawgue des graffiti sur les murs du temple de Hatchepsout ;, D~ir d Bahari ou Dei, el 8ahari V. Warsaw, 1'186. Habib, Raouf. "Slele funeraire COpl" en dialecle saidiq",,:' Bullelin de I"hlSli/U1 fran~ai.s d'areheologle arlemale 55 (1955)'57-60.

1297

Hall, H. Coplic and Gruk Tuts al rhe Chrlsllan Period From Ostrake, Stelae. Erc" In /he Bri/i.h Museum. London. 1905. H"inen. H. "Eine neue alex.a"d,inische Inochrih und die miuelalterlichen laudes ,..,giae Christus vincit. Christus ""gnat, Christus imperol."· In

Ramanlra.·Chrlsli.mllas. Johannes SI,aub >:um 70. GeburlSral: am 18. OktobeF /982 gewldmel, ed, G. Wirth. Berlin and New York, 1982. Jakobielski, S. A. History of lh~ Bishopric af Pachoras. Warsaw. 1972, Jalabel1. L, and R. Mouterde. '"Inscriptions grec· 'lues chrttienne•." Dic/iannalre d'archealagie chririenne el de liIurgie, Vel. 7, Pl'. 623-94, Pari•. 1926. Jarr)', J. "En...mble de sleles coptes." BulletiH de 1'/ns/i/u1 tranfai$ d'arehealagie orientale 67 (1969):233-41. Jan)'. J. "'Nou,elles inscriptions coptes, gr«qucs. arabe, el ,yriaques de Dei, Abou Henn's." Bullelin de la SocWi d'archeolagie capte 21 (19711973):$5-81. "Une slele eommemorali,e de Ia mort ck Vitalien."' Bulle/in de nnstiilll lranfals d·archio· lagie orien/ale 73 (1973):201-06. ___. "In",riptions eoptes de la grone de la Ik>uma," 8"lIelin de la Socihi d'archeolagie capte 24 (1982):59-67. ___. "Inscriplions greco-copt..s du Kom 6 Faux Kellia." Bullelin de la Socii/, d'archtologle caple 24 (1982):111 ~ 13. Junk..r, H. "Oie christliehen GrabSleine Nubiens,"

Zeitschrilt fur iigyplisc;,e Sprache und Alrer/umskuHde 60 (1925):111-48. ___ , Bericht iiber die Grabungen der Akademie d~r Wi5Senschafl£n in Wien auf den Frledhijfen von Ermen~e (Nublen 1m Winlcr 19I1j12). Denk· .chrift"n deT Akademie dec Wissenschaften Wien, Philosop/Jisch.hisIOrische K1asse. Vol. 67. Vienna and Leipzig, 1952, Kamal, A. "'Rapport sur les Fouilles execule"" dans la zon" comprise entre mirolJl, au nord et Delr· el-Ganadlah, au sud:' An~ales du Servke d~j anli· 'lull'S d'Egypte 15 (1915)'177-85. Kammerer, W. A Coptic 8ibliography, nos. 18641978 (Inscriptions). Ann Arbor, 1950, Kaufmann, C. Handbuch de, alichristlich... Epigra. ph/k. F,..,iburg im Briesgau, 1917. Koenen. L. "Zwei Inochrihen au. e\·Bagawa!," Z~it· schrif/ fUr Papyrologi~ und Epigraphik 2 (1968;: 75-80. Krause, M, "Bawi!."· Real/exlkan wr /ry'(anlinischen Kun.<1 I (1966):568-75. ~~_. '"Die Fonnulare deT christlich"n Grabsteine Nubiec.:· In Nubia. Rec~nies recherches, Aelts

du callaq,,~ nublalaglque intemammal au Mush Natlanal de Varsovie, /9-22 Juin 1972, cd. K, Michalawski. Warsaw, 1975,

1298

INSCRIPTIONS

_ _~, "Das WeiterJeben ~g)plis
romischhy,anlinisch Agyplen, Aklen des in/ernali,,· nalen SympQsiums 26.-30. Sepumber 1978 in Triu. Aaa Trevuensia 2 (1983):85-92. _ _~. "Di. Bniehungen zwischen den heiden Phoibammon-Kll.lstern auf dem Ilwbanis<:hen Westufer." B"I/elin de la Sodhi d'archiologie copi' 27 (1985):31-44. _ _~. "Die [nschriften auf den TijrstunbaIken des AI"'-ApolJon-Klosters von Bawit." Cahiu" d'Orie,,· talisme 20 (l988):[1l-20, _ _~, "Verlorene jlt$(hriften und Beischtiften der Eremitensiedlungen 3 und 4 bei una." In Fest· schrill liir )iirge" vo" Beckeralh, Hildesbeim, 1990. Kubinska.1. }"scripliol1$ g,uquu chriilie.mes. Warsaw. 1974. Leclall!, J, "Une Stele a inscription fayoumique dans la collecl;on de 1'lnSlilul d'egyp!ologie de S.rasbourg (no. 1687)." B"lIelin de la Sodhi d'archialogie caple 16 (1962):183-89. Lefebvre. G. "Inscriplions chrelienneli du Muse.. du Cairo." Bulletin de /'}"slilul franfai. d'a,chiologie orientale 3 (1903):69-95,

_ _~, Ru"eil des inscriplions g'ecq"es..,hrelie,,"" d'E~.pt,.

Cairo, 1907. _ _~. "L'Egypte chretienne." A"nale, d" Service des antiquiles d'Egyple II (l91 [):238-50. _ _~. "Inscription grecque du Dei,..et·Abiad." A~· Male, d" Servia des antiq"jles d'Egypte 20 (1920):251. Letronne, J. A. Recueil des inscriplioMs g,ecq"es et

("lints de I'Egyple, ~Iudiies dans le"r rappon owe this/oire poliliq"e, ['admini,I'alion inleri,· ure, Ie. i"S/ilulion. civiles el religieuses de ce pays, dep"is 10 conquele d'Alex"ndre i"sq,,'il aile, de, Arab." 2 vols, Paris, 1842-1848; repr, 1974. lUddeckens, E. "Die koptischen Inscnriften des Kopliscnen Museums in Kairo," In The Fwure of Coptu; Studie., Vol. I, ed. R. Mel. Wilson. Lei. den, [978, _ _~. "Koptiscne G~steine." In Graeco-Coplico,

Gnechen "nd Kopte", im by,-"ntinisehen },gyple", ed, Peter NageL Halle and Wittenberg, 1984 Mallon, A. "Nom'elle i!",criptioll copte de Philae." Annales d" Service des anliq"iles d'Egyple 6 ([905):107-11. _ _~. "Copte (Epigraphie)," In Diction"aire d'arcMologie chretienne 'I de liturgie, Vol. 3, pt. 2, cols, 2819-86. Paris, 19l4, Manin, M. fA La"re de Der al Dik il Antinoe. Bihlio· lheque d'etucle$ c<>ples, vol. 8. Cairo, 1971. Maspero, 1. Fouilles exicutl!e. il Baouit, N<>les mise.< en ordre " edilees p,,' Eri.nne DriolO~. Inslilul fran~"is d'arcMologie orientale du Caire, Memoires, VoL 59, Cairo, 1931.

Mirra, T. "Deux sletes funeraires copte. en diaiecle hohairique." B"Uelln de 10 Socih~ d'arch~ologie capte 5 (1939):81-84, _ _~. Inscription .• eapl,,, el greeq"es du N,,;'ie, Cairo, 1942. Munier, H. "Stele cople·arabe," Annales d" Service des antiquite, d'Egypte 13 (1914):285-86, _ _~. "La Slele fun. mire du moine Mlna." An· nole> Service de. amiquiris d'Egypre [6 (1916):253-54. _ _~. "Resullats epigraphiques des fouilles d'al Qal1ah bil Weir." Annal.. du Service des ""Ii· quiles d'Egyple 22 (1922):49-59. _ _~. "RemarqUeli sur ia stele cople 11799." Bul· lerin de la Sod~te royaJe d'MeM%gie d'Altxandne 22 (1926):237-39. ___ "Les SIHe. coptes du monaSlere de Saint· Simeon a Assauan." Aegyplu, II (1930-1931): 257-300,433-84. _ _~, "Sleles chretienne. d'Antinoe." A,gyplu, 29 (1949): 126-36. Munier, H., and M. Pillet. "Les Edifice. chretiens de Karnak." Rev"e de I'Egypre ancien"e 2 (1928): 58-88. Murray, M. A. "The Coptic Inscription•." I~ Tombs oi Ih~ Co"n'e" and Oxyrhynkhos, ed_ F. Petrie. London, 1925, ___ "The Coptic Inscriplions," In Qa" and Badari JII, ed G. Brunton. london, 1930. NaUlin, P. "La Conversion du temple de PhiJae en eglise chretienne," CoMer. archiologiq"es 17 (1967). Nielsen, P. T. "An Inscrihed Lim~slone in the Bohairic Dial.cl." B"lIetin de la Soci~le d'archeologie copte 21 (1975):117_24. Palanque, C. "Noteli de fouill .. dans la n<'crapole d'Assiout." Bulletin de /'Jnstllut/ranfalse d'archiologie oriental. 3 (1903):119-28. Panyka, J. "Ln Inscriplions, lemoins de vie el de mort au~ Kellia." In L~ Sile monasliq,,~ Copte des Kellia. Sources hi5l0riq" .. et explorations

a"

archtologiq"... ACles d" colloque de Geneva, 13 au /5 aoul /984. Geneva, 1986. Pelsmaeke,.., J, "The Coptic Funerary Bird·Stelae: A New Invesligation." Oriemalia Lovaniensia Periodica 13 (1982):143-84. Ffohl, G. "Grabinschrift I (griechische)." Real· lexiJwn {iir Amike und Christenlu", 12 (1983): 467-514. Preisigke, F. Sammel;,,,ch griechischer UnI:"nden a"s AgYPI~n, Vol. l. Strassburg and Berlin, [913. Remondon, R., Yassa Abd al·Masih; W, C, Till; O. H. E Buernesler. Le Monasthe de Phoi· hammon dans 10 Thfbaide, Vol. 2: Graffiti. Inscriplions el osfraca. Cairo, [965, Revilioul, E "Les Prieres pour Ie. mons dans I'epigraphi" egypti"nn"." Revue egyplologiqlle 4 ([885): I-54.

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR COPTIC STUDIES

Roquet, G. "lesGraffites coptes de Bagawal (Oasis de Kharga)." Bulletin de la Srx:itle fran(als. d'egyplO' logie 76 (1976):15-49. _ _. "Llnteaux commemoratir.. en dial.,.,le fa· youmique." Bulletin de 1'ln5lltul 'ran(ais d'archiologle orientale 78 (1978):339-45. Sauneron, S" et aL /..e$ Errnilages chrirle"s du d.· ""n d'E,na, Vol. I: Archio!ogle el Inscripllons, Fou;/les de I'lnsrilUi {ran,als d'archeologie orienlale du Caire, Vol. 19, pt. I. Cairo, 1972, Sauneron, S.• and R. Coquin. "Calalogue pr(wisoire des Sleles funeraires copIes d'Esna." In Livre du Centenaire /880-/980. Memoires de l'lnstilut fran~ais d'archeologie oriemale, Vol. 104. Cairo, 1980, Thompson, H. In Excavations "I Saqarra, ed. J. E. Quibell, Vols, 3-4. Cairo, 1909-1912. Till, W. "Die koptis.chen Grabsteine der tigyplisch· orientalischen Sarnmlung des Kunsthistorischen Museums in Wien." In Anteiger der Philo,ophireh. hi.lOrischen Klasse der OSferreichi'chen Akademie der Wi55enschaften 13. Vienna, 1955. ___. "Une koptische lnschrih im Fitzwilliam Museum." Wie"" Zelt,chrl{t fiir die K.",de de' Morg""!o,,de, 54 (1951):109-13, Torp, H. "Le monastere de &louit. Quelques nOles d 'introduction." J"slilu/Um Romanum Norveglae. ACIO ad orchaeo!ogillm ~t artium historium pe'li. ~e~lia, Vol. 9. Rome, 1981. Vycicltl, W. "OJptic Dial..:tal Geography Based on Inscription••" E~choria 8 (1978):63-65. Wagner, G. "Inscriptions grecques d'Egypte." Bulle· lin de 1'1>l:
INTERDICT, proltibition ·~gainSl administering

the sacraments in a village or a monastery. [n tlte correspondence of Bishop Abraham of Hermonlhis from around 600, "'" learn of a case in which lite doing of things Ihal were nOl fining either for monks or for the laily in a monastery (....e are not told anything more precise),
1299

In a second case, we see in a letter from the bishop 10 lhe village officials of a locality thaI the interdicl was decreed againsl the place because a man had been unlawfully arrested. Baptism and the conducl of public worship were expressly placed under penally. Anyone aCling in contra>'ention of the prohibition was to be excluded from commu· nion, The imp%ilion of the interdict i. threatened in a further incomplete leuer, after the inhabitants of a township declared the bishop's canons >'oid and threw the clergy inlO lhe river, When the bishop called Ihe inltabitants 10 ,""counl !xcause of lhis, they snorted at him, In all the cases the punishment has a time limit until lhe wrongdoers corne 10 the bishop, or until the wrong has been remo>'ed. BIBUO(;~APHY

Cmm, W. E. Ca1a!ogue of the Coplic M(1I'Iu>crlpls in Ihe Brilish Museum. London, 1905. _ Cota!ogu~ of Ihe COPlie Ma~u'criplS in the Colleclion of Ih, John Rylands Library Manchester. Manchester, 1909. Reinhardt, K. "Eine araltisch·koplische Kirchenbannurkunde." In Aegypliaca, Fesl«:hn'fl !ur Georg Ebers wm 1. M~rz /897. leipzig, 1897. Ste,ndorff, $, "Eine koptische Bannbullc und andere Briefe." Zeitschr;{1 fUr ~lO'plische Sproche und AberlUmsJ"'nde 30 (1892):31-43. Yas... 'Abd al-Masih. "Leuer from a Bishop of eIFayyum." Buller;'; de la Soclbt d'orcheo!ogie copM 7 (1941):15-18. MARTIN .KRAUSE

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR COPTIC STUDIES, founded in Cairo in 1976, under the auspic... of the Ell)ptian Anliquilies Organi,.alion, on Ihe occasion of the Fin;l lNT~R"ATIO"Al. CQNGRESS OF COPTIC sTUDIES. From iI' inception, Mirrit B. Ghali served as hon· oral)' president and Tito Orland; as honorary secre· tal)'. The [nlernational Associalion for Coptic Stud· ies (lAC) is a nonprofit organiz.ation designed to PTomOte Coplic studies, inviting ",holars from all over the ",'orld 10 contribute to a field hitherto almost neglected. The lAC issue, a newsletler that gives information on ne.... publicat;ons and discov· eries, It also makes available a lis, of scholars in· volved in Coptic studies, During the fi"t Interna· tional Congress of Coptic Studies, the rules and regulations of the association were eSlablished. One of ilS functions is also to announce in the

1300

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF COPTIC STUDIES

"""..leu"r The date and place of up<;oming meet· ings of The Congre." of CopTic Scudi"•. which usual· J}' convenes eve... four years. The new.lener appears periodically at least twice a year. BIBUOGRAPHY

GhaH. M. B. "Le Premier congre. inlernalional de coploJogie." Melanges de l'loslilul doml"ico;" d'imdes orientales. 13 (1977). Robinson, J. M. "The First International Congress of Coplic Studies." Bulle/in de /0 So;;i'lt d'oF' c!le%gle cople 23 (l981):282~98. MIRRlT BOlJTROS GHAU

INTERNATIONAL

CONGRESSES

OF

COPTIC STUDIES. The International Commit· ''''' for the publication of the Nag Hammadi Codi· ces founded in 1970 and responsible for the prepa· ,.."tloo and edition of a facsimile edition of the codices envisaged a grealer activity in Copti<; ,lUd· ie. than emaile.ation and UNESCO, the First International Congress of Coptology was held in Cairu. 8-18 De· cember. I 'n6. Aoout one hundred scholars frum .ixteen countries anended the congress. MQSt of The papers read were publishe
Imernatlona[ Conguss of Coplic Studies, Rome, 2226 Septembu 1980 (ed. T. Orlandi and F. Wis.., Rome. 1985). The Third International Congress of Coptic Srud· ies was held in Warsaw, 20-25 August, 1984. About 150 scholars and students from more than twenty countries attended the conference. The Founh International Congress of Coptic Studies was held in Louvain·la·Neuve, 5-10 Sep· tember, 1988, The congress was attended by abOUT 200 ~cholars and Sludenrs from about rwenty coun-lries. Beside the international congresses of the I.A.C.S., rhe French section regularly holds naTional congresses. The first such conference meT in STras· bourg on 28 May 1'f82 and the papers were publi.hed in Eer;tu'es el IradilionJ dans la [literature copu, (lournie d'Etud.. Copus - Slrasbou,g 18 mai 1982) (Cahi.,.. de Ia BiblioTheque copTe I, Louvain, 1(83). The second conference was held in STras· bourg on 25 May, 1984~ the fifteen papers were published in Deuxieme lournh d'Eludes COpieS S/raswu'K 2S ma; 1984 (Cahiers de la Bib1iorheque copte 3. Louvain, 1986). The third conference was held in Pari. on 23 May 1986. The founh confel' ence met in Stl1Isbourg on 27 May 1988. In addition. at the Martin·LuTher·Universiry, Hal· Ie, six congresses ha\'e been organized since 1964. and their acts have been published. The first was held on 14-15 December. 1964 (Koptolog;sche SmdieM ;n de, DDR, Wissenschaftliche Zeitsehrift der Manin·Luther·Universital, Halle'Wittenberg, 1965. Sonderheft). The secoud was held on 12-13 December 1966 and was devoted to problems of Cop· tic lite",rure (Probleme der kopti,chm Literatu', ed. P. Nagel, Wissenschaftliche Beirrage der Manin· LUlher·UniversiUiT, HaJle·Wiltenberg, 1(68). The nexr congress was held on 22-24 February. 1971 (Sludio Coplica, ed, Nagel. Berliner Bpanrinistische Arbeiten 45, Berlin. 1(74)- The fourth .ym· po6ium in 1976 (25-27 November) was devoted to .tudies about man in gnosis and Manichaeism (Studi"" zum MeMschcMbi/d in enosis und Maniehlil· "",us, ed. Nagel, Wissenschaftliche Beirrige der Maniu·Luther-UniversitJit. Halle-Wirrenberg, I 'f79). The fifth symposium in 1983 (25-27 May) was de· voted to .Iudie. of Greeks and Copts in Egypt dul' ing The Byzantine period (Craeeo-Copriea. Criechen u"d Kopten 1m byzanfinisehe" AtypiC". ed. Nagel, Wissenschaftliche Bdtrlige der Manin·LutherUniversirli:t, Halle-Wittenberg. 1984l_ The sixlh can· ference was held in 1988 (27-29 April) and was devoTed 10 The scientific work of Carl Schmidr

INTERPRETATION OF KNOWLEDGE

(1868-1938), whose studies were concentt:ll.ted on the Coptic Period of Egypt. Twenty,nine pape.-s were read by schola.-s of ele,'en different countries. [See also: International Association of Coptic Studies.] MARTII' KRAUSE

INTERPRETATION OF KNOWLEDGE. The Interpretation of Knowledge (NAG HAMMADI U· BRARY, XU) is a homily with polemical content probably delivered before a GnoMic community. II is a good demonstt:ll.tion of Ihe internal dissensions thai upset Cnostic communities in the first centuries A.D. This trealise is not the only one to attack this problem. Comparison with other te~ts from Nag Hammadi, such as lhe Sophia of Ie,,,, Chn'j/ (see EUGNOSTOS THE BlESSED) or the TESTIMoNY OF TRUTH (Kos<:horke. 1978), rna}' throw some light on this complicated piece of writing. In his discourse the author of the Interpretation of Knowledge emphasizes the negativity of the wodd and the body, He describes the former as "th. place ofunfailh and death" (XI.!. 37) and the lauer as "a temporary dwelling which the rulers and authorities have as an abode; the man ""ithin, after being imprisoned in the ,'eose!. fell into suffering and lhey compelled him 10 sel"\'e them and they coostt:ll.ined him to serve the energies" (XL6. 31-38). The author mention> the slavery o£ the body as well as the slavery of the wul (XL6. 21), 21); both body and soul are desired by the archons (hostile heav.nly rulers), who oblige man to serve lhem. This passage recalls the AUTHENTtKOS tJlG();S and the EXEGESIS ON IHE sou~, There could be sketched here behind these heavenly powers, as in the A"then/ikos wgos, the phantasm o£ eanhly powers. ecclesiastical or secular, Funhermore, the body is compared to a pit or a hole into which men have fa.ll~n. From this place bolow, a darl< place, and from flte body, a carcass, only Christ will be able to deli~er tho.e who wish deliverance: "I became very small so that through my humility I might take j'OU up \() the gr.at height whence you had fallen. You were lalen to this pit. If now you believe in me. it i. I who shall take you above through this shape that you see. It is I who shall bear you upon my shoulders." The means or· fered to man 10 escape from tho negath'eness of lhe world i. a holy and pure faith that will oppose lhe "unfaith" of the world. Christ is, therefore, a Savior. The author presents him as a being clothed in

1301

humility, bearing humanity on His shoulders, After being crucified, say. the text, He looked down toward hen so that thme wito wcre down there looked upward (XI.D. 25-30). Finally, He proclaimed the Father. "when the great Son was sent after his ~mall brothers, he spread abroad the ooict of the Father and proclaimed it. opposing the All and he removed tho old bond o£ debt, the one of c"ndemnation," Christ also communicates a teaching: "Do n<>l call out to a Father upon the earth. Your Father who is in hea,'en is one. Y"u are the light of the world. The)" are my brothers and my fellow com· panions who do the will of the Father. For what use if you pin the world and you forfeit )'Cur soul? For when we were in the dark, we used to call many 'father' since we were ignorant of the true Father. And this is the great conception of all the sins:' The Gnostic must imitate Christ and with regard to his neighbor beha.e according to the example of Christ. The laller "answered her with humiliation since in this way he bore the suffering which he had suffered." He also made himself very small in order 10 help humanity. From this injunction to imitation is deri,'ed a series o£ teachings cOncern· ing the conduct required of the Gnostic in the midst of his community, He mu.t not know jealousy; he must ~hare with the brethren the spiritual and prophetic gifts he possew:s; he must rejoice, give thanks, and lift up his prayer to God. The Gnostic who is humble, who avoids all discord, and who has humility shows tbat he is anentive to the no". (mind), not to the world. Besides, the persecu· tion of which the Gnostics are the object i, pointless, for it is e~erdsed against th~ who already ha". the Word. The !£ITER OF PErER To PHJUP runs in the same sense, proclaiming that persecution is apparent, as was Christ's suffering on the cross. BlaLiOGIUPHY

Kosch"rke, K. Die Polemik de, Gnostike, gegen da. kiFchliche Chri.,.nlt<m "mer /x,sonderer BerlJcksichlig"ng der Pelm,,,pok,,lypse ""d de. Testimoni· um Veri/alis, Nag Hammadi Studies 8, Leiden, 1978. Menard, J, E. "La Gnose et les textes de Nag Hammadi." In Colloq,," international sur les lexlts de Nag Hammadi, pp. 3-17. Quebec, 1981. Turner, D. "The Interpretation of Knowledge." The Nag Hammadi Library in English, trans, J, D, Turner, ed, J. M. Robinson, pp. 427_34. San Francisco, 1977. MAnE~EINE SCO~EU.O

1302

10D AL·MADHBAH

IQD AL.MADH.BAH. Sa

Archil~lu...1

Ele-

menls of Churches.

IQUDIYOS lABIB (1873-1911), EcYPoian Cop.

101ocist. He 14S hom ;n Ibe CopI;c rill. or Mlr In "'e proviMe of Asy\i! in Upper EcPc ..ilhin reach oflhe aMN:nl rnonasl:ery of Our Lady boo....n .. I),\n. AWtlM.U.RAO. He ",,'U aoCUSln> his early you'" to accompany bis family in anendinl weekly socrvka at Ihlot monastery. After lbe COll'lplecion of "'e liturgy. he U5ed to linger wilb lhe n>Onb and disc,," lhe Copt:ic language with I""m. His intelQl in lhe ..n...... probably bepn hue. With his ck· ~nure to live in Cairo. Ibis inleJn( "-as accelenot· ed. and he bepn 10 sludy Coptic sY5,emalkally and scierllifieally from all available manU5<:ripta in liM: ~Iriarch.al library. which Pope CYRIL V ordered to be placed al bia disposal. In Ihe mean lime. he learned modem foreign languagca and ia said to lIave become proficienl in Englisll and Frenell. as well lI!l in " ...bie and Coptic. AI home. iM: in.isled on Ihe u~ of Coplic .. Ihe only language of communicalion. Ahhouch the U5C of COplic had long been limiled. 10 cburc~ as a lilurckal lancuage. he urged other CopIic families 10 U5C ;1 as a spohn and living Iangua&e. This implie(l liM: leachinl of Coptic 10 Arabic~lng Copu. SO he h_ened 10 open classes for C;>plic Iancuacc instruction in Cairo. Though these c~ "'ue enthusiaslleally ,....,.;\'Cd and widely I'requem· rd. appare1>Ily very lew families ........ able '0 impleo men, lUI sc""_ of rft>derinl CopIie lheir dally means ol eommuniation.. He ~bliahed a special periodical Cfllidf'cl Moja/I., '04,... SMms lor-Ihe I"OtI>otion of his ideas.. Fu.... lhe<-. he Imponcd a special prinrinl ~ from Ceo-many. whh hlcnJ@lyphicaswell as CopOc letter tela for the publication of his sources. II is said lhal this _ I"" seeond .pccialifd puss broughl into EcYPt. the firsl be;,., the pnntinc prns of the 11lSl1· "" fra~als d·An:.heoIogie ~enlale in Cairo. With h, h~ ..... able to publish his own Coptic I"'mman :IOnd most of lhr liturgical books hi'''''no .""ibbl~ only in manuscript in churcm. ThrQU&houI hils life. he USlJmed Ih~ post of professor of Copti, in lhe ""wly establl$he
_..-do that had passed 1...10 Arablc; o4l-llu..... ,,1· Nu,..,iY)'Wr Ii M"'rill" "U'''llu,h .1.QiJ>/iyyJllr (CopIk Gnlmmar; 2 pts., Cairo. IS941; AI.K."",,, "UbliJ"'iyyWr Ii T.·/bn »l·u-tlll'l. 1I1.Qfb#yylJ1r (C;>pI>e language; hi Kr. Cairo. 1897); 'The ..... Im. (in Coptic). folk>wed by Biblical caMiela and prayttS. accompan>ed 1». an Arabic lransblion. ~"'-I and COl"n,ct", by HqumenOf ..tJl(l

SIoLlII ...... ~ and ediled by Mac:arius, art:hblshop of Asylil. and I.abib (Cairo. 1197); Ki/Qh aJ..A~lmW
a.,;yy.,Jt

~

.1--M~lU41r

(Cairo. 1908-1911); The Burial Rile (Coptic; Coiro. 1905); 1M Rile of E......mt UDCtion and th~ Prayer of AbW Sd"''POI> (Cai-ro, 1909); li,,,rgic:aI Telll$ In C;>plic and "nobie (5 "",b., Cairo. 1900-1902); Lu 11tioIoJeies. Vol•. 1-2 (Cairo. 191 I); and o4I.J....h",.h .t.Noflsllh li'U-tum lIj·K""i.sllh (Encyclopedia of COfJ'Iic (:h.. rch Doctrine. Uo.age. etc.) by Yul}anni ibn Zakariyy!. known ;U Ibn al·$abbA·. edhed wllh Coptic equival· enU by lablb (Cairo. 1902). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kammerer, W.. compo A COp/l'c Bibliography. Ann Arbor. 19SO; repro New York. 1969. Masri. I. H. oJ·. The SIO')' of rhe COP!'. Cairo. 1978. Ml,.II'.:t. BAs'"

IRELAND. &e British lsles and I...land. Coptic In8uences in lhe..

