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The Coptic Encyclopedia

Editors and Consultants Editor In Chief Azlz S. Atiya University of Utah Editor, William Y. Adams University of Kentucky Basilios IV Archbi.s~op of Jerusalem PietTe du Bourguet, S.J. Louvre Museum, Paris Rene-George>;; Coquin College de Frana, Paris W. H. C. Frend Glasgow University Mirril Baulcos Ghali SQCiely of Coptic Ardlaeology, Cairo Bishop Gregorios Higher Institute of Coptic Sllhi Y. Labib Kid University Tito Orlandi V"ivusity of Rome Marian Robenson Utah State University Kbtlil Sam;r Ppntffical Oriurtal InstilUte, Rome

Consultants Labib Habachi Egyptian DepaT/mem of A,,/;quities, Cairo J. M. Robinson h15!ilute of Antiquit)" and ChriSTianity, ClaremOnl, California Magdi Wahba Cairo University Edllorlal Managing Commlnee S. Kent Brown

Brigham Young University. Provo Fuad Megally Polytechnic of CenrraI London

The Coptic Encyclopedia

Aziz S. Atiya EDITOR IN CHIEF

Volume 2

Macmillan Publishing Company NEW'\ORK

Collier Macmillan Canada TORONID

Maxwell Macmillan International NEW 'lURK· OXFORD· S1NGAPCRE· SYDNEY

Cop)Tight C 1991 by Macmillan Publishing Comp.,")' A Division of Macmillan, Inc.

All rights reserwd. No part of this book may ~ reproduced or transmilled in any form or by any means. electronic 01' mechanical, including photocopying. recording, or b)' any infonnation 5lorage and retrieval ~ystem, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 EgIinton Avenue East, Suite 200, Don Mills, Ontario MJC .lNI Ubrary of Congrns Calalos Card No.: 90-23448 Printed in the United S1ate$ of America. printing num~r I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ubl'21} of Congress Cataloging.in.Publication Data

TIle Coptic encyclopedia. I A!iz S. Ati)... editor·in·dud". p. cm. Includes bibliographical rderences and index. ISBN ~2.897025-X (set) I. CoptiC Church-Diclionaries. 2. Copts-Dictionaries. I. A.tiya, A.ziz S., 1393BX130.5.c66 1991 231'.7'03-----<1c20

90-23443 ClP

The preparation of this volume was made poossible in pan by a gram from the National Endowment for the Humaniti..s, an indepcnd..nt federal agency. PhOlographs on pages 567, 736, 754, 755, 790, 791, 876-878,1284, UII. and 2168 are reproduced courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Photography by the Egyptian Expedition.

• • BABb, Arabi<; name of an ECYPlian town in LM

buill by the 8abylonlara of ~tamia. Mou probably. however, the ""me loes t:-ck to the Old Egyptian P,·h'pj·n·Jwnw ("Nile houlle of Heliopolis·'), which .ounded like "Babylon" to the Gr...,k.< (Gardiner, 1947, p. 143). In late antiquity "Babylon" designated the settled country between Heliopoli, and the Roman fOl1ress situated to the south. Today it n!~" to what is left of the Roman fol1res5 itself. Tk Arabs; named this 10M ~ ALStI.UI' (PaiKe of Candles), a designalion diffic:ull to explain. In the Roman period one of the three lePo~ conlrolli", EcJpt was _ioned in the Iort. which was the IDOSl imporuonl buoon in the counlry. FroID hn-e as late as the K>~nth CftlI11l'Y ..... a>ndueted the deds;"~ Inl1k apins.1he Anlbs, inlo whose hands il feU on 9 April 641 aft<-,- a 1le>'eO..nonth $ieee- " bishop 01 BahylOll called Cy.... is mmtioned in the half of the fifth cCIllUry. His ra>dence, bowner. liu thai of his immedia."" MKN'WC!fS aDd of «IIU'Ile all OI~r n:maininl ci,iliaos, .............. t.... ouuide the fonn:ss.

province of GN.rbiyyah now known lOll Abblj. It liu In the western Del", about 5 mile. (II km) north_$1 of Kafr aJ-ZaYr-it. Muslim authon of the Mid· die Ages menlione
churc:hes and a m05<jue then:. The existence of "many churches" in the tenth century JU"eSU thlol the pia« mUll: have had gru' importa~e for Christians in earlier centunes.

from KeU .. aJ·MuIU tMre i£ ~WII the grave.....,e 01 .. rnonk named Goutinos. the son of NIa· min, from Pebldj. The stone is probably 10 be ..If
m.

BIBUOGIUP'HY

nrnm. s.

Dfl cIuisllkJt.l:DptiM:& At/plUf /" ..,.".

INschu Zdl. Vol I, pp. 274-7.5. ..

W~n,

1984.

The FIKtra.s

RA.'oiDolU. SnwAAT

The pn:unl fOl'1JUS (Bulkr, 1914: Toy, 1937, pp. 52-78), which c"",~nlionallydales from lhe period of lhe emperor Trapn in the .second century, is, Kconling Ihe 5(lI.Irces. a r«OlI51ruclion of a IorIn:ss mat goes back to the Penian period (Josq>hus 2.15. I). Of Ih", l>owever. tllen is no certain lmo" ..I. edge. Although the Romllll (o"ress was ulled as a quarry down to the end of the nineteenth century, it mu.st be regarded ;OS one of the best-pre.erved forIre" .tructures from lhe llont.an period. Cel1ainty on~ can still r~cognit~ lhe course of the cumin wall with its numerous half-rounded baslions and

BAIlLUHIYVAM. See Tan'is..

'0

BABYLON, the oldest pan of the dly of Cairo. Babylon is situated on the east bank of the Nile. to $Ome "xtenl on the border MtWffn Upper and Lower EJYpC. The >arne .pot marks the mOlllh of a n~l, originally cut about 600 B.C.. which connecl· ed the Nile 10 the Red Sea. The cily wu widely reluded amon, andent writers (Diodoru, Siculu$ 1.56.3: Strabo Georr"P~J 11. 1.30) as having been

317

318

BABYWN

foregruund, Fan of Bah,'lon (Old Cairol, Backgrwnd; ..nlrance 10 the Wpli< Museum. CourtU' Arab Rep"blie of E,ypi

ftichlS of",au-s. On lbt wnI sidf', "'~~ Ihe k>n~ .... b<>nJt,rtd ,mmedialclv br !he ri,«, lhe~ "'.,.,. a ri.-..r laIc flanked by lWO remarkablv Slro"t!, full" cireular 10V0'''''. • rare f""lun:' in lhe Iayuul of Roman fonre$S<$. A """,o"d lI"lC faced loulh "'ilh a door bet",,,e,, I"'IJ half-rounded 10"'...... op;;"ing 001 in traditional fashion from an i"ncr coon and func· lioning as II l.nd ptc. Alm_ een.ainl~ lhere "a.s al least • oecond land ptc on lhe ""nh "!k of ,,'" bnress. Ruin. 01 the botldinp "iUrin lh" fonress .n:' nol 'il.ibk. Ahn- lbt conqu<:s< of the k>nrcu. tt>e 'icloriottl Anab :>rmy c-~aled Ih.. n('''' city of al·FIISl~1 10 Ih.. nonh of Ihhylon around lhe mosque, named aher lhe commandcr·in·chlef 'Ar"," ibn al·'A~, Tile na(h'e. mood. ChriSlian population, who had prohably 10<1 mOSl of !heir hooses, scHled in the rued fonrcss. ... here theY had alreadY laken up qua".... during rhr siege.

Churches Within the Forlress ""'" oldelt ch"",h .......ilhin the fo"C. ;ong 10 Ihil A .... b period. The oldt'5' found.~'ion that Is known 11 the Church of Saint SCrgius (AbO Sarjah), which .... '"S 10 lhis day (BUller, 1884, PI' l'lff,; Middlelon. 1885. PI' 397lf.). II is tM q>i"",opal ehun:-h In ,he ci,y and "'10< built .1 the lum of

the ~-e,"h to 'he riahlh centu') in lhe ""nod of 'Abd ai·MaI,k under the palliardat.. of JOtI' ltl 11 is • basilica ""Ih a pll,,')' built 0\-rT columns ""IIh • wL"S,ern re,urn ai.te and lripanil.. s;r.n~tuar.,., which was pr"'I""'abl.,- ""par,lIed from the naw hy a nar ro.... mulll nOw nO longer in exi"ence Th".., is a <"pi bO"nealh 'he $.aneWa... with w,,11 nichell arranged CroM...ise. Al a laler da'e it ",as li,... n II lhrcc-aisle form "', the tns<'nion of 1...·0 rows of columno. Btcause of its """"Iural con"",,· lion ... i,h !he UPJ"'l" (hun;h. th" col" could h..... been buill ontv af,cr lhe conSll"UCtion of ,he chun:'h. Since the la'cr Middle Ages. lhe l"I"nd has d...,ula,,,d (hat lhe Hoi. Famny found sheller in lhis c')l" during the flight", Egypt. A;'M,\QMlzl, wriling in the fifteenth centul')', is the first seriou~ hi.torian 10 gi.·e an accounl of ;1. Earli.., rd"renee.< ar.. found in Ie local d,..omans-. N~..",helos, lhe cnpl of Sain. Sc'll;US is ..... -er menlioned in dcs..riplltlll5 of lhe 'lInous 510J'" of Ihe Hoi. Famil~ in the la'1le htllorical ....orb of Ihe Coptic church. Th" Church of $;" BarbSr~h (Monnerel de Vi] lard and A. ralricolo, 1922) is a sisH" buildiog of Ihe Church of SainI Se,.,iw.. II com ... from the oame period and likvo"lSe "'"3:1 dn',ncd as a ba.s1Iica

BABYLON

with pllerion. although il is subwonlially I"", well prne:~. ElIin. of the lworntinh cenUlIY. llnd ..
the nonh.side was lirs. built .t lhe beginninll of !he N'allieth ~""twy_ The roon'IS origlnolly oiIualed in lhis Uc:J. had. quite II diff"""nt u..pe. 'The Church of Sitl ~m (....Ad!n'). called "'.Mu';aI\aqllh (u", Sttspended One). _ lor .. lime the chum. 01. the -patrian::luue In u", city (BulleT. Int. Vol. I. pp. lO6fl".). II is cOllJlrut::led oYer the .....th pie 01. lbe Roman ionn::sa and conoequenll)' an only Iu."" been buill after the Anb ~ooquesc. II is lirst mftltioned. in IilenlUR in the period of !he

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319

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Pl... cMlhe Church of Saint Sergius. Cou,resy Pnu G,o..",allll.

,

320

BABYLON

,

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I

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thou'"

L. J

,I

longer be IISCCnained from dle present sIMe 01 the building. n... church """y be reprdcd u old. even mentioot of It ill the docs not go back very far. n... earliest mention is by Ibn Duqndq in the inurt«oth century. Al tIat time the c,,",rch was c"""''"''t~ with • nunnery. Other clIurches ..... DOl ~ n.c Copcic Church of Saini ~ . btlongi... cleariy 10 th., four-pi.llar typf: of building. wq I>wnecI clown in th., middIc of the llinc:en:nth cC!llCl.lty and was rchuilt wilhouI ~ aI Ute end of the cenlUl')'. To tlte Ila/Ilf: camp btlonss • 06'a1 a1··lrdn (Wtdding House). a 11 paIae., of th" Mamluk period. Th., Church of the VlJlPn, Oattlyyal a1.RII).ln. mentioned in thc laic ninth cenrury, _ "ubst
-

,

.,

,

t'Lf" Plan of Int crypt beneatn In. sanctuaryQflht Ch\lrch of Salm Strgius. Coun~sy Pelrr GY(lJ.m~nn. ninlh·c"nl\lry palriarch YUsA8 I in a repQ" doaling wilh tht dtW\Jction of tbt plkry. In II. original outli~. tht church appe;'lI"$ 10 h.o~t bun a col· umned Sll'\lCtu.......ith a naVe! .00 two aisles buill In lhe lradillonal manner with a nanhex and I,;panit" Anct.... ry. Altached to if was an additional chaptl COflSlt\lCltd o--tr the loQO.It/w:_ IOWC!t" of the Roman font'C!SS and conOft:~ 10 the actual btiilica by a colonnade. once open. In the laIC lenth c",nw.,.. MI· Dua IV Ulcnded the uppn- Boor of thil Jide chap"I in order 10 prarid" accommodation fw th" patri. ,"",N. D.rring the Iasl 1Ul0ration. It was C!tT'OnC!OU5Iy wm..d into an acldilional chapel. Whal is left of. tbe Church of Sill Maryam in iU original _ " ia con/i....d 10 the an::a of. UIis side chapel. ThC! basilica iUe!f. bo"".tr. ",as inapenly r_orK! in thr nin_nth e~twy....""""'br a chun:h with a 1UI~ and lour aisles camo;into 00.... and in the proc_ the pi....,. "'"25 Rmow:d. The <;......1; Churd> of Saint GeoI"JC, which like its p.-..dec_ was buill over. the noo1h IQIOitr of the former river piC of the ROlRan fonrel. was rebuilt after a devastating lire on 4 Augusl 11Il),). In its struclu",l outline, il comprises a doubl,,·.btllW 1'0" I\lnda with a concenlric inn... colonnade IIlppon· lng an d""aled cupola. The eastern seellon of Ihe ambulalory Ii occupied by the sanct....ry. The en· lrance 10 Ihe church lies to the north. How far Ihis amanllement corr••ponds to the original OUlline. which was alrudy dtstroyed once before in the course of the disturbances of the year 1882. can no

ChU«:Ma Outald. the Fonreu The praenoe.l pans of the Church of Mir Mini go bKk to lis foundaJlon in the 6rs1 half 01 lhe eilhth co:ntury. II was precede a na"", and two .aWes ...,th p11erieo in the tnoctuItY of ~ depth, logc:eher with tbc southern ou~ wall, haw: IUm>'ed. III the elcVC!rlth or e2rly IWCIfth cenlucy. the d1urch ...- fumr.hcd with a JHJnJdcJ.,sion. bul ill tlte presenl sUole of roobuildinit. only Karcdy identifiable ....mai... on the south side rvived. Judci... by its presoen. shape. II would appear that we arc dcaling ..."ith an oblong c....rch ..·lth cupolas characteristic: of Upper

ha,,, ...

"",. Churche. In Dayr Abo Sayrayn The most important church In Dayr Abii Sayfayn and the largest anclenl church in the 8....a of an· cient Babylon;" dtdicaled 10 Saini Mercuriw (MarquriyU.). Of the original buildin,. Ihe fOl1nda.lion waU•. a part of Ihe p.......nl ouler wall. and the eastern section of lhe! IlInctuary are besI presen'ed.

BABYLON

l1>ey Iioe a picture: of a wide church of ,eMrous proponions witll a northern anncll.-.,...-haps UMd as • b;tptisttf)'-on the level 01 the sanctuary. In this the church .. p<"rhaps the 00l1y church buildi.,. )eft Mandi,. !hat goa back 10 • pre-Mus!im foundation. A.l ... unknowrI in lime. the c:hu~h _ ~ ~N and subM:qo.Ieooy sea>lariKd. In the laic lCnUt century huiardI Abraham had !be church rebuilt. makina: ntenlin uN: 01 the el
ronn.

poi,"

second half 01 the twelfth centuI}"....-ben only !be chapel of Saini Gco'1le mUllIN III the east end 01 the south gall.,.,. is ,ocporte'd to havc rcmai"cd in-

-

In the nonhea51 c:orroeT. lhe church has twO e>tra c:hapds. ...-hkh "''Cfe pnXlably added in the !'Oo-etfth CftltuIJ. The ODe situated dOf'Cl" ID the church (01lows the -.ad of. rc
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Plan of the Church of Mil" Mini. Co.-TMS1 Pltlltr Gmss"'Dnn.

;' ,: •

322

BABYWN

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IiJ

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Plan of

th~

chur<:h

compl~x

-,

dedicated to Saint MercUl;us. Courte,)' Peter Grossmann.

fore that time. In its p1\s~nt form th~ chur<:h is a basilica with an often reconstructed gallery and a subsequ~ntly ~xt~nd~d. sanctuary and a later khurus. It is no long~r p""sibl~ to delennine exact· Iy th~ original shape of th~_ sanctuary. but it se~m, that it had th~ cOn\'~ntional tripartit~ di,·ision. In the Middle Age, the entrane~ lay on th~ south .ide of the church. wh~re today the epiphany tank and the remains of a column~d portico are preserved_ In modern times the entrance was shifted back to the west sick. The third church in Da)T ...bo Sayfayn is dedicat· ed to the Virgin Mary, called al·Damshiriyyah. It is mentioned by ai-Kind; in the tenth e~ntury among

the new building. torn down by 'Ali ibn Sulaym~n al-'AbMs:i in th~ ~ighth c~ntury. Whether there are vestiges of the eighth century in the present Slruc· ture remains doubtful, although 00 account of the irregularities of its ,hape, the possibility cannot lJ., ruled out absolutely. It give< the appearanc~ of a sturdily recoosuucted basilica with ,e,'eral ,""used columns. Th~ sanctuary has the usual tripartite di,'i,ion. Th~ ap:s~ sid~ chamher on the north was transformed in mo,"" ,""c~nt times into a BAH AL-NtsA' (area for women to receiv~ communion). The al··...dhri' church in l:IARJT WWAyUtH was m~ntioned in the early twelfth century when it was us~d to consecrate a bishop. In the second half of

BACHAnv, CHARLES

!he 1~lfth cenllllY lhe church ...... appaunlly Iak· tn owr by !he Anntnian$. Todoy it bdolllS 10 a "'Omtn's con~enl. 'Iht bulldi". i!St1f ha. been \"try badly r,..,or>'" JlNCled. and """'" of the walls ~$ 10 be older than dw: n,hlt<"flth ctnrury. ~r, ........... of Ihe iMOrporallion of the oldto- foundaliom, _ can l'ttOplu rt:lU£hIy some of lhe ""tline. of iIll oriIi· ..... JlNClure. They stlgesl !hat !he ""&ina! build· ina had Ihe ""dint oJ. a teansq>I baWio:;a. In com· pari!.on with other loso: naVt al presenl It. eowred by • band roof. Apan from this, lbe only orisi"'" dements are plC5Crved in Ihe west pan of the church with the ",-.lied-in columns of the ~em row of suppons. Dayr a1·Amlr Tidnis ronlains I..... churcIIes lhal ~ a...-anged 0fI lhe ""... .oda of an inner 0ClUI'1. The one on !he toUth side, dedicaled 10 Saini TheoOoNll (ndnu). ill first mentioned in lhe.second I>aIf of the eltYenIh Ctntuly and still contaillS remains of a u'nU1lliud building ""til an ambulMoty orici' ....n)' constructed around ~r corner pillan. Othe..... wisoe its prtSe111 construction is subsuonlU.Uy from the eialtlunth ctntury. Chanoclerimic an Iht larat semien-Ollar $IInetuanes and tho: absa>ce of a 1:1111"'" The clturch 011 Ihe JIOnh s""" is dedlclled 10 Saint Cyna and SainI John, and its earliest. mention ill by Ibn DuqmAq in the founeemlt cenlury. Inside are prc:M! .....l!d the remains of a powerful kh~",s dividing wall. On the outside the elturch has been completely recon.trucled so that il Is nO longer possible to recogni,e its original fonn. The Chur<:h of Saim Michael i. lite m
323

in the Hi$lrJ'J Df Ihll P"'ritJrchs, "'"lIS built al the beginning of the elewnth cenlul')'. Indeed, all lhal survives of lhe ~nal layout eli the church are a coupJe eli pillars concealed in the lile surrounding wall and also pOl$ibty a f""", seclions of the original OIIli1r ",'alb. They indicale that lite build:iD& "''as once a """'ilia. Today the church sl'-vs all the sip of ...now reconsln.>clioos with n<m>erous alterations and addilions on all Mde!.. BlllUOGurHY

Bulkr. It... J. Thll "lICk"l Co,mc Clrurches of Egypl, Vol. I. Oxford. 18&1. :c--C- Babylon of EfYPI, Oxfurd, 1914. Coquin. C. us I:difices .;h,bitllS d.. Yieu.r C..ire. Bibliodlcque d'itudes coplQ II. Caim. 1974. Cardin,.,.. A, H. ,4'Kienl Etypl'a.. Orwm"slic.., Vol. 2. London. 1947. Crossmann, P. ''Zur chri.llielltn Baukunsl in Amlen."' £n.;holia 8 (1978)'141. plale 16b. _ _ Mille/alter/khe Ltmghau,kuppe/ki,chen uud VerWtmd,c Type>! in Obe,dOPte". Ghickstadt, 1982. Middlelon. J. H. "On Ihe Coptic Churches of Old Cairo."' A,cltato/aria 46 (1865):397fF. Monneret de Villard, U. "Nole sloriehe sulle chiest di al·Fus!4!." RenJko>!ti adl" Reo/e "ccaJem'" Nooo..ale Jei l.ince' 5, ser. 6 (1929):2116lf. Monne.-et de Villard, u.. and M. A. Palricolo. u. chinD ili S. &rlM",. ~ce. 1922. Palricolo, M. A. "Uonuments copies." Compus 'e"· Jus du Comili de comen'. . dl'> "'on""'....ts de ran .. r..he 32 {1915-1919):I91lJ. Toy. S. "Babylon oJ. f&ypt." JoII"''''' rJ{ the 8rilis1t "rclureologic../ Auociarioot 3, st>". 1 {19J7):52-78. I'nu <;aO$SMANN

,,,,n

BACHAny. CHARLES (1909-1957). secretary of the 5OCIE:TY or corne AlIClWlU.OGT from lis establishmen, in 1934 unlil hit. death. He laid the ro..ndatiom fur lilt 5OCieIy'S procnun of activily and for il. libraI}'. He abo desi",ed its main sen... of publicalions. In 1944 Itt orp,.,iud al Cairo • successful exhibilion of Coplk an. w~ich "''as probably the nrsl anywhere in lhe world. In IY43 and 19<49 he di.... ~led the sodely's excavalions al DAn APA 1'IJ00BMlMON in lJpper Eml. BIBLIOGRAI'I(¥

Ghah, Mirtit Boutr06. Obituary of Charles Bacltally. Bulleli" de la Socitti d'archtologill cQpte 14 (1950-1957):249-51.

324

BACHEUS

Khaler, Ii.. ~Biblioal"llphie de Charles Bachall,.~ S"lkti" 1<1 S«ihl 4'.rc~~ ~opl" 14 (lm-19S1):217-28.