'(RyAN JIRJlS MUFTAH ~

(el

1888). Coptic

special.... H$Cr logelhe:r. It is known lhat ·11)"6n... he WllS called. departed from lhe old Bohaitic system In Ihe chu.--ch offices and tried 10 introduce lhe 1\I1ea of modem Greek pronunciation into the anliqualed slyle of lb. lradi· lional church. This found Opp<.JSilion amid the clergy of Upper Egypl who cluna 10 Ihe old Bohairic. now wrongly de.cribed as Sahidic. Through ·]ryan·s innuence and lIis leaching of lhe C;>ptic tongue on the modem Greek model. his aystem spread rapidly

ISAAC, COPTIC TESTAMENT OF

in tower Eg:n't and the metropolilan cities of Cairo and Alexandria. BIBLIOGRAPHY 'Al"J.aI-Masi~

al-M",,'udi al-Banlmusl. AI-Asas alMalf~ fi {Jab! Lughal al·MI~riyyi", Cairo. 1888. Emile Maher Isl)Aq. A/-Laf< al_Qib!; al.Bul;oyrf. al· Qadim, Cairo. 1978. Worrell, W. H. Coplic Sound•. Ann Arbor. Mich,. 1934. ___, Coptic Texis In Ihe University of Mlchlgml. Ann Arbor. Mich., 1942, ___, " Shorl AC<'ount 01 the Copls. Ann Arbol. Mich" 1945, y~ 'Ab
ISAAC, fort)'-fi~t patriarch of Ihe See of Saint Mark (636-689). Isaac w"" a native of the district of Shubnl. now pan of modern Cairo, before he took the monastic vow at I)AYR mIlA MAQAR, Unle is known about hi< early secular life. In his monas· tery. however, he became the spiritual .On of a bi.hop by the name of Zacharias. who was known for his Christian virtues, hi. dignity, his theological learning, and his humility. Following his mentor in his qualitiC$. Isaac also concentrated on the literary activity of the monastery and be
1303

tion must be respected. At this moment Ihe gover· nor's delegates reached Alcxandria and stopped the preparatory measures talen for consecrating Jilja. On reporting to the gtwenlOr, 'Abd al·Mi, decided in favor of the late patriarch's nominee, and so Isaac was fonnally invested. The HISTORY Of THE PATRIARCHS comments on the C>'ent as being the will of the Lord, In .pite of the bre,'ity of Isaac's reign, for he remained on the throne of Saint Mark only three )'ears, his days were pregnant with major ".'ents, both locally and intemationally. First, on the local .cene, he re.tored the crornbling walks of Saint Mark', Cathedral and renoyated the patrialchal residence. Second, be celebraled the Coptic liturgies in many churches previously dominated by the Chakedonians. Third. he huHt a church and found.d a monastery of Our Lady in J:lih"an; at the same time he encouraged the Coptic archons of the country to build dwellings at J:Iilwan in the neigh· borhood of the palace of 'Abd al-Azlz. who fa.'ored !i,'ing there. On the intemational scene. without con.ulting the Arab gove1TlOI of Egypt, lsaac medi· ated between the emperol of Ethiopia and the Christian king of Nubia, who were in conflict at the time. Apparentl}', this infuriated 'Abd al·Az!z, who put the patriarch undcr house arresl in Alexandria to pre"",nt him from crossing the fronticr to the African polentates with whom Eg}pt was nOl in harmony. But curiously his ful)' went beyond the patriarch to Ihe wholc of th. Coptic church, and the govemol ordered all crosses. e.·en gold and .iher ones. to be broken ITom chuI~hes. Furthelmote, he issued an orner that posters .hould be fixed on the gates of all churches bearing the in· scription thai Mul)ammad i, the apostle of Allah and that JC$us is only the prophet of God and not his son. for Allah is neithel bom nor bearing. At this unhappy juncture. Isaac died in 1>89 and was quietly buried in the Calhedral of Saint Mark in a tomb that he had prepared for himself next to that of his predecessor. BIBLIOGit,4.I'HY

Lane-Poole, S. HislM)' of Egypl In the Middle Age•. London, 19(11. ___. The Mohammad~n DY"asties. Paris, 1925. SUBHI y, U,81B

ISAAC, COPTIC TESTAMENT OF. See Coptic Testament of Isaac.

1304

ISAAC, SAINT

ISAAC, SAINT, or Isaac of

~1'Qal~li,

fourth·toliflh·century monk of Kellia (feast day: 19 Bashan.). He had been a disciple of Cronius, lhen of Theodorus. After having fled to escape the priesl' hood, he had nonetheless allowed himself to be ordained. In his Dialogue o~ Ihe Life of Sl. John Chry
Cotelier, J. B.. ed. ApophlhegmaJa Polrum. PC6.5, pp. 224-28, 348, 357, 368. Evelyn-White, H. G. The MonaSleries of Ihe Wadi 'n Na/TW1, pt. 2, pp 134, 141, 144-146. New York,

1932.

only through lhe Apophthegmata Pa/rum. 11 is likely thai Apollo is the one to whom the HlSTORIA MONIICHORUM devotes a long nOtiee in Chapter 8 (FeslUgierer, 1971, pp. 46-71). If this idemification i. correct, Isaac would have been a monk at the end of the founh century in lhe Thebaid, where he founded a large communily of monks. The mosl prominent fealUre of his personality, according to the apothegm, appears to be his intense lo\'e ror stillness. BIBLlOC:;RAPHY

Colelier, J, B., ed. Apaphlhegmata Patram. PG 65. Festugiere, A. J.. ed. HislOria Mo"ach,,,,,m in Aegyp· 10. Sub.idia Hagiographica 63. Brussels, 1971. Guy, J. C. "Isaac Ie Thebain." In Dlctionnaire ,I, JpirilaaUtt, Vol. 7, col. 2006. Paris, 1932-. RE~E·GEORGES CoQUtN

ISAAC OF QALAMON, Luc[E~

REGNAVLT

ISAAC THE DEACON, seventh-wnlu!')' biographer of the fortieth patriarch of Alexandria, JOHN 111. He .....as born in Samannud (Sebennytus), a city dating from dynastic times that still exists on the left hank of the Damiena branch of the Nile in Gha.-biyyah Province. Isaac appears in the HIST
iW

BUIUOGRAPHY

Kamil

ISAAC, DISCIPLE OF A.POLLO, known to us

Nakhlah. KiUI/J Tarikh ",a·J~ddwil al.lskandariyyah al·Oi/'(, Cairo, 1943. AzIZ S. ATIH

~11l)

B~!J,ikal

Two personages are reo

corded by the name of Isaac and in relalion Wilh the DAYIt MOB,!, ~M(rll at al·Qalamun. They are perhaps one and the ",me person. The first calls him· self priest and ascetic of the monastery in the Life of Samuel (Alcock, 1983, pp, I, lin,," 4 and.5 [text], and 74, lines .5 and 6 [trans.]). The second is revealed by a passage in Ihe recension of the SYNAMlltON of the Copts from lo""er Egypt, at 13 Ki)'ahk, which recalls the consecration of lhe church called that of Misii'jl. This story is placed in the mouth of an abbot of the monastel)' of Anba Samuel of aI·Qalamiin, called Isaac. lf the first can be dated approximately to the first half of the ninth cenlury, the """ond story olfers the reader no indication that gives any possible dating. BIBLlOC:;RAPHY

Alcock, A. The Life of Samuel 0/ Kalamon, by Isaac the Pr~sbyter, Wanninster, 1983, RENt-GEORGES CooUlN

ISAAC OF TIPHRE, SAINT, manyr in founh· century Egypt (feast day: 6 Bashans), Isaac is commemoraled in the Coptic Chur"h but is unknown in lhe tradition of other "hurch,,". His Passion is presen.'ed in Bohairic in three manuscripts: one in the Brilish Mu",um (Or. 8799), and two in the Vatican Library (Coptic 66f. and 69f.).

ISAIAH OF SCETIS, SAINT

As faT as can be deduced from the OIyle of the text, this Passion belong. to Ihe late period (sevenlh and eighlh centuries) in which the lexts making up the various cyelLS were compose
BaumeisTer, T, Martyr lnvielUs, D., Miirryrer als Shmbild der Erlosung In dor Legende und 1m K"tr der fri
ISAIAH OF SCETIS, SAINT, or Isaiah the Hermit, fifth--cenlury anchorit~~whose spiriTual ad· vice to other monks greatly inOuenced the Easlern churches (feasl day: 1\ Abjb): Of all the Is;>.iahs mentioned in Egyptian monaStic sources of the fourth and fifth centuries, The most renowned is the author of the asceTic treatises that had" wide vogue in Ihe Christian Orient, UnfonunateJy, we do not find in these treati""s much in the way of autohi<>graphical information. We learn merely that Isaiah had begun his life as a monk in Egypt, probably at SCETIS. where he was in contact with several per· sonaliTies mentioned in the APOPHTHEGMAH PATRuM,

1305

John, Anuh, Pocmen, Paphnutius, Amun, Peter, Lot, Agathon, Abraham, 5isDeS, Or, and Athraeus, Had he perhaps been " disciple of Ammoe' and of Achillas? When he in tum had become an old man, he was surrounded by numerous disciples, among whom there stands out one called Peter, who carefully collected Isaiah'. teachings to pass Ihem on to his own disciple•. From EIOPt, where Ill' still was in 431, Isaiah went to live in Palestine and died a re<:lu"" in a monastery near Gaza on II August 491, without ever having adhered to the Council of CHAlCEllON, Such aT least is the thesis pUT forward in 1899 by G, Kruger and commonly accepTed today, de.pite the objections put forward b~' R. Draguet, Isaiah's wrilings occur in section. or chaplers entitled logo;, the number and order of which great· ly vary in the different manuscripts and edilion•. Often, too, Ihe contenT of each logos differs from one collection 10 another. This is attributable to Ihe fact that most of the logo; are compilalions of di.paraIl' pieces in which maxims, apothegms, oral exhortations, or letters sent to a disciple Or a group of monks can be recognized. Logos VI of the Syriac Asceticon is simply a collection of apothegms that has sub.equently been used b}' the compiler of the large alphabetical collection, The probabilily is ,hat the lsaianic corpus as we now have it was collected and arranged by Peter aT the end of his masTer's life or after his death, Draguet had noted in Isaiah's work numerous CopTic isms, bUT if scmI' of tile master'. sayings were made in Coptic, iT is almost cenain that The writ· ings as an entirety were compiled in Greek, In any evem, the Coptic Ascetkon we know was cenainly translaTed from the Greek just as the Syriac Asce· tkon was, Closely linked with The apothegmaTic literature and related to it, I....lah'. work is interesting in the firsl place for the failhful echo it transmits to us of the leaching of the great Egyptian monks, but with a more didaclic and synthetic character, Through the various recommendations of the old man, we can con.tandy di$<:ern, like filigree work, the moTif that inspires them and the fundamentai preoccupalion of the desert anChorile. How is ne,ycnia, Ihat blissful quietude e..ential for the monk, to be found and constantly maintained? The struggle against one's thoughts, reading and medilaTion from the Scripture., manual labor and austeriTies, all the observance. and tasks prescribed, are so regulated and measured out as 10 guarantee to the recluse the most favorable condition. for the lrue

1306

ISJ:lAO IBN IBRAHIM IBN NASTA.s

fre~dom

of Ih~ h~an, liaiah does nol disdain 10 ..nit:< inlO Ih~ "",,"I minul" details of ~ .... ryday lif~, bul n~ilh~r is h~ afnaid 10 ta.. kl~ Ih~ d~q><"M reali· lin of Ih~ spirilwl lif~. H~ is constantly SIU$Sing inlerior fr."nel of mind; ~Y~l')'Ihing has 10 \)0, done "with knowled&<"," that is. ""ilh dilC......",.. nl. with r""lilude, and with purer>eM of ;nlulion. Humilit)". th.. prirn~ Yirt~. is me-nlioned birly fnquently. but rno.., often is indicated b)' its elf«ts. in panicubr by "counlina on~( as of no r.-putalion" and by circumscribing one's OWn will. All Ihis ..... already ~.., in th.. lea<:hing of th.. dewn blM"', but ..... find il apin in Isaiah in an originallionn and wilh a penona.! ;Kcenl that ~eal a bilhful disdpl." who in hi5 tum has bc<:~ an emln..nl masl", of spirit"'il)'. In particular, we admire his discmion &fId his balanc... wIleth<"r in tho: rebcions betWfttl the ph)l!i<:a! and 1M spiriwal. or in the re:sptel",e drmands of solituodr and lhe communal life FInally ....., may nGfe In.. cenlral pb« oJ. Christ ito asceticiom reprd<"d 1M the faIdlful imiuotion of J... IlUS in hi> li&:. his Passion, and his dnth. The theme of the -....c'em of the c.o."-,"",ingt)' Isaiah's bninchild.. lor bd'ore him ..... find h n(..... here-ls tied up ",ith Paul's leachl"l on baptism, which identifies ... with the crucified Christ. .... u ascelki§ln I~d 10 • libenticn from lhe papion thai in Isaiah has noth.... of 1"" StoM: aboul ii, lor il is w..pIy lhe full blO53Oming oflhe life ci lhe Spiri, in Ol>l' ...1>0 lova the Lord Jesus "wllh a ,otaI Jo-,e:' Isaiah's .........k is the fruil of rich n>edilalion On Ihe Scriptures with fuquenl reson 10 aIletorical inlerp........I>ons. In addilion to the predominanl inlluence of ,.... d.....rt bthers. ...., may not" also thai of EVAGItIIJS. which cannoc he denied IsaWa had a V"'I inll,..,ncc in allihe churches of lhe Orient. He had friends amona C"-lce-donians as 1 as non· C~c~nians. For all ChmtiartS he re ins a masle~ of genuine splriluallty,

.

BIBUOG~l'tIV

....ugou>(inoo Monachos lOf"daniles. TOY OIIOY JIATI'01: HMnN .... aa.... HIAYOY ;.orOI "6. J.... rusalem, 1911: 2nd d .. Solenos N. Schuln"", VoIO. 1962. Chilly, D, J .......bba Isaiah:' T~, Icum,,1 0/ Tlre"logi. col S",die. 22 {l971):41-72, DrnKu~l, R. lA., cinq ,e..e".lon. de /'A.al'-""n .y'i· aqu. d·abba !Jaie, CSCO 289-290. 293-294. Lou· ..ain, 1968. G~baUl, S" ed, Synualre Irhioplen, PO " p, 310. Pari., 19(11.

Gu;l]aumont, ..... l.·Axeti..on COpl. d. /,.bW I.aie. Fragmtnlt 5tJ.hidiqu" Jdili. eI Iraduiu. Sibli,.. Iheque d'E1udes "opIes 5. Cairo, 1956. "rug,,'. c. "Wer ..... ~ de.- Psaldn-Dion)'Sios:· B)'toIltflini$("he uil>ehn/I 8 (1899):302-305. R.el.-JIt, L "Isaie dr Sc~tt ou dr Gaza." In D,c_ lionnaiTe d, Spin"'alilJ, Vol. 7, pp. 2OSJ-95, Par· is, 1932-. UlCle; REGNAUl.T

ISI:IAQ mN IBRAHbt IBN NASTAS, ....bU Ya'qr:;b, I.. nth---<elevenlh-anlury physicbln and annd· son of NAS]:As IIIN IUUYJ. also • ph)-sician. He was bom in Old Cairo (M~) at an unkno\o.-... Y* ibn Sa'ld a1·An~l, in his Appf'n
. 10 th.- A......Is of Sa'ld ibn Bi!",! (<:(""posed befon, th.- ~< 1015 and revtse-d and completed b,. 1028). informs us that ... hen .... bo Va'· qilb became the priwle pbysician 10 aI·J:W;Im. ''M ..n'istd him 10 drink wine, lelli"& him of iu benefi· cial dk:cts. A1-Hllim lislened 10 his advic.., and lifted th.- ban he had imposed .. QnC'fffti"' ..in.... H.. th.... invite'd a leam of singers and m"';ci_ 10 his COlIn, and took 10 drinking lI-ID011ll their songs. lasing all w.ame in their c:ompany .nd piling r.,,;:.urs upon them. Thus ,etumed 10 Ihrir form... "'''''- of In.ing_ Some time !loICT, the pft)'Sician AbIl Ya'qub [ibn ~ ibn Ibnahim) ibn NasJls died, and aJ·Hikim 8"'''' up ..int and imposed a vigorous ban on drinking i1" (&om the IranslMion by "'ratelt.ouIcrUlTed durina Lent 1001. 1betdore .... bu Ya·qilb probably died around 1006 or al the beginning or 1007, and while aI·l:lnlm ....... S{i11 Ii,int. Abo Ya·qilb ar>P""l"$ 10 haV
peop'"

Aft".

...u. BIBLIOGRAl'HY

Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah. 'Uyiin al·A"M' tr raboqlJl ol"'!, ibbil·. ed. A. Milller, pp. 85-89, Kl:Inigsbf'rg, 1884, M. Midor Ridl. pp. 544. 549. 8eil"\lI. 1%5. Kralchkovsk}'. I.. and ..... Vasili~", Hiswire de Ya~)'o Ibn Sa',d d·Ant;oche, cOn/inuateur de Sa'/d Ibn Bilriq. PO 23. fuse. 3, 1\0, 114, p. 480. Pam, 1932. Rep~. Turnhom, 1916. Schachl. I., and M. Mey.~hof. The Mldlco·Philo· S
ISIDQRUS, SAINT

dad "nd Ib" JUdwan of CIl",O: A C<>t1lrib~li(", 10 tht His'o.., of G'ed ~Ilmi"g Among lire A,ab., pp. 12,38. Cairo, 19J7. KHAUL S,......Il. SJ.

ISHNIN AL-NASARA.

~e

works, and a f..... moralist;e tJ"IC15. Hi. rna;':'r work remains a drtailed history of Ihe Coplk chun:h in two .-olumes entitled AI-KJr~nfdah Ill-Naftuh fi TarikJl .u·f{""i""h {Precious (O
..wzS.Ann

t>ilgrimago.

ISIDH(JRUS (l861-1942), bisllop and abbol ·110 a history of Ib! Coplk church. lsidhiirus . bo... III l:Iom,. S}Tia. inlo a pious ChrUt"n bmily named "'a·ilm. In 1880 he .. mlarated 10 Alb.alldria III !he age of thil1eer1 in the COfRp8ny oIa rebt.ivoe'. Hqu1llel1OS llaiah. who wu the resicknl priesl in charK" 01 the CopI>c community .t Aleundria. ~r compI~in& his edl,lcalion In !he newly established Coptic School in CaIro. hidltilrus was ..... lecled to teach Arabic. CopIIc. and lite rudim~us of French in Cloiro. At tM _ e 111M, he COfIlinued the Rudy 01 ad¥anced French with a from the ColI~ des Frhe.. In 111I5 he loot mooasric _ .. from Pope CUlL Y. who KR! him 10 his own formtr mollaSlery. DoO.n. ~, In WidJ .J·Nalriin. Thcre Iw: bK......, the pu,pll of the nnm...nl lit~nry monk 'ABD AlMASll:l $WI Al.-M.W:roI. Rt:luming 10 Calro in 1W. lsidhl1rus "'"'lIS made .....,"" III Saini Mark', CalMdral in aJ...AzbUin"ab. then pricslal Mlr Mini'. chureh II Fum ... aJ.Khlij. Mnn ...hiIt. ht ~ a dow clisciple 10 boIh Pope Cyril V and Anbi ~arius, bishop of "'yUI. He _ pul in chute 01 the relilious properties ~ DAn. "I.-MItA.IolOs and DAn ~'lJARlAO, bul dec.... ed 10 leave tMw worldly obllptlonllo devoIe him· self 10 .pirih,a1 ~h Ind wriling. TMn he was nominaled for • bishopric bltl esc.pe
mon.

1307

ISIDORUS. SAINT, or hidore of Arllio<:h. a martyr under DTcx:u:TlAN (fcasl day: 19 Basham). He is knov.-n in both the Greek and the Coptic lradi. tion. bul his legend in .he Coptic lraditlon ~ been complcldy rdutbished. The lexl 01 the Coptic Passion is prcscned in Sahidic in a compiCle coda in the CopIic M.......m in Caim {Munier. 1918. pp. rn-I90) ..... in fRgmenu from anooher code.>. (Till. 1935; von Lemm, 19B). The Coptic P'assion clai.... 10 be composed by an eycwimcss named ~UI. who is named only al the nwi 01 lhe IUt. The openln& scene is In Ant;" och. .....t...re Diodetian p .........lpus Ilis &mous edicl dtmanding ..."Onhip of papn .,xis. The ~r, Pantalcon. with his wife, Sophia, and his _ , lsi· doNS, renWns &iIhfuJ 10 Chrisllanily. OOI'iSTAIm"'£. the future cmptror. takes refucc ....i1h lhcm. At Ihis poinl Basilidco the &encral and ViclOl", .we chanc· It... from d,e cycle of Basilidcs, an also named. The archan,o:el illClUEL appean to bidoow 10 anl1Ol1nCve of miracle being pcrforrncd by the saini and of visions of In... h and of Jesus. Al a ccnain point me scene moves 10 Seleuci. and then 10 Rhodes, bUI from Ihere the saini r... tu.... to Antioch, where he suffers linal m.rtyrdom, The las.t part of the text describes lhe end of Diod... tlan .nd Ihe ..h·em of Constantine. and lhe lransla· tion of the relic. of Isidonn 10 Consu.nlinople. The redaclion of Ihis PlUSion lCem, 10 be very late, even compared to other!! of lhe cycle Iype. In particular, it pre$Upposes the PlUSion of Pltilolheus, as ...ell as Ih~ of George and Victor. BIBLIOGRAPHY

BaumeiSler, T. M'lF/y, lnv;C!U$. Du Martyr"

"I.

S;""bild dcr Er!bs""g i" du Lttend. ~"d i.., K"'t der /,j;he" kopti.chm Kin:he. MUnMer, 1972.

1308

ISIDORUS OF PELUSIUM, SAINT

BoHandiani, Socii, e
''''

Lemm, O. E. von. Bruchstlicke koplischer Martyrer· "kren I-IV. Saint Petersburg. 1913. Munier, H. "us Actes du manyre de Saint Isidore." BuUeth' d. /'/nsulUl fran~ois d'Archeologie orien101.14 (1918):97-190. Till. W, C. KOplische Hdligen- und MQrryrerlegend· en, Vol. l. Oriemalis Christiana Analecta 102. Rome, 1935. TtTO ORlANDI

ISIDORUS OF PELUSIUM, SAINT, fifthcentury monk. priesl, and scholar, who wrole a large number "f lellers on church affairs (PC 78), Truu....onhy documen15 infonning us of the life of Isidorus are relalively few. SEVERUS Of ANTIOCH. e,· iled to Egypt from 518 to 520, was led In inquire there as 10 lhe iclentit), of lhe man from Pelusium and possessed a letter from an as<:etic thai had the following comment: "greelings from the venerable priest lsidorus, an altar of Christ and vessel of the minislry in the Churches, a lreasury of the Scriplures, the falher of words (writer), a dSlern of "irlUes and a temple of peace" (Contra imp;um Grammaticum 3. 39, CSCO 102, p. 182). For Sever' us, who qU<Jtc<
recent Lives often confuse him wilh Isidorus of Ale""ndria, and would have it that he was an Ori· geni.t refugee with John Chrysoslom. According 10 the Alexandrian Synaxarion (cseo 78, p. 489) and the Arable Jacobite Synaxarion (Coptic version: PO 56, p.814), lsidorus of al-Faram~ or Pelusium (feast day: 10 A.mshlr) was a relati"e of Theophilus and Cyril; to a"oid becomiag "patriarch" of Ale'aadri", be Aed as far as Pelusium, where he became a monk. Reading the Isidorus C<Jrpus and stud)'ing lhe c"rrespondence provide us initially with some useful markers. The oldest are surely a lener to GREGORY Of NYSSA (no, 125) and, perhaps, another 10 Evagrius (no, 251). Though he had nol heard ChrysoslOnt, as ha< been believed, he was an admirer of the laller and was able 10 tell the story of his tngedy (no 152). He knew Ammonius, bishop of Pelusium, and condemned lhe e'aetions of his successor, Eusebi· us, In two "civil" cases, Isidorus called into ques· lion two iniquitous wrrecWres (governors of the province of Augustamnica prima, al Pelusium), Cyrenius and Giganlius. He aadressed his complaints 10 high imperial functionaries, whose names have come down in hislOry (F!orentius, Synesios, Isidorus, Seleucus), In panicular this was lrue of Rufinus, prefecl of lhe praelorium al C<Jnslantinople in 431432 (to be distinguished from the Rufinus assassinaled in 395). Several of Isidorus' leners relate to preparations for the couselL Of EPIIESUS (431) and ils aftermalh. Also when we compare lhe names of the bishops who c<Jrresponded wilh the Pelusiol and the lists of the bishops who were signalories al the Council of Ephesus. lhe "Robber" Council of Ephesus (449), and then the COUNCIL <Jf CHALCEDON (451), we can see lhat m<Jst of those who wcre bishops in Augustamnica prima around 431 received letters from Isidorus, On lhese assured foundations, and taking into account various indications scattered about the corTesp<Jndence, it is possible In relrace Isidorns' iline· rary (though with a degree <Jf uncenainty). Born aronnd 355 in the region of Pelusium, his initial studi.,. were nndergone by hIm in thaI city. He pursue
ISIDORUS OF PELUSIUM. SAINT

a priest (doublleso by Ammonius) and fulfilled doe dillies of a didQshlo. upoundinll and comment· in& on lhe sacred tulS. Bill when atOIlnd
...

The workJ of lsioolU5 of Pelusium have come down 10 uS in the fonn of a co!plls of Ienen numbering lOme 2.000 ilemo. Sc,'e",o of Antloch COllntcd nearly 3,000 lell"''' dimibuted through $eventl booQ, bill nOied thai in a .ingle book $Orne leller" had been copied twice or thrice and Ihe original numerical order had nO longer been followed. Aftcr successive edi.ions, it h.,. been possible 10 n:con.t~ tule a numbercd collcction of 2,000 ilems thaI has e..cry chance of being very old, if not ori,i~l. It was long thought ...., Isidorus had also COf'llposed IItr~ lrI~atisoea. and Ihat !hen: uisud cenain unpublished IClten. Act.... lly lItese IItmc trca1iK5 co"",ilUte an intcvaJ PM' oflhc COJllUS. n.." arc a little trealisoe on .... """""islencc of ~iny (no. 9S4). a 'Muise apinst the Giftb (no. 1470). and a cuJosy of vln... (no. 646), As to !he i1cnu claimed in the pac 10 haye been unpublisbcd. ICSU show llw ,.;thcr lhey an: in the corpus or an: nne by

..........

of......

Qucttion. an: oIlm raised on !he authenliclly and !he Ionn IClten. Many of them lack the cuslomary introduclions or ~1.... ioJu,; othent are splil into _raJ. fr8gmell"; Mhf:rs again arc Q\>OU' tions or paraphrues from classical or patristic worts. Wt may SUSpecl that some wen: ""hool Cit!' docs add.rtiicd 10 fiCl'lioul ~espondcnlS. Nevertheless. the consistency 01 lite prosopognophy. both g~ical and historical. argu<s in bvor of the aulltenticilY of thCS/! Itlters. All lite correspondents (and thtlr tilies and occupations) a.... contemporary wilh lsido...... (!hue art more than 420. amons whom 104 btlons.o tht aUlhorities, 34 to the 10wn· ship of PtlllSium. 171 to Ihe church. 64 to !he moIWilic ""ene. and for Ihe most pan they lived in the region of Peluslum or elsewbere in f.Byptl.