.u

~

Peni;an or JAIotE5 1l'lTUC1SUS. and IbM M intends lOi"l 10 'lisit ItU manyr;um in Et;ypt. 81BUOCUPHY

BACHEUS, fictilious fiaure in Coplic lilenlUK t<:> wh<:>'" at leasl lwo ho"'llies Ire auribuled. He k menlionen (lJnlversity Ubl"lll)', 0.10. 217). Here Ba.cheus hilS become bish"P of Maium... (Gaza). a particularly important center in the period of the Cbalcedonian conlrovenies, and near 10 Aschaion. It .. also Slated ,,,"mcally that "'he coowne
k_"

"'i"'"

Campaanano, A.. eel. PI. Cirillo di wn•••de......e, CJm",/i., caple ...114 ".mOM, sun. C,.,.,e 10 s,,11.o Verxint. Teati 0' documenl; per Jo studio dell'.nlichili, Selie Copoa. Vol. 65. Milan. 19f1O. ZMga. G. Cal.klt". Codi&"", Copticor"", Ma"'" scriptoru", q"i I" M"oea Borria"o VcUtris Adoe.· V",UIi'. Roma. tUD; Hildoshtim. 1973. Tiro

ORLANDI

BADARI, AL•. Sec P1lgrimal'"S' BADK AL-JAMALI, Faumid ..me. al lhe lime of al-MLlSun¥< (I03S~ 1(94). Badr ....JimlIl - . bon> a( tlte bqinnin. of Ihe d~,,,h <:ftl.tury. He n Armenian sb,.,. of tl'Ol: Syrian amir larnil a!·Da lah Ibn 'Ammir. He bopn his career in S)"ria,.....nere 1'01: was gtn'tm<>c 01. Daznascu:o! lwice, then 01. •AkU. Ahltough 0<11 always succesUul in his polilleal career-he . . . npeUed from his posl in J)amuclJS twic~-h.. had. thanks 10 the Annen"n troopt lhal formed the nucleus of his lU"my. won c:ondderable fame by his muUle apinSI th~ amti~ of the Sal· jllqs. When al·Mustan~ir was hard pres..-d from without by Ille altaCks oi the SaljUqs and from .... Ilh. In by famine, mllmanalement, and lhe comlnuina: slruggle between his .Iaves and the Turki.h lroops led by BadT'. arch enemy Nasir al-Da....lah ibn Hamdin. he was finally deprived of.ll ilUthotity. It _ to Badr that he tumed lor help. In the winler of A.H. 4li6/A.D. 1013 Badr pol to on from 'AkU and unexpectedly IUmed up in Egypl, ",hen: he rap;dly ....ned masffliJI& the sttua.· lion by doin, aWl»' wilh his <:fttmio$ in one stroke and reslorin, law and OO"der to the tnroMl:riclcefgnh), vizier, chic:f jusIiI:~ {qUI .1..qMt!M.), and chid propapndist of the lsml1lr faith (J,n af.Ju'~), With his inveslilun:•• decisive change look plau in lhe offiu of lhe ...we... ~ and Ihe position of the vizier. The early Falimids up to aJ·Mu'iu. had con· ferred ....ecutive wb 10 officials c.lled ",,,waqqf (prOiectorj OT ",,,dabOl' (director). A~coTding to the unanlmou. witntss of lite .
BADR AL·JAMALi

Ia~fldh)

or "virierale (If the pen" (wiZolral al-qalam), The holder of Ihis office "was he who, depending on the imam's opinion and guidance, acted as a mediator between the lauer and the people" (alQalqasltandl, Sub;' V, 449). !'
325

immiSJ3tion of Armenians 10 Egypt. In 1075-1076 the Armenian Catholico. Gregor II Vkayaser (Manyrophilos) paid a .'isil 10 Egypt. He "'as not onl}' receive92) was lreated respectfully by the vizier at his enthronement in 1078, although Ihere is no proof that he held an especially inAuential position with tlte laner, On one occasion Badr set· tled a controversy among the dergy concerning problems of the moral qualification of some ..,desiastkal dignitaries by referring them 10 their own legislation, The ,'iziers leniency reached ill; limit, however, as soon as financial affairs were inv"I"ed. Thus, in 1086 he increased the poll lax (IlZYAH) and, along with this measure, reintroduce
Canard, M. "Un Vizier chretien a l',;poque fa!imi· Ie." A""o.[es de ['["slimt d'iludes Qrientales 12

326

BAGAWAT. AL-: Location and Architecture

(19.54):84-113. "NOleS sur Ie.; Annmlen. en Ea1"e • I'q:.oque fA!iml~_N AnlUl/es de I'InSh'"./ d'l,,,dcs ~"'"ks 13 (1955):143-57. Dhahabl. al·. KiJM, dUM',,} "Udf.m, \101. I, pp. 206. 201,209. Hyderabad. A.M. 1377/(1957). Ibn KhalII"n, cd M~i 'd·lJin 'Abd dl-Jfllhfld, fBiovaJlft>cal Diclionary), trans. William M~kin Baron Slane. Clliro. 19U-1949. Ibn M1.l)'llSSaT, Amudcs d'Ecyple. Publications de l'lnstibd ~ d'.ud>klqic orientale, ed H. ~,pp. 15-16,20,22-28• .lO-31. Cairo. 1919. Ibn a1·QaJ"Il5l. Q<1-iJ Td'~ Du"uhq, ed. H. F. "rn~, pp. 84. 9]-97,109_110. !.riden. 1908. Lane-Poole, S. A HislOT)' d/ ED1" In lite /Uiddle A,es. London. 1901. AUjid, A. M. A/·/mhrl "1./U"Sl,,n"" bi'nl.h ,,/·F4!;ml. Cairo, 1960. O'leary, D. A Sho" History 01 ,he FIIlimld Khdlil"te. London, 1923. Oalqashandl, Al)mad ibn 'Al1 al. ~"b~ "I·..t·sh~, 14 vah. C.lro, 1913, W!hItenfc1d, f. Gej
Suam Y. lJ.art\

BAGAWAT, AL·.

(This entry COnS/SIS of ,hree

emdef. The lim difC"S$CS IIrL IocIlJlOn, ,he I'd'" Siles. drnl ,he d,ehileCl..re. TIre second Cllldfot#cs lind disc..ucs Ihe Greek mscripfions. Coptic ,..scrip. riou IIle ,1rL ... biccl d/ I~ Ihird llnick. J

Location and Architecture Aj.Bap",'il is

an tarI,· Chrmiall n«ropolis of the

anc;c". IOWn of HilHs ("'Odenl KAarph). The va''''' d: lhe p"p" period ",'Cre arnn,ed u rod: lOfllht on lhe nonh and ~ slopes of Ih~ cliff I)'ing to tM eaR opposile Ihioltormer to...... area (on the rneral situalion. see "inlack. 1941. pl. 29). or gradllllllJ climbed bip>er. The Ialer grave, predom· lnanlly deriving from ddle and al the ... me .ime in a eommanding position is a larxe building (chapel 180) with u· lremely Ihin ",ails, originally ConSIl'\lCI~d as a ~ou"y.rd building, which in Ihe archaeological III' ~ralure i. frC<juendy des<:ribed as a church (Uauser, 1932, p. 40: faUn)', 1951, pp. 1.57-S9). Inside, a weslern panko and an open tncQnch dirKted 10' ward Ih~ tast ar~ situated e..actly oppos-ile on~ an· alber 0fI lhe lwo .ides of th~ inner cOll". Laler Ih~

inl~rio~ . . .

lransformed inlo II Ihree..... le BASJUCA and proYided ",'ilh lOtI ulerNol peristyle running all round Functionally 1M buildin. stn'ed for the holding of meals for 1M e m"",ls for the dead, here also arranged in a semldrde, ha"e 0150 ~U" vi.cd Olltn, ",,'enol have ill ",.. Ued forecoun (chapel~ 150, 199, 111, 2ll). In 50_ cases an apse i~ added on lhe ea>l side cl Ihe mausoleum (chapels 2OS, 2(6), and this _ occaaionallJ npandt.:! inlO a rolunda·liU (chapels 69, 192, 2S9) or OCtaional fo<m (chapet 213), In tICK a few cases, the maus0leums an: connected ...ith a om.lIl church (chapels 9, 24, 90), or have IMmselvn -.umed the form of a church Ihrouah
BIBLlOGRA~HY

Bock, W. de. Matln'a".. pa"r

{'a,cilia/ogie de I'EgyplC chritie"ne, pp, 7-38, SI. Pelersburg, 1901. s~n:ir ~

r BAGAWA.T, AL-: Greek Inscriptions

327

-,

,

.-

-l'!II'I .-

-

,

•

"

Plan of Chapel ISO at al·Hapw:'!. A. The original counyard building. external peristyle. Co",usy Peter Crossmann. fa'hry, A. The Egypt;an Duerr.: The Necropolis of El-Bagowdt in Kh,"ga Oo,is, Cairo, 1951. Gr_rnann, P. Milleloltuliche Langha"shppdhY. chen "tid verw,mdu Type" i" Oberligyp"". Glticbladl, 1982, Hauser, W. "The Christian Necropolis in Khargeh O""i•." B"lIe1;n ollhe Metropolitan Museum of Art (1932);38-50. Kaufmann, C. M. Ei" olu:,nt,tl;chu Pompeii. Mainl. 1902,

,

Winlod. H. E. The Tempi; of Hib;~ in el Khorgeh Oasis I. New York, 1941: h"JER GRoss.\t\~N

Greek Inscriptions Among nearly 400 Coptic or Greco-Coptic gr;tfliti. one may count al al-Bagaw:'! scarcely twenty·five Gruk insaiptions or graffiti, to which mUSt be added a dOLen funeral)' stelae dis~overed in re~.nT years in situ. A fundamental dislin~tion mUSt be made between graffiti by visitors and graffiti or

B. The later three·ai,led basilica with

drawings lhat may be called original to Ihe sile. It is among the laller that we rank se"eral liturgi~al te>!s, a Ir;s~g;o~ (a shon hymn of response), some p"'-ye..., or simple quotations of sacred texts. In this respc~t, appeals to the divine pity are ~, fre· quem. The God of the Old Testament, Christ, and 'he Hoi)' Trinity are invoked impartially. E\"en Saint Paul is quoted. In th. 10mb of the young Petechon, a long a<:Toslic poem on Ihe name of the deceased informs us thaI he left his eanhl)' fianc~e 10 b."ome a panaker of the spiri\. With .orne epitaphs, onl)' 'he surrounding decO"'-tion and ,h. general context give rea.wn for 'hinking them Chrislian. So il is wi'h the epimph of a soldier from Hennonthis; for Ihal of Aytheio, no doubt also a soldier who came from far away, since he was a native of the region of &>stra: and fol' that of Tis, which recalls that his mausoleum cost fony arlaba. (of wheat), Passing "isilors address therosel,·e. to Christ, to enter in'o his kingdom, or to God, the one who succors, There are also natu"'-Ily slaves of Jesus Christ, who have left only a signature. Some of the Greek text.