1309

The gaps or dtfttl$ in the COrpt15 arc cCTUinly lItril:nnable to those ,,110 compiled il shonly after the dealh of lite Pdusiol l1lese compilers "'ere .'Cry probably monks from .... rca:loc> oJ Pdus'um (!'Cler lite lln'himandrite. and lite monb Nil.... Paul. Orion. Ouintiam.ls. ClC.) wllO around 4-<W-4'iO e<:IlItclCd the ~knersR of Isldol'\ll and numberN wm withoul mucb discernment. Very soon this co.Iltttion. or sdcetions (llorilqia) deri,-cd fnxn il. spo'ud throughout the Easlcm empire. lbul it " .... lhal rn.m the 5CCOJId hall of the fifth ccntury lsidorian c:uracts ~ in the: fim eol1el:l;oo of ap0thegms of Palestinian origin. Tht cOTn"Spondencc of Isidorus mirrors an era. 1hu monk. who li'-cd in iaobtion from the world. ........ined intef'CS1Cd in a1llhe problem. confronting the men of his day, As was Iht ,,1Ih of John Chrys-OSl:om, he bad a ",nst of solidarilY wilh 'hou Ch,;,.. tian. ,,'110 remain<:d "in the world," Hence he in.ervenes to tlpound and comment and noon. to encoumse. 10 admonish, 10 censure or 10 Ihreaten. With an untrammeled frctdom of sptech, here was one who could condemn Ihe inJulticO$ of governors or ju~C5 and the euctions of the soldiery. or ur,e bishops and clerg)l to lead a li~ mon: in accord· ance with ,he Gospel nr. simply. to be more moDI. I-lis ..aried upericnce permitted bim both to advise in matter.! pcnain~ 10 education or to rhtloric. and to explain wilh pn:c:isIon difficult """,,","*0$ of ""ripllli'C or litur&ical """IQ. and 10 Ihrow lichl on the narrow way of the ascetic lile. Himself a priest. he ....minded other memben of lite ck"IY (particu. brtyaround Pelusium) of tht dulilel of the church's minmry. and urzcd !he bilhful to r-cspcel the priest hood If ,he: rcpulalion of lsidoNs ;, prinurily lhat of a moralist (doubtless bcalUSc of.he brat number of len.... addressed 10 a pvup rJ simonlacal and de-pnt~ dergy-EuscbNs, Zllosimus. Maro. "ian;'" ia...... o-''''moo. E..asllthill$) toe """ril$ our inlertil and adrnilalion on othu SCores. For a SUln. dtis fine rbctorician ..--riles an admirable Gred< (he ""as later held up as a model alongside Cl£OOIY OF NAZt_ ANZUS. IMStL THE GRaT. and UBANIUS). I-It .... an excellent uegtle, nourished on Ihe readin, of John Chrys"'i1om. and ..... const.anlly expoundinl and commtnlina on !he Old and New TO'lIlaments. mo" frequently in reply to qutstion. lhal had been ntised on passage. of a tickll.h nalure, If hi. predilection was for allegorical commen.aries, he ne,'erIhde.. often rested contenl wilb a literal e"plan,,· tion (his philological knowleclje was a help 10 him here) lha. hi. correspondtnla could grasp, The ue-

1310

ISIDORUS OF SeETtS, SAINT

aetkal calenae in which his remar'" frequently ap. pcar indicate the I=>tneu of his rame In this licld. The numerOUS pi"es of adyice pcruinlnl 10 as· cetklsm thai tic lavished on his disciples make him a sou",e of knowledae for a type of ascetic Ii'" in which inftucnces from EIYJIl and from Cappododa ......rc mingled. The Kmi'anchorilic: EaJp!;;on ten· dency, in which the role of the I.piritual master is cons.picuous. is linked wllh a cmobitism of Basili"" type. the ....1" oJ. whi<::h a~ _Il·known (no. 1)Sc:ript;ure is nOI just 10 be ··dileueel" and memo>rizcd., bul is abo the starlio, poinl lor a Iorm of conlemplation thai Is lin.bd wilh a '·practicc." 1"01· Iowinl John OIrysoslom'S a.trice, Wdorus, thouch Kparatcd from !he world, ~mained a,...ibblc 10 it. and comributecl by his uample and by h.. inlcn."nl· lions 10 thc "",ri&cation and cdificalion of !he church. In the .alh emtu" the Monoph)'$ites and !he Chakedonians made nfUin oJ. tho: "Chrislolocic&l" letten of IsOdoond their own as e,idcnoe Otl Ihcir belWr (nos. 23, J03. 323, ~S). A... Schmid has shown w+w inlCfJdalions lhis irlYOh'ed. But was the PcI.ture in thc IncarNllon III the lime of the Council of Epbew.s (431) and !he Ael of Union (433). He cenalnly did nOlI We pan in lhe wlyd"an ~rsy. but a fonnllb fueh lIS "Ihe di_inily and ..... humanity In Chrisl have become a single 'protOpOn: a sinale hypostasil:, the objecl of adoration·' (no. 360) is nOlI wilhoul an inUrnalion of the Chakitdonian formula. Lsi
Bouvy, E. L A. D~ sanclo Isldoro Fe/us;ola, libri Ires. Nlmes. 1884. Evieu •. P. "Isidore d~ P~lwe. II. num~rotalion des leures danf la tradillon manuSCrile." Revu. d·His· IO;re dos Te'I.S 5 (1975):45-72. _ _. "Isidor~ de P~lwe, L"oeUY~ el Ie milieu:· Doctoral diu. Lyons. 1984. FOlLSkas, C. M, Sr. {.Ido., of Pe/u,/"", and Ihe N~w T.Slam.lIl. Athenl, 1%7.

_

$/. Isidore of Pelu,;u",: His Li/~ and H;s

Works. AIMns, 1970. Niemeyer, H.·A. O./sidori P~I"sHua. v;/". script;. ~I dOClrlna ,,,,,,,,,,."1"110 AisJt>rica IA.oIogica. PG 78. PI'- 9-102. Ilicdingcr, R.

P..u<Jo.Kau"rios. Obert;.I.....

"'>'.·

schichl. ....d Yerla..."".,.. Byuntlnlsches An;...... 12. Munich, 1914. Schmid, A. Die ChrisiolOfli. Isidors _ P.t..s/u",. Pandosi> 2_ Fribou... Swil2.et"land. 19'13. Smilh, M. "An Unpuhliohcd L.ife of Sol. WOOr of Pelusium:' In &4d,,,ris/eriorr. pp. 429-3S. M~ Ianges A. S. AbisalOl. AthC1l$. 1958. '1£U.f;. EvIWX

ISIDORUS OF SCETIS, SAINT,

~rtlH::iM·

tury monk and pricsL The a1phabeli<::al coIlCC'tion of the ~T" ...TUN de¥Oles tWO distincl cbapcen 10 lsidorw and 10 lsidorul Ih~ priest. bul apan from 'lOme extn>
ror us."

No special lIOIic:e is de1>oled 10 him in lhe SYN.\.X· IdUOS buI he is dcs<-n"bed .... a pinl in an aJ'Olheam Wen up in the notice in lhe Alnandrian Synauri· on devo«'
ArTIlf. V.• cd. CoJlecoo MO"ASlie" 14.38. CSCO 238, p. 118. Cotelier, J. 8.. M. Apopltlheg"'Ala Pili","'. PG 65. pp. 219-21. 232-36, 252. Paris. 1864. LuCI£>l RI!GNAl!LT

ISLAMIC INFLUENCES ON COPTIC ART, rhe cffects of Islam 011 Coptic an from the Muslim conquest of Egypl onward. There can he no absolule appraisal of ouch onc-sidM a"tstlc de"el· <>pment, for eyer since th~ ~onqucst. Ihere has been

JSu\MIC

INFLUENCES ON COPTiC ART

J 31 1

an interaction of Muslim anT1ists. and e"entoaJly art objects "ere manufactured by MllSlilm for a Chris'ian eli. entele. At .he same time. there were fields in "hich the COPIS Entditionaily excelled, such as in textile weaving or w"()()<J· carvings and ivory provide ""-eral e'amr]es of par· allels ""tween Coptic art and the contemporary

Pand from a haykal. Stucco. Dayr aJ-Suryan (Wadi al-Na\ri'ln)_ T"nth century. COImesy Ihe Muropolitan Mweum ,,' ArI, New yo,k.

Fragments of a fre
Uma,-yad an, b"'h in sl}'le and in m<>lif,. Inter-d<'lion between ,,,riOllS media may be seen in "'me of Ih~ ~()mmon Coptic textiles, which use geometri<'a] patterns with intenwlned motifs and recall some comparable m"tifs in UmaITad mosaics, Detail. of Muslim fn:scoc. such as thO£e in Qa.r 'Amra or in the mos;>ics of Khirbat al-Mafjar, both Umayyad monuments from the eighth eentu'J', c(mld have influenced frescoes in the monaster)' of Apa Apollo at &\W11 One painted relid decoration was based on an o,·e.-all pattern of lozenges made of buds of Aowe", (Clwat, 1904, pI. 12). The "e!)' material of the carwd stuCCo dec"",'ion of [)AVR A~BA .\\,IQAR (Monaste,y of Sain, MacarillS) and of OAl"R AL-SURYAN (Monasle')' of the Syrians) in Wadi a]·I\atn:in, attributc'd to 1he years around ""0 900, cell"". the influence of Islamic an. Indeed CoptiC an has been Intditionally known '" use stone for carving and architectural decoration, whereas .mcw is an ('\'idem import from 'he Mus· lim East, especially Jran and Meoopotam;a, The style of 'chematiU<:l half-palmette. recalling their Sa.sanid an~e"o", is in perfeci accordance "'ilh a somewhat earlier decomtlon of Ihe Abbasid capital of Samar", of 'he ninth cemu!)', Doubtless 'he ,,'idest range of interac,ion in Coptic and Muslim an was to be found duting the peak of the Fatimid period, The ,ypieal Persian a'ch. poimed and with both ends 'enninated in parallel

1312

ISMA'IL

arms, characrerized both Muslim and Copric archi· tectur", Woodcarving, abundantly manufacru""d by both CoptS and Muslims, was very close in styl", and can sometimes be distinguished only by its Christian embl"ms, The same can be said for numerous examples of luster POll"')', when a Christ or other obvious Christian subjoclO distinguish a par· ticular Coptic piece from Muslim ceramics of the same period. Glass, mainly luster·painted glass, which by its fragile natu"" has been preserved in le....r quantities, displays characteristics similar 10 th05C of pottery, In any of these crafts it is not even clear whether rhe c",£Ismen were the same, producing their wares for both cli~ntel"". BIBLIOGRAPHY Bourguet, P. duo Coprie Arl, London, 1971. Cledat, J. Le Mo~a"i:re ella nicropole de Bow/I. Memoires publies par les membres de I'lnstitut fran"ais d'Archeologie orientale 12. Cairo, 1964. Coche de la Fene, E. "Un Fragment de .'erre copte et dew< group"" de verrerie mwihale." CaMer de la dromique el des art. du feu. 5evres, 196L MVRl~M

ROSEN·AYAW'"

ISMA'IL. Su Muhammad 'Ali D)'nasty. ISNA, the Arabic name of a city in Upper Egypt that was known in Greek:as Lalopolis and in Coptic as C/l6 or """ (Sne). The city is situated on the west rnlllk of the Nile some 30 miles (48 km) southwest of Lu~or in the provinc" of Qina. Ism; has a long and rich Christian tradition. E.'en before the Council of NrC~E.", in 325, Latopolis was a bishopric under Arnmonius, who had been ordained by Patriarch PETER I (300-311) Bishop Masis .ucceeded Ammonius in 347. 11te SYNAXAR'O'" commemorates a number of manyTS fro~ Latopoli~ineluding Bishop Amm?~i. us, on 14 K,yahk and-r9 Tubal:>. Both the Sa.h'dtc and the Bohairic U.'es Of Saim PACHOMlU5 give Sne as the binhplace of the famouS father of monko. The same te",. relate thar Theodorus, the succes.or of Pac hom ius, was hom of arist<>eratic parents from Sne/Latopolis. BIBUOGRAPHY Am~lineau,

E. La Gi:ographie de l'Egyple iJ. l'i:poque cOP", pp. 171-75, Pari., 1893. Lefon, L T., ed. S. Paeham;; Vila Bo/rairice Scripla. cseo 99/100. louvain. 1952. ___. S. P
Munier, H, Recueil des Ii.,... episcopale. de /'i:glis< copte. Cairo, 1943, Timm, S. Das chrisllic/r·!wpl;."he Agyplen in ara· bisehu Zeit pt. 3, pp, 1181-93. Wiesbadell, 1985. RAND~U. SnWHT

ISTlFHA.M BA'D AL_ISTIBHAM, AL-, an anonymous worl: who.se title could be lranslated as "Book of Asking Ouestions after Being in Doubt." It was wriUen by a Coptic Catholic layman in 177i, although A. Mingana and G. Graf speal: of 1772. The author wishes to demonstrate the falsity of rhe belief of rhe Coptic Onhodox called Jacobites, especially as concerns Christology. He say. of him.elf that the book i. by "a Coptic la}'man, attached 10 tlte holy Onhodox Catholic faith, addressed to every lay Coptic brother attached to Ihe recent Jacobire belief." The work is extensive, containing twenty cltapteTS and a conclusion, The fiTSr chapter deal. with the Unity alld Trinity of God. The others a", not illdi· uted in the catalogs, with the nception of tlte last, which is enritled "Tlte Reasoll Why lite Apostolic see of Rom. Has Sent Missiollaries to Thi. Copric Community and to Ollter Communities." The con· elusioll i. imended to summarize the foregoing cltapters and to give some advice to pennit tlte reader to rellJrn to the truth so as to attain etemal .alvation. At least three maouscripts of tlte worl< are ""tant, two at Binningham (Selly Oak Colleges, Ming"na Chrislian Arabic 32 [Catalog 69), A.M. 1534/~.H, 1233/June 181., on commission from the priest Bu!IU-S, son of the priest lslt~q Ibsltay al·Raqi! [sic], 122 loIs., the first being lost; and Mingana Cltristiall Arabic 33 [Catalog 70), c. 1850, 89 lois.) and at Faytnln (Dayr Mar !?Umil, no. 46 [llo date], 222 pp-l· After "J.Jsrifam ba'd
IZBAWIYYAH. AL·

r.

!'P. 140-41), of U"~'"el'1ed bread in 1747 (C.... p. 141."0. 2)•• ntl uf •.", Council of Florence (p. 14). no. 6). ~ esp..·cially his little polemics. ollen in the form of I.. ,,<"f'$. containnl in two ll'WIuscripu (Coplic: Patria,d'ale. Cai..... Theology 119; CraI". nO. 619; Simaybh. no. 464; and Binninp,n Minp~ Ch....ian Anobic )8 (Catalog 50]). 1\0'0 other quQtions "..ere put 10 him in C.iTO In 1183 by lhe famouJ tn.lH1M Al.-J.\W>U~ (
amon,

Onhoclox and lhe Grttk Orthodox circles of his ti~.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

An!Qni)'lls Shib1!. ··lawlah fI Kisntw;i.n··; "Jnyr ""r QUmi! faytriln:· AI·Masltriq 26 (1928):4511-59. 1>44-49.917-22; 21 (1929):192_95. Minsana, A. CaIGIOf'" of lite Mingoana C"lIectio" of Mo"",criplJ, Vol. 2. p. 98 (nos. 69-10). Cam' bridge. 1936. KHAUl $It."M. SJ.

1313

was k........n as AphrodilOpolis or Aphrod.ilo, and in Coplic as noJrn&t or 11Il'Tft4iI. In JJ9 .nu.."lASIIIS .«orded in his ninet~lh pa$chal let•.,.. 10 Senpion WI Serenus was the 5UCC..,.. I « ol Theodorus as bishop of AphrodilOn, indicu· in, that the city ...... a bishopric by Ihe lint third of tM founh ornlW'y at the Wnt. ilIO $oUlI;l THE .....UIl-V< (.",~lhh-lhin«nth centu· ry) "'J'Ole that m~ wen: more than.went)' churches in and aJ'OWId Itfil!., bu. only .en d them ",~re _ill inlaCl. Amon,!hese ch~ba ..<ere a church ilih abo menlioos • monas!el)' of !he Mule, which he ....)'5 was the home of many monks.

Su "Iso.- Da)T

a1-o~nyya.h.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amelineau, E. La Giolr"phi, d, /'Egypl /I /'~poq"e copl<. p. 326, Paris, 189$. Tlmm. $. Vas cltriJlliclr·kopl;Jclr, AOPI," in GrGmselr,. Z,II. pl. I, pp. 2S7~6S. Wiesb.den. 1984. !l.At!I)AU SnWAkT

ITFll:I. a

dly on .he easl bank ol.ne Nile SOme 2S mi\.es (40 km) northeast of B.\.'l!suF.F. In Creo:k. I!~

IZBAWIYYAH, AL-. Su I"ilgnmaga.

JABAL 'ADDA, a hilllop fonre;s in Lower Nubia, ~r.".

1M riWT and aliahtl, upslrellm from the (a. mollS temple of Abu Simbtl. Il wu. alone ""im ~

tBRIM and fARM, Qf1r

of ,I><. til,.,.,.,

mCl4t important

adminioding by d>t .....,,1'$ of ~ N_r. many detait. of ilS h,..ory are ~uu. The original foni/i""uions may lb.e from the P'tolemaic • . lI$ do lhoo similar fortilia.. tiom of ~ !brim. Al II slightly bIer dale. Jabal 'Addl became a major admiftismoliw! center ill Meroilk tirt>f$; it appnn in Mn-oitic IUI$ undnthe _ Ad<>.. The place may ha,'t' ..,IFe«c under the post.MeroitH: klncoom of NO'AlL\. bullhe large cemetery found nearby ih....... thlt il continued 10 be o<:<:upied. 'abal 'Addi i, "amI!c,d hilllOp K'tIing _umcd • new smllcgic silnl6cance_ The plaet: .. menlioned rq>eIledly by ABb chroni· clers afler the 1,,~lflh cenlliry, us.... ly undtr me name Qa"'W (sec OOU""O). From th.,,, sourcu we learn lhat the eparch of Nob"lia, or "Lord of Ihe Mounl.in,"' had his main hca
Mamluk invaders in 1215; in IM>S!he ",len of Ihc crumblina Nubiall killgdom of M.W:)IIJRIA .lIemplcd 10 euabli,h their "","II cap;tallhere_ Afler 1M breakup or Makoutia, Jabal 'Addt evidendy 1>«.".., lhe ce,,'er of Ih. splinter klnldom of DoIawo, to which it gave ilS name. Here a Christian monarchy survived for anolher cenlul)' "r more. ~nally d;,appca,;nl ncar Ihe elld of lhe ~flttnch cenlury. ....'heD Ihe Onomanf annu.cd Nubia In Ihe PaI"nth eeDIU!J', a IUNlIl prris<>11 Iorce was IUlli
n.erc

BIIlUOGRAPHY A~s,

W. Y. NUMII.. CorridO" 10 Africll., pp, 350-55,

400-401. 494, 534-35. Princeton, N.J .. 1977. Millet, N. B. '"Momlli.. Nubia."' Doctoral dissetU· liQn, Dep.nmenl of HislOry, Yale Universily, 195•. Mom'ere! de Villard. U. L4 Nubill. midioewtle, volI. pp. 116-111. Cairo, HIlS. V"'lin~ G. Clltiwm/1 i.. 1M Sud...., pp, 194-200. BoIo&na, 1981.

JABAL BISHWAW. SC1C Dayr Mlr

~ur

tOamulah).

1ABAL KHASHM AL-Qu'OD, mountainous ,ile a\>oul 20 miles 10 the wesl or Ih~ W6d! aJ· N;>.!Nn, lhal is 10 ~y. from the sally lake farlhesl 10 lhe Well. cxcavale
1315

1316

JABAL OUSOAM

SOUN. who Interpreted It as beinSI"" I(~UJA (Ornar TOUMOIJn, 1933, pp, 106-7: lind .bo~e all b" publi· ~.Iion (;.. lIi.. ., s... eouum., 1935). But H. tV£UN.WNtT'2', sludy Th. JoWn"p..tI.s 0/ lit.. W"df 'n H.. " .. n (;.oo"e an Vol. 2, the bistory 01 the monast.. ries) was 10 show thai th" idenlificalion WM i""ornet. E""Iyn·..... hile's demonstration was adopt..d by all. BUI ,,·hat could lhe hennitage$ dis,ov.red by Omar Towsoun be? It has becn ~ to s« here the site called "Pdra~ in SC'VCnol a""lhqms, ...... ich would <:orTCspond well enOU&b wilh the sil", ror the ll9O'hegms speak ola pit ol Pelra (Rqnauh. 1911, SOsoes, no33. p. 292). this i......rprelalion appnn w be foI· __ed by L Regnaull In the map rhal he gives of the ITIoOO\llStic: sita (1976. p. 31t). A. de CosIon (1935) also ,".,_..... ,.,." 10 ..ee in it PclnI or !he 8ijlj. of which dil&rcnl Inlll speak ...i1h rcpnIlO sans (1935, pp. 144-4S). One miaht aOO identify Ihls place "";!h !he Phe.... me ........tio.-l by P.wADIUS (Hmcm. ......ioo<: •• <:hap. 20). Ment;on of this tit. will also be found ill the Gr=k hh.toriall 5Ol.OIoltN (H~ ..ceksUluic... 6.29) and also lhe late'!" hisclorian Nkephorus Callistus (HiJlorilr ecduj"w" 2.36). One "ill KC Ibis idrnti6altion with Phenne proposed in D. G. Chitl)' (1966. p. 61). The.site ~ould abo be the C.lamus olwhkh John (:M$WI speaks, as F. IlIOC/olA$ has ",gelled (1968, pp. 407-408).

1lS8UOCRAPHY

Chitly. O. J. Th. IH~,'" Ciry. London, 1%6. CosIon. A. de. fd",lOOs. LonOon. 1935. Daurnas. f. "foul1les et tra\'1U~ de l'IfAG duran. l'armk 1967- 1'}68:' (;omptcs ,.."dll. d•• ';"nL:es de rA.ciUll",~ du il.turiplton. el beltts lell"" (1968):397 -403. E""lyn·White. H. Th. N.o~".terU, of lite W.di .... HAtn.... Vol. 2. N...., -fork. 1932. Omar TOOJssoun. "'tine' e.~ilion de reconnai.. sance dans I.. dber1 libyque."' Chro~ique d·Egypt. 15 (193)):106-107, _ . Cd/i" .t .... 0011"..111•• Mbnoil"CS de la SodJ:IJ: d'ArchwlO(lle d'Ale~andrie 7/1. Aleundria, 1935. dhe't. Tro;Rellnault, L. L.. S.~tella. dOl ~,e. ,"~II.i1. Sole,mes, 1976. _ _, Les Sentenc ..l dOl d.. d...rI. Nouveau ,u"oil. Solesmco. 1977. _ _ L.. S'~IC"C.' de. pt'es du dhen. Col/u· t;Oll alphabhlqllc, Solesmcl, 1981. R£N£.(jEORc.ES COOUIN M~u"lC£ M~R!lN. S.J.

si,,,,..

s

au

p,.. .

JABAL QusQAM.

S ... Pilgrlmagcs,

JABAL AL.SILSILAH (n>OlInlaln of Ihe

~lIain.

so called because 1~ Nile at Ihis pla~e presenls • narrow defile and was fonnally closed. it is said. by a ~hain), me of lhe ruino of a CoptiC monaslery. " Roman and Chrislian ~emcl'ry is shualed belween the ruins of the Coptic: monaslCry and !he village of firio. Greek Chrislian p;tffili in the tombs and quani... of the: Jabal al-8i1silah perhaps belray lhoe presence of hcruoits who found rcfua'e there. n.csc ~mainJ of Christian o«uplItion ..ere poinled OOJI lIS early as BonaparIC'S campeian by M. M. Chabrol and E. f. Jomard. T""O ~huoIOl'"" have upiornllhe site: f. L Griffuh (1889, pp. 9395) ond A- H. Sa)« (1907. p. 99). G. Lefebi.'re has published a Gr«k inscripcion from a lOmb (1907. p, 102, no- 560). O. Mcinardus mnlliono In- ruins .nd !he Chris.tian t~ (l96S. p. 327: 2nd ed.

I9n.

p. 442).

Unforlunaltly ....., do "'" know the pl'imili\'t name of th.. n>c>nM>e,..,. of ....t.ich 110 ancient iiie'!"' a'Y lal spnh BIBUOGltAnfY

Chabrnl. M. M. dr, and E. f. Jomard. ~Dac:ription d'Ombos ... do- ses enriT'Ons.·· In lA ~riPljo,t de rEgypte. Vol. I, pp. 2601f. hris. 1821 Grilfuh, f. L "NOll'S 011 a Tour in Upper f&)'P':' Proceedin&, 01 lite Sode/)' 0/ 8ibliedlllf'ClrdeoiOV 12 (1889):93-95. l1R:bvre, G. fUc".. i/ des m>Criprions ('....qu.... eltRtienllc, d'Egyplc_ Cairo. 1907. Meinardus, O. Clrri>tuln EO'Pf: A."~i",,, ."d Model'll, Cairo. 1965; 2nd ed. 1977. Sa)"". A. H. "Exca~·",iOlU at Gebel $tlsil.:· 1I"....lts au Se"""., des IInliqMilu d.. j'EDP'e 8 (1907):97-

U". Ra<£.(jEOllGES COO!JIN M......ICl! MAans, SJ.

JABAL TAFNls. The hennlutllel of Ihe Jabal Tafnio, a mOOJntain chain thaI owes its name It> th. fael Ihot il is on the 1,IilUde of Tabenn!!!, in the v"Hev of Ihe Nile, are about 5 miles (8 km) nonh. east ~of Shams al·Oln, almo.t at the summ;, of lhe rocky plateau. Al Ihe oil" are some small ~avcs, which serv.d as CellI. and" opring. There are some drawings (sla" of David. candleltlckt). and some red graff,ti among which we may recO(lnlze tbe names IUCHt......,...oc I1l"8CI, i¢t!ph paulos presho !he inilials lC xc. is ~ho, and Ihe sequen~e ....

.,..o.oc

JABAL AL·TAYR

_.....,.,.: ...CTf............,.....,.

~\o$

th<:6d6los pes,lradtI/d~ ,,-hkh mllSl boe "ndel'Slood as "$t. Paul. Theodore the commander." Guv

W~GNE~

JABAL AL-TARIF (Nag Hammadl). mounbiroous on I"" niht bank of lhe: Nile. being Ihe to",n of Nag Hammadi on lhe oppos.ilf bank and fomtinc put of !he Ar.abU.n chain. J( is pieltotd by Clvtll and ancienl lombs 1hM wen: occupied by hermiu and still ~ Incf5 of them. Thbf loa\'" been Clorefully noted by P. Bucher (1931. pp- 157-60). The search for the prec$e place ",here !he fa· mous Nag Hammatli Coplic papyri ............. found has Me" lhe C'1l$f l)f $Orne archuoloi;C.1 prospe.::t1ng In Ihe region. Coins have been found lhal sho'" Ihal lhe sil'" ""re occupied in the lifth and .iath centu .. I1Ia$iI

...

Il.lIIUOGRAl'tly

B\lcher. P. "I..e$ commenccmenlS de5 Psaumcs U • XCIII.: inscription d'une lomhe de Ka>:r es-Sai. jid" Kemi 4 (1931);157-60. El
."ily.

JABAL AL-TAYR

(Kharph). A f...... miles to the nonh. of the c"",...ery of fbpwil 00. the ~I

1317

of • Sleep path clambering up the musif of Ibe Jabal aI·layr.' wiler u........ !he rock opens eJliplj· cally. lIS .,nu'Wlee facing """lb. The ea,.., Il3lTOWll to. deplh of 13 to 16 f.... t (4 or 3 m). Its ceiling fonns a cornel in, above a t"rraCe of small S1ones, which overhan,s Ihe bed of th" "adi (valley). This is a choice place for Ih" abode of an aDeMrite. In addili"" 10 some siVU"u~ of Weslem Inl~el. .".. in !he nineteenth c....tury. as well as -SOme rudimentary paintinp and wvrral inscribetl Cl'I!1ilion of Ihc2 in Mallon, 1914. col 1864). Fakhry (l951) published the majcrily of them. His rcadinp arc ope-n 10 nnendation and i"'J>'"O"CT1l....,. ElIcepI for a brief plOinled gnolIilO in Fl1)'Umic (Roquet. 1976. P. 43). these sMrt U,Kb. allow;n8 for the inevitable mis· takes of tM wrllen. are in Sahidic. An inscript;on of ilKleen line._a lltanic prayer of a known Iype ",ilh minor ...riams-iho"" careful workman~hip. From one Ii"" 10 the nut, bro"TI Ink ahemal,," w;th yellow. I" add ilion. tile em",n(., 10 lhe wes!' ern ,ide of !he ~ller .............. .n it>5Cription of ""I)' faded lines painled. in rcd. n... only ceruln line to !he first, ",hOd> bqim ",;u, HKlta ......onoc (Memo episcopos). Another painled in· Kriplion. flanked by an in""n"bed CI'OloS. mentions .he o;osis. Fill,., does not nOl" " ' - two imcrip' l;onl. Th., m<)Sl significant g",ffilo was pIlint"'" 0..1 "" such by H. E. Winlock. Datable be1w...." 7J4 and 88). I~e inscription aue'I< Ihe presence of a "1~sh'1I1. [magislrale, official] of Hibis," a person· age "'110 also oigned 110'0 grallili at &Pw.lol.

....·et""

BI.UOC....PHy

........

Bock. W. de. M"'~ poou >ernr iI r"rcloiolog>e de I'Ec1"e "Ior/tienn•. Saint Pelfrsburg. 1901. Fakhry. A. ''Th" Rock Inscriptions of Gahal "'·Tei.at Kha'P Oasi.:· A"""I... d.. Suviu de. ~"n·· quirl. de I'Evpl., 51 (1951):401.4)4. Mallon, A. "Copte (tpiiraphi,,)." In Dktionnaire d'au:httJIogie chrirl., ....., el d. 1t'1IITgic, Vol. J, pI. 2, cola. 2819-86. Paris. 1914. RDqud. G. .. l.t:s If'*IIit... copt,," de. Baga"""l (Oasis de Kharp)." BNlle1in d. iii Sociil~ fU1l1t;ai>e d·ic,.,~ 76 (1916):25-49.

1318

JABAL AL-TAYR

Winlock, H. E. The Temple of Hibis o.S;I. New York. 1941-

JABAL AI.,.TAYR ($.amillil).

!k~

j .. Ella,,,rz~"

Pilgrimages.

JABLONSKI, PAUL ERNST (lb9}-17S1). German InMop;u. :and OriftlUli$t. He s,udied at

,he

Unlv~rsily

of F.....kfun...n-
a,

BIBUOGaAPHY

Helderman, J. "Jablonski en Te Wale.., T..~e Kopt· olo&en uit de lijd van de V ....lic:hlin,. - 1'JIr;"""i:< JoO (IW):S4---62. Qu.alremhe, E. Ihderches eritiquu CI IIis10riques SOU 14 l_npe tI '" lilloalUTe de rEm"". pp. &2. IIs-n. I"aris. IlIll8.

pJ\"£Cnl as a nhy JUCCCSloOf"'o the throne of Sain. Mark. 111m hen Mart died.•h", bishops imrnedialely ..-en! 10 WJ-een the Andalusians and !he ......khmids ...... S1ill """'putl round Ale...ndria. Tbe c::oliph appoinle
,.......,t

'0

SUM' V, lABtB

JACOB BARADAEUS (c. s00-S7I1l. the apostle of Monoph},ite Christianity in lhe church of Antioch fIOOIIOftlY$lT1SIoII). Throuah his dJons to pt'Csen"" the Antiod>ene church from pe~m be is ........,. II!I the found« of lhe Syrian Orthodon ehurch. or Jacobite church. whicb rcganls him U:l

<_

JACOB, SAINT, 6f1!.... h pawrch of ,he Sel: cL Saint Mart (1I19-UO).~ (V..'qoib) is known to hue been .. monk of 1hf: monwel)' of Sain, r.taca.· Ius (DlOYlt AliDA .....oAlt) at a lime "'hen Ihe bedouins from ,he Western I>es1m rak\ed wAul tUala and pillased lu monasteries and destroyed many of II< dureh«. Tb... occurred during ,he ~l\er uf lhe reign of MIln II. his predecessor. Apparenlly Jacob fled to the ""curily of Ihe distant monanerles of Upper ElIYPl. where he remai...,d until Ihe n,a, ",uding bedouin. left W~I HabIb. SO rhat be w;lS able to retu,n '0 hi. old abode in Wid! al·!'laINO. Evidently he w;lS known 10 Mark II durlng their Slay in Ihe Monastery of Salm Macarlus. Jacob's OlInctily was wdl known 10 him, and on his d~alh· bed he menlioned Jacob's name '0 rhe bishops

""rt

saint..

Jacob Baradaeus ...... bom in the village of Gama.."i nonh of Telli (Constanti....). in ,he upper reaches of ,he EuphT'll\C$. He took holy orders a, 1M: Monastery of Phasihh1 (Ihe Quarry) on MOlln! Ir.ala ..nd received his reliaious education al lhe nearby college of Nisibis. where he resi
JACOB OF SARUJ

Al the rime of 181:00', ~rr"'lp;ula: inlO pmm~ nenee. the Monophysile churches,. especially in Antioch. ~ brine peneo;w<:d by the arm~ of the B)urol''''' emp"w JllST1NIAN, "'ito aimed at eccles;' til;e.l as ""'ell .... political unity. Under his heavy hand. lhe church of Antioch W3.li near colllJ'!<'. and ;,. salvation was l.rat1y due to the "lfuru of Jacob. He 5<'cmo '0 h;,,-e bun dandcstine1y supponcd by Justinian', empress. THtoOOll, who ""ali said to have been the daughter of a Syrian priest .nd who had concr:aled ~njnp toward the chu~h of ht:T bmhpboce. J.,ob's untirina: and continuous ..... ,',,1$ through Syria dodPnl his imperial punucrs. IOnify-

1319

..no ewnnWJy manyred .he

was "'.... ppoed in apocryphal r.aJe,,; of his ......nd

btshop. Neve~. both the Jacobile and the Nestorian ehurche5 were IOlenued 1ft ""nil>. ...-~ lhey survh'ed .side by sW until Ihe coming of the Arab$. Jacob'. laler yean a~ c-nveloped in obKurily_ One of hi. last e/fons is known to have been his "(sit 10 Alexandria wilh a delegalion of Syri.n bi.h· ops in an allempllo cemenl Ihe union between the Jacob!!" and Ihe Coptic chure"e5. However. he and Ihree other memben of his delegalion mYSleriously cIIed toward lhe end of Jul~ 5711 al lhe Monaste!)' of S.fnl aolllltnll$ on MOIInl Casion, n~r the ~em fronl"" 01 ~l't. On .his occasion, u... Coptic pain. arch t>out...... set1t a "-arm Ie'll.... al condolen<:e to lhe elerl)" allhe EaiI. Jacob'. remairu _re transfcn-ed 1m- burial at his fann.... monastery 01 PhasiI· thJ,. Thanks 10 his m~cy efforts, the Jacobite church had an auu.ecl survi',,", with
lndef'lipble u~vcls, mainly on fool. in SyrIa. A,.. meni•. c.ppadocia, Cillda. ISiluria. Pamphyli•. Lyc·

BIBLIOCRAPIIY

Ina his Rock. and confirm'o. them in dw: Monophysilc profeWon saved !he church. whkh uhimatcly bon: his name .. Ihe Jacobi,.. church. He tried 10 ,,~ ;, in Ii"" "';1lI ilS sisler church of A1nandria. la«>b's life as a Ilru1 sainI in an ;meien. chu.-ch

aonia, Lycia, Ph!)'gi., Cairo. Asia, and the "island. of the ""a" (Cypru$. Rhode•• Chlo$. and MytHene [l..esbos). Thew were In addllion to the capit.al eil. Ie5 01 COIt5Uonlinople and Ale>:aodria. as well lIS the ....'hole of MC5OpOlamia. Anlbia. Persia. Sinal. and EcYJM-ali insuumcntal in the sunival of Monoplt)'$lle Anliochn>e Christianity. greal travels &l"t ",miniKenl 01 lhe apo5lOlic joumeys 0( Saint Paul in the defenx oIlM bith. P'robo.bly 110 cleric in hiSlOl}' ordained lIS many "ishops and palriarchs lIS Jacob. !hough he himsdf nevcr &5pired 10 allain the palriarchal diSnity. According to the allihors of hit a"PO"ryphal biographies. he consecraled 120.000 priests. These ... me ICCOun15 mention among thi!; enGrmGus number eighlY'seven Gr elghty·nlne bish· ops, lhough the confirmed rec<>rds mention only lwency.seven-which it stU! consi<Jl,rable. These inctudcd lWO patriarchs 01 Anli<>ch: s.e,rgjus and PAlil THE llI.ACs:. an EcYJMian by bi"'I& In AnbU, Jacob one., lonk re"tuee from hif im· pmal perwodors .. lht coun 01 the Ghassanid Cm;$Iiu kins aH:Unlh ibn Jabalah and his WC«Si<W, al-Mundhir. In Pft'lia he is uk! 10 11a~ Y\siIed the coun of C ~ I (mo.,.-" in Arabic lIS Kisrll Anu-Sharwln) at Seleucia in 559 10 pin loler· aIlt
n..-:s.-

Atl)':t, A, S, A Hi$lo!)' of Eostem

C~ri'I;Q~iry.

Lon·

&o~. 1967,

Cheho!. J. B .. ed. and lrans. ChTon;que de Michelle Syrie.., pttlritm:1N: jtlcobile d'A"titxhe IIM_99. 3 vob. Pari... 189'9-190), Honia n. H. Evlq"u el hhhb ~UIU d'Asie fmtNte "" VI',;uk. CSCO 127. Sl
JACOBITES. See

Jacob 8aratlaeus,

JACOB OF SARUJ (Ya'qub al-Saliijl. 451_521). "lonoph~le

S}Tian wriler. He "'"as bont at kunatn on the Eup!tnt" and was proboobly educated at Edessa.. He hec2rne " pries< and sen'fli .1 !;bwr:l ill the Sartlj dUlricI of Mesopoum;a.. Durine the lime ot Penian doo
1320

JAHSHIYARI, ABU 'ABD Al.l.AH. AL·

5"00 ~Iit:ious aIIiIialion, and translaled illlo Anbic from S)'I'4o, it makes up an imporl/lnl part of !he nonbiblloal ....ading lessons for Jacobites and (opts,

Sou,*" D. "AI·Djahshi)"jrt.. In Encyclopedi. at Is· 10m, Vol. 2, pt. 2. p. 39'9 (",fth bibliography). lei· den and L:>ndon, 1%5. KHAlil SAMIll., S.J_

Bc:djam. p" ed_ Homillu &Jecl"e M,,, J"com Sallll" e.. sis, ed. P. Bedjan. 5 l"OIs. Paris and ltipzlg. 1905-1910 (Syria<: tut). McLean. N. "Jacob of 5mish. In Encyc.dilli Bril"nnk",. Illh ed. VoL IS. pp. 114-15. New Yori<, 1911, Olinlkr, G.. ed. ("cobi S",ugensis EpiSlui"e OUOI' quol Supu'unl, Paris, 1937. Repr. in csea 110. Lou"ain, 1952. Wrighl, W. Sium HiIlO? of 5,"",c l.ilerdlU~e. Lon· don. 11l9J. N

JAMES, SAINT, uceIic (Ie,,", day. 3 Amshl.). It is nOi kn........ from "'w family James the AJcetk came no. from what country. The ~Iory In It>e SYW.XAlltON begins wilh hi> ...",.C_ESts in a ,a'l' during a period of fifteen years (all the SQur<:es five this figure)_ The Greek Synnarion, and h alone, spedfies lhallhis cave: was nea'lhe 10"''1 of ~mar' ... ¥>to)' probably the.,..., in Paltslint. called SebasiC in hoDO. of lhe emperor Auguslus (27 B.c.AD. 14)...-hieh has bccoe " ... an Ei)l'!1an who ..i1hd.ew to Samaria 0' a PaleMinian SO 10'11 as the ....."'e of lhc G..,ek Synau.riool i> nOl known. All &ourceo mentIon th" fcrvor of his lIllc"tldsm and his gIft for drh'ing oul dt:mons. The Coptic S)'JIaxarion adds tltal this won for him the hoslilily of Ihe discipl.... of the e boer blher that only James the Ascelk could deliver her. This came aboul, and the f3lher, fearing that Ihe devil might reco,'~r poS6tssion, resolv~d 10 leave hi. e no: of Ihe hermit. What mlghl have been forueen came to paliL The hermit dishonored the Ii" and. karl.. disco>ery, alew her. Full 0( remone, t>e multiplied hb penance. hoping lhat God would p;lfdon his cnme. Some time after lhat, a se......... drt>Ugh1 ""erwhelmed t.... people of tt>e ~Iion. NO! knowing what to do, th")' thoughl that only th~ prayers of James Ihe Ascetic could obtain for them the rain I .... y awaited. So lhey we'll in search of the bishop 10 eel him tl> ;'Iluvene. James conress.ed his crime, but Ihe bishop persuaded him lhal God could pardon """tyIltinc. on ~ondilion thal the JUilly one repented of hi> crime and did penance. filially Jamea agreed '0 suppl>cate God; a heavy ",infall nme 10 .tl....~ Ihe people of Ihe region. He died at. a ripe ofd ag<:o The Creek Synaurion ,tales that he was then se"enly·five )'cars old, This "edifying 110ry" has bul one aIm, to show lhe mercy of God and the power of the penances of lhe ascetic_ If Ihe description of the crime:s b accomplisJted ..·ith ~ism 10 tt>e point of shocking

be..,,,,

JAHSHIYARI, AB(J 'ABD ALLAH, AL-, I.... qi man of leuen and native of Kafah .... ho seltl.. d in Baghdad, He succeeded his father in the service of the viti... 'All ibn 'lsi, whost personal guarda h .. commanded in 918. He died in B.achdad in 942/ 943. Al-Jahshiyfor1 is knooo-n fot- hi> B«Hc at 1M V~,., II..J Surel"ria. the finc pal work of its kind in Arabic lit..ntu..... This hiSlol')' proc«d!l to I~ year 908. e,'fll lhoush the s«ond part has been lOS!. The only known manU$Cript Is prese",ed al the National Library, Vienna (Cod. Mlxt. 916). It canLa;ns Ihe first par'!, ending at the reign of al·Ma'miin Cd, 8B). This unique manuscript WlI$ copied by an anonymous Cop! in 1151-1152 ("..., fol. 204b), !he foli~ brinl numbered wilh CoplK numft1lls from I 10 204. This facl ilJUSI"'ltS the inlertll that Wamk cultu.e had for the Copts. TM manU5<:ript was t"'l1ocribed in a vel)' skilled script and ..... enti.ely vocalized. Besidts It>e facsimile edItion by H.•0'1 M,ik (1926), a*"lnlec! edition of the text Wa5 published in (airo in 1938 by MIl4\;lb al·Saqq~, IbriM .... al·lby.trt, an~ Abel al-Haf'lt Shalabl_ BlBUOCRAPHY

Bmckelmann, C. ~hkhte de, .,."lti
JAMES OF SCETIS, SAINT

us, it is to bring out more clearly the divine good· ness and the efficacy of the hermit', asceticism. BIBLIOGRAPH'a' Budge, E. A. W. The Book of Ih~ Sai>tts 01 th~ Ethi-r pian Chu,,'h. 4 vols. Cambridge, 1928. Deleha)'e. H, Synaxarium uclesia' Cons/tl.ntinopo/. ;Iana., Propylaeum Ad Acta Sanctorum Nov.m· bris. Brtt$scls, 1902. Sauget, J.-M. "Premieres recherches sur l'origin. et les caracferistiques d.s s)'naxaires melkil.s." Sut.. .idia Hagiographica 45. Brussels. 1969. Troupeau. G, Ca/tl.logu~ des manu,cri/> arab's, pf. 1. Man",;crits chri:li~ns, .2 vols, Paris. 1972-1974. RENE·GEORGES COQum

JAMES INTERCISUS, SAINT, or Jacob the Sawn or al·Muqana', a Persian manyr of the third century (feast day: 27 HatOr). He is fully document· ed in Syrioc, Greek. Arabk, and other s()urees, The bask text c()ncerning him is a Passi()n extant in .everal redaction•. The redaction closest to the original, according to P. Devos, is th. Syriac (Bed· jan, 1%8). One of the four Greek redaction. appar· enlly derives from this one (the other three .eem to be reworkings), and the other Oriental versions would appear to derive, directly or indirectly. from Ihe Greek, In Coptic we possess fragments ()f the Passion in Sahidk (British Museum. Or, 7561.12021. ed. Winstedl. 1911; Valican library, Borgia. 109. 145a: National Library. Paris, COpte 129,16.78 and 78 bis). In Bohairic we possess the complete te.t (Valkan library, Coptk 59f. 1-29, ed. BaI.,.tri and Hyvemal. 19(3) and fragments of another codex (d_ Evelyn.White. 1926, p. 14). These lexts ..,.,m to be in su""tanfial agreement. However. if is important to n()le that the complete texi ()f the Passion has a hi.torically interesting ap~9dix, which is a long passage dellCribing Pefer th !berian's mo,'ing of the relics of Jame. from Jenlsal~m t<> a site near Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. This passage .hould be at· tributed 10 the end of the fifth century. A summary of the complete Bohairic redaclion of Ihe Pusion follows. linder the Persian kin& !skarnf. son of Shipur I. a great persecution/was unle....hed againsl the Christians, James was a nobleman. and a member of the king's council. Although he was a ChriSlian, al firsl he did not react. His mOfher and wife u'
1321

usual in accounts of martyrs and also James' vision of Jesus and healing. James was eventually condemned 10 death and carried to the place of e~ecuti()n, The execution scene is the principal part of Ihe Pass;o, which consists of a descripfion of fhe manyr's limbs being cut ()ff and hi. pronouncing a long prayer at the I""" of each piece. He is then decapitated. Some believers recover his body, and hi. moth.r. siSler, and wife build a mal1yrium. However. Ihe king gives Ihe order for all manyria 10 be bumed. The martyr's remains are then rescued and taken to Jerusalem. The appendix concerns th. translation of the remains to Egypt. Pefer the Iberian. who was from the Georgian royal fumily. was a monk and bishop of Mayuma near Gan, He was persecuted for being anti-Chalcedonian and fled to Alexandria. where two of his disciples joined him with the relics of James. Howe"er. at Alexandria he was persecuted again and he ned to Bishop MMes al O.yrhynchus. At Paim near Oxyrhynchus he and his disciples built a shrin. where James's relic. could finally rest in peace, BIBLIOGRAPHY Balestri, I.. and H. H)vemal. Acta Marlyrnm. 2 vols. CSCO 43. 44. Paris. 1908. Bedjan. P.. ed, A.ela Marlyrum el SonclOrum Sinoee. 7 vols. Paris and Leipzig, 1890-1897, Repr. HHdesheim, 1968, De"os, P_ "Le dossier hagiographique de S. Jacques l'Intereis," Analecla Bollandia ..a 71 (1953),157210. Evel)'n·Whife. H. G. New Coptic T~xts from Ihe Mon· aSlery of Saint Maca,ius. New York, 1926. Winstedl, E. O. "Coptic Saints and Sinners," Pro· ceedings of Ih~ Society of BibUcal Archwlogy 30 {19(8):231-37. 176-83; 32 (1910):195-202. 24652; 33 (911):113-20. TIro ORUlNOt

JAMES OF SCETlS, SAINT (feast day: Sal· Nasi'). The notice that fhe SVNAXARION devotes to this saint is very decepti"e Ihrough its banalil".. We do nOi know at what age he died. and hence we cannot fix the date of his birth. We do not know the place of his origin. He lived in the eleventh century. He dedicated himself very young to the monastic life. having reached the Monastef)' of Saim Macarius (DAYR ANIlA !.MaAR) in Seetis. He withdrew into one of the cell. ()f 10HN coLOOOS. He was named archdeacon of the church of the monastef)'

1322

JAM'IYYAH AL-KHAYRlYYAH AL.()lBTlYYAH, Alr

of Saini John. Hi. ~\IlII reached !he lou,," of M~•• and he " ... ch<;lKn 10 be iI. bi.hop. Hi. P'omoIioo only ea~ hill humility and hi...... 1 '0 beeom.. e~en gr..ale•. He reprimanded the negll. genl prie.!> al Ihe moment of ""orince 01 the divine m~l ..rie•. He knew lwo ~Itiarch$. Anblo CIlRlSro· DQIJI.l.IS (1047-1077) and CYRIL II 11018-1092). We know from Ihe HI$JORY of 1ll£ ~"T1UARCHS thaI James di...:! in 1088 ah~ occupying hill ~o pal l a l r.... 1WeI>ty-lOou. )'011 BlBUOGllAPHY

Cas.an.,. P... ~ Nom$ copies du Calre ..11<>e:alilb Bu/I"liM d .. f"lMSliIU/ ''''''fiJis i/'A.",/U.,.. voisin IVIlI.. ori..m"l.. 1 (1901):139-224. Munier, H. Ru" ..iI tI.. s US," epl$cvpvl..s de ['EgUse CoP/". Cairo. 1943.

JAM'IVYAH Al-KHAYRlVYAH AI..OIBTIYY AM, AJ..., SU Iknnolenl Societie$. Coplic.

JAM'IYYAT ASOIOA' AL-KITAB Al. MUQADDAS. S.... Friends of Ihe Bible. SociCly of lhe.

JAM'IVYAT AJ.,ISLAH AL-OIBTI. tic Refom> Sadety.

JAM:MA, AJ.... S.... Madinal H5bU;

s....

C0p-

M.. mnonia.

JASON. Sa Mylhalollkal SubjcelS in Coplic An.

"'

JAWHARAH AL-,NAFISAH, AJ.... S- Ibn Siboo' Yul:w>N Ibn Abi ZakariY)'f,.

JAWSAQ. S.... Kttp.

JAZIRAT Al·DAYR. See Dayr

JEME.

s.... Madinal

al·ll.um~niyy.h.

HibU; Memnonia.

JEREMIAH,

APOCRYPHON

OF,

SU

Apocr}]>hoo of Je....miah.

JEREMIAH, SAINT. Very linle is knQwn aboul Ih;" ..int. II is plausible Ihal the monaslery al Saqqara had been pluM under Ihe ~ln:>nag~ of a J~iah. la whom a pank"lar holines$ """5 allrib,,!£d. ,,·beIh.... 0< n01 he " ... m first superior. 11M: chronkle of Ihe bishop JOHN OF N1JUOI! ~ 10 speak 01 him. whkh makes him a e<>nl.. mpon.ry oi the ~mpen:>' Anaslasi.... !he dales of whosoe rs la haw: been commemoral...:!. Par1i.cular vene""ian was paid 10 Ihe c.. 11 Ihal he had Oo:cupied as ,he pl.c", wher.. he had prayed for Ihe entire- ,,'orld, Two inscrlplions seem 10 allud.. 1<> a perseculion. blJl given thaI Ih.,.., leXIS are 110I daled. we eannO! know w~r thew: eoo...n", "..,re conl<'mporary "m Ih~ saini. The whok. al least. &!tows lhaI lhe ..............ion «!he monu 1.,....n1 Sain. Je",miah "'as ~,by I'UISOn of the fr,equency of the Inyoulio.... c:onsiderin& lhal his nam.. is oIIen in""k<'d in.medialely afI~. IhOSoC oilhe Ihm!' divine Penon•. We may add lhat a pilgrim. an ....chdeacan named Theodoslus. menlion. IwO monaslenes al Memphio: "unum CSt religioni, Vandalomm saneli lercmiae:' Thi. I",veler wrole hi. itin..rary around 530. The eXCa,·al;""" al Saqqara ha,'e ....,...aled. a fre>cO repreifnt;rt& Jerl'miah. bIll Ihis is perhaps only a

JEROME, SAINT

pai~ti~g

indicating how the monks of the mon..... teT)' imagined their saint, rather than a true pornait; J, E. Quibell reproduces a watercolor (19G8. Vol. 2, pI. 60), [Su Qi$(}: Christian Subje<:lS in Coptic An.] BIBLIOGRAI'"HY

Amelineau, E. L> Geogmphie de /'Egypte ~ Npoque COple, Paris, 1893. Charles, R. H. The C!mmkle of 10hn, Coptk Bishop of Nikiu. Text and T"mslation $o<:i<:ty 3. London. 1916, Repr. Am'terdam, 1981. Trans. from ZOIcnberg's Elhiopic lexl. Ouibell, J. £. ExcQVQlio"s ,,' Saqqara. Vol. 2. Cairo. 1908. Reymond, E. A. E., and J. W, B. Barns, Four Mort)'r. doms from Ihe Pierpom Morgo~ Coptic Codices, Oxford, 1913. Thompson. H., N. The Coptic l"scriptions. Text in ExcovOIkms 01 Saqqaro [Ill]. 1907-190S, [IV], 1908-1\109.1909-1910. Cairo. 1909~19l3. Zotenberg, H. Chroniq"e de Jean eviqu. de Nikiou, pp. 125-605. Notice et extraits de< manuscrits de la Bibliotheque nation ale 24. Paris, 1883. REN~-GEORG~

JERNSTEDT.

PETER

COQUtN

VIKTOROVICH

(1890-1966). Russian linguist, papyrologisl, and Coptologist. He published Greek texts such as Die Kome-AphrodllO Papyri dec Sammlung LichQCOV (Tbitisi, 1927): and SpiJ/TiJmische und byl.a~lin;sche Tale, with Zereteti (Thilisi. (930). in Papyri ms· sischer und ge<>rgischer Sammlungen 3-4. He pub· lished Coptic texts such as Kopli5Ch~ Tat~ aus de", PU5chkin·Muse"m Maskau and Kaptlsche Texze "uS der Eremirage (hoth Moscow and Leningrad. 1959), He also worked on Captic philology. mainly .yntax BIBI.1OGIl"i'lfY

Elanskaja. A. l. Wissenscha/tlic" Zeilschri/t de, U~;· vers;riit Hall~-Witlmber8 26 (1977):93-99. including bibliography. " Fikhman, I. F. 10urnai of Juristic Panrolog)' 16-17 (1971):257-60. Irmscher, J.; P. Nagel: and l. Zemke, Bywnz ,md b)'umUnischer Orient in d~r sow;el;schm WiS5e~ sclta!I, pp. 28ff. Halle-Wittenberg, 1968. MARTtN KRAUSE

1323

was translating the Bible from its original languages into Latin, Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus in Latin) was horn in Stridon at the head of the Adriatic, His advanced education began in Rome and was continued duro ing many years of travel to cities of the East. includ· ing Antioch. Lo.odicea. and Constantinople. In Chal· cis. as a hermit in the Syrian desert, he learned Hebrew and Greek. In Alexandria he attended da.'IS"s under OItIG£N in the CATECI-lETKAL SCHOOL. [n 382~385 Jerome returned to Rome, where he was secretary to Pope Damasus I. began his bib[ical translalion at the pope's request, and laughl Paula and other Roman noblewomen. wI><:> were his disci· pIes. After the death of Damasus, Jerome, accompanied by his disciples, roturned to the East. ""here he visited Egypt and Palestine before settling down in Bethlehem to devote the remaining three d«ades of hi, life to a vast lite raT)' production. Throughout his life he practiced a strict asceticism that he must have encountered in the East, especially in his visits to Coptic monasteries in Egypt. He may ha.e been made a cardinal by Damasus. although the o~ly evidence is a late ,hirte<:nth·century image of him in a ca, an account of Christian authors. including the Coptic church fathers. that was the first great work on patristics. He tran,lated many works of such Coptic fathers as Origen and IHDYM1!S THE BI.IND. J~rome abo combated prevail· ing heresies, notabl}' ARIANtSM and PEUGlANtSM, and he turned. against Origen as a result of the rising tide of Origenist controve~y,

JEROME, SAINT (c. 347-419/420), a father of

BIBLIOGRAI'"HY

the church who was one of the greatest biblical scholars of all time. His roremost accomplishment

Leigh-Bennett. E. Handbook of Ihe Eod)' Christian Falhers. London, 1920.