328

BAGAWAT, AL-: Coptic Inscriptions

l

•••

Plan of the

comple~ in

the northern area of aJ-Bagaw~t. Co"'I~,y Pettr GFO.<srn"~~.

of al·Bagawat go back to the fourth c~mul)', They are naturally indigenou,: .tran,iem visitors wrote there in Greek down to therixth and seventh centuries and perhaps b~}'ondi The known funeral)' stelae from al·Bagawat are "II late, and in general contain only the name of t,he decea,ed. They are tno"" of Sarapammon, Apoll"n, Senamounis, P$cnpnouthes, Timouthi" Horu$, ThlalO~, Tephatis, and Ploua. BIBLlOGRAf'IfV

Roquet, G. "U" graflites copte" de Bagawa! (OMi" de Kharga). Remarque, prtliminai",",," Bullel;n (trirnestrld) de la Soclile Ira~,ai," d'hud" mariales 76 (1976):25-49. GUY W~GNER

Coptic Inscriptions Of the 263 chapel. in the cemetery of al-Bagawat counted by Fakhl)' (1951), a con"iderable number are covered with Arabic graffiti of all period.: the hi'torical importance of some of them has been opportunely undcrlined b}' I. M. Haggagi (1978). Thirty-five chapel, contain Greek and Coptic graffi· ti, numbering nearly 400. Recently (Roquet, 1976) the hi",ol)' of the exploration of the site has been recalled, and the imerest of the documentation col. lected made plain. Some graffiti are simple signa· tures, a name, a family connection, a visitor'" iden· lit}' card. Others are e1aborat., incised or painted, somdime. carefully done: a prayer, an appeal to the invited visitor to pray for the signatory, imitat-

l

BAGHAM IBN BAOORAH AL-$AWWAF

«

inl the uwaJ formul ... of the coi<)f>hons maIlU· SCriplS. Other BBflili are a""cdoIal. Wi,h olhers. we follow th,. i1i",,",~ of some penon. in their vW,inc or tM chapels and in their devol...... Some ",Titers are monks Or cleq.y-so they ....,·-bul 0Ihefs .re more une>.pcclal: local ofticen. such as • f"sJ..ne (vill""e ~e);. t"ltI<Wte (w:onior. champion); an lllI'Iir'. «our\er. If the \ioitor prides himllotlf on his binhpbce.• place name is pn:serwd. Fe", tUUl are daled. from lOll. ho",n'tt. me.... an' ' - vU' fili br the same 'risiloc. written in 8ohairk. The Iocal.pecch s""'-... lnee'! or ""INIindtrs 01111 allin· illes "';Ih the L~opoIiran diakcl. 10 wm. noel)'" Ihing seems to ir>dicale lhaJ 'M frequenlinl of 'M sile ., .1·Bapwlt by Coplic """akers ..;os &plical out between the sixth and eleventh cenlurin.. BIBLlOGaA'HY Fakhry. A. The Egyplian DU.,1S; The Necropolis 01 EI·8"r"w~r in Kharga O,u;s. Cai,..,. 1951. HallPlli, I. M. "Graffito. anbe, de aagawil." In An"aleJ isl.m"/ogiq,,.s 14 (1978);271-87, pis. 21*

22 RoqUIPI. G. "Lts gralfues copies de Bail"wit (Oasis de Kharga). Remarques preliminaires.'· SHU.rin (rrimeslriel! d. I. S<xib~ fr"",,,ise d'.r",1e. m
G. ROOullT

BAGHAM IBN BAOORAH AL-~AWWAF. efe\"Cnth-cenllllY Cop! from Old Cairo/Bab)'1on and the nephew of Anba JiIjI. lMhop of MIsUah. His rau.e,- had connetlions with one 01 the influenl.ial peo'SOO&/lIles in the 00UI1 01. w Falimid caliph .... Muo~r (1035-1094). Fo.- 50me time he wao ~I'O' temponry with Pope CHIIJSlOIlOlllOS (lo,n-IOn). After M. convenioa to bJam :01 • twenty·lWO. he was re)e<:ud and diJOII(ned by boIh his paA:nu.. It happened thnufter lhiPbe dtcided 10 be rebapo tiled, 8taluse b1amk law pn:IhibiUl apostaoy .Dd inAku the penalty of dealh on !he .pasUlle, JOm~ of the monks of the Monasle". of AbU MaqArwhom he had mel during his solitude in the Church of Mi!thf,lI al·Mukhtuah for a few da)'$-advised him 10 accompo.ny tn~m to lhat mOlloaStery LO join it. BagMm rejecled Ine offer, for 1M: yearned 10 confe" Chri~t on the same spot wner'll he d~nled Him. lie ,h"n <.Iepaned from lhe monks and girded his ",..iSI with a girdle, ",hich dislingui$hed him lIS a wbmlsllv. Copt in accordance wilh lhe pl~c of

329

ibn a1·Khanib. He WIIlke arrtSIed him. When his £:oIher recrived the ~. he ;mDlcdi:oleIy offered a lar&e sum of money 10 • mend. a Muslim ..+.0 worbd in the caliph', coon, and en· trealal him to .. ~ his 50ft from death. But me Muslim frieod refused to inteMA: in this ddicate _Iter unie:ss the father convinced his 500 to feign madness. 50 that whIPn witnasa ""'"' broughl to him in prison to eumine his case. they wouJd confirm his insanilJ. Thus, he would DOl be considered responsible for what he had done. his life ~Id be ~""red, and he would be Ul free. des"ile the facI thai he was , Cop!. By coinc:idence. there wl6 In "nJOn a Syrian monk who undenook to coonsel him and explain 10 him thai he was "roceedin,toward martyrdom. BagMm, however, considered dealh in Christ', name as "sweeter Ihan honey:· In Ihis way, he slaned 10 yearn for martyrdom and to prefer II 10 life. When the Muslim proaeculon went 10 Baghim in pri",n, lhey Slarted to inlelTOplo him to verify his case. It b«ame e\'iden! '0 them that he """" 'homughly sane. In addition. he declared before lhem that Cop(tc Chrisllanity ..-.s the only true faith. Aoncording to fonnalilie$. the aovemor of Efol't senl th~ proseeulDn 10 the minisler to ",hom they submilled the caSot. and upbiMd to him the COlI' clusion!< Ihey JUCha! concerning lb&blm. In conformity wilh the lerm5 01 l.Iarnic law, whetbtr Sunnile 0.- Shi·'te. and in the lidIt 01. Bag. h1m·s confess>on. tlt.n-e ..... no ......, 10 ....oid sen· tencing him '0 death. mlnmer p ..... ordIPn for 'I)mar

w

n..

his "",""U1ion.

The HI~Y Of' THE rATllLUCKS by sAw'f1W5 IlL" ALMUOlFt"A' [~~ords in full the del.ails 01. w >to". 01. me mlII1yfdom of Ihis )'OlIn, CopI1,IlIIil his denal'ilalion. n.e F21imid aliph al·Mus~ir had o.-dered his body to be banded """" to his family to bu~ " ",-here\...,.,- they wa'>led. B~m·s &Ilher came Ihe Cbun:h of Mlkh611 .1·Mukhl::i..... and buried his son oouide iu door. WhlPn on the: Ihird day Anbi CnristodoulUI c.m~ from Dayr aI-Sham· to ttie church. he objected to Baih~rn's burial out· sid~ lhe church, u.ylng that ,he martyr should be interred wllhin Ih., church. When he OI'ened Ih~ coffin 10 killS Ihe manyr, h~ fO\Jnd Ihal hi. blood had not dried_ H~ dipped his finger inlO II and signe
I

~

_

330

BAHIJ

the body was imerred in the sanc'uary. which was dedicated to his name, SUBH' y, VOID

BAHtJ, •

small village inhabiTed solely by bedou· ins. with a weekly markeT, It is located weSI of Alexandria (Ihe la.sI railway station before Burj al· 'Amb) on the south ,h"re of Lake MaryO.t. The mounds of debris north of BaJ,ij (Kom Sahlj) cOntain cemmics of ,he laTe Period. Possibly this is to be identified wiTh The f"nft''' of PsammeTich I men,ioned by Herodotus. In tbe area of The cemeTery $Duth of the railway line there are Tmces "f a small settlement "f laTe anTiquiTy with the remains of a pillared structure thaT probabl}' can be idenTified as a church. During excaVaTions by ,he Egyptian Amiq' uities Organization in the spring of 1969 some buildings were found. as well as The remains of a wine press, The site is perhaps idemical with the ancient Philoxenite On lhe ""uTh sh<Jre (>f lake Mar· yilt. which is frequenTly mentioned in the miracle

stories of Saint Menas as the landing piau for pj). grim, traveling to ABO MlNA (Drescher. 1946, fols. 13.3, 27.1, 6). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Drescher, J.. cd. and 'rans. Apa Mena: A Sclution 01 Cop'ic Tex'. Relming to S,. Menas. Cairo, 1946, PETER GROSSMANN

BAHJ{/RAH, village in The Nag Hammadi district of Upper EgypT On The lefT bank of the Nile and the site of two monasteries, ,hat of Saint Bidab<'i, ,,"'hich is still in exisTence, and ThaT of Mar Jirjis. The first mention of the laner s..,mS To have been made by the Capuchin falhers ~Tais and Fran~ois in the sevemeemh ~enTUry. ~ir Text is reproduced by S. Sauneron (1973, p. 95).:lT was copied by J. de The..enot. lhen by J. Vansleb, .....ho could not go beyond Jirj<'i (1677, p. 413; 1678. p. 247). S. Clarke, in hi, index of the churches of Egypt. indi~ated T.....o churches dedicated to M;l.r Jirjis in Ihis region and STill extanl, no doubt corresponding 10 The monastery noticed by the ..\'em..,nrh·cenrury travelers. thaT of Bahju
Sauneron, S, vm~s .1 Mgende, d·Egypie. Cairo, 1973. Th. havels Mo".i'"r de Thil:'''OI, Eng. trans. LondQrl.I687. Vansleb, J. Nouvdle relation ~n fonne d. journal d'un vayage fail.~ Egypt< e~ 1671 el 1673. Paris. 1677, TnmslaTed as The P'eJ<~1 SI~t< of Egypt. London, 1678_

"r

RENt-GWRGES OJQUIN MAURICE MARTIN. S.!.

BAHNASA, AL_, modern name of the city ThaT was kno.....n in Greek as Ox}'rhynchus and in Coptic as Pemdje. The city is located on the western edge of the Nile Valley abooT 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Bani Mazar in the pro\"in~e of Miny<'i. AlThough al-Bahnas<'i is best known Today as The site of One of the larg""t finds of Greek papyri ever made (see OCX:YRHYNCHUS PAPVRI). the area has a long and ri~h ChrisTian tradiTion. Coptic-Arabic hagiographic literature mentions the city often as Ihe birthplace of various saints and the pJac," wheft' many martyrs died during the persecua"ns of m(). CLETIAN in tbe early founh cemury. The SVNHAR'ON indicated thaT al-Bahn~ .....as the seat of a bishop by the beginning of the fourth cemury, Monasticism also made an Can)' app""mnes on 10 sa)' that there .....ere some 5,000 monks wiThin the city and an even grealcr number in the surroonding monasTeries. Subject to The bish· op of the diocese were 10,000 monks and 20.000 nuns, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amdineau. E. La C;"graphle de l'Eg)'ple it I"<poque cop/<, pp. 9tl-93. Paris, 1393. Timm, S. Das chnsllich-loplische ),gyplen in ara_ bischer Zeit, VoL I. PI', 283-300. Wieshaden, 1984. RA1
BIBLlOCR",PHY

Clarke, S Chri.,!;an A"liquities in Ihe Nile Vall"y, Oxford, 1912.

BAJORl, SHAYKH IBRAHIM, AL. (17841860). noted khat professor who became Sha}'kh

BAKHANIS·TMOUSHONS

"'·111,,... in July 11147. H~ authoud """y won. on Islamioc: juriJprudenct. logic. and ADbic IBm""". as ...,~II as wwb ci .-eligioo..ls commmUory. H~ is noled for his resisulnce to 'Abbis I's au~",pu to aile all Copu from Ep;ypt. AI· &jQr1 bftame t,,", imam of I,,", Islamif; communlly (SJI_yAA ././s/4m) in the bnn reus of M\o. l]ammad Air• .-rip 11805-1849) and du.rin& the ""ncr of his .on Ibl"lhfm (11I491. as _1I as in the reiln of his Inndoon and successor 'A~ I (184911154). Durin, ~ rul.. of both 1rt1~1lUod 'Ah and (brihfm, the Copu enj:::oyW. _ Jm'l &al of infh....nc.. and Ottupkd principal JlO5t5 in the adntinlstfllllkm of 1M sw.. of Egypt. n"",bly m (;r>lInc.. and tlWl· tion. How"",r. with Ih.. accl:SSion of 'AbbI$. Ih.. silua· tion bepn 10 CMnie radically. n.., n.. w khedi,·.. ,. knoown to hne be~n an outspoken biiot. Besides beinl oul of humor wilh all of Ec1>t and havlnl no sympathy for Egypliall5, h....specially haled Chrislians and aim..d 10 rid II>.. .1:11.. of Ihem. He dismissed the French officials who had 1>«n engalw by hls grandfather. and was .....Irained from the wholeDle dismissal of Ihe Copt. from Ihe govern· ment beeau.., of their imponanc.. in Ihe financial ma<:hine'Y of th.. Slate. Dulinl his admin"lralion he one.. contemplaled ullllll all Copts from ~pl: to I.... Upper Sudan. But such a drtilic and massi"e enterprise could IlOC be und.-rtak..n "'ilhoul a rdigious f.~ (juristic consulWion) u.sued by the bigha:1 MtI$lim aulhori· ty. SN)ti1 Itnhim a1-Bajiiri. who was asked 10 is...... wch a ,,,"".•• rejected 'AbbU's scheme br sayin... "If )'OIJ IIlC
331

p. 222; Ramzl, 1%3. p. 1%). n.., buth eMablishm-enl of '~IJ$ is placm a' Tmoushom by both lhe Greek lOr>
,. POW' urvi,,, I"hislOi,.. d.. rE:CfPle cIuJri........ " /11', V". VI' .., VII' !lU;c1..s. M&nciro publ.it's par I... M.....bra ck b Missioo ard>eologique F.. ~ise au Caire 4. Paris, 1586-

Ame)i......u. E. .&.Iot!u"'

'''' Pam.