1324

JERUSALEM, COPTIC SEE OF

Wright, F. A. FQlh,n; of 1929.

11t~

Clt..rclt. New York, A~r~

S. ATIYA

JERUSALE,I\I, COPTIC SEE OF. From the bq:inni"l t dunn,; thc uign of Pto~m)' I. Thty "'..,..., senl 10 live in Cyrene, whleh at !hat lime brlo~d 10 Egypt.. When the bedoui"" in,-aded Cyr=t. the family of M"rl Idt for Jenua!t1Il. After Ptnlt<:O$l,. " n..dtuS of Egyptian Christian! was formed in tlte Holy ulld. They Wt<e la". joined by otlter-. who traveled to Jerusalem and settled the...,. Egyplians went to Jtn..rsalem after ir had ~n deslrtl)'el! by Til\i$ in A.D, 70 and rebuilr by Hadrian. CUIllENT Of' AJ,.£XAlhop oJ Caesa.-ea. He often preached at rhe chureh in Je",..lem, and he founded the $Chool of theology in Caes.area. In rhe ,."ian of OONSTANTINE THE GREAT Ihe place of tbe holy Cr<)$$ and other holy p1.ces were redis· covered.. ""d chu""~ were built on rhe HIes. 1'lltA· tIMI~ I the AleJ' firmed by Pa.. la, "f.o visiled Jerwalem in 386. pilgrim Atria. who "'as in J.-rw.alo:m al !ho: same lim<:. a1Io commented Of! the pt'eSeJ'lCe of ErrPttan monk$. Around J~. four Coptic rnonb known as Ihe Tan 8rother-. ".,...1 to Jerusalem as" TI!:SUIt of" dispule Mt"""n lI>em "nd lheir bishop. TH£OPJUl.U5 Of Al.EXANDRIA. They were followed by nearly fifty monks from WAd] al·Na1nln. Many other Copts also went 10 JeNsalem, some On pilgrimal". same to .isil, and ...._ to live there.

n"

11. small ehur<:h

eOllsullctcd near lite Church of the ResurTeclic>n at lite very !pIll where MARY rHE EGynrAN Is said to have ..,pemed in 382. The nu",beT of Copts visitina the "ity incr<>ased sreadily_ Copts are mentiollCd among the sects represo:nte'ery yo:.ar. In his campa... In Ec;ypt. Saladin "'105 Kcompanied by a largt number of Copu., and after his vie10Jy he rr:stOO'ed 10 them most of their propenies. monast"ries, and chu...,hes. After lhe Otloman OOrtqI.ICSl of Palestine, the SQ. tU! of the Cope. _ , lmproV io Jerusall!:m have pt'ucrved their sacred relics and
n.e

"2$

JERUSALEM. COPTIC SEE OF Near Ea.1. It now ..... mon"'l~ries. xhools. lind orphanages in _ cities of lhe area and in Sinai.

Coptic Archbishops In Juu..lcom stnce .....rly in the Christlan era. Copt:s have main. ~ned .ilible SIlII... in lhe Holy Und. They acquired pmpeny. buih chun::1ws. and looked afIer lhrir rdigious and administ""i~ alIain in In-usa. Ie... th"""'Ch the Copt:>e ardlbishop of lRmiella (Dumr5!)...too .....,nl 1(> Jcorusalem each reu boefo..., Chrisunas and ...,rnaincod until aflcor E.ulC"r. In 1236, Popco (Y'Ul lit appoinled Anld IlA$lUOS I archbishop (If the newly cre:alC"d dio<;esc of lhe See of Jeru ..lem and All lhe Eal\. He was gramed au. lh(lrily to look aflcor Coplic ImereslS, churches, and sacred p<>5l1Clllionl in JeN$alem. otl>et" pa.ru of PaIeIIine. Syria. and a1(ln& tM El>pbrales. Since thaI lime. Ihe se<: of J~lU!Ialem has lxoen divided tMeco: ~ after lIMo death of Archbishop nlllOTHFD$ I In 1925 and lpin after the death of Archbisbop T1W)PtIIlOS I In 1~5. Un.il 1925. me dioc:eoe consisled of JelU$a\~. the res!: of Palesline. the Orienl. 1M Egypllan ~"",nol~ (If Ihe Suez Canal. lhe province, of Daqahli)')Olh. Shar. qi)yah, and mOSl of Gharbiyyah. "" well a. lhe clly of Damieua and SinaI. H(lwe.'er. lhese e>clenlive recion. were rcoduccod in Ihe middle of the I_nl~ eth century l(l Jervsakm. PaIaUI>e. Sinai. and thco Oricm. n(l'" bcoin. called ,he Diocese of Ihe So« of Jeru....lem. lilt" Near Ea!.t. and Sinai. "The spiritual leader of lIMo I « has bun a metropo!iW! "tN>. acc<>l'd.i", to Coptic Ortbodo:>x tndition, stands finI an1O"ll the" archbWonps ....d follows the" pope of AJeu.ndria in sconiorily_ There e~iSlS no detailed history of Ihe an::hbish. ops of the 5« of Jerusalem. Tile following li'l of the archbishops .Ince BasillOI I is derived from manU5CripI~ prt:lC"rved in llf5,. patriarchal archi",. in Cairo. lhe library of lhe ~ic Museum in Old Cairo. and lhe JMIriarchalco In Jerusalem (somco gaps r~main 10 bco fillcod): 1. BasiliOJ I (1236-1260) .... eonsecr.l1ed ~rin«: the rriJn of Popt Cyril III. 2. Bu!ruI I (1211-1.306) ..-as comt:<:..... ed during the reill" (If Paln..rch JOH.'f VII. H~ rook up residenee in lile Church of lite Virgln Mary al Da. mascu~ and was join~d 11lC"..., by lh~ hlstorlan Ibn al.Makln Jlrjl. Ibn al··...mld. 3. Mikhl'lI I (1310-132") wall con5<"C
1325

... &1'._ n (1331-1J62) ...... C<)rl$ft"""led in the" ...,Ign of PETEIl Y (13-40-1348). His n,u.,e i. cile
wa,

mary role. 6. Vacobos the HCOJUmenos (I6lM-1618) ...... a coruemponry of Mad V (1602-1618). In a docu",",nt dated .ut. 12 Ba'O"ah 13M/A.]). 16

June 1604. il is ~laled that Mart< appoinlenl*leries outside the Church of lhe Resurreclion. 7. ChristodoulO$ I (l6JI-I~J """ a e<>nlCtnpOrary of MATTHtw HI (lo3"-16ot9). S. Gabriel I (1680-1105) ...... a roTllemponory of JOHN X\1 (1676-1718). 9. Chmlodou!os II (1120--172~) _ . contemporary of PETDl V1 (1713-1726). 10..... lhanasi... I (172.5-l1oo) Wall a co....emporary of Palriarch Peter VI. "'ho. accordinlj: 10 tlte NI5TORY OF TH~ '~Tl\IAI\CHS, appoinled him 10 suc· ceed Cltrislodouk». whom hco lransfened 10 Ethiopia.. II. Viisib I (1170-1796) was a conlemporary of (1169-1196). 12. Chri,uodou\os III (1797- IB19) ""as a con,CtnpOrary of IoI.UIo: VIn (11%-1809) and ruu "ll aI·Jawll (1809-1852). 13. Abraham I (1820--185-4) """ a conlemporary of JOHS XVIII

I".

1.5.

16.

17.

18.

Pcoler VII. He ~rtic-ipated wilh Anb! Saraba· mun. known as .... bU Tarl:rraled by C,TiI v as bishop 10 aid Basilios II in 18%. He succeeded &silios In 1899. BASlI.IOS III (1925-1935) ...... a c011lemponory of Cyril V and JOH~ XIX (1928-1941), Theophiloo I (193.5-1945) was a conlemporary (If John XIX. Y'\coIIOS n (19~-1r;s6) was consecn..ed by Pa· uiarch YOs.I.B II.

1326

JERUSALEM. COPTIC SEE OF

19. Ibsilios IV (1959-) .... consecrated in 1969 by Clltll. \1.

Churches

The Church of the RaulTKtion _nds .hoo-e 1M Holy Sq>uIcher. So~ n~.rby ~rtioes are res!lWn<:C'S for Ih~ Copolc priests ""'00 conducl lhe reli· giou. ril..... They also own Icons and lamps that are used during sen'len. The Copts' right of resic!cnce at the church dates back 10 3&4 ""h~n the Tall Brothers lived ther~. Many authors and pilgrims have written about Ih~ Chri.tian groups in {he church, In 1697. Maundrell (18101 observed that Greek. u{in.....rmenian. and Coptic pricst5 laboad th~re. NOl:ing payment~ im· posed by the Turu and high salaries. h., wrot., that 1M only Sttts who _re able to 1'l""C'S"''''''' Ilv:ir plac· es ~ .... tht: u.ins.....T1lH'nians. and Copr$. BoIh Elttarius Horn (1738) and &norm (1'23) obse. ooed that !he Latins. Grub. and C<Jpu w~ .... lh~ only I«IS ",'hose p";""'tl; resided inside the church. The Copts ~ the following l'C:SCi'Yed areas: I. A plac., that ben the Coptic church in the Chun:h of the R~ction. It h;as ''''0 doors and two ",ories. ",i'h '10/0 rooms on the fii'$\ and three On the ..,.,ond. Coptic priests reside in thesf rooms. 2. Colum'" 10 and 11 under Ihe dome. ""'hich bnr two Coplic icons. In front are two Coptic lamps. 3. Three arche, conn«tlng column. 9. 10. and II. on whi<;h hang Coptic Icon. and lamps. 4..... IWO'","ried ,Iructure wesl of lhe main pte of Ihe Church of the Resurrection. Th., fi~ SlOI)' hQ on., room and the upper I~,'CI .".., room and a balcony ""i!h windo\o.'J O\-erlooking 'he 1",,'0 porches of the Church of the RcsutTeetioll and Go1iOlft:to as ""-ell as tlv: SlOne of Unction. The roomslhernM:lves ~rrc .. residences for Cope;" pricsls. 5. A bell thai is runlt:.rior 10 1M opm.inC of lhe l'l'lain door of churcll. Only Latins. Gretb. Copu. and ArmeniaN F Sff- bell. at the Oourch of the Rtsurn<:llon. Of tht ChriMian S«ts rqll'Qe'l1tM in ,.,., Oo\l~h of the RtsurrtCtion_Gr«k Orth<>don. La'in, Anntnian. Coptic Orthodox. and Syrian Onhodox-lOfIIt soIt respon.ibility for cenain ..,lies in Iht church. ""ht..,... the Greeks. Latins. Artntnians. and Copts ,hare r'Csponsiblllty for otht... A(c(lrdina to Ptlissit du Rau$llS (1902-1905. Vol. Z, pp, 148, 152, 154). Ihis division ...., made to prevent disputes. Tlte five group. jointly posse$s th., passllg"'5. hall· ways. the lalenl nave. tile dome. tI.t .... Ircases

me

ha,..,

leading to lhe chapel of lhe Invcnlion 01 the C...... the .....Ier ciscem in the north.....,.., a>rneo" of lhe c....rca. and the pqsace that l...ds then'. The 110/0 COm"""" pos.....ioM of ,he Latins. Gr«k Orthodox. Armenians. and Copts an: the SlOne of Unction and thO' Chapel oIthoe Holy Sepulcher. Tbc ..,eci6c rights and "'">..",u,," 01 Copts in the church arc as follows: I. They possess udusive"'" and care 01,1, Can· delabra imide the Holy s..pukher and tltt Sancluary of the Ao&<,1 candelabra (four within the Holy Sepulcher. one In the Sanclu"ry (lf Ihe Angel. and one .bove the Stone of Unction). 2. The Copts have a rialtt to official ent",nCes to the church, .. do the otMr communiti~ repn:sent· ed the..... ThrouPt Ihese ~ntranc... pass fOlTilal pI'<> cessin,n, ....ch occasions customarily occurrina On Satunla)"l and Sundays or [..,nl and on roe.,1 days. l. The Copts haoe a pcmtalM:nt richl to oold p .... Cc:ss>ons whm hold,,,, :lemc.,., .especially on Good Friday. on Ho.!.I' Satun;by. at dawn on Easler Sunday. and on WhitsUnday. V"'" £c:rnont said lhal he the WhitsUnday pNeeuion. which 'nvol'o.>cd Gre"*,, and Armenia.... roUowed by Copts and SyrI. aos. On Good Friday. lhe Chwclo 01 the Resurrcc· tion is opened in the na..... of the Cop!$. 4. The Copo, have tlv: right 10 cmM btcfore all the holy relks it> chu~h lorict dIlily. indudiPJl fust day•. 5. The Copts also ha"e the right to ctlebnlle tlte morning and evenlna prayers of the Holy Utany. Within tit., Church of the Reted ... most IaCred not only because It is situllId behind 1M Holy s"pukher but abo be· <:au... it i. consilWred an intql:nol pan of the chu.--eh·' $InKtt"..,. Cont~m!"OJ'UY with the Church of the Resurrfftlon. the charnber$ of this ",hapel h....e housed Coptic monks since the second half 01 the fourth century. Wb~n Empel'OC" Constantine Monomachos c0mpleted the rebuildinl of the Cht.m:h 01 ~ R.esurn:c· tion in 104&, the Coptic sanctuary behind the Holy Sq>ukher was left intaci. n.. Crusaden. ""hUe pc1"'" s«u'ing lhe dCTIl:)' of OrienUoi churches. P'""Mt"Ied this Coptic saotcl..:ll)'. Wllm Saladin en•.,red Jenua· lem in 1187. he rewarded the loyalty of the Copts by restoriotg In., plx"'t that had Men tak",n from them. When f,re ."read from the Anntnia" chapel on 30 September IW8. It destroyed th., dome of the Church of the Res.urrection and dIlmaged the col· ",m"" and marble floor. Onl\' th., dom., of lhe ~I"

""w

I""

JERUSALEM, COPTIC SEE OF

uleher, the Latins' church, the eave of the Cross, and the museum of the hc>ly relics
1327

alt:lT was replaced and a Coptic iconostasis inserted. A new chapel dedicated to Oneen Helena was built. Mass is usually held evel)' Tuesday and on feast days, but doily during the season of pilgrimage and visiting, The Church of the Apparition of the Holy Virgin was built to commemorate the appearance of the Virgin in 1954 at that site. There is one sanctuary in the church and an icon obo>'e the altar depicling the Holy Virgin carr;ring the infant Jesus. There is also an image of the Holy Virgin on the ceiling "f the church. Mass is celebrated every Monday mom· ing. The Churcb of Saint G
1328

JERUSALEM, COPTIC SEE OF

church. Mass is held n"n}' Thunday during the season of pillrin>a«e and on feast da)". Two annual m _ ne hdd. tbt first on Saini GeIlege for women was esiabllshN in 1953. ~ Church oJ. MichKI the Archangel is one oJ. twO churches in Dayr al&l}in in Jerusalem aod is ooc of the oldest Coptic: chun:hes in the Holy ~d. It ...... possibly bWlt by ~r a1·1'iIbin1....-no ...-as ptifor in Jcrusainn and other places duri"i! lht _ d half of the elcv..nth cer>!ury. This church was 50 famous that Its narne _ ginn to the mon~lery In which it il nOw housed. as evidenced by many documents in the Coptic Pa· triarchate in Jerusalem in which lhe monastery is called the "Monastery of the Anlel." The door of the church opens ontO Ihe }...-d of lhe dlurch of the ReAuTcction. II can also be rtaChecl from lhe Coptic Puriarc.1Iau. 1beTe is one altar in tbt church aod an iconostasis oJ. wood and i......-y in the form of crosses in t)l'ical Coptic style. On the sanctuary door tWO lines in Arabic a'" inscribed. The first line reads. "COnsecralftl 10 the Archanlel Michael in Holy Jerusalem," and the 1«. ond, "0 Lord. rcstore the weary." The inscription tells liS tMt the i~onOSlasis was made In 1742. 11 has tW
The d'u",h Is very old and has one sancluary. Its Iconos""" Os made of wood and i......-y in Ihe old Coptic style, Upon Ihe icono6l.tiis are two lll$<:ription•.•he firsl eons"'ts of two lines: the first line f1:'ads, "Yoor dwellings arc beio.'ed. Lord God of Hosts." .and the s.econd. "Ye C1ernal gates open and let th.. L<:w"d of Glory in.'· The ae<:ond inscripllon is al50 of twO lines: the first. wrinen in Coptic and AnOs Ihere arc ,Ilree very old icons and on the southern wall an: Icons of Ihe archangel Michael. Jesus. the four creaIllres, and lhe Holy Virgin. On lhe eastern wall. behind tbe alUllr. tll<:r<: is an icon representing Abra· ham and~. The church I. sulTOunded by an iron fen~e. 11 has a door ,hal leads to the Sancluary of the Vault of .1< ern.. The Church of th<: Sepulcher oJ. the Holy Vll"Jin in Gcthscmane is in the valley oJ. KlNlron. nocar me Soot of the Mount of Olives, "'Nrc the l.CJlUlcher of the Holy Vlrtln lies. A smail chuf"l:h ..... built abo'"Cthe sepulcher In the middle oJ. the founh ~enllU)' in lhe days of Theodosi... the G.-I (J79-395). In the fifth ~entury • la'l!er church W3$ buill. Ihe Church of the Holy Vi'1in Mary, It "'a5 damaged during Ihe Penian invasion in 614 but was SOOn rebuilt. It was damaged '/laln during the reign of the Fatimid sui· Ian al·l:I~m and was rebuill in its present fonn by the eru-:lers in I 130. Amico (I95J) N>d Nau (1679) both menlioned an altar in the cllurch used by the Copts, n.e .Itar ....t>cre the COflts p~ today lies we:sI oi the weU, which is ilKlf -Sl of the Scpuk:her oi I"" Holy Yirpn. Pra)"CfS are held III thb alQlr on Wedn~ and Frida" throughout the ynr and C>'ery day duro Ing fasting and f~as~ of the Villin. Masses are also celebntftl a, the ~hurch. and these are attended by the Coptic clergy and the peopl~ in a Fonn.l pro~C$Sion from ,he Coptic Patria",hate 10 the chu.-.:h "::tll,," the Via OolorosaPierre Loti (1896). wrill", about hOI wisil 10 the Holy Land. S&)" about the Sepukher oi the Hoi)' Vi"";", 'W~ IIOOd by the ScpWcher of the HoI}' Vi,..in. an old ~hu.-.:h from the founh CCII'UI')I 0 ...... which all lite sects hav.e disputed ro..- many centu· ries. It now helong,; jointly 10 Ihe Greek.. and AI'1JI<:nians, but the Copts have a .pe~ial pla~~ for prayer." A~cordinllO Neophytos (1938) the Church of tho: Ascension "had a biG dome IIpon ",-hich a la'1l" c"""" of brontt was hell and CO\'ered wilh colored a:Jass. At sunrise the ""Y" of lhe ..... refte.cted Ihcs.e

JESUITS AND THE COPTIC CHURCH

colors on the city of Jerusalem. Ahe,- the Anob Con· quest of Jerusalem in 640 the cross was ,-emoved. During lhe rule of the Crusaders this church was preserved, but it was demolished during Saladin's conquest of the city. Only a small dome remained covering the place where Christ ascended to hea,', en. Saladin prese .....'ed this dome due to the Mos· lems' respect for the spot This could be the reason why they built a mihr~h Kluth of the dome." The Copts ha"e a pennanent stone alUtr in the church, where they pray on lhe eve of Ascension Day ilSelf. On Ascension Eve, prayers stan al 2:30 ~."l. The Copts enter the church in procession and, after visiting Ihe pla"e of the Ascension, perform their prayers, which end at about 5:00 P.M. The procession then relUms to Ihe patriarchale. On As· cension Day, mass is held at 7:30 A.M. The procession visits lhe place of the Ascension and then pnoyers are offered. During mass, deacons make a procession un
Amico, B. PI~ns of th. Sacred Edifice, of lhe Holy Land, lmns. T. Bellorini and E. Hoade. Jerusa· lem, 1953. '/\,..f al·'Araf. AI·Mula~~~1 Ii Tilrikh ~{·Quds. Jerusalem, 1961Borsum, J. F. J. Rd,e nach Crmslantinopel, PMos/ina, und Jgyplen. Berlin, 1825. Bushell, G. ehu'che. of !he Holy Land. New York, 1969. BUlcher, E. L. F. The Story of Ihe Church of EgypI, Vol. 1. london, 1897. Ceruili, E. Etwpi in Palestina. Rome, 190. Colbi, S. P. Christianity in the Holy L~nd. Tel Avi,', 1969. Condor, C. R. The Latin Kingdom 01 Jerw,a/em. Lon· don, 1897. Cust, L. G. A. 11le SI~lus ~o in Ihe Holy Plaus. Jerusalem, 1968. , Egmonl, J. A. van. Trawls Ihrough Pari of Europe, Asia Minor, Ihe Islands ol'lh. A,chipel~go, Syria, Palestin" Egypl, M. Sina;,' trnns. L. Davis and C. Reymers. London, 1759. Elston, R. Th. Travel/e", H~~dblXlk for Palestin. and Syria, p. 142. London, 1929. Gall, G. B",ch"lbung iiber hrusalem. Fribour-g, 1877. Gibbon. E. Th. Dedine and Fall of 11,1' Roman Empire, Vol. 4. New York, 1932 Hanauer, I. E. Walh in and Around Jerusalem, p. 97. london, 1926. Hoade, E. Guide 10 Ihe Holy Land, 4th cd. Jerul-alem, 1971.

1329

Horn, E. {can08raphiae lacorum el manumemorum vetuum TerrM SanClae. Rome, 1902. Jeffery, G. A Briel Description of the Holy Sepulch", p. 58. Cambridge, 1919. Loren,en, F. Jerusalem. Ki,I, 1859. Loli, P. La Galilee-La .wO'lIu;' vu1e. Paris, 1896. Luke, H. C. The Handbook of Palesl,ne, p. 45. Lon· don, 1922. ___, trans. A Spanish Franciscan's Narrative of a Journey 10 Ihe Holy La~d. London, 1927. Maund,-eil. H. {aurney from Aleppo 10 Jerusalem a! EaSI.,. A.D. 1697, lrans. R. Clayton. Many edi· lions. Meinan1us, O. F. A. The Copts in {.",salem. Cairo, 1960. Moore, E. A. The Ancient Churches of Old Jerusa· lem. Beirut. J961. Nau, M. Voyage nouveau de la Terr, Sainle, enrich; d. plusieurs cemarques particulii"es qui se"'ent il /'intellig.nce d. la Sainte EcriIU". Paris, 1679. NeophytO$. Am.als {)f Palestine (J 821 _/841). Jerusalem, 1938. P~lissi~ du Rausas, G. Le Regime des capilulations darn I'empirc olloman, 2 vols. Pans, 1902-1905. Petermann, J. Reisen im Orient, 2 vols. Leipzig, J860-1861Robinson, E. Biblic~i Rue~rehes in Palestine, Mount Sln"i, and Arabia Perraea, 3 vol•. London, J841. Roger, E. La ncre sainle, OU Description lopographi,!ue Ires partleu/Ie.. d.. sainls /j.w; el de la lerre de promission. Paris, 1664. Runciman, S. A History of !he Crusade.. 3 vols. Cambridge, 1951-1954. Seetzen, U. J. Rei5en durch S,'rien, Paliis!in", Ph1!~i·

eiM, die Trans.Jordan Ulnder, Arabia Pelraea .md Ultler-Aegyplen. Be,;in, 1854-1869. Tobler, T. Topographie VO~ Jerusalem u~d sei~.n Umgebu~gen, 2 vols. Berlin, 1853-1854. William, R. E. Picturesque P"lesline, Sinai and Egypl. Vol. L p. 1l9. New Yo,-k, 188!. ARCHBISHOP BASIL/OS

JESUITS AND THE COPTIC CHURCH. Three slages mark lhe relations between lhe Jesuits (or Sociely of Jesus) and the Coptic church, as well as lhe Coplic community in general. Al lhe OU1sel, Ihese relalions ""ere intermiuent and may have e"en been limited to two tentalive attemplS at reunion of the sees of Ale,andria and Rome by a Father Giambattista liUANO, who was bom into a Jewish family wilh ties in Egypt. He launched hi, project of reunion in 1561- J563, during the reign of Patriarch GABRIEl. VII, with the assistance of Chrislophe Rod· riguez, a Roman lheologian. The second attempl took place in 1582-1584, in lhe reign of Patriarch

1330

JESUS, BATH OF THE INFANT

(1570-1585). H~..., be was aI;~om~n~ by anOlher Jes.til named Fatbn- Fruoo;ois Sasso. ibey mrl Ih~ palriarch in a holy synod summoned Oil 1 Frill\lllry 1$34, bu. lbe results ...,mained ambiguous and contes<ed th"""lh mlltual lack of """ d~rIlandins between lhe lwo pan;n. 1MII John XIV died in Srptttnber. and EJiano ..~ I~mponrily imprison"' by ~ Turks. Throu&hout lhe scYet\. leecd a small house in Cairo from which they could Launch missionari.,. 10 Elhiopia. To facilil.lIe this ;l5siSnment. lhey ~OUr1ed the ""PJXln of patri· arch JOHN ltVl (1676-1718), who ac~orded a fa,'Or' able welcome to ,hem and even comml$l!ioned one of them by ,he name 01 Falher Du\>t:mat to carl)' to Ethiopia the CHRISM consecnlled In 1703. Father Ollbemat. who died in l711. recounted thl. Ind· dent to a Bollandi.t C<.>l1ea8tJe by the name of Jean BaptiSie SoI.leriu•. ""M "''TUte a treati..., On the pa. "ia-rebate of Alexandria. His ,uccenor in Cairo was Cl:aude Sicard, whose ..Tilin,. are a principal • ource 01 knowledge aboul Copt:ic ll'IOnaslkism in IllIs period-l.ller lhe Jesuits Opet'led I modes! coed· uCI'ionaJ school, ..ito5e uisten~e "'as ralher precarious, and in 1173, tbe M1ppf"C$fiOIl 01 the d«...., permininl its tsl3blishmen.1 ended its IoI;ltvilies altolOtI .. XIV

,ha,

r

ther . Tht- ,bird ota.se of Ie in the edi6calion and prcpaD,lon of Copnc CaIholi~ clergy. a funetion Ihey ha~e occasion"'ly ......med alon.... Morco~er. acantnl from lheir own hOU$<: al MinY'. built in 1387. the Jesuil$ fou;'~ numtrw. schools in lippl'r EI)"pl. in !he ~illagcs ools were e-..,nlually united in 1940 in ,he Association 01 Schools cf Up~r Ec1>t, founded by Father Habib Ayroul. Und~r his auid' ance the number of ",hool. incr~ascd to 130. fr•. quented mainly by Coptic Onho
souunl,-s bibliquu .1 chrtlWnJ. Wle, 1Sll9). M. Chat"", (Chmno:>IQfi. ths lemp. chri';"",. de rEDPM 10' de rEdriop;•. Beirul, 19(4). M_ de Fenooyl (Cou· I.."",• •eli~.. ~ du etJpIU, Cairo. 1953). and u S4m:toral Copl. (Beirul. 1960). like 0IheT ...,!ip:.ua orde.. of the La,;n rile. the J-.i<s intqr:a,ed thcmsel,",", with thc Ioc.oJ c'-'reh, ,,-hich they oonlinued to anve boIh by swclli"l their nun>bcn. ""';Ih new rccruiu and 1>,' adopt;", the Copt:ic rite.. In U- ways. their priDcipaI orienwion b«amc ecumenical in d.arael..... BIBUOCllArtly Deccari. C. R....... Aelhwpic"",,,, Scripro:>'YS Occi· tIen,,,I•• In.di,; " Sateu/c XVI (1.d XIX, Vol. 14. Rome, 1914. CaslellanL G. "La mi$fionc pontific;' pres.so i copti 5OIto Crellorio Xlll.'· Civil/(}. Ca/loliCtl 4 (19411):~9_68, 154.. 63, Del...,. J. M. "Comributlon. I'ttude de. relalion. du Patriarch. Cople Jean XVIl a~ec R<.>me de 1735" 1738." SI..dl" Or/eNlalia Christia.na. ColI.ctarlca ~ (1960):123-81. Perieo!;, R. "La misslone pomitlel. pre,,"o iI pal' riarea copto dl All'u;Ilndri. Cabriel. VII nel 1561-1563." ReviJ;la de,li sl"dl oriento:>/i 31 (19St»: I H_ 57. Rabbllh, A. /Joc:..",e'\Ii irtti,'I. POI" .uvir .. I'hi•. ,<>ire d.. clltisl;arti....e .rt Orient, \'01. I. Paris. 1905. Scadulo, M. ·'Chrisloforo Rodrigu.... p..-. H pam. area ~opIo.'. In l.'epoe. di Giacomo l.lIinel. Vol. 2, pp. 92_108-.. Monumenta Hislorica Socioetalis Jcsu. Rome, n.d. SoU. J. C. "£I P. Juan 8apIisia EJiano. un docu· .......to autobioJrafioo Inedill>.·· hdl....'" HiSI.,... "'...... Sorictalis i,... 4 (1'JJ~1;l91~321. SoIkriw., J. B. TraetUlonq..e. du pat. riuehe ""pl. ie.n XV, .....~ Rom. (/676-17IS). wxembGu.... 1948.