_ _ L.. Cb:¥;r-4Ip.....

th fE:et- " ripoqo.e c<>ple.

1193. 1'1'. 515-17. Coquin. R. G. -Un Compltnwnl ao.u .-ies saJ'lidiqu<:s de Pach6me: I.e ManU$Cril IFAO Copte 3. Bull..· lilf d.. rInsli'''' " .. d'ATC~ """lflfli.. 79 M

..

'ABo AL·R.ol;tI...

(I979),209~O.

"".is

HaIkin. F. Slmcri PlICltQMn Vii•• <;rllec"e. Subsidla

BAKHANIS·TMOUSHONS, villa.., silola"d on Ihe left bank 01 the Nile. in Ihe Nag Hamm~dl dislricl, aboul 4 miles (7 km) '0 the lIO...heul of FAIt$HC1J'. Th.. anei..nt Arabic spdlinl was MakMni£. onder which it is .. asy to ucogniu lhe Coptic nam.. Tmooshons. lhe Coptic a...icle T having been dro~d and lhe .Ir sound having evolved Into the Arabic kit", a Mvdopmem already percepllble in Ih. G..... k tran$Cliption Mouchon.is (Halkin. 1932, p, 462). Th...qui,·alenee of Ihe... name forms is .1t000ed by lhe Coplic·Arabic scalae (Monier. 1919.

Hag>ognphif;a 19. B~Is. 1932. Lefort. L T. "m Premiers monaslt.... pach6mi..ns: ExplolOuion l"l'01"'l'loique:' M"si<m 52 (1939):379-407. _ _. us Vies OOpl.5 d, 5.. J~, " .. clro", •. Bibliotheq"" du Museon 16. Louvain, 1943. Ram'l, M. AI.Q~m{/. al·/",hril{l /I .. 1·BUild "I·M;~,. ;yyah, VoL 2. pI. 4. Cairo, 1963. Munier, H. "'La Geographie de l'Egyplc d'apres l..s Iistes coples·a",bc,." 8"lleli" d.. la Sod"'. d·ar· clriologu ""pie 5 (1939):201-243,

REN£.GEOIl.CES COOoJ'N

•

332

BALDACHIN

BALDACHIN, originally.

~ ~~anovi' of

rkh ~ilk material ...pponed 01'1 lOu. 01'" sa columns. named &fIer the city of 8qtIdad ,,"'heo'e mis material _ madt. 11w old form of the natnl! Q;

Iww.

BaIdxco, from which ito 6rrivcd the dimi"uth'C MIddIX"'JtQ. Since the be:Jjnnin& al the sew:ntee'lIh cnllury, !his term had Men bormwed by «her Eu· ropun languales. F~lionaUy the baldachin serwd ... Ih" ftnblf:m of I'llnk of secular rulers and aplril,,",,1 dignitaries as well as ror the ";sual idemifi· cation and display of relies, inner ..."etum., and .1"'1"1I, It could be carried or erecled only for UK' on special occasions or be 11<'1 pennancnlly in •

hcd poshion.

It

is related to the ciborium and

dlfFe.,. from it in principle only in its lack of .lablli· ty. Int'Yitably the baldllchin appear> frequemly as a $U~ilule for il. BUI ...horeas the clborium W1IlI opc:n on all ";M$, the ~kl;oc:hin, ec le.n the bal· ebehin in most <:aW$ is simply calltd QmIWI. which denotn; " cupola and thus can"'" be di$tinl"iloMd from .... cibom",> or ~I~. BlBLIOC..-.,,"l'

KI .......r. T. "Uborium.'· RtIJlluiJ:n" fii~ IItllike ""d Christ~",,,,,, 3 (1931). col$. 68-86. Schramm. P. E. HUTsch"fm.ticJ,"," ""d StIJ"lbym. !>dik, Vol. 3. pp. 122ft", Stult83rt. 1956. PETER G~MANN

BALESTRI. GIUSEPPE (1866-1940), IUllian Coploloeist and • membu of the Auguslillian order,

kno"'l1 for hilo publiacion of !he Sahidic Iiol..,. of Ihc New TQW1>Cnl prescDlly in tilt Bol'Jirl M.-urn (S
He is

beg

\1"'"

BlBUOCU'UY VOII~.

1.·101.. "Giuseppe Salestri. coplOlogo e bibli$U." L.'''''~'''''ton rom""O, 29!3fJ April 19'10, 1', 3. MARTIN K.....1JS6

BALLANA KINGDOM AND CVLTURE. The breal
~~SH

in lhe

......nh ctlltury ...... the sip! for major popul;llion mo,..,mtOl$ in thc Nile' Vall.,.. Both N",bian-speakina tribes (.... "'1IllIAI'o~) and ~u.. lltIBU look pos. session of diffe..... t teniloric!i that hMl formerly been UDder th~ "''"' ol Kush. III !he &or nooh of NtlBlA the~ "J'PC*l"'ed • kind of hybrid cullu~ that combined some of the old traditions of Kush with new ill8ucnccs from GrCCO'Roman EaYPt. Ti>c McroRie ...,;u..... Ian,ua,ge' of Kush di;:.appt'ared. to be rq>1""'ed On a ...ry limited s<:a1e' by Gree'1t. When tl>c po:st·Kui!>;te culture of lo"''''r Nubia was first diS<:ove ....d by arch""ologisls early ;n the twentielh century. ;t "'M given lhe designation "XGroup" bU3u5e' of Unce,,.inly as 10 who the f\e'wcomers were. Some IlChoian identified lhe'm ",i,h the Slemmye people, ,oday ~nown as Bcja, ",ho are often mcmioncd in d..,.iealtexts, while OIhers preferred an ic disccsc border, ~, ... led lhal the Ballana people had been ...,bject to. very po",..,rful mona~hy. The lUngs and qUe'ens were buri~d in chamber lombs under great ea"hen lumuli, lOi:ether wilh an aMOn· \shing arra)' of lhelr sccumulated wealth all wdl ~ sacrificial animals and human relainers. 11Ie monu· al)' ritual ...... &enerally. lhough nOl absolutely. Mm· liar to ,hat followed by ,he earl"'r rulcB of Kush. and in panieular ,he &Ilana royal crown. mained ,h, bmiliar Kus.hite' e'mblem. of authority. n.. Ballana monarchy, at reflected in the I"O)'lOI 1Ombs. is bdicved to haw endured from about 350 In 3SO. n.. lings and meir .... bjc.cu cyidcndy Icepo. up the _Mil> ollhe old £ayplian deities, especial· Iy i.>U. "'CO !OOu&b Ef:ypt by Ihis time ....... officially O"isIian and lhe cull of lhe earlier deities had been ~ . Christi... ideas we", also be,;n· lIing to mab 5(ltnt htadway amoog Ihe Nubians. to j u . from thc VOt"'" tamps and OIher Chrislian paraphernalia found In the Ballana tombs. Very few textual re'COrds from the Ballana period have .urvi...d. There a ..... bowe.'er. lWO comple'e royal texts, both in highly ucentric Greek. found al Kalab.h.. and at OA~R t8RlM. One i. the victory proc· larnalion of King Sliko of the Nooatae and Ihe'Dlhc, 13 • letter that rnalees rmrence to the oame kin., Since Sillco appean to have been ..
I

DANA

10 have Ulended h.. rule over a ~nsiderable lerri. '<>c- co.....,rrio" \0 ChrUtianily ;" 1M sUm cenlul)'''' rKOI"dtd by John 01. Epbe.- (__ NUllIA, [VA.-.
424. Prin«lOn. NJ .. 1977. Emery. W. B. N,J,i"" r'''<J$MTe. London. 1948. _ EDpt in Nub;". pp. 232-47. l.onclon. I%S. Ki........ n. L P. "A Su~ of Nubian OriK\ns.'· Sud"" Hotel ""d Record. 29 (1931);47-02. _ " "Studies in 1M L'Iler HisleM')' of Nubia." U"i,·"..ity of Liwrpool MmQts of Arch"eoloty "nd 14mhrop%"" 24 (1937)'09-105. _ . ''The X.Group Enigma." In V"nished Civili. 'Dlum•• ed. E. Bacon. London, 1963. Monneret de Villard. U. SIO,i" dell.. Nubia ""'/la,,a, pp. 36*60. Orienl.llJia Christiana Anakocta 118.

Rome. 1938. Vantlnl. G. ChrlstidniJy '" Bologna. 1418t.

I},~

&ddn. pp. 24·32. WIUJA.IoI Y. AOAWS

BALU$, AL-. town IocaIed in the prorin<;e of Qed On the _ I t .ide of the Ni~ ahoolt } miles (5 bn) nonh-.. of 0U't- In Coptic documents the ..me of tM l..>.looC (Pallas). n." town ...... y have been 1M birthplace of Apa !'lO' the Coaf~. Although the SYIlU.O.RJOH for II &'l1Nh SOY' ~ _ !>om ;1'1 &I.'lis (also men-«! 10 lIS BalaW). "" Arabic _ r i p l (NlICional Ubrwy, hris, no. 154) _~thM .... was his a church of AI- Santno in binhplace. n.ere _ ....8al..... and Mudirn authon of tIw: Middle ActS often mention .. morta$lft)" in.the am. So...., SOIlrns call lhe monNtery Day<- Kahrn_ and O(Mrs Dayr MaRls. but It i. not known wtwoc monastery Ihls

&1'"

-

Am~linellU.

BALYANA, AL-, city in tM province of J~ in middle Egwt. 11 is kxated on the weu .ide of the Nile .-oughIy betWft'n .u.hmrm and Nag lbmmadi. Chrilrian·Anbic litel'lllll~ makes rew ufe~nU6 10 a1.BaIyani.. H.,..-noer, as indicated by 1M acCOOIllt of \he wuute of Patrian:h $H£H1IT1! I (1l511-8!O) wil!l the hc-etical "'""" of • bUhop fmm aI· &Iyan5.\he city was the tnt of .. lrisl>opric at ktit as early as \he middle of 1M I'Ilnth centu.,.. In the r1rventh emIliI)', Ma.rt, .. bW10p of al·BaI)'aD&, par' Iic~d in an ....-cnsful 1"\01 instigated by John, bishop of SaW. 10 depose tbe potria.rcll omsro~

Afric4, pp. 390-

BIIJUOGRAl'HY

E. lA Giagraplli. d. I'EOPle
eOpl'. Pl". 81-82. Paris. 1893. Timm, S. Das chris/liclt-I:op/isch. Aeple" i" dra· bise},.. Z.il, Vol. I. pp. 306-307. Wlelbaden. 1984. RANDALL STEWART

333

n.e city is

"'10 mentioned On tWO C"'veoton.....

From \he year 932 com" the I(>m""'one af Kynt Susinne....i>ose blltet i"sale ""115 from a1·Ba!yani (Stem. 1878. pp. 261f.). The filzwilliam M.....um in Cambridge preserves Ihe tombslo,,", of A~ Theadarus. son af Mo5e. a ptUbyler from al_&I)...n!. Th. in..,ription was made in 939 (Cl"Um. 19(14. p. 43, plate XXXVIII). B1BLlOCRAI'lI'i Am~lineau,

E. Ld G~""aphie d~ I'SOP" it l'ipo<j"~

t:ople. pp. 93-94. hris. 1893. Crum. W. E. "Coptic Craffiti, etc:' In Tht: 03irt:ion df Abyda•. N. M. A. Mu1'l'lly. pp. 38-43. Public.... tions of the Brilish School of A1cllKology in Egypt 9. I...ondon. 19Ool. Stem, L ''SahitDsche ll\tChrift.... JIll allen Denl;· malem:· ZtillCltri/1 /iJr AmIist:1ot: Sp.-at:1tt: IDU1 Al/t:mmukund~ 16 (1878):9-28. TimID, S. 0<1. t:ltriMlic/t.kQpl_1w AcPI~n in arabUdte, Uil, Vol. I, pp. 312-14, Wieshad..... 1984_ ~IWL Sn;wAllT

BANA, a cRy ;n the pnwlnce of ~ in the middle of II... Egyptian Delta, localed about 6 miles (9.5 km) 5DUl!l of Samannlid and J miles (5 kin) south of AbUsir Bani. In .y (Panau)_

Kynopoli.fBanl has I lon, ChriMian tradition. The city ha.< ha.d a bishop since al least as early as the finl quarteT of the founh century. In a Jist of bishops given to ATH~t<~SIUS In HS, M~UTIUS name. Bishop Herroaion "in Kyno and Bous!ri." (Munier. 1943. p. 3). Apparently the city .150 had an orthodox bishap at that lime. fot in .. document (naw loat. but quoled by Solomen) Athanasiu. wrote that a Bishop Harpoknllion of Kynopoli. attended the

134

BANA.WAN, AL-

Council of "ICA,EA in 325. This Kynopolis _ un· doubtedly .he cil)' in the Delta ouher lhaJ1the lO\o;n t. £00'" .he Coptic and Arlo1»c lisls of lhr panidpanlll in the coundl indicate .hat !he Kynopolis rqll'r$Cfl.ed by Bishop Adamanti.......... knc>-o." in Coplk • Kocis and in Arabic as a1-Qa)"S (Munier. 1~3, p. 4]. Around 459 BMop Marion
"t

ffiBUOGRAPHY

Aml!llneau. E. lA. (;Wp~ de l'EtYPie • rtpoqsoe cOPic, pp. 84-15. hris. 1893. Munier, H. R~iJ da li.ste~ iPuaJP41cs de rJ,lise coplc. Cairo. l~j_ TImm, S. o..s cltristli€lt--koplische AoPle" flO ",,,. /lis€her bit. pl. I . " lI8-24. Wiebeden, 1914. RA"o.ou. STtwAIIT

BANAw~. AL-, lOWJIlocaled illlhe province
'0""'.

there a", no wimesse< .0 Chri5lianily in the Nonetheless, the 1O><'ll aJlll'UfS in tho: medieYaI Coptk·!lnbic Iqi&lors a.nd in a list of Coptic bisft. optics. Historical IOUrcCS speak of a bi!ibop in the """." as e.....1y .. 1078....hen Bishop Mena fmm al·Bani"w. atlo..ded 1M synod in Cam. thaI c"'-" a successor to Patriarch CIialSTtIOOU.OS BIBUOCItA'HY

Amelln...... E. L.e G4Ofr1lpftie de rEgypte" Npoque COple, pp. 86-87, 349. Pam. 189). TImm, S. D"S cltrisdich.k<Jpfische A,ypren in "",. &sclte' Zeit, Vol. I. pp. 327-30. Wieobaden. 19&4. RA.'lDAU. STur;... T

BANI I:IASAN AND SPEOS ARTEMIDOS, two aroup$ of tombs
n...

n...

BANU AL·KANZ

mates that the colony of monks came to inslall itself in Speos Anemidos and the neighborhood at the beginning of the fifth century, by reason of the fonn of the cross<'s engra"ed on lhe walls, The installalions in the wadi are ""needy pre· served, with tra<:es of the external construe lions. It is difficult 10 decide whether they were used by cenobites or hermits. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1677. Translated as The Present Statt of Egypl. London. 1678.

RENE-GEORGES COQUtN MAURICE MAIlTlN, S.l,

BANI MURR. S.. Pilgrimages. BANI SUEF, capital of the province of Bani Suef

Badawy, A. "Les Premiel'$ ~tablissements chnhiens

dan. les anciennes tomb", d'Egyple." In Tome (:ommemo'lIli! du mill,h,ai.. de III Bibliolhtque plltriarcae d'Ale:
335

COQUIN MARTIN. S.l.

and situated on tbe west bank of the Nile about 22 miles (35 1=) south of the Fayyiim. Until the nine· teenth century. Bani Sud belonged to tbe ancient provinee of llJIHNAsA (Oxyrhynchust which was fumouS for its Coptic heritage, The origin of the name Bani Sud is difficult to trace, but Arab medieval geographers called it Banmasawa)'h and in the sixleenth century il became known as Bani Suwayf or Suef. Many old churches and mon....terie. are to be found in the immediate vicinity of Bani Suef, al· lhough documents do not anestto the exiSlence of an early bisbopric ;n the city ilself. N'>llelheless, in lhe twem;eth century Bani Suef became the Seat of a bishop. Il now has a eon'",nt and a church built on the site of an older church whose columns are still lying in sighl. A museum built in the mid· lwentieth cenlUry contains manuscripls, stones. and anifacts ITom Coptic lUins in the .urrounding area. BIBLIOGRAPHY

BANI KALB, village, today called Bani Majd!, sit· uated On the left bank of the Nile 3 miles (5 km) wesl of Manfahi! (nonh of ASYfJT). AI·MaqrlzI (1853, Vol. 2. p. SOO; 1845, pp. 42 [text], 101 [tmns.J) mentioned a monaste,)' there, uninhabited in hi, time (fifteenth century) bu! "'''''ing as a church for the Christians of Manful;;!. '!'fcording to him. il "'as consecraled t
Clarke. S. Chri,lian Anliquiri.s in Ihe NU. Valley. Oxford. 1912. Vansleb. 1. Nouvelle Relalion e" forme de ;ournal d'"" voyage fait m Eg:,ple en /672 tJ 1673. Paris.

Timm, S. nas christlich-koplische Agyplen in arabi5cher Zeit, Vol. 1, p. 336. Wi",baden, 1984. RAGAI MAKAR

BAN{J AL.KANZ (colloquially. Bani Kanz). origi· nally a warrior tribe of mixed Arab and BfJA ances· try. 1he)' established de facto control over the As· wan area in Fatimid times, and one of tbeir rulel'$ was rewarded with tbe litle Kanz al·Dawlab (treasure of lhe Slate) for his ser;-ice 10 tbe Fatimid caliph. From Iben On Ihe title was treated a..< hereditary by the ouccessive chie~ of tbe Ban'; al·Karl'. The Ayyubids inaugurated tbeir rule in Upper Egypl by driving oul tbe Banu al·Kanz. who retreat· ed into the most nonberly panion of Nubia. Here they amalgamated witb already se!lled Nubian eIe· ment, and in time adopted a Nubian dialect. They are tbe ancestol'$ of the KarlUZ Nubians of today (see NUB1ANS). In Nubia. the BanO al·Kanz establisbed a quasi·

336

BAPTISM: Origin, Features, and Administration of Baptism

independent Muslim principality within what was nominally the temtory of ,",ollA1t". The Kanz alDawlah, even though a Muslim, became a figure of importance within tbe Christian Nubian kingdom, and may even at times have held the traditional office of eparch of Nobatia. Eventually he and his family became allied by marriage with the ruling house of MAKOURlA itself, and it was through that connection that in 1323 the Kan. al·Dawlah suc· ceeded to the throne of the Christian kingdom. The Bano. al-!Can. had apparently I~t control of the Nubian throne again by 1365, and thereafter they reverted to their outlaw ways. They plundered Aswan and the surrounding districts repeatedly in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and were largely responsible for destroying the overland trade between Upper Egypt and 'AydHb on the Red Sea. They alw played a significant part in the weak· ening and final destruction of the Christian king· doms of Nubia, Their depredations ended only witb the imposition of Ottoman rule in Egypt and Nubia in the si~teenth century. No trace of their wanior tradition survives among the Kanuz Nubian. of to· day, who are peacefully resenled in Ihe area around Korn Ombo, BIBLIOGRAPHV

Adams, W. Y. Nubia, Corridor to Africa, pp. 524-31. Princeton, N.J" 1977. Hasan, Y, F, The Ar
BAPTISM. [This entry consiSt; of two article•. The first discusse, the origin·, fe
Origin, Features, and Admlnistratlon of Baptism Baptism is the sacrament by which the recipient i. regenerated through triple immersion in waler in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spiril, enters into union with Christ and the body of Ihe church. and receives the gift of the Holy Spirit. Baptism is regarded as the first and principal sacra· ment, withoU! which none of the other sacraments

can be administered. Its primary importance is manifest in the words of Jesus Christ "unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannol enter the kingdom of God" (In, 3:5), This ~crament was instituted by Christ following His Resurre<;:tion, when He said to the disciples, "All aUlhority in heaven and on earth has bee" given to me, Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" (MI, 28,1819), and, "He who believes and is baptized will be saved: but he who does not believe will be con' demned" (MI:, 16:16), Christ', words i"dicate the uni.'ersal nature of the sacrament of baptism and its prerequisite importance for salvation. Before Christ's institution of baptism as a sacra· ment, other baptismal 101ms had existed, such as that performed by John the Baptisl, which was D)' divine command (Mt. 21:25; MI:, 11:30), The disci· pies, too, used to baptize people during the life of Christ on earth, before His Resurrection and the fulfillment of divi"e ""'WID. However, in contrast with Christian baptism, canied out in accordance with Christ's teaching and recommendations, those earlier forms of baptism had no sacramental qualities. They were merely acts of immersion in water as an expression of repentance on the part of peni· lem Jews and their belief in the imminent fulfill· ment of the messianic hope and the coming of Christ. The sacmmem of Christian baptism, on the OIher hand, is administered in the name of the Fa· ther, the S<m, and the Holy Spirit, to all believers without distinction, for the purpose of penitence and the forgiveness of sins, and for the gift of the Holy Spirit. It is, furthennore, an expression of belief in Christ who has already come, while the earli· er baptism was nothing but a prdude to a fuller and more efficacious baptism by One greater than John and the disciples, One who would bapti.e with the H"ly Spirit (Mk. 1:8). This basic distinction between Christian baptism and earlier bapti.ms was clearly brought out in the wriling!' of the early lath en. According to Tertullian (c. 160~c, 220), "in lhe Acts of the Apostles, we find that men who had 'John's baptism: had not re· ceived the Holy Spirit. whom they knew not even by hearing. _ And so. 'the baptism of repentance' was dealt Wilh "" if it were a candidate for the remission and sanctification shortly about to foll<>w in Christ: for in that John used to preach 'baptism for the remission of si"": the declaration was made with reference to a future remission ... that repen· lance is antecedent, remission subsequent; and this