JESUS, BATH OF THE INFANT. See Chris· tian SlIbjects In Coptic An.

JIRJA., ,own in UPpl'r Egypt on the West Bank of lhe Nil" some 20 miles (32 km) """,theast of SuMj,

JIRJi AL.SIM'ANI

A number nf early Coplic gravestones Come from Jitjl\, which may indicate thallhe lown had a Christian community at an early dale, b'" the firsl defi· nite witness for Christianity in the senlemem is from the sevem..,mh cemury. A manuscript in the Vatican (MS copt Barberinianu. 51) was copied from a manuscript dated to 1629 thai was preserved in Jirja (Hebbelynck and Lantschool. 1937, no. 51, pp, 19811.). In 1714 C. Sicard reponed that Jitjl\ formed a bishopric together with Naqadah, Abu TIj, and As· yU! (.ee Munier, 1943,1'. 65), BtBUOGRAPHY Hebbelynck, A., and A. .'an Lant.chonl Cooke' Valican;, Barlle';"'-a,,i, Borgia"i, Ros.fiatli. Vatican City, 1937. Munier, H. Recneil des Us/es ipisCQpoles d. l'iglis< cople. Cairo, 1943. Timm, S. Da< christlich·koplische Agypl'" in aFabi· scher Zeil, pI. 2, Pl'. 860-62. Wiesbaden, 1984. RANDAll SU:WART

JIRJI AL·SIM'ANI, Melchite monk (the name mean. that he was a monk of the monastery of Mar Sim'-an al·Ba!)rt near Suwaydiyyah, southwest of Antioch) engaged in a rdigious disputalion with Ihree Muslim fuqah(l.' during a two-day period in Aleppo in 1217 in the palace of the amir al-:?afir, known as al·Malik al·Mushammar, son of Sala!) aJ· DIn, The Muolim sages were Abu :?ahir ai-BaghdAdI, Abu Sa.lamah ibn Sa'd al·Maw~ill, and Abu Fagl al. !:Ialab!. whose place was laken on the following day by al·Rashld ibn Mahdi. At least ninety manuscripts of this debate are known, the earliest from Ihe end of the si~teenth century, with the exception of a fragmem Iwo folios in lenglh that dates from t~ founeemh cenlUry. The texl was translated int, French in 1767 by Saint-Anloine Legrand, and i~to English in 1816 by F.. B. Pusey, and it was published three times in Lebanon in 1932-1933. The debate was known in the~ Coptic chun:h by Ihe se~enleenth century at the lalesl, as can be seen from lhe manuscriPts. Six are of Coptic origin: Ori· enlallibrary, Beirut, 677 (copied in 1687 by Yiisuf Mus;! Khuzam of Cairo from a manuscript dated t883-1884); a manuscript belonging to the Cliro GTeek Onhodox shopkeeper Dlmitrt Qandalaft: Cop' tic Museum, Cairo, History 547, Simaykah, no, 110, seventeenth century, sixth item (incomplete]; Cop-

133\

tic Museum, Theology 295 (Gmf, no. 259, Sima}'· kah, nO. 73, eighteenth century): Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo [Theology 86, Grnf, nO_ 469, Simaykah, no. 420, copied in 1790, commissioned by Ihe Mu'allim Tum~.); and Aleppo, Shalh 1006 (copied in 18671869). These six manuscripts originaling in Cairo should be supplememe
1332

J1RJIS IBN AL-QASS ABI AL-MUFAQOAL

means of ordeals, but the Muslims decline. [n any case, ""Y1' the monk, Christ proved his mission by miracles. whereas Mul)ammad can alfer na other proof than his military victorie•. BIBUOGRAPHY ~mir.

K. "Bibliographie du dialogue is[amt>-<:hrt'tien. No, 32,[' Girgl. moine de Saint-Simwn en 12[7." lsIamochristiana 7 (1981):299-307 (Wilh a complele bibliography).

KHALIL

S~MtR,

S.J.

golden ornamentation on blue background. Thme litles are relranscribed in Slane; verse. are separal' ed by colored floret> and in the margins numerous cammentarie. containing crilical notes of the leX! are wrinen in Nasta'liq scripl. For all proper names an interlinear equivalem in Coptic characters is giv· en. The whole manuscript was worked out from Ihat of the priest and encyclopedist Shams alRi'asah Abu al·Barakat tBN MBAR (d. 1324). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cmf. C. C"wlogu. tie m,,'m.criu arab., chretien. canso",e. au Caire. pp, 98-99, !O1. Vatican Cily.

JIRJIS IBN AL_QASS ARt AL. MUFAJ;)J;)AL, son of the priesl Abu al·Mu~4a1 ibn Amln al·Mulk Lu!fallah and a famous copyist as w<'ll as a fine artist of lhe middle of lhe louneenth century. His full name is mentioned in a manu· $Cript in the Nalional lib .... ry, Paris (A ....be 12, foL 29Qb: d. Rhode. p. 120). His falher. AbU a1-Mufao;l<;lal. was priest of the Church of lhe Virgin in Damascus in 1355 in the time of Bishop Bu!"," 11 of Jerusalem. His grandfa· ther Amln al-Mulk must ha.'e occupie3). whose seat was at the Church of the Virgin in l;Iarit Zuwaylah in Cairo, Two of his Arabic manu~ripts of the Bible are famous. They are dated 1353 and 1355. The first (National library. Paris Arabe i2) is a large quarto (38.5 x 26.5 cm) of 290 page. containing the tellt of the Pentateuch. This Arabic lransJation was made from the Greek version of the Septuagint. bm revised a<<'oming to Hebrew, Coptic, and ancient Arabic ven;ions. as confirmed repealedly. This first revision was probably made by Jirjis himself. He finished lhe revision of GeniSi. on 16 September 1355 (fol. 71b). but Ihe whoil manuscript had been enli,,~[y lranscribed by 1353:, (fol. 29(11). One can find in Rhode (1921, pp. 6. 1.8, 35) the text of lhe Arabic chapten; I-I>, 18, and'SO of thaI u-anslation. as well as a plate reproducing folio. 47b-48a and containing 1I.e lext of Genesis 35:23 to 36:15. It shows how well Jirjis uecmed his work, both sci· entifically and aesthelically. The manuscript is also beautifully decorated. In folios Ib-2a are found illuminations of ge<>me1ric designs, At lhe beginning of each of lhe fi"" books of the Pentaleuch as well as althe end of the manu· script. title, appear in two pages in kufic lellers in

1934. Rieu. C. Supplement to ,he Ca'alogue of th. Arabic Manuscripts /n the Briti,h Museum. pp. 1-4. london, 1894, Slane, W. McGuckin baron de. Catalogu. des manU' ,crfts ar"bes de la Blbliorheque narionale. Paris. 1883-1885, Troupesu. C. Catalogue des manl-'Scr/ts arabes de la Bib/lOlheque natlona/e. Vol. I. pl. L M"n"scrfts ehret/en•. Paris, 1972. Vol. 2, Paris. 1974.

JIRJIS AL-JAWHARl, a noted Copt (d. 1810) who after lhe death of his brolher IBRAHIM AL-JAWHA· R1 (1795) replaced him as dir-eClor of the Egyptian adminislfation of taxes and finances. and aiso became an inlimate confidant of the dominant Mamluk amirs. He was-like his pre<:lecesson; in Ihal position-a sort of gray eminence, in whooe hands all threads of lhe Egyptian administration con· verged, The beY" were aware of his services and eSleemed lhem. AI·Jawhari lived in a splendid house siluated nexl to the newly built palace of MuJ:lammad Bey ai-AlIi at Bithl al·Azbakiyyah, a region where , ..'eral olher beys and leading ·"Iamf!' (religious chief juslices) had their villas. He owned another palatial residence near Qanlarat alDikkah. In addition, al·Jawharl owned houses and business buildings in other quarters of Cairo and in Bulaq. where French officers were billeled during the occupation. Napoleon'. conqueSi of Eg)-pt and lhe expulsion of lhe beys in 1798 did not damage lhe position of Jirjis al-Jawharl. He immediately sought 10 gain Napoleon', favor, and he provided th. furnishings of the palace of MuJ:lammad Bey al·AIf!, which Na· poleon had chosen as his headquaners, perhaps at al·Jawharl's sugge"lion. Napole<>n reconfirmed him in his POSl as al-mub~-,hir af.'·~m finlen
I

JIRJIS AL-JAWHARf

a1), and k:ft t,", c.u.-ulo.tion and coll«:.ioo of the publk re'~ue '0 his and his top'ic func,iooaries' management. Moroo'·...-. al·Ja,,·hari had '0 infono the freoch prtl"Iincial governors in ","'inc <;on· cemin, th admini$lralh"e pea1laritir:$ oI.~lr dis.ricts of command; he had 10 "00 au' terThorlal reforrm of ,he prorinces; aDd he had to make- rqu. 1o.r ~ 10 !he commandet- in chid concemm, revenue, c&1h holdinp, art"UrS, lIDed the anny. need for 3,000 horses by havi"l lhem plhered in the provinces. In the pro,ince of Beheinh. in a short tinw he implemenled a special WI in kind. as an aetvance on the _oes to be paid. In onIer 10 remedy the food shona&e oi the tlOOfll' in that dislricL At the end of A~ 1798, NapoJt.oa demanded from Jirjs al.Ja-..barl the immedi.a.... cdl~1on of an amount ooWffn ..--ftfd, and oou'uth of the mfri. lhe publk l"1'''Cnlle from the """'- U01. He was c~ ",hh the taB of eu.cting the puniti..e levies N:apokon had inllieted upon\be rilla&CS. which had been hostile 10 the fnnch. Under his lupervision. two officn worked toeethet on the cdiling and traruJalin, of a land regisler: He had 10 5<:11 wheat and rice owned by F""",e that could l'J« he $lored. He neJOliated with the MU51im leaders of Cairo and the French on the accommodation of the greal caravan of Muslim pilgrims from the Maghrib. He took care 01 the pneion. booty lhat the army had seized, and he procured tho animals neCC55a!)" for starting a camel COrpl, AI·Jawharf'l readiness to heip the French wa.!l $0 strong that in $Om. cases he personally wem OIlt

1333

inlO the provinces '0 SO"Cure wha, the french wanled. Whenever N"f'OI<'Otl wenl aul Inlo lhe count!)". al-JawhaJi "'"as ",ilh him. Jirjis :aI·Ja",hari'. """,tion as an agenl oi French inlerests was loO great that il rendered him a POICllt1o.l ~tor bei,.'ft'n the Ieade~ of the army and his e:oftligKlnk1S. He ,.'" also called to arbil ... te brt""ft'n the French and the MU$lims in cues of difficuhics bet""ft'n them. In addition, he u"
1334

JIRJIS AL·JAWHARI AL-KHANANI

a government than under Muslim rule, be it Mam· luk Or Ouoman, During the first momh. of French rule In Egypt. he went to Napoleon on behalf of his community to ask for the suppression of discrimination against Dhimmis (people of the Covenant) and establishment of freedom of religion with no distinction, Napoleon granted some of his requests immediately, in anticipation of earning further Coptic suppon. Al·Jawhart's sympathy for the French remained unshaken even after their failure. When, more tnan a year later, one of Napoleoo's envoys visited Egypt, he highly praised al-Jawharl. Accoroing to the French officer, al·Jawhart offered him regular report. on th" Ero-ptian situation and a promi.., of Coptic .upport in case of any future plan' in the Oriem. After the departure of the French in 180l and the Ottoman take<)vcr of the go"ernmem, the Coptic intendants general of the provinces, of whom only General Ya'qub had preferred to emigrate to France, were confinned in their functions. Consequemly, Jirji. al·Jawhart was able to gain favor with Mul)-ammad Pasha Khusraw, the firsl Ottoman gov· emor after the French occupation, by splendidly furnishing the house he moved into. He then re· gained hi. ronner p<);Sition as the leading figure in the collection of revenues_ AI-Jawharl was treated like an Ottoman dignitary_ Hi. advice was taken seriously by the new Turkish leaders, During the rebellion of the Ottoman military against Mul)-ammad Pasha Khusraw at the begin· ning of May 1803, Jirjis al-Jawhan narrowly escaped the murdering and plundering soldiers, but his house was devastated, Howe,'er, the leader of the insurgents, T~hir Pasha, promised to indemnify him for hi. 10= and cQnfinneptic intendants, He escaped after payment of a heavy mnwm to his attackers. In 1805, he was confirmed by MU,!AM"An 'AtJ on his accession to power. [n the meantime, Al)mad Pasha KI)-urshid, the representa· th'e of the Sublime Porte, confinned him in his post of Msh mubJshir (intendant general)_ lJnder Mul)ammad 'All, who had finally seized power in Cairo in July 1805, al·Jawhart fell into disgrace b«ause he resisted Muhammad "All's de· mand. fur money. He lost his leading position in

the financial administration, whirh was given to Mu'allim GHAU, and was pot under arrest for some time, along with other Coptir intendants. Once releaseyed the greatest esteem among the Mamluk amirs, the leading 'ulama', the French milita,y administrators, and the Ottoman official•. Like his brother lbrnhim, he always took great pain. to preser..-e their favor with gifts and to find ways 10 sati:sfy their material wishes_ The loss of his position and his exile undennined both hi. wealth and his heahh, Ten momhs after his return to Cairo, he became seriously ill, and he died in September 1810. HARALD Mo-rzKt

JIRJIS AL·JAWHARi AL.KHANANl, eigh. teenth-century priest known from three manu· scripts of the Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo' Theology 90, Liturgy 102, and Theology 54. In 1776 he was pastor of the Church of the Virgin at I;t~rit aI-ROm in Old Cairo. In 1777 he copied an Arabic manuscript of 207 large .heets (32 " 23 cm; C<>ptic Patriarchate, Liturgy 102). This comains two worh. The first i. a description of the consecration of CHRtSM perlonned during the reign of the patriarch, JOHN XVI (1676-1718); It was comp<);Sed in 1704 by 'ABD AL.MASIl:!, pastor of the Church of the Virgin at Minyat $urd (d. Graf, Vol, 4, p. 134, no. 1), The second manuscript contains three accounts of miracles perlonned by the deacon and archon al-Mak!n Jirji. Abu Man~ur al·Tukh'. For the first work, Jirjis al·Khan-linl probably used the autograph original by 'Abd al-Masil)-, dated 27 Ba'unah A.M. 1420/3 July 1704, which the author had beqoeathed to the Church of the Virgin of Harit al·Rum. For the second wori<, Jlrjis al·Khan-lint probably took as his model the only other known manuscript (Coptic Museom, Cairo, Liturgy l28). The whole of this manuscript W',," copied by 'Abd al-Masll)- of MlnY'lt ~urd in 1710. It indudes both works, as doe. the manuscript copied b}' Jiljis al·Khan~nl. La.~t, in 1778, Jirjis, now calling himself Jirjis lb·

,

JlRJIS AL.MUzAl;IIM, SAINT

rMllm Jawhan ,,1·Khanani, completed his copy of lhe firsl pan of the epilome of the commentary by JOHN cH~¥SOSroM on lhe Gospel of Jonn in forty. seven homilies, made by al-$aR ibn al·'Assal in 1232. This is a large manU$Cript-33 )< 23 cm~ containing 152 sheets. copied from a manuscript dated 25 Mism1450/29 Augusl 1734, whkh in tUrn was copied from a manuscripl dated A.M. 1027/ 1310-1311 originating from al·Damn. This is now the only known manuscript of the epitome of al..;;all ibn "VAssal (Coptic Patriarchale. Theology 54).

1335

was bequealhed to this .same church by the bishup of al·Bahnas.l. The manuscript of JiIjis Makmmallah is al presem al the Coptic Palriarchate, BIBLIOGRAPHY Graf. G. Catalogue de manuscrit' arabes chritiens con,ie,,·i. au C~ire. Vatican City. t934. !(HAUL SAMI~. S.J.

JIRJIS AL.MUZAI:IIM, SAINT, or George. a BIBUOGRAPHY Gmf. G. Catalog", de manu,cn'/s arabes chrttiens cons.rvis all Caire. Vatkan City. 1934. Kl!AUL SAMIR.

JlRJIS

sAw"

MAKRAMALLAH

S.J.

AL-BAHNA-

eighteenth.cenlury deacon known from two Arabic manuscripts of lhe Coplic Patriarchate. Cairo (Bible 140 and Theology 295). He came from al·Bahnasii. It is possible lhat he was the .an of MAKRAMAtLlH. who li~ed in Cairo as a priest in 1724 and was HEGUME1
"new manyr" of lhe eighth cemul)' (feast day: 19 Ba'unah), He was the son of a Muslim by the name of Jum'ah al-'A!wl, who had married a Christian from Damlrah. a village in the QalyOliyyah pro,', ince, Murol)im used 10 go to church wilh hi, mother and very much wanted 10 partake of the Holy Euebarisl. BUI his mother told h,m thatlhis was not permilled except for those who were baptized. She gave him a mo",et of lhe bread. and he felt il like honey in his mOUlh. Henceforth, he becamc confirmed in his desire to become a Christian. As he grew older. he married a Christian, to wbom he revealed his intention to be baplized. BUI the local prieStS were apprehensive aboul baptizing him for fear of mob retaliation. So he went 10 Damiena, where he had his wish fulfilled. and he changed his name to Jitjis. On hearing Ihis. the Musiims ",ized him and beal him. but he managed to escape and Oed 10 Sa~ Abu Turab, where he slayed for Ihree years. Then he moved to Qurur, where he served in the church of Saint George, Afterward. he decided to retum 10 his native village of Damlrah. where the Muslim population ",ill remembered him, ",ized him. and delivered him to the governor to chasliz.e him as an apostale from Islam. But lhe governor did nol take immediate action against him, owing to the ,ntercession of his wife. who was a Christian. He placed Htjis in prison, bUl lhe infuriated mob broke into lbe prison and lynched Jirjis. On the following morning. Christians carne to bury him, bUl found him still ali,'e. On discovering th's. the Muslims came ba<;k and took their prey to court with menaces for further ,'i
1336

JIZAH

who took him ...... beheaded him bdore thf: church of Saini MOc~1 in Damf03h. The datt of his Uccution was 19 8a'unah in the yea. A.M. 61S/A.D. 9S9. Afterwa.d, the mob wanted to bum hi! body, which n:mained unscathed, So Ihey bundled him in a lack and threw him in the river. The body was finally C/l$t on the ohon: of.n loland and TU(lvered by
Kram~.,

A. ......... K"I/urruchiclole d~ 0ricrim

ed.. AaIen, 1966. W~lIha'-'Sen, J. Dill ",,,lnsdle R.iclr "nd 5.i" SI"~ Berlin, 1902. Ye'or, Ebr. Th~ Dhimmi: Jews "nd Clrristi,m. V.. Ju 1,I"m. I",ns, from French, D. Mai~l, P. F~nton, and D. Unman. Ruthetford, Calif.. and London, 1985.

I

JOHANN GEORG, Prince of SPony (1869Nau, F. N. L'J Mb.ok;F,J deJ iv"ng,/i"i,u COplU",,,be., PO 10, 1, pp, 104, 2OS,113, 134, 213.181.

Paris. 1915, O'leary, DeL TIl. S"inl' of "typl in Ihe COpiit C"/e"d,,,. Loodon, 1937,

JIUB. See Oi"..

JlZYAH, a poll tax, or caplu,lion

ta~. imposed on

all able-bodied non-Mu
IU8). ar'l h~ori .... and tnl\'~lt:r. He ..... the S01I or Prince Ceo'1 and Maria of Ponupl. H~ stndied the hlslory of an, national ~cOn<)my, and philosophy II Freiburg and leIpzig (1888-1891), Then. unlil 1918, h~ purs.ued a millta!)' career, be«>ming com· mande. of a bnpOe. From ..... end of the nine· I«nlh centu,), he lraveled 10 all .he countries of Europe and many ol th~ Near EaR and EcJpt. In 1910 he risited Saint Catherine', MonaSlIer)f at SiPIll, II.. eburches of Old Cairo, and IN mona5l:~riea of Wadi a1-Na!riIn. accompanied by Murqus Sitll/l)" bh_ They lraveled to lite JOU1h /l! .... as Nub;a, [lurins h.. travels 10 E£ypI in 1927. 1918. and 1930, Johann GeOI'J W/lll accompanied by J, Sau~r, Ht published n:pons (Kammertr, 1930, p. liB) and boob. with plal~" al>out his tnovels lhal au still useful: S/Yeifziqe durclr die Kil'Cl.... untf KI6ue, A,,'pfeJU (Leiprig. 1914); Ntue ~ilU4e du,cIr die Kil'CIoen und K16Jte, Auple,.. I~ 1930); Nett· es.u Slrei/:li<,. dlat'1r die ((/i)"tT ~lenJ (U:iJ>zi&. 1931); and KoprUdle KloJltT der G.~nwtUI 1M' ellen, 19181_ On hilliftietb binhday he n:ceiwd a fesucltrifl, deulJCIoe, WiuenJCIr"fl t;
Ehren,,,"

•

.I""

""8UOGRAI'HY 8'8UOCIUf"ffY ~hem.

M. van. E.G ProprUli ~rritorUJe tf rimp6l {tmdu. leipzig. 1886. Butler, A. Tire A,,,b Con'lU.JI 01 Egypl. adOI'd, 1902. repr, New York, Iln3; 2nd ~d., Odord, 1978; paperback ~d. N~w York, 1981. Fagnan, E., Iran•. .4bou Yousuf y,,'Koub: U Jjv,~ tf~ /'impM 1000c1., (Khlll> ~I-Klrll,ad). Paris. 192 I. "Kha~" In Enc)'<"lt>pa~Ji.. of,dam. Leiden. 1978..

Jenophion. G. D. "In memoriam S. A. R. Ie Prince Jean Gco~
•

,

JOHN III, THE MERCIFUL

JOHN 1, ~d Hem..b. sain' alld r-my·ninlh p1driatth oJ. the S« of Saint ~ (494-SOJ). a formeT monk from Ihe mona'llery of Salnl Macari.... (DAYIl ANM MAO"). he marb !he br,inning of the d~e of pani.~hs from !he lkslon monasteries. rathe~ than from Ihe leamed clergy of Ale... r>dria. According 10 lhe HISTOII.Y OF TIlt PATII.IARCHS. he is crediled with ,,"curing gifts of Wheal. wi"", and oil for his old monaslery of Saini Mae.rius from the Emperor Zeno (474_491). Though firmly anli-<:ltalcedon~ hirn5elf, he remained in communion witlt tltOle who accepIed .he HENlJIICXlf,I of uno "'i!houl impoo.ing • fonnal anathema on CHAl.I;£OOH. and for thill reason lhe $C.... m of !be M:mW.Ol conLioued. The Acephalot • • IJ'OUI' remained hi'lterly hoslile lO Chakedon and opp<>sed the coodllalory nalU~e of Zeno·. Henocicon. Thry were 50 named because they had no conspicuo.... leader.

JOHN II, surnamed Niciota. saint and Ihinie!h pa. triarch of Ihe See of Saini Marl< (503-51 S), He was • relative of JOHN I. and formerly • hermil and monk of the ,,"'lATON monastery. He took a "'lOftge~ Ii"" than his p.-edece..sor in e~pecllng an analhema On CHAt.£mOI!! from .hooe wilh ",·hom IH: was in communion, allhouch he "''iIS "'" ~essful in .... .:uring this deere.! from COll5larlljnop~. whoM palrian:h. "Timothy. tool< one ~ne ar home and anoth· .... throu,h hi$ represcniatn-es ... Aleundria. John's IOlenutce of lhis double Man
Frend, W. H. C. The RiR- otrhe "'""ophy.ire M
JOHN 01, THE MERCIFUL,. saim and fonieth p;olriarch of 'he S« or Saini Mark (677-6ll6). John "'a!I born al SalTUnnud in Wwel" ~I on Ihe Dam· leila br.mch or the Nile, He WitS pre"",red for hi. po,ilion in the Coplic church by his ..ducalion in ecclesiastical and secular malle". IS well as by his purity of body and heart. It was durin, a pil,rimage in Ihe desert lohn became III wilh a st"""e

.ha,

1337

mal8dy from whieh he "'. .. minteulously healed. Al Ih.. lime, ...-hen he waf in the minify of lite ~ry oJ. SainI Ma.carius (('M,YI. A.."U MAO!"), he nperieneed a dream.... hieh funher Prepllred him roe his t\nu~e dulies. After his healln" John and two disol:ipln .....ired 10 Ihe monaslery of the Brothers (OAVlI. AL·IIII\W",') In the Fayy\lm, Bishop Mena\' of lhe Fay)um un· doubtedly ltad ordained him as presbyter. and palri· Irch AGATI1O!'l, becoming aware of him, asked lhe bishop la ....... "Presbyter John" for .n .udience. Tht- patriarch made him the fiT$! pries, or hi!; ci'y, thus e1......tinl; him lO a position nf church seniority in Al"""",driaDespile so",," disputes widt the rnacf$!rale and """" the Chakedonians. John be<:ame patriarch .1~r the deslh of Aplhon ","ithoul mucll lrouble. Sohn neen5 wi.h gouC. and an ache In his lide 'hal caused him to return from .I·fusl'! (Old Cairo) to "Iexandria, where he died. John's contribulion. during his ministry included Ihe rebuilding and decorll\ing nf the Chu~h of Saini Marl< wi,hl" a Ihree-year period as well as the Installation nf prx.ieal establish",enlS auch as a flour mill and a linaeed oil press. Wi.h II"", help of these es. Church. and he left an impocum litenry lepcy. John's "riIinp .hal he " . . a fi&hler far the failh of Ihe Coptic: church. Firm in imponI.nce is a work of Ihe so-called Iype of E,owr<>tr~.. (Erolapokrisels: see PHV$10LOGUS). in which an unknown prub)'ler named Theodorus. probably a m~n of lette~. poses twenly·three '1uesl;ons concerning the exegesis of the Bible. The queslionl address Bible

""'''u.s-

.pin..

mow

1338

JOHN IV

lhal could have ......... ;nlt'~ion$. bul the palriarch prnrides Ihe accepted Coptic ,_sion. Some importanl 1ISpeC'1$ of th.. work arc lhe usc of allegory and lhe: usc of parts of II'lc Ph)'5i<>logus, for Ihe explanation of the Sacramenl of Baptism 115 !:>oing Ihe only key 10 Hea...en and the major Orthodo~ Coplic Chrillian distincl"'n from Islam and K<:larianism_ In Ihe l>eld of CluiSlolor;y. John defines lite Coplic posllion concerninl God and Man io 0.... Body. Ht ditcusscs lhe fall of SaJan and the ill$litution of SainI Micbad• • _11 as mou of the imponanl p.-obIems of fanIt in EcYPt at that lime. The le~1 is: nUlnt in a Salridic version. copied rather carelessly aboul 900 in the monllSlery of Ihe archangel Michael (DAYR ~J,.loIALI.K IoIfKIIA·IL) at 56· pehes (HamOll) in the Fayyt>m. There arc $e>'eral Arabic versions lhat correspond 10 four Bobairk fragmtnlll of that worl<. and ".,mc E.lhiopk ..el' 5Jonl., WI'Onaly attributed 10 other aUlhon.. The EIhiopic ~rsions. c~ partially or CnaJl« of thcolognl qll$W:>ns and the l"CSJ>OflSCS cons~ 10 be canonical. The diff.....,n<:cS in patrian:hal _nion, prcwldc hints aboUI p"lble..... of theolor;y in dilJercnl places :and limes. Anolher documenl aboul • eontrO\'eny pf lhe: pa. lriareh with a Jew and a Melchile exi$l$ in Bphairic and Arabic, The texi deals wilh Ihe wue of assets becomina state propcny when a Jew died ,,·ithoul hotirs. In onc casco amon, Ihe p<>5&CAions of the dccnscd ""<1$ found a pr«ious vcsstl containing. pic<:e of wood. The .,.Iriat'ch, I>rina prnocnt in this au~ lhot......-l to bt pan of the tnH: crosa of Our Lord. The ......-I "'as l"'Sted wilh lire and did nt>l bum. Ulli.....ldy it was purchased. for 3,000 dina..... The aovcrnor !hen ;niliated a dispule between the palriarch. a Jew named Aaron. and a Chalce'ersa'" lhal ",ilh faith, bread and wine can M converted inlo lite flesh and Blood of Ihe Heavenly One. Ant>11ter impomUII work. an En<:omiu.... '.-cars SainI Apta ),knao. lhe famous Ioainl ofl..oI. Some disavcemenl nis!s aboul its Aulltooship....-heth,..,. il had been ",,·i1len by SainI John. arcltbishop of Alexandria, 01" John III or IOH'" IV. Its edil.,..-, J. Ore",""r. lends 10 ascribe il to Sohn I"" ""eo"OmOS of $a.int Men,,' church, while Tilo Orlandi attributes Ihe ,,'ork to John III "n the basi. of lhe pro~imlly of Saint Men,,' church 10 the monas· lery of Ihe Brolher's wl'lcre the palriarch resided. p"'"

n.e Eneomiu ... consi515 of I\\'e pam: an illlroduc·

lion from luke 1:1. and an assu"".... that the SlOr· ies of Saim Moenas come from aUlhtnt;c sources.: a discussion of Ih,"", feats by the saint; the life of lite ulnl including his descent from noble parentage and his martyrdom: the fate of hi$ relics and Ihelr burial in a shrine ",hot", miracles were performed: and finally. an exhortation for people 10 Visil Ihe sIlrin" of S;tinl Menu. n.e rdcreoce 10 lohn as the author of ~ Ene<>mium come:s only at the conclusion. Whether I"" is John 111. should IlOII detracl hvm his importance as a Mtte fighler for orthodoJty and as • eood ",riter and preacher whose wort is only panly known 10 U5. BIBUOGRAI"HY

Dt-cs.che<. J. AP<' MenQ. Publications de 1,0. Socittt d·ard~olt>Pe copte: TeJllel et Documents. Cairo,

.....