BAPTISM; Origin, Features, and Administration of Baptism

•

i. 'preparing the way'" (Tertullian, 011 Bapu.m), Similar interpretations permeate the writings of <>Iher Fathers, such as ATHANASttlS of Alexandria (c. 296-373) in the Treause 0" Mal/hew 3. CYRIL OF JERUSALEM (c. 315-386) in Catuhet;cal LUlU,e 3 and 4, and Augustine (354-430) in Epislle 51. The effect of baptism in purification. remission of sins. and spiritual regeneration makes it a" esse,,· tial. indispensable element ror salvatio", This inherent fealUre was also amply expounded by several of the falhers, such as Saint Justin Martyr (e, 100-c. 16S). Saint CLEMEN! of ALEXANDRIA (e. ISO-e. 215), Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (e. 315-386). Saint ElAStL mE (;Rt;AT (e, 330-379). and Saint John Chrys<>!ltom (e. 347-407), Baplism imparts the following graces to the bap" ti2M: (I) spiritual regeneralion. as explained by Christ to Nicodemus (In. );3-8); (2) purification and remission of .ins (Acts 2:38; I Pt. 3;21; Eph. 5:25-27; 1 Cor. 6:11); (3) meml:>ership in the one body of Christ (Gal. 3;26-29; I Cor. 12;13; Acts 2;41; Rom. 6;3-5); and (4) release from the puni,hment of sins (Mk. 16:16; TL 3:5-7; 1 Pt. 1:3.4). As ordained by Christ in teaching and put into practice through His baptism in Ihe waters of the Jordan, the visible element used in administering the sacrament of baptism has always been water. by trine immersion in the name of the three hyposta· ""s of the Holy Trinity. full immersion is symbolic of Christ's burial, hence Saint Paul'. words, "There' fore we are buried with Him by baptism into death, that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the glory of Ihe Father. even so we also should walk in newne.. of life. For if we have been planted together in the likeness of His death, we shall be also in the likeness of His resuneetion" (Rom. 6:4. 5). These principles receive ample attention in the writings of the church fathers. Once baptism is validl~ administered. it cannot be repeated, Hence the reafirmation in the NiceneConstantinopolitan Creed: "lI'e confess one baptism for the remission of sill$." A' repetition of the baptis· mal rite would therefore lie sacrilegious, for the following conside~tions, Since baplism is an act of spiritual birth, no one person can be born twice; in its symbolic nature and sacramental representation of Christ's death. burial. and resurrection. it should take place only once; according to the concept of baptism, it has an indelible, ineffaceable character on the -'Oul of lhe baptize
337

me'" is administered to Ihem on the grounds that the earlier baptism was null and void, Hence the stipulation of Apo$tolic Canon 47, "Let a bishop or pre.byter who shall baptize again one who has rightly receivesed, as despising the croSs and death of the L<:>rd. and not making'" di,tinction between the true priests and the false." The issue of rebaptism was one of lhe veJ<ed ques· lions that troubled the church in Ihe third century. giving rise 10 a prolonged and serious dispute be· tween Sai'" Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (d. 258). and Pope Stephen of Rome (254-257). The fonner maintained the urgency of rebaptism in cenain ca'es. the laner held that any baptism in the name of Cbrist or the three Persons of the Trinity should not be repeated. The Council of Carthage (255) ",led lhat heretic. and those whom they baptized had to be rebaplized. while those who had been baptized in the church but lap,ed were not to be baptized. According to Canon 19 of the first Council of NICAM (325): "Concerning the Paulianists who have flown for refuge 10 the Catholic church. it has been decreed thai they must by all means be rebap" tiud: and if any of them who in past time ha,'e been numbered among their clergy should be found blameless and without reproach, let them be rebaptized and ordained by the bishop of the Calholie c!lurch ..." (Th. CallOllJ of Ihe 318 Holy Fa· therJ). Likewise Canon 8 of the synod of Laodicea (between 343 and 381) decreed that: "Persons con· verted from Ihe heresy of lhose who are called Phrygians, even should they be among those reputed by them as dergymen. and even should they be called the very chiefest. are with all care to be both in.t",cted and baptized by Ihe bisbops and presby· ters of the church," The principle of the noniteration of bapti,m receives particular stress in the writings of John Chry. S06tom: "Bapti.m is a crus•. and 'our old man was crucified with Him' for we were made eonfonnable to the likeness of His death' [Rom. 6,5: Phil. 3:;0). and again. 'we were buried therefore ....'ith Him by baptism into death' [Rom. 6,4]. 'Wherefore as it is not po$Sible thaI Chri.t should be crucified a sec· and time, for tbat is to 'put Him to an open shame' [Heb. 6:6], 5Q neither is it possible to be baptized a second time" (Homilies all Hebrews 9.6). The authority to baptize was conferred by Christ to the apo$tles (Mt. 28:19) who, in tum, gave it to the bishops who succeeded them and to the pre.b}'· teTS. Deacon. and deaconesses who assist the bish-

340

BAPTISM, UTURGY OF

[name] art anointed in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, One God, [with] oil "f catechumens in the holy only catholic and apostolic church of Go
his prayer over him, saying: "Master, our Savior, the beneficent Lover of man, to Thee alone is this my.tel)' petfonned , , . we beseech Thee, enlighten the eyes of their understanding with the light of knowledge, , ,all traces of idolatry and unbelief cast out of their hean, Prepare their souls for the r"<'eption of Thy Holy Spirit. Let them be worthy of the new binh of the laver:' The priest takes the oil of joy or gladness and anoints the person to be baptized on his forehead, hi. hean, his anns, his back (opposite the hean), and in the middle of his two hand. in the sign of the cross, saying, "Thou [Name] an anointed with the oil of gladness, availing against all workings of the adverul)', untO thy grafting into the sweet olive tree of the holy catholic apmtolic chunh of God, Amen," The priest says the first prayer of laying on of hands' "Let them be sheep of the flock, and sons of Thy heavenly brid" chamber, and heirs of Thy imperishable and eternal kingdom." In a second prayer he asks that God may "open the eye. nf their hean, that they may be enlightened with the light of th" gospel of Thy kingdom, Let the angels of light have pan in their life, to save th"m from all attad's of the adversary and from all evil ;lSS3ults ' , , And make them sheep of the fold of Thy Christ,_ purified vessels, sons of the light, heil'! of Thy king· dom," Unction is perfonned thiny..ix times before the actual ,,",ptism, and the same number of times with the holy chrism immediately after baptism. There i. a strong symbolic reference to the fragrant oil that the woman pouTe
Sanctification of the Water of the Font The priest enters the baptislel)', takes the pure (unmixed) oil, and pours it into the font in the fonn of the cross, saying, "'n Ihe Name of the Father, Ihe

•

BAPTISM, LITURGY OF

Son and th~ Holy Spirit, on~ God, Blessed be God Ih~ Father almighty, Amen, Blessed b~ His only,be, gOllen Son, J~sus Christ, our lord, Amen, Bl=d be Ihe Holy Spirit, lhe Comfoner, Amen," He says inaudibly the prayer "Our Masler, call Thy senoants 10 Thy holy light. Mab Ihem worthy of this great grace of holy baptism," Then follo.....s the prayer of lhanksgiving, and he offe", Ihe inc~nse, The Pauline Epistle (Ti. 2:11: 3:7) is read, and th~ priest says Ihe prayer of Paul, beginning, "0 lord of knowledge and Dis""n:;er of wisdom, ' .. who in Th)' goodness didst call Paul who was once a perseculor to be a chosen v~ssel, elC," Then foJJoW$lhe Calholic Epis, tle (1 Jn, 5:5-13) and its prayer, beginning: "0 lord our God, who Ihrough Thy holy apostles didst reveal unto us Ihe nt).,;t~ry of the glorious Gospel of Thy Chri.I", ," The priesl says the prayer of absolUlion, address~d to the Father, beginning: "lord God Almighty, Ihe Healer of our souls, our bodies, and our spirits, elc," Acts 8:26-39 follows, and after this the T,i:;"g;o~, the intercession of Ihe Gospel, Ihe psalm·versicle (32:1-2), and the Gospel (In. 3:1-21). Then the seven great prayers are said: fo< th~ sick: for Imvele",; for the waters (sowings, or lh~ weal her): for Ihe ruler; for Ihe dead (those who have fallen asleep): fo< the offerings; and for th~ catechumens. The pri~st then prays on behalf of the persons 10 be baptized; "0 God of the prophets and lord of Ihe apostles, who didst proclaim Ihe coming of Thy Chrisl through Thy holy p
341

breaThes thric. upon th~ wat~r in the fonn of the cross, saying, "Sanctify this water and this oil that they may become a laver of th~ new birth, Am~n: unto et~mallife, Amen; a garm~n1 of incorruption, Amen; a grace of sonship, Amen; a renewing of the Holy Spirit, Amen,.,:' He seal. the water thrice with the cross, in the name of the Father and of The Son and of the Holy Spiril. The deac"n says, "Pray for pe!fect peace and love and the holy salutation of Ihe apostles:' The people say, "Through the int~rcessions of Ihe holy TheOlokos Mary, 0 lord, besTow upon us The forgiv.ness of our sins, The rest of the liturgy of bapti.m i. conducted with .arious interpositions by the deacon and ",,sponses from The congr~gaTion, The prieS! then takes the holy chrism and pours a little of it in the baptismal font Ihre~ times in the form of the cross, repeating what he previou.ly said in the course of the consecration of the unmixed oil. He alw says Ihe Alleluia and th~ following portions of the Psalms while stirring the water: Psalm 29:3, 4: 34:5, 11; 66:12; 51:7-10: 132:l3. Th~ ""ople .ing Psalm

150. AI Ihis point the deacon leads Ihe person 10 be baptized from the west and brings him to the ~asT again.t the font, to the left of Ihe pri"t, who ads him his name, and immerses him thrice, AI each immersion he ....i.es him up and brealhe. in his be•. At the finl immersion he says, "1 baptize th"" [Nam.J in the name of th~ Father," at the second immersion, "and of the Son," and at th. third immersion, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen," Then, taking th~ holy chrism and praying ove< it, saying, "lord, who alone an mighly, , , , bestow th~ Holy Spiril in the pouring ouT of the holy chrism, Let it be a living seal and a confinnation to Thy ser· vants," Th~n he anoints Ihe bapti,.ed ""non with the holy unclion thirty-six lime. in lhe .ign of th~ cross, during which he sa)'S, "Iu the name of the Father, and of Ihe Son, and of the Holy Spirit. An unction of th. gr.u:e of Ihe Holy Spirit, Am~n, An unction of a pledge of The kingdom of heav.n, Amen, An unction of a fellowship of life el~mal and immortal, Amen, A holy unclion of ChrisT our God, and an indissoluble seal, Amen, Thou [Nam~) art anointed with holy chrism in Ihe name of the Fath~r, and of the $on, and of the Holy Spiril. Amen," Then the priest lays his hand upon lhe bapTized pe<son and says, "May lhou be blessed with the blessing of The heavenly ones, and The blessing of lhe angels, , , ," He breathes o".r his face saying, "Receive the Holy Spirit, and be a pUlified vessel through Christ Jesus our lord, ,