E..elyn-....'hi!e. H, G. Tlte Mond"elUs at ,he Wadi 'N Natn.N. Pan I. New Coptic Tuu from ~ Mooo•• Ivy 0( Sooinl Macariw. New YorI<. 1936. Includes an :appendix on a CopIo-~lc MS. b,- G. P. G. Sebhy. .... ntsehOOl, A. V,o.n. us "OuUIi<>tts de TIt«HJorc:' Studi e Te$tl 192. Valican Cily. 1957, s.,e the review by C. D. G, Muller, in O,;entoU.I;sche UI· erowru;lu", 54 (1959):eoll, 136-41. Orlandi. T. Element; di ij"l"" e lelteral",o copto. Milan. 1970. C. 0EnEF G. Ml'tLEa

JOHN IV, ~nt and ron~aJllh patriaTcll of .he Sec or Saint Marl< (nS-799). John is known from the HlSIUf;Y OF THe PAnt'AItCIIS 10 ha~e been a monk of ..... ADI HABIB. without any spcci6c mention of lhe monastery to which he belonlled, lhough In all probability it was Ihe mon"l~ry of Saint M.acarius (DA"1t ANM MAO"'). After tlte death of Anblo MINA. his prcdecessor. Ihe Ihrone of ~ln. Marlo: <etRained >-.canl for- nearly I".., ycal'$, because the bishop" and Ihc de'l)' 0( Alexandria wuld nt>l rcach u...• nlmltyon a s..lIable candidale lor tbe patriat"chale. They ultimalely rnchcd a cornprnmisc ...hcr'rl>y lbey "TOle the ""mlOS of IhT« pos.sible <:andidate$ on Ihree: tkketa, placed Ihcm on the altar, lhen $penl lhe niaht in praye.... and l$Upplication to the Lord to guide them 10 the ri,hl person. They lhen had a child selecl Ihe lickel. Thi$ process was rc· pcIlled Ihree limes, ,o.nd e",h lime Ihe name of J..,hn etnC'lled as Ihe winner. This left no doubt in thrir

JOHN IV THE FASTER, SAINT

minds thai he ..'as Ihe ODe chosen by lhe Lord. and Ihe ..... a1 procedure 1.,....-anI consec",rion follo.... fli. Accordin, lO Ih", Hi$tory of 1M: I'lI.mll.rclls, John ..... a /nOnk of "~I ~. insptr.,d by God In all alfairs. And eYeJYO"C desired 10 bd>oId his wei· C()IIM: form; and it ...... granled 10 him 10 be a«~' ahl", 10 all priMa and CO''''mnrs" (Vol. 2. pl. 2. p. 38l). Durilll his patriom:hat",. u.,. CCIpIS sumed 10 fa", "',,,U and Ii•., in 5eC\Iril)". and lhe pMriaTdl's chief conUm ~ lO build or rcscon lh", dwrclws in W capilal wilhOUl brio& distnrtInI by llIe Mu.slim roIen. 10 whom he rendered the jus! K>u....... Or annual u",. wilhoul lroubIc. ~rhaps Ihe only ....Iurbing elemrnl in doe early ynrs of his palr"rchale ....... precipilai«l by a Chal· cedonisn named JIlI"nUlS. who was a de"er physi. cian hishl,. reprded by Ihe Muslim ",len on ac· cOIlnl of his skill in h" profc$5'on. He tried 10 pol"", Ihe Muslim ",Ie",' mind. loward John. bUI app.sremly failed 10 rouse Ihem againsl him. John IV was aided In his buildinG I'l"OlIram by a deacon named Mark (Murqus), who beca"", a don disciple and partici""led with Ihe patriarch In the c",leb....tlon of lhe Lilurgy and read Ihe Gospel with a beaullful ~oice. which allrncled the COn,re,lllon. He helped John 10 complele the majestic ~I'\ICIU", of Saini Mlch&el·. Cathedral In Akundria in lhe span or (i"" ~al'$. And when famine befell the counuy. Man: lirelessly slood by Ihe palri.arl:h In dis"ibulln, provIsK"" 10 lhe needy. Uhimalely. the scll".....nyi'" deacon decided 10 take lhe monastic vow. and tloe palriarch accomputicd him 10 the monasIery of s.ml Macarius for this PurpKant biohQPric. Thou&h Mad: 10 Ill", palriarchal command by coming 10 Bu",IJus, ht ullttly ufused lhe el"""lion 10 Iht q>i5cop:101e, and lhe bilhtul had 10 chain him in anticipation of his ac:. c~anct. BUI ht penisltd in his rd'usal and man· "lied 10 escape hi< iron ftllers and return 10 his convenl. The p"lriarch's ""ralh for lhis; disobedl· tnee and AlGhl was appeased only when a min of ,",al plely told him Ihal Mark was nol meanl fur the episcopale, ben Ihat a prophecy had dtsianaled him for $uccesslon 10 Ihe Ihrone of SainI M.. k, t~tn againSI his will. n.e pa.niarc:h. in Ihe company of Anbl Mlkhf'U.

res;,tnded

1339

bWIop of M~r, and Anbl Jirji, bishop of Memphis, wenl 10 the gm"'mor, al·La}1h ibn aI·hol!. "'110 ...... sympalJ>elir 10..-anI!he Chrioli.llns, 10 pay !he annu· al U.r(tj tall. after wltirh !hey sailed back 10 Alexandria. 11 ....,.. .... ring their ~ 10 !he QpiIaI that John fdl the end ~hlnc- Befo.... his death. he declared 10 the ~ lhal he regarded Mart; "" his won!»' succ_.

BIBUOCtAPHV

f'riM. F.• ed_ 1982.

~

Book

at

C.h"d.,s. New Vork, ~I

Y. UIIIB

JOHN IVTHE FASTER, SA.• NT (d. 595). palriarch of Con",anlinoplt tnga~d in a conlro.'ersy O~er a lilk ";Ih lwo popel. John, born in Cappadocia. was calltd Ihe Fasltr (Jejunalor in Greek) b",cause of his exlreme asctlleism. As palnanoh from 58210595 he took Ihe Iitie "Oecumenical (unl~er. sal]I'Mriareh:' which had been gl~en 10 hi. prede· cessor by Ihe emperor and had also been used In Rome. Pope Pelagius II and his succes........ Gregory libe Greal, proIeo.led, .Ince il made C<.>nSlanlinoplt spirilually equal 10 Rome. Ne~tnhelC55. John and hi< sucusson; rontinue
1340

JOHN V

In both codices. the author of this homily is named simply "John. archbishop of Constaminopie." For the Copts. this allribution was probably meant to idemify lhe author with John Chrysostom (even the Greek tradition names the author as John Chrysostom now and again). However, at the time when he made his translation, the Coptic translator must surely ha"e known that he ""as dealing with a different and later "John of Constantinople." A modem aitical edition of tltis homily should also tale into account tlte Syriac translation (Baum. stark, 1922, p. 81). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aldama, J. A. de. RepcrlOri"m psrudo-<:hrysoslOm;cum, Paris. 1965. Baumstark, A. G..chichrr du s)'rischrn Litemtur. Bonn. 1922. Budge. E. A. W. Coptic Hom;;i.. in the Dia;eCI of Upper Egypt. London, 1910. Orlandi, T. Papin copti di Conl."uto leologi<:o. Mit· teilungen aus der Papyruss.ammlung der "sterr· eichisehen Nationalbibliothek: Niet:lsche--Studien 9. Vienna, 1974. TlTO

ORlJlNDI

JOHN V, seventy·second patriarch of the See of Saim Mark (1147-11~7). John was a monk in the Monastery of Saint John (Dayr Abu YO~anni.). Tra· dition claims that his name was included among the three candidates from whom the name of his predecessor MICHAEL V was chosen. This time he was chosen outright because of his chastity and his deeply religious chataeter. He was only a deacon in his monastery. and therefore he was made a presbyter, then elevated to the rank of HEGUMENOS in alMU'allaqah church. Yilnus ibn Kadriin, who previously sought the patriarchale for himself. was prob· ably present at that cerem~rY' Later the pope of· fered Ibn Kadmn the blShOjl\-ic of Samannod, but he declined and re1tlmed to his monastery, un· named by sourcts, where ~e remained unlil his death. John's selection was sanctioned not only by Ihe Coptic arcltons of both Cairo and Alexandria but also by the leading Muslim authoritie', includ· ing the vicerOJ' and the chief judge who met in council during the caliphate of al·t;!afiz (11301149). He was consecrated first in Alexandria and then in Cairo in the church of Saint Mercurius in Old Cairo. He was a cQntemporary of the last Fati· mid caliphs, including a].l:fafi~, al·~fir, al·Fa·iz. and aJ.'A"id. This was the period of the decline of Fati-

mid rule and the final emergence of the Ay)ubid dynasty, although the change of dynasties occurred after John's death. Curiously, the HISTORY OF THE ~ATRIARC"S (Vol. 3. pt. I. pp. 42 [text); p. 68-9 [trans.)) dwells largely on the local Islamic history of that period. dtpicting its confusion rather eloquently. N""ertheiess, cunory refuencts are made to other subjects con· nected mainly with the history of the Crusade. and partly on the status of the Copts in that period. The conquesl of the city of 'Asqalan, the last of the Muslim·held Syrian towns. by the Latins is recorded during the vizierate of al-Aflbl. The Hislory ollh~ Patriarchs records (Vol. 3. pt. I. p. 44 [text): p, 72 [trans,)) that Copts ",ere ordered to wear distinguishing girdle (,u~~M) and dark turbans. but this order was enforced only for Ihret days, after which lhey were again released from such restrictions. The only dastardly act against the Copts was the destruction of the church of Saint George in Matariyyah and the construction of a Muslim mosque in its place. John V's reign took plact during the Second Cru. sade, which btgan in 1146, This was a time when the Muslim rulers of the Near £ast became used to the Frankish presence and. according to the Arabic chronicles af the period, such as those of UsAm"h ibn Munquidh (1095-1188), instances of growing rapprochement between the Christian seulers and the native Arabs began to appear as an accepted occurrence, The Fatimid dynasty in Egypt was in the last phase of it' decline. and its rulers contemplated a treaty with the crusader kingdom that would defend their Shi'ite territory against their Sunni neighbors. ,.,lto were determined to annihi· late them. In !act. the Fatimids had to choose bttween two hostile neighbors, the Sunni kingdom of Nur "I·Din and the Frankish kingdom of Jerusalem. Apparently they chose the latter and in II ~7 concluded a treaty that vinually placed Esypt under the protection of King Amairic, Or Amaul)' (Atiya, 1962, p, 271) a. he appears in a conupted Arabic spelling. The posilion of Shawolr. the minister of Caliph al·'A"id. was endangered by the rise of a rival named t;)irghlm, while the Sunni general. Asad al·Din Shirhih, wa, marauding in Egypt on behalf of Nur al·Din. the Syrian. Amalric's treaty offered Sholwolr the opportunity of defending himself against both Muslim contestants. Amalric was at the time besieging Alexandria. and he raced back to Cairo to relievt Sholw~r. To save Ihemselws from engaging in a baule of doubtful oukame, Shirklih and Amalric agreed to leave the country to ShawAr,

JOHN VI

But Amalrk left behind him a Latin resident with a small garrison. However. on Ihe way back 10 his Syrian headquarters. Amalric changed his mind and de"ided to break his agreement with Shirk"h and return 10 Egypt, this lime as a conqueror. At Bilbeis in Ihe Eastern Delta, he massacred Ihe population, and his progress toward Cairo bewildered Ihe impotent Shawflr. who decided to burn the capilal 10 save il from falling into the hands of the Franks. BlBLIOGIlAPHY

Aliya. A. S. Cr~sade Commerce a~d C~llUre_ Bloom· ington. Ind.. 1962. Lane·Poole, S. m,tory of Egypt in the Middle tlges. London. 1901___. The Mohammadtln Dy"asties. Paris. 1925. Polter, G. R. The Auwbiography of Ousdma. Lon· don. 1929. Rundman, S. History 01 (he Crusades, 3 ,'ols. Cambridge. 1953-1954. SVBHt Y. Lo.BIII

JOHN VI, saint and .seventy·fourth patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (1189-1216). John VI proved to be one of Ihe most signilicanl pe"",nalilies 10 o<:cuP}' Ihe throne of Saint Mark ,ince Ihe ARAB CONQUEST of EGYPT. He was a layman by Ihe name of Abu al-lIobjd ibn Abl GhAlib ibn &\wlrus. and his original vo<:ation was commeTce. where he acquired tremendous weallh thai he gave generously to "harity and used for the development of his chur<:h. He was a man of greal stall1re and virtuous character. He w"" an oulSpoken bachelor and was well acquainted with Biblical knowledge and wilh his chur<:h', dO<:lrines and traditions. He was probably the only Copt to o<:cupy an emi· nent posilion in the membership of the KArimi Guild of merchants, which remained predominantly Islamic in characte.. The ICl\[iml Guild traded in all Ihe valuables of India an,nhe Far East. and Abu al-Majd is said to have undertaken vo)'ages in the Red Sea for the acquisition of trade items from Yemen and elsewbere. He Was a member of one of the moot important K!rimite ~ompanies, known as Awlad (sons of) al·JabbAb. He was highly regarded by the company because he onCe saved their forIllne by rescuing ships lhat were foundering in the Red Sea,

After the death of MARK HI, Ihe ar<:hons of the Copti~ ~ommunity in Mi~r nominaled Abu al-Majd for the patriar~hate despite the fa~1 thai he was not affiliated with any monastic institution nOr did he

1341

have any past experien~e in the e<:clesiastical hier· archy. He was. of course, better known to the Copli~ people througb the generous distribution of his wealth. At first he was reluctant to accept the nomi· nation. but curiously enough il was his Muslim partners who pre>'ailed upon him to ac~ept the nomination. It is said that the same Muslim party spared no effort or expense to see him elected, allhough, according to Ihe Muslim historian aiMAQRIZI. Abu al-Majd was trying 10 promole a monk from the mon..,;tery 01 al.""fln at the village of al'Adawi)'}'ah soulh of al·Fus;!! (Cairo). 1n the end, he gave way to Ihe unanimous voice of the Coplic ARCHOlolS. and contrary to established custom, he was directly consecrated as patriarch on II Amshir ""101. 90S/A.D. 1188. one month and five days after the death of Mark Ill, Although the date of his birth is unknown, it must be assumed thai he was a middle·aged man when he acceded to the throne of Saint Mark. during the latter days of the sultanate of ~lil) ~lal) al·Dln (Saladin) (1171-1193). He was a contemporary of the earl}' A))'Llbid sultans. Consequently he witnessed one of Ihe most critical periods in the histo· t). of the count,)' including the tremendous contest between East and West in the Crusade movement. hen before his enthronement. he must have watch· ed Saladin's progress toward the de~isive battle of l:Iittln (1187) and the fall 01 Jerusalem soon afterward. It is doubtful that he was aware of the details of suhsequent crusades and Muslim counter-erusades; what manered most to him was the opening of Jerusalem 10 Coptic pilgrims under Muslim rule. This was after years 01 Frankish domination when the Roman Catholic lords of the holy place. for_ bade Copts, eonsidered heretics. from approaching Jerusalem. Failing to defend Jerusalem. the cmsaders began ha...ssing Egypt by attacking its cities situated on Ihe Mediterranean lino...l, including Damiena and Rosetta. and sometimes penetrating the Delta toward Cairo, They pillaged industrial centers where the best te'ltile. WeTe manufactured. This happened repeatedly during Ihe sultanates of al·'Adil down to Ihat of al·!U;mil. The situation in Egypt itself was an unhappy one. The fall of lbe Nile and the failure in agricultural products led 10 famine; and crusader inroads took their toll. Yel il should be remembered Ihat all this was of a temporary na.ure and bound to disappear. Howe>-cr, the ",-ave of persecution of Ihe Copts inaugurated by ~Iil) ¥IAl) aI-Din and intensilied during Ihe pauiar<:hate of MaTk 111 gradually began 10 subside in John VI's time, and

1342

JOHN VII

Ih", CopIS _,.., ..,1ic:U'",r and punu", I,...,ir ac.i~i.i"'5 undislurbtd. On", f&clor .ha, mUSf loa"", htlptd !he rclum l(I nonnaky _ Ihe suca:ai~.., mt<sioftS of (h", Eahiopian em"",ror. who sen' substanlial pfts 10 1M sui· tanS of £opt. Thes.e .....,... acCGmpanitd by episIleI requtslinl lho: sultans U> lnlerctde willl tIM: patri· arch for lht e_mk>n of. Coptioc archbishop 10 his eO\l.nl"., ....bile pkading willl !hem foe fair.nd jusllTUlmenl of their Coptic subFU. The ElMopl· an Phs mUSl ha.-e impreosed the ...I,.ns ~n dously. Once lho: Elhiopian monarch senl lIle patri· arch • ;ewtled ,old crown Ihal he in 110m cedoed 10 lhe ....llan. On anolhtr occask>n the ..."..1 Iif! eOn· sisted of an eltphant•• lion, • prall.,. and • utlra. n.e appe.rance of sueh silallge items must ha.-e caused gu'l commotion at ;nted as archbishop a lay bachelor like him~If, • man who was knowledgeable in mal· lers of religion and Coptic ch..rch traditions, His name was Kil ibn al·M ..labbis and he Came from the chy of T~kh in the Gharbiyyah PrO\'lnce. Kll was wel1-'t<:ei~ed in lhe Abyssinian capilal and no "",ined the,.., for four years, after which he found il nectIP". 10 m ..m 10 Egypt. John V, "",nl • priesl by lhoe name of MUsA, lose.her with one of his asslstanls, .0 make an 'nq.. iry 'nlO II,., situalion • • nd lhey found QUI lhat Kil was invol-'n! in Ihe m'.....Ie. of an Abyssinian priesc of hi'" $landin,. ConseqoHndy. lhe p.llriarch hastntnl to appoint a subsoill.lle 10 101. thn' who was also a prieal. E>idendy lhesoe celebrations. in ,,·hidt Muslims and Chris.tiam pan~ ...;!houl distinC1ion. a..,.,lion.led the JI'CK;lion d 1M Copu and the p.lt';' an;h wilh the Muslim ruJc;l Ntwrthel.,.ss, Joho's rri.gn "1U marked by a nurnbt'r of local difficollies. In on.,. InslJOnct. a monl naraed Yu!).al'lnA, from $.ailll Macaorius, oon"ened to lslam, • rJlO!il unusual occ..rrence. He was "",=ded for- his apostaSy by al'Adil, who appointn! Y..1:Ianna '" Ia:< collcc!or in the oily of Mll-Ghamr, a position lhal h.,. h.,.ld for th~~ years. Then he changed his mind and later approached Sollan al_JCarnil with a .hroud il'l his hand and asked permission to relum to his Chris· lian faith or olherwise sulkr lhe usual £xecutlon for lhose who rccan",d. The benign suhan permillcd his reluro and ga~e him a prolccliw decree ag.inlt

""'y

I"'"

abuse by Muslim bnalu A similar case arose of an Isl.mileDd crisis in John's mll'l ..... precipitated by the same Vuljannl, ...tlo ~ed to lho: ...han thaI a I,..,.,.,,.., lrove of &Old and sil...,r ..I.,....ils " ... dilCo""red in a pll al Dayr Aobl Maqir. The solWl hastened 10 lay bis hand on the II"e3.$l1n. bUI foond only the usuaI $:l(:r.unenlal inslromeolll lho.t "..,... identified for bim by anOlher Islami:ted CopL Th.,. man who dug the pil eKposed the fraud..lenl repon of YuJ:1anna. The Sol",n look no fu"her mea",,,,,, of confiscation, and 1M ease ..... c1OS"d. 11 is interestin, to note Ihal the Muslim hisMrian .1·Maqrizl quoted Cuptic SoOUrces on Ihe monns made by John VI, including supprCSl'ion of the simoniacal practice known as CHEI~OTON'A, He ..,. cord.,.d Ihal John wa. impervious '0 "ectpting gifts from his bishop••nd Ihal he never laid hand. on provi.ions from lhe members of hil congregalion. On Ihe conlrary, he p~e away all lhe fortu"" he accum..laled from com"",ree, atnOUnting 10 17,000 din,", 10 charitable instilullons Ihl'Ol.lghouI h" 1'6. trian;halt'. 1'I11'1UOCll,\PHY

ALi)". A.. S. Crusau Com_ru. lind C..I,..,.,.. Bloomington, Ind.. 1962. u.ne-Poole. S. Hislor1 of EIYf'I 'N tile Middle Ages. London, 1901. _ :nr" .4joJ,,,,,,,,,,,d,," o,NIISriU. PariI, 1915. Runciman, S. Historl of th~ C...udQ, ) ....... Cambridee, 1951-19!i4. SuBHI Y. Lo.!lIB

JOHN VII, se>-enl)"SeYtdth palriarclt of lhe S« of Saint Marl< (1262-1268, 1271-129)), John had a n"a! in GA8lUEL Ill. who replaced him by order of the sultan for a penod, after "'hich he r«aplured Ihe palriarchal seal for a second lim.,. II nal"'" of Old Cairo, hi. full name was V~'annis ibn IIbl Sa'id al·Sukkar1. Ouring the first period of his len ....,. John Vll was a contempornl)' of .he Mamlul s.. han al·~hjr Bayba,.. al·BunduqdArf (1260-1277), During al· ~hir Ba)'bars' reign, the number of Copts reached

,

JOHN VIII

the lowest level. owing to wholesale Islami2.luion by pressure tactics and brutal persecution, Many Copts feigned conv"rsion to save th"ir liv ... The Islamic sources indicate thaI Copts, who had been 40 percent of the population of Egypt, sank to a mere 10 percent under the Mamluks. The HISToRY OF THE PATRIARCHS contains Iinl" infonnation on this sub· j<:<:t and r"lates only that th" Copts witnesserutal vehe~nce. Copts were dismissed. not only from Ihe ·S1ate offices, but also from the service of private: princes. The Islamic sources. hm';ever. quote rare instances where an arrogant Copt invited such troubl"". The example of a c"nain Copt nam<:d -Ayn al-Ghazll.l. who was in the ",,,,ice of a Kb;ll;ikl Mamluk and who abus"d a Muslim broker, is cited as a reason for stirring mob action against the Copts and the burning of churches. It was decreed Ihat a Copt who refused to apeslati,e to Islam would be d"""pitat"d. " is unclear ",helher this brutal legislation was carrie
1343

as a reward_ Il is no wonder that many Copt~ feigned conversion to Islam and were later accused of persecuting otber Muslims in r"tum. Historically speaking, Ihe most epoch-making eWnl during John'S reign ",as the total extenninalion of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem ",ith the fall of 'AkU in 1291 to Sultan al-Ashrnf Khalil 0290-1293). John died shonly after tbal momentous ",'"nt. Afler his death. the thronc of Saint Mark fell vacant for a little more Ihan a yeu_ BIBUOGRAPHY

Lane-Poole, S. Hislory of ED'pl i~ the Middle Age> London, 1901, ____ The Moh(lmmadan Dynasties. Paris, 1925, SUBlII Y. lABIB

JOHN VIII, eighlieth palriarch of the Se" of Saint Mark (1300-1320). Jobn is beller known in the HISTORV OF THE PATRIARCHS as the Son of a Saint, presumably penaining 10 a saintly spiritual father, wbose pal1iculars are nol identified, Even his mOnastic whereabouts are not clear from Ih" few lines devoled to his reign in thaI history. How"ver, his sc1<:ction and con "",ration as patriarch during Ihe second reign of al-N~ir Mui)ammad (i299-1309) w"re quietly perfonned without opposition, He was also a cOn!emporal)' of Baybar:s-Jashankir (1309BIO), who was followed by al·Na..;ir in his Ihird reign (1310-1341). The Cop", suffered in that period from a ",tback in their freedom imposed by a Moghribl vizi"r. who passed through Cairo on hi. way to Mecca for a Muslim pilgrimage. While riding in Cairo. he no· ticed a well-dr<:ssed person on horseback, with pooret folks surrounding him and asking for favors. When he asked about the dignila!)', he was told Ihat he ""'" a Coptic Christian. which infuriated him. He went 10 the citadel and consulte
1344

JOHN IX

NANT Of 'UMAR specified Ihat only newly built churches could be eliminated, while the older faun· dation. must be prolecled, The chief justice was Taq! ai-DIn MuJ:oammad ibn Daq!q al-'Abd. a Mu.lim who.... ance.tor!; were I.lami.ed Copts. However, Ihis did nOl stop Ihe Muslim mob from the abuse of Chri'lian. and their frequent a!lacks on Ihe churches, An alleviating factor in Ihi. abuse came 10 pass when the kings of Aragon sent a mission in 1303 to the Mamluk coun wilh a subslantial gift, accompanied by a wrinen plea 10 Ihe suhan to permit lhe opening of churches, Consequently Ihe ancient Jacobile church of I;l~Rrr Zl.fWAYLO.H WllS reopened, as was anolher church in Cairo. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lane-Poole, S, Hisrory of Egypr in the Middle Ages, Lond()n, 19Q1. ___ The Mohammadon Dynasti... Paris, 1925 SUBHI Y, lMllll

JOHN IX, dghty·first palriarch of the See of Saini Mark (1320-1321). John IX succeeded his predeC~r and namesake at one of Ihe mOSI critical mOmentS in Coplic hislory. Linle is known about his life before he lOOk the monastic \'OW, nor do we know much aboul his life as a monk. The HISTORy OF THE PATRtARCHS d""" nol indicate the monastery where he enrolled, and onl)' stales thai he was a nalive of Ihe village of Nahy;!. in Ihe Minufiyyah Province. He was unanimously selecled by the council of bishops, clergy, and ARCHONS shonly af· ler Ihe decease of JOHN VlIt. 11 is not known whelher he wa.. consecrated in Cairo or Alexandria, hUI he is known 10 have resided al the Church of Our Lady at I;l~Rrr WWAYUH, in Ihe midsl of a Coplic quanel wbere he could ~ safe from Ihe intennit· lent inroads of Muslim nt~ in the capital, Jobn IX was a contemporary of Su~tan al-N~ir MuJ:oammad ibn Qalawiin (1310-1341), and his reign was marked by a series of tragi,c e,'ents' lhal leff him no lime for anending to reform. He was hindered from Ihe work of restoring any churches by continuous anacks on the COplS, and he was unahle 10 p"'pare the CHRISM, The History of Ihe Patrion'hs Telates John'~ biography in a maller of a rew lines, in which is recorded a general statement that the COPI~ undeTWent bilter hardships in his reign and that many of them wene killed or burned or even crucified, They we", led in humiliating processions on camel's backs,

and they were required to wear dark robes with blue turban, and a girdle to distinguish them from Ihe Muslim majoriTy, The Islamic sources ",Iale many details of lhe repression of Ihe Coptic popula· lion, On 8 May 1321, many Coptic churches Ihroughout the country were destroyed. This aclion was premeditated and highly organized by fanatic groups. In the face of these events, Ihe Copts, whether Jacobit". or Me1chites, did nol stand motionles.s, Numbers of them sleallhily found IheiT ways to Muslim mosques and set them ablaze as a measure of relalialion, a fuct Ihat promptN Muslim counter· aClions, It is said IIIat a group of Me1chite monks from Turah contemplated the burning of Cairo. The History of the Patriarchs conc1ude~ its biography by saying thai peace was restoTed by Ihe lime John died. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lane·Poole, S, llisrory of Egypt in the Middle Ages. London, 19Q!. ___. The Mohammadan Dynastie5. Pari., 1925. SUBIU

Y. LAStS

JOHN X, eighty-fifth patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (13~3-13t>9). The biography of John X occupies only three lines in the HISTORl Of THe PATRI· ARCHS. He is descri~d as Father YuJ:oanna al-Mu'taman al-ShAmT, which seems 10 denole his Syrian origin. He was a 'man of learning and great vinue. We know nothing of his monastic iife or his affiliation wilh one of Ihe recognired Coptic monasteries. He is known to have acceded 10 the Ihrone of Saint Mark during Ihe rdgn of tbe Ba~li Mamluk suhan, ai-Ashraf Sha'blI.n (1363-1377), and we must assume Ihat his patriarchate was a peaceful one with no outstanding events connected with hi, life. SUBHI Y.

LABt8

JOHN Xl, eighly·ninth patriarch of Ihe See of Saint Mark (1427-1452). John's life before his selection is unknown. Hi, biography in the HISTORV OF THE fATlUARCHS is restricted 10 lhe dales of his inveSlilUre and decease. In fact, the biographer!; of that period of Ihe founeenlh cenlury have refrained from dealing wilh the evellls of most palriarchal reigns, and we have 10 look for Ihis male rial in Ihe contemporary Islamic sources, We do nOt know with which monastery John was

,

JOHN XI

affiliated at the lUrn: of his elec1ion, whic:h look pbce duri"llhe sultanale of the Mamluk a1-.wrn.c ~y (1422-143&). He .....,.,. a eonlemporary <X Jamil al-Din Ya:wf (1438) and died ill !he Ialler yea" 01.1.... ",il" of Jaqrn.aq (1438-1453). Perhaps the major event lhal oecurn:'d in lhe ear· ly ~a" of John', paniarchale concerned. the que.· lion of Ihe inherilance. of dec.ased COpts and Jews, According 10 al'MAQRIZI, In his 8",ed for col. let:tinC funds, ai-Ashraf 8arsbay appolmcd a penon of "low chanocre," 10 Mlend 10 Ihis fullction. His name does nor ~ar ill any source, for all SOUICC£ wen: dis£usrcd ..'i!h his policy <X illegal appn:>J>rialion 01 propeny .... the dca!ll of the owner. Heirs -... rtqUCSlcd to pro~ o8icial documents pr0ving \heir ov.'n1 the church took the lands only if they w.re expressly bequClthed 10 the church by lhe dcccucd owners. AnOl:hcr order that interfered. with the sanctity of indiridual rnidencel ....... the inSf'C'('clon of Cupric homes for conlUcarion of all win. n:'Ccpw:1cs, ....nich w"", ....n spllied and clcstroy.ed. Coptic ",Iipol" i,milUtiom fued .. badJy III C"9tic homes.. In .ut. tAOfAD_ 1436. a Mamluk emir ridi.. through Shub", al·Khiyt.m (,he modem snub", aJ.Kha,man), a suburb of Cairo, dalfO)-ed a Coptic church. H. Ih.n allowed the mob to pillage Its stores while the sacred ",lics contain.d in It. sanctuary were burned. In th. following y.ar, Ih. ancient foundalion of DAYR AI,.-MA(;1f'I1S by th. Lake 8u".i1us, a highly ",vered Coplic plllrimag. c.mer, was abo desc~d. In 1439, ponion. of the OIt""CH OF AUoIlTAtuOA'l in Old Cairo WCn:' desrroyed by go..·.mmenl ,ep~ntMives~'J' the "",,",,I WI thty _n:' modem ~ions outside Ih. terms of the CO't'U
left.

In 144ll Dami.. ~, On lite Medit.rnnean IInonl,

'.'0«$

1345

_ the x ..... of oeC1,;, of a different DllUre. A F~kish lIcfl anackcd threoc l$lamk: shipa in the _Iers oi thac city, and its NuslirrI sailan were either killed or drowned. A Christian native of Damiet~, whose national idelllity is unclear, C.lcbnolcd the sad news and inFurialed the bereav.d Mu.lim Inhabltalll', who seized him and wanted to kill him, His name was Jirjis, and the viceroy N~ir ai-DIn ibn Mu1)ammad ibn A~mad ibn SaHAm clme to his resCUe and offered Ih. appllcallon oi justice 10 his cue. Jiljis feillncd AJ>OSlasy to Islam, thinkinl dul lhal would ....., his skin. Bul even this .oWd not relieve him, and in lhe end M was con0 "P"'"ized 10 "lam In the later Middle Agel, the Wamic annal. of those times have li!ted a colUiderabl. nrunber oi cbem, especially those .... ho occupied ,hoe highest: posilion& in the admillist",lion, lTom secretarial 10 mlnist......1 dignitaries as well as thoac in financ"" and III the hi'" Islam!c judicial .ysc.m. On th. im.matlOIl.l SC~lle, Egypllall n:'l.tions with foreign countril. in the fifteenth c.ntury ....·ere marred by the monopolistic policy of cOmm.rce Imposed by the Mamluk ... Irans I.ading lhe Europe· an IrW. republics .... d Spalo 10 ~l. n.", route 10 lhe IaDd of <'J>rcsr.r John" and eM Far Easl. The ...... policy also aflectcd lhoe ",wions with Elhiopia. w!l.ich ...... COnrtet:le.l wi'" Ec>1lI through its reliPous ~ c e Oil lite patriarchate of John XI. nr... in u.e end, lIS Abyssinian SOYft'ei&ns de· dded to mend relations ..ilh the Mamluk "",ltans by disptltching a special emt-&y who urriccl • p .... ciQlJs lift 01. gold and the rare m«l"inal produ..... of th. country_ Th••mbassy also ..,bm;u.d a ro)'li bri.f asking the aUlhorllie. in Egypl to rcfl"llin from Ml'1ls.slng Ihe Copt.s and 10 let Ihem live in peac" .nd ••curity wilh Ih.ir churches Intact (.i·Maqrlzi< 1956, Vol. 4, pl. 2, p. 102"). Neither the Coplic nOr the Ishlmlc sources provide .n)' t;peellic infonn.·

dra....

1346

JOHN XII

tion about the situation of the Coplic church in Nubia nor do the~ treat the relationship with the sister Monoph}'site church of Antioch.

of a Coplic arehbishQp was gran led, and the patri· arch consecrated his ecclesiastical repre.;entati\'e of Egypt at the Abyssinian court,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ibn !:Iajar al·'Asqalanl. AI-Durar al-K~minah, 6 ,'ols. H~derabad. 1972-1976. LIne-Poole, S. Hi$lory of EgypJ in ,he Middle Age•. London, 1901. _ _~, The Mohammadan Dynasties. Paris, 1925.

LIne-Poole, S. His/ory 01 Egypl in Ihe Middle Ages, London, 1901. ___ The Mohammadan D)'nasiles, Paris, 1925. Mul)ammad ibn Al)mad Ibn lyas. Bada';' al·Zuhu, Ii Waqa'f' al-Duhur, 5 vok Cairo, 1960,

SUDHI Y. UtBtD

SuBHI y, UtBIB

JOHN XII, ninety-third patriarch of the See of

JOHN XIII, ninely·fourth palriarch of the See of

Saint Mark (1479-1482). John acceded to the throne of Saint Mark afle. an interregnum of about fwo years. during which the bi.hops, the dergy, and lhe archons could not settle on a .uitable candidate for this high ecclesiastical office, John was a native of the city of Naqadah in Upper Egypl and was a monk of the Monastery of Our Lady, known as n~n ~L·MUl;I~RMO, when his candi· dacy was approved. We do not know when he joined the monastery, nor do ,~ know anything aboul his .ecular life before he fook the monastic vOw. He was a contemporary of the Bulji Mamluk sui. tan al·Ashraf Sayf al·Din Qa.'itMy (1468-1495), un· der whooe rule the Copts li"ed in relative peace and security, Perhaps the most signifieanf event of John's reign was the receipt of an epistle hom the pope of Rome, Si.lUs IV (1471-1484). almost a quaner ofa amu'1' after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans. The HISTORY OF TIlE P~TRI~RCHS (Vol. 3, pt. 3, Arabic lext p, 159; lrans., p. 274) makes a special mention of thi, papal o"enure without detailing its contents, but ,tate, that the Coptic patriarchal reo sponse was a lengrhy one iqWhret' brochures. John XII summarizes their purport in IWO major points: (Il the elimination of contPdictory behavior in matters of doctrine; and (2)' the e!ltablishmenl of peace and conciliatiQn among all Christian ",cts. In this way, the patriarch preserved the Qld Coptic tradition of independent thinking, On Ihe internationai scene, the amicable n.'lations with the Ethiopian empire were renewed when an Abyssinian embassy arrived with precious gifts for the Sultan, who met their delegations with all lhe hQnors accorded to friendly nations, Egypt needed 10 secure its lrade roules in Ihc Red Sea. The n.'quest by the Abyssinians for tile appointment

Saint Mark (1484~1524). John's life before joining the Monastery of Our lady. known as nAU AL-MUl;I· ARIlAO. is unknown. After tile death of JOIn< ~11, the bishops, the dergy, and the archQn, remained undecided about Ihe selection of a candidate for patriarch for approxi· mately two years, Finally lhey chose another monk of Dayr al-MuJ:larraq whom Ihey consecrated as John XIII. Perhaps the mo,t memorable fact of his patriarchate was its lengrh of fon~i yea"" eleven months. and twenty·si~ days, He acce
JOHN XVI

both Coptic and Muslim, wa< so complete that the change in dynasties could have cause
JOHN XIV, ninely·,i,th patriarch of Ihe Set' of Saint Mark (1570-1585). John was a native of the elty of ManfaliJ.! in UpP"r Egypl. He was selected for IMs high ecclesiastical office from the Monastery of Our Lady kn""n as DAVR AL-IIARAMOS after an interregnum of appro'imately tw() years, during which Ihe bishop' and Ihe clergy as well as the Coplic archons could nOI ar;rive at a decision for a suitable candidate, The HIST4fY OF THE PATRIARCHS provides no deJails of his sec"llar life Or his Jife as a monk in the wilderness of Shih,U. But we musl assume that his sanctity and \lis knowledge of Coptic chu""h traditions were the dcci'ive fact"rs in his selection. The Hisl<>ry "I tlte Pmri"rch, records Ihat a new embassy from Rome arrived with an epistle from Ihc pope "f Rome hearing lhc same proposals as lhose received by iOHH XII half a century earlier. The Roman pontiff was seeking the submission of lhe Coplic Church (Fowler, 1901, p. 114). John XIV, like John XII, replied 10 it in the same essence, which indicates the independent place of the

1347

Coptic church. It is noteworthy> however, to point out thai Ihe secular Muslim regime of the counlry never interfered with these ecclesiastical missives between Rome and Alexandria. John XIV was a contemporary of two Ouoman sultans, Sellm II ([566-1574) and MurAd III (1574_ [595). There is little 10 repon on the relation' between the coun al Constantinople and Ihe patriar· chale in Cairo, which was 100 remote from the centcr of power 10 attraci any special allention by the Turki,h sultans, who acled through local foreign vicero)'s dispatched to Cairo from Istanbul. Beyond Ihe payment of the annual ta, 10 the viceroy's office, Ihere is hardly any record of nOlable OCCurrenceS affecling the Copt>. After a relath'ely quiet reign of fifteen years, John XIV diod and was interred in an unknown Coptic chu""h, probably in Cairo. BIBLIOGRAPHY Fowler, M. Chrislian Egyp'. London, 1901. Hanotau", G., ed. Hi,IOi,. de I" ""tion egyptie"ne, 7 vols. Paris, 1931- 1940. Meinardus, 0, Chrisli"" Egypl: A"cieM ""d Modern. Cairo, 1977. SUaHt Y. LlBIB

JOHN XV, ninely·ninth palriarch of Ihe See of Saint Mark (1619-1634). John was a nalive of the cily of Mallawl in Upper Egypl. He wa< probably sel«te
JOHN XVI, 103rd palriarch of the Set' of Saint Mark (1676-1718). He succeeded MATTIIEw tV (I c>6O- 1675), originally a monk of uAYR AL-BARAMOs.

1348

JOHN XVII

As a nall~ of lhe old tiry of Tokh l>""l~ri or

Tolkh

Oalabh his sKular name before \lIlklns the monaMk "0\01 al DAYR ",,"&I """'!"ONI1'OS _ Ibrthlm a1·Ttlkhl. He "'"as a man of ,...1 lheolosinJ knowl· flIse and he "'. ~ to the ....,,·ke of his ehurch durin, adver5e intemal events and elllema1 plouilllNt peni5ted througboul his ...,iJ1l of Sonytwo yean..

He reslored e and the spread of plague. During tht:so! ""en\$. the pope siood by his people. infusing Ihem \lith faith and fonhude. In 1110. ""aT bloke Out belween Turl<., and Russia, neccsslutln, !he rlCCruitment of EgypdaM for !he TurtisJI anny. Al the same time. dI. civil ..... r lIul lbrcd up in EtmM resulted in Christian perJK\l' tions abated only 1»' me rise of the Manll..k amir Ismt,l 8t:)'....·he esubli$hed peact aad order in the counlry. £alemally. the coon:h suffered from lbe lide of foveicn mi5Uonaria. CatlIoIic missionaries ;nndtd Upper ~1'1 and allempled"f proselytite the nali"," CopIs, Pope John workd hud 10 ~O\'tr con''trtS who had been ....nl 10 Rome and tried 10 use Ihem fot- the glory oi lhe 0rth0d0JI. faith. The f~nch commisollc missionaries by ~rullln& chil· dren of lood Coptic families for Calholic schools and rOf' educational ml..ions 10 France. The C'lho' lie patriarch, Cyril Maq.lir. al$O took an active part in these mO\'t;ments. which threat.ned Ihe Coptic community wllh depletion of its Imelligentsla, BUI thanks 10 John's "nAlnchlng delerminatlon and hard wolit among the community, the efforts of the Catholicl "'ere foiled.

On the Abj."5&inian from. Jesuit pries/$ _re active mlsuntlentandi". l>el.ween in the introduction

or

the Ethiopian church and ils m01her Coptic chun:h. in lhe hope or con>ff'lin, the Ab~inian!l to Calholicism and Roman obedience. Perttaps lbe bsl serious anemJII to usc the Jesulu In Ihis pursuit ... me to pus duri,,& John's palrian:hate. In 1106 Lou.is XIV Stnt a physician named au Rouk 10 head an Abyssinian misaion 10 £lhiopia ,ia the Sudan, ...·here it was inlercepted at Senna. by the Muslim ruler. Members of the mission _rt ..,.i.... d and killed. Th..... par;uIosicaUy. Eihiopian orthodoxy was saved by .. Muslim. BIBLIOCRAPHY

Bl.llcner. E. L TIle SlOry of 1M Chllr'C/, <>f EOPI. 2 yois. London. 1897. Buder. A Mab COflq.. UI of EOpl, Oxfonl. 1902. Fowler, 1'04, Chrislian EVPI. Londoo. 1901. Troootn, J.-P. Lu Rt/alionl du patriarche caple han XV, avec Rom. (1676-/1/8), Luxemboucl, 1948_ RUSHOI AL_TUltHI

JOHN XVII. 10Sth palriarch of lbe See of SainI Marl< (1126-1145). Ht was a nati"," of Mallaw} in Upper EcJII- As a younl man by Ihe name of 'Abdal-sayyid. be retired 10 Ihe man_lOry of Saini P3u1 (DAn MilIA BOlA) in the Easlem Doesoert lor- some )'tars. He :slane
Duling his reip. the Capek community sufered ,rnlly from the imposition of uttaanfinary tau· rion from which the hierarchy could nt)I escapr. In 17B, a pm"", (Turkish decree) issued by the

Ounman sull4n in Comtantinople -hereby lbe khhir ~~moT) of each dislricl was ordered 10 liM '"'"ell' Chri51ian and Jew. These fines we.., di"idtd inlO Ih..,e categories to cope wilh the financial ability of each individual. including Ihe c[.,rn'The fiM catep)' ....as _ d 101 .20 fH"as (dT)' measur=) a head. the ","cond at 210, and the Ihird al 100. Coupled with a general Sl4te of famine and Ihe failu.., In Ihe crops Ihal caused lhe p""e of an aT/lOp (dry measure) of wheal to soar (0 six gold dinars, many poor Cop.. r.iled 10 meel the n.", impost and .....re ""ved from punlshmenl only by lbe InlerceSllion of certain archons in Ihe Copti<:

JOHN XVII

socie!)' The HISTORY OF THE PATR,ARCHS mentions the names of Mu'allim Nayrii., Mu'allim Rizq alBada"'I, Mu'allim Baniib al·Ziftiwl, and others who came to the rescue of their poorer coreligionists and saved them from incarceration by paying their dues. The hardships to which people were subje<:ted were multiplied by the gene",1 atmosphere of inse· curity, the tyrannical mle of the Mamluks, and the continuous strife and murder of Ihe amio themselves, In the year A.H. 1155 (1742), an episode of Ihis kind occurred when all amir by the name of 'U,hmin Bey was nominated sarliaq (mler) against Ihe wiII of the armed forces. The soldiers consequently took arms to .top the appointmenl and altacked and pillaged 'Uthmin's residence, from whence he ned to Upper Egypt and finally made hi. e.cape '0 Turkey. The patriarch coped with Ihe internal imposition, famine, and pestiience, but he also struggled wilh the Roman Catholic missionary lide, which attemp'ed 10 proselytize the Copts. In fact, this mo.'ement ,oward proselytization, which had begun earlier, persisted during this and subsequent patriarchates. Through education and the dispatch of Coptic children to Rome, the Jesuit and F",nciscan missionaries hoped to sow the seed. of Catholicism in Egypt. Roman delegates workeCKl was appointe~ Catholic bishop of Arsinoe, He was a native of Jirj;\, educaled in Rome, and a com'en with a ,'great knowledge of Coptic But he did not take residence for any length of time in his bishopric and in..ead returned to Rome, where he confentrated on the publication of a number of scholarly works penaining 10 the Cop' 'ic chu ing the.e e~ternal difficulties, the Coptic patriarch had to woli< hard to keep his community in'act. After the death of abuna KreSlodolu III (see ETHtOPtAN PREUTES) in 1743, the Ab)'ssinian sover· eign oent an embassy to the patriarch to ask for a

1349

new ab'm for the church of Elhiopia. The embas.~y consi.ted of three delegates, one Egyptian by 'he name of George and two Ethiopian. named Lik. anloS and Theodorus. The three were intercepted by the Muslim rulers al the pon of Mu,?wwa', and onl)' Theodorus was able to make his escape afte. payment of a heavy ransom. He ultimately ruched Cairo in 1745 when a new "bUrl was soon nominat· ed and dispalched with Theodoru. to Abyssinia. The spread of Roman Catholic activity in Egypt seem, to have alarmed the sultan in Conslantino· pie, who fcared the increase of European influence within his realm. Sullan Mahmiid I (1730-1754) consequently issued an order thc Greek patriarch to forbid his flock from allending foreign .e.....·ices on pain of • fine consisting of 1,000 purses. An Egyptian amir seized the occasion to arrest four Latin missionaries, who were freed only after payment of a heavy ransom An interesting episode occurred at this time, associate'e of the end of the world, were S/>ved from perdition by one of the '"Iern'" (Muslim mentors) and a Muslim ,h"ykh who solemnl)' announced that through the intercession or Sidil A\>mad al-Badawr, Sidl Ibrlohhn al-Disiiql, and Sldl aJ-SMfi'l-three leading Muslim sain~-the Almighly AllAh granted their prayer and deferred the end of the world to a future date, During John', patri.rchate Richard POCOCKE made his famous journey to Egypt. Although he depended main!}' on Muslim interpreters as well as the Roman Catholic missionaries, his accoun~ of the Copts and the Coptic churches are records of Ihe highest interest. Foreign visitors were not mi.· treated by the natives, who found no purpose in abusing them, Thus, Pococke was able to travel around ,he country unharmed. He vi.ited the rily of al-Mal,>aIlah al-Kubrlo in the Delta, where he was told that 500 Copts constituted a fair number w ,lie White and Red monasteries of ~NBA BISIlOI and ANIlA SHINODAK. Be,ideo ,he.. impressive Cop,ic eotablishrnents, he went t
'0

1350

JOHN XVIII

..In. a CiIIoJlU'in in the Dulch na,'Y nam.-d Fr«krick Nord..n. also visiled EIO'J'I in ..... _ p.-riod ard wt"OI.. voluminous accounts of hi5 ..ull, but th..,h.o~ .. liltl.. ","arin& on lh.. Copa.. From 1736 l(> 110, ..... mOSl J>OW'"'I'fuI tttaII in f.mll was 'UthnWt (Bey) Zulliqir, who di5pl~ only .,.,.. virtue by not ac",q>rin& bribes. but ..... tynnnical in his trnlmn\1 of his 5Ub;ecu, OIn.cian and M11SIim alit.... Unlike the Marnluk amin. how......... he ..".,Ip.-d -...ination and ...- his ~. 10 Conslantinople, although his hoo.as.- .... pllbc.-d and saek.-d by local . . . Is and unruly sold...... T_-.rd lhe end of John', pattian"h.ol.., in 1745, lhe ... Ilan Mal)mCld I Mso.-d .. """rel ord.-r 10 lhe ..-h.o of Egypl, M~onad lUghib. to ul..rmina... til.- tl"OlJbletom.- bul 'l<'ry JIOW"rful Kaltimi~ and DimYA!1 families. The pasha ""itt
Ekoteher, E. L n .. Sl<>ry of Ih.. Church 01 En'pr. 2 wob. London, 1897. fowler. M. Christi"" Egypt. london. 1901, AZlZ S. ArNA

JOHN XVIII, l(l7th patriarch of the SH of Saint Muk (1769-17%). A monk of th.- Monas... ry of SainI Antony (DAn ASB.I. ~'I'iJ$) in the East..", Oes.-n, 1M! .......Ioctd by th.- community of lhe clerc and til.- CopIic arrbono to oucc...-d ."..UlIr; "II at his death in 1769. Hi> pourian:hate pn:»'Cd 10 be 00.. of Ihe mosl misenIbI~~rioIk in Coptic hiSlory. On 5e¥enl occ",ions the ~h had 10 l\ee from the inj.rstio<.. and ""lOnio"", imJ>05"'d 00 the Ch...... tians. The lyranny of the Marriluk ami........ ~Iemless as Ibrihlm Bey and Murtrl 8ey d.-cid.-d 10 OWeI' throw lhe yol
contrary, the n..... tn. . . . pro>-..d to be e~ more rapacio~ than the preceding Mamluk am;"'" He pye .. fr..,..- hand 10 his conquerin. !lOldien to abu5e lhe ChrisIians, and by his order they pillaged their houses and sokI their prop.-ny in public auctions. Tke Htm)II;Y or Tttf 'AlIUIoJ.OI$ reportS that oold fon:ed h.cr 10 divulge the se<:ret hiding places ...'here h.cr OOsband concealed his wealth. Conwqumdy, all his propeny and I11OOt)' w.-n!' confiscated. Th", sin>alion of the Chm.ians .... worvnw by th.. OUlbreak of peSlilen« In 1773, and the .,.... of daily death!; in Cairo alone ra.ched 1.000 souh. Tho: ra,'ages of this plague ""tended 10 Ihe highcsl: au· lhorilieo, and th.. ";"""'Y lsma'll Bey succumb<'d 10 it Hi> succe->n ruled }olndy during this nalional di$aster. In these clreurnSlances, Ihe fugi!i~e Mam· luk beY5, Ibrahim and Murid. relurned 10 Cairo and resumed their IdstUI. The ..-is were destmy«I, there ....... no toecUrity an)"""""re, and ...iw remained attn the ra,-aces of.he ami.... ktl prey to the bcdouillO who marauded lhe t:OUnt'}'5ide. At the close of the eip.....nth century, Ec'J'C was perhaps ill a worse condition than it had ......r been "'IKe Roman ",Ie with in
Description de I"Egypl", o~ R~cueil des Observation. e, d~s Rec"~rch"J qUI' om tit fail~' ." Egyple pendaMI l'ExpUilio" de l'Armte Fro,,~aise, 9 vol•. Paris. 1809-1812. KAmll .$~Iih Nakhlah and Fal1d KimiL KhuI4fai T4rl1
JOHN XIX

JOHN XIX, pope of Alexandria and 1 I3th patri· arch of the See of Saint Mark (1928~1942). He was born at D~YR USA in the pTovince of Asy\il in i855. 11 was theTe that he received his education. He entered DAYll. AIEBARAM()s monastery in the Western DeseI1 and was chosen by Pope CYRtL v to be his personal aosi'tant. Yet he preferred 10 go back to his own monastery of which he !aler became the abbot, a position he occupied fur ten years. At one time he was nominated for the post of metropolitan of Ethiopia, bul he declined to accept it. E,'entually he became metropolitan of the provo incl" of Belleirah and Minufiyyah, a po,ition he held for fony )'ears. In 1892 he was exiled to the DAYl< A'
.j

1351

to Illis di.pute, the Holy Synod decided on 28 July 1928 to apply the existing procedure of choosing a metropolitan or bishop as the candidate for the vacant seat of palriarch, In the meantime, a royal dec ........ designated an electoral college con.isting of eighty·£ve members from the clergy, the Communi· ty Council, and noted Coptic personalit~s to handle the whole question of patriarchal election. In thc sec,,"t ballol John oblaine, 1970. ___ . Chris/ian Egypt: Andent and Modern, Cairo, 1977. MOUNIR SHOUCRI

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