342

AfI~r

BAPTISM OF CHRIST

thi$ pra~r. the priol dot,," him ;n a ,,'hile

pnnenl. ll'Iyin•. "A gannetU 01 life eternal and in· cOlTUpdble. Amen-" Then he SIl)'S a p")'ff. "Lord God Almighly ......bo commanded lhal Thy 5eI' vants be born through lhr: laver of the new hinh. and best_~ upon u....n fo..gNueS5 01 lheir lins. I~ prmcnl 01 incorTllpCion and lhe uae:e 01 IIOnship.... Ahe.....~ the baptind an: ckllhed with the "",I of Ihrir pm>enlS, and the ptiesl says • pno}'C:' ...'" Ihe cmv.ns and lhe Jird~, "Lord God ",Imishty•... who hast ~-ed crowns upon "Thy holy apostles, Thy prophets and Thy lnUt)'B ..•• do n-. apin bless liteM: erowns which "'C: ha,·e p~d to ~..... on Thy S'''''artll who reo cei~ed holy b:oplism. 1....1 Ihey may be unlO Ihem crowns 01 glOl)' arK! honour. Amen; crownS of ble$y servanlS, 0 God. in 1'1>y wisdom; giw lhem underuandinc in Thy kar. brin, them 10 manuily; bestow upon them the ..........1fdce of the lr1l(h: keep them undefiled in failh, Ihrough the inlf:~s oIlhe lady of us all. the Holy TheaIOW. the Vi"'n Mary. lhe bap1.ist for.",nner John. and alIlhe choir ollile salOIS. lhe prophetS. lhe apostle$. the manyn and lhe crossbea,..,rs. Amen," A un>que feature of Ihe Coptk baptilmal rile en· IUm Ihal tile waler. to ...hich a few drops of Ihe holy chrism have l>I'-en added, is properly dispo:sed of II Ihe end of the bapllomal service. The prieS! poun water ove. hi. hands in the fom, and wuhe~ its turroundings ." well as Ihe cross. Then he s.aya a prayer for the .dease of Ihe ...."te•. The prJ'II al· lows Ihe water to be drained away, either into Ihe ""ell beneath the fonl or dsewhen:, making sun: thai none of it is put 10 any other use. R

ha,,,,

LooHninJ or Ihe Girdle or !he Newly Bapllzecl This lIen'ice is performed richt daY" afte. hapti5In- The prieslla)'5 lhe pTa)'ff of thanbgMnc owr a basin comaini", some fresIl ,"aln and surrounded wim lighted candlea. Then he offen incense. and the Pauline Epistle (I Cor. 10:1-4) iI read. folJo,...ed by the Trisilpn,., the intere"",""" lD tM ~1. the psalm ,'Cnicle (32:1-1) and Ihe Co5pel (ML 3:1-6). AfIer this lhe priesl p..ys the three gn:al inlerces· sions (pmce. the bthen. and the con~tion). and the people recile the Crud and the Lord's Prayer_ The priesl IIl)'S the .~ution Pnl)Y:rs. makes lhe sian of tbe crodol Over Ihe water three limes while sayins:''One is Ihe Holy Falher, One is the Holy Son. One is the Holy Spiril. Amen," Then lhe peopl<: sin, Psalm ISO. After this the child is bathed in the water. and his girdle and baptismal robe are al.., waohed in it, before il is dispoliCd of ;n the sea, the river, or a fidd. BIBUOGR>\PHY

",,;oJ

u... ...

,!'OW

Burmeste•. 0, H. E. "The Ibptism.l Rite of Ihc Coptic Chun:h. a Critical Sludy." Bulletin ile /a SOci~l; il'arehio"'rie Cople II (1941):27-86. E,...us. B. T. A. The Ri,u of ,he Copt;e Church. Ihe Q.Ju of Baptism and Ihe (hd<:r of Matrimony. llanS. from Coptic manulCripts. London. 1888_ Pen::i,"'. H. R. £u:"rsou on Ihe Worship of Ihe E..r/y Church. I.. A &Iul Ubr"", of lire Niune ....d PosI-Nice..r Falhers. 2nd se'.. ed. P. Schaff and H. W"""'. Grand bpids. Mich.• 1956. William Sulaymln Qelidah. lUlilb a1--DUq<.ltryalt T.. '.,Iim al--1!M~l. ehaplo. 38-41. pp. 458-91. Cadro. 1979. .....ooIley. R. U. Coptic Ofjiru.....ndocL, 1930. y~ Salimah. Killb ./4.4·,1i' al-N..jis.h " ShIlT~ Tuqii§ ...·.. .,M'. . I...,uJlJ ..1-KartUalo. Vol. 2. pP_ 9-54. Cairo. 1909• ARCHII1SIIOf' BAswos

BAPTISM OF CHRIST. SU Cllri""'n Subje<:ls in Coptic An.

BAPTISTERY. See Architectur:ol Element. of Churches.

BAPTISTERY, CONSECRATION OF. Alie. the consecnlOon of", new church ..nd ilS altar. the

BAOT TREATY

bWloop.lOIelhtr with the clel'l3' and deacoN eanyi"l; el"l)!MS and lighled andles. pro<:eeds LO eonsee<1lle the hapli~a1 fonl. Then: ai"" twu ~flIion. of the =nseerallon lilu'¥Y. In the more widely ~d eeremuny Ihe bishop slartS wilh Ihe Prayer of Thanksjivin8' followed by a Pauline eplsde (Eph. 2:13. 3:12). The: deacons tins the TrijOli<m and a prio$t "'")'5 Ihe Inlerces.siofl of the Gospel. The G0spel readin&. pm::eded by l'sa1m 25:4. is (.Ilken from Jolm 3:1-17. lhe key vase brine OtrUl'S words to Nicodemus: "VnleS'! one is born anew, he cannot _ the kingdom of God" The Ihree GTtaI Inluee5$ions follow. namely. pnc:e. the chureh Iathel"$, and Ihe congrqa"ons. after which an .....,ile the erN.<:!. The bishop lhen readli Ihe baptismal pra)~. which has for ils Iheme Ibe regenerative power of baptism, The words of the prayer come from a I",nslalion of a Coptic and Arahic man ..",ript pre...nled by Palriarch CllUL v (1874-1927) 10 litoe hW>op of Salisbury, England, in 1898. The people r«ice the Lord'i Prayer. and the bish· op SOI)'S the al;o$oIutklns. Afterward he pours .....Ier into the fool from the jars preoiouoJy ..-I in the consecralion of the church. wash.,. il. and wipes il dry. while the deacons slng Pl'aIrn$ 26:1. 8: 26:4; and 43:3-4, He tak.", lhe chrism and sllPll he crosses. On its four sides and base .....ylnS. "We consecrate this font for Ihe name of SainI JOI1O lhe &p1isl in ehe name of the fatntr and Son and Holy Spiril."· A few psahJ15 are lhen read. Ihe fonl is covered. and Ihe bish<>p says lhe bmedkliolt. Once apin the people recile the Lord's Pn~r. after wltk.h the bishop. ckfwy. and deacons mum 10 the ch..rch 10 celdorale the liturgy. A second. lenflhjer version is pven ;n a copy of Ihe Eucholotion printed in Rome in 1762. II com· prises lhe following secl;O!l$:

l. ,,"en psalms: 122. 127. 2. three Old Teotamenl

L.JZ.

133. 134. 135, 136 prophecies: Genesis 28;10-22; Isaiah 1:16-27; F=kiel40:I-Z3 3. !'$aIm 117 and lh~ H)'rnn of 1M Golden CeMoel" 4. EpbOOM 4:1-10 S. I Pete>' 3:13-22 6. Acts of lhe Apostles 19: 1- 10 7. lhe TrU4pnt 8. Gospel ;nleROession alld lectiun: Manhew 17:'_~: John 5:1-18 ~. Kyrie ll~is(m (ten timet) 10.lhe Seven Greal Intercessions: \r;.~lers, ehe skk. the roler. Ih~ ,,"'Oller (or plants. /W fruit). th~ dormanlS, the ob!;>tiOf1$, and the l;llle<:hu-

-

II. Kyrie d~,- (a huDdR:d limes) 12. Ih~ Three Grea.1 Inttteessions: falbers. and COnllTCgations.

peac~.

343

ch..n;h

Th~n

follows th~ bapti.smaJ prayer and Ib~ subse· quent sections as mentioncd in the first ,'ersion of lhe cereJD()fly. 8IBUOGRA""Y

Hom.".. G. 7Jr~ .sc >ce /t.x rAe Co.t>ecrarioft of .. Cltw«h ..lid AI' kCDrdm, /0 IJu COfUle RI/t. lOOl(km. 1902.

BAQT TREATY. The Boq{ ",as a negotlaled Il&. lhe Umay>-ad goV<:mor of E,ypt. and lite Nu· bian king of IoIAKOIIUO- II """as concluded al DONllOL.\. in A.D. 632 1oI10..... ;DJ an unsuccessful Muslim at· tempi 10 ",bjuple lhe Nubian kint£lotn. The Nome kq{ Os presumed 10 be " communily of nalions al war wilh Islam) withoul inclucli"l; Ihem in I .... dltr oUs1
"me

"".ua1

344

BARAMON. At-

lOla. and to furnish an annual lribule of 360 sla>csIn al·Maqrtzfs len !he~ is no mention 01 any quid pro quo on lhr: pan of the EcJ>tiam. Doubts .... ve been caoso on !he aulhenlidly of a1Maqr1d's and olher laic >~ of !he 8<191...Tit· lCOI as they ........, S<'VftaI cenlunta alter the faa. lionele., a lctIer round at ~ IIlIllJ,t in 1972 a>l ..... kin, the an..uaI paymenl 01 .1"...". ..~..., harboring libo'ts. we..., pl'Olcding Ei;yplian fu,ilives, and wen: miSlreIllina £r:yplian merchants and diplomats. The One provision of 1M S"9!. as repcmed by al·Maqrtzf. Ihat appean 10 be c1urly anachronislic ...,lates to a m06<\.Ue al Oongol". There was certainly nO mos.que at Dongola in 632, or even 300 ~a", I.ler, when IBN SALIM Al.-ASWA.. I visited Ihe place, He and his followers were obliged 10 relire 10 lhe tksen 10 perform lhe sacritK:e of 'ld .1·... l,l1)~h. as he reponed in his KiNlb Akhb.. , ,,1·NIl/NIt (Reports 00 Nubia). Bt<:ause of its unusu:al prodslonl. Ihe Slalus of lbe S"qf was disputed by Muslim jurisu lhemselves. The an"",,1 pay""'01 <Jl slaves .... reprded by some as a kind of lIi""te, but mosl comme.....lors chaoxterized it as .. gift (h"dr,y"h}. The ll&JCCmenl Itself ...... SOrne'li...... desi,na..,d as • f"o,. or im· posed seulnncnl. bul in bel lhe Nubians had DOl beftI militarily defealed or Sllbiuplcd. Coft5eQuenl!y. ocher write", rej«.ed the 'erm .fU~, and reo ferTcd 10 lhe &.I/l' as a true.. (Ju.J.."ItJ Or QWlraliza. liocI (m,..,,'d,,·rUI). The Baqr ...,mained aI lease nollli,wly i.. force .... ......... than 6lXl yean. and il larse:ly .....pe:l the coune <Jl qyp~ubian reLalions In .he Middle "'goes. "'her its signing. the EcfpIians nt¥cr apin allempled lhe COII'JUt"l <Jl Makouria, although they clten complained <Jl !he Nubians' failure 10 abide by lhe lerms of the Irea.1y. In 83S the annual ~y. men. of ,laves had appa...,ntly not b«n met fur lourleen years, and the .. ewly i",lalied Caliph .1. MU'I~im sent an urgem demand thaI Ihe full af· re;>rs be made up, Such a demand was Iaor beyond Ihe resources of Ihe Nubian king Z:ach.ri.... and cOnst
"'mon.

""'''_y

year arrean were forgi''flI and !he Nubian quota of sb'"l"5 ..... made ~Ie e.'CIY three y~ i""<:ad <Jl every )'Car. Some minor ebanges were made in the prmisions of uchanet; among ocher thinI'. wine - S elctudcd hwn lhe £cypIiarI paymeOl. The of falimld role in EcYPt in 969 ...... :accompanied by a renewed demand for P"Y"""'t of Ibe IH/X. which ...... e\idenl!y once again in ;Or' rean.. This _ the ocea.ion k>r the famous dtpIomalic m....ion of Ibn SalIm a1-A$>o;an(. wbo wenl 10 OonlOb to present the fatimid dernnd dirnolly 10 the kin, of MaktJurla. His mission ,"""uhed in !he estabIishmenl of uceptionally cordial reialions belween the Nubia... and lhe Falimido. "",'Cn lhoud! the &!q! ~mcnt seems 10 han lapsea.. "'00 "",'Cnlu· ally obtained lhe Ihrone of Makouria for Ih..m· ...1>..".. with the accession <Jl a Muslim rukr al Dongola in 1323, the ...,quir"Cment <Jl the SIIq/ plymenl ...as fonnaIly dtcla.-..d 10 be aI an end.

ado""",

BIBUOCtlAJ'lfT Adams. W. Y. Nubi•. C otrid« 10 .(/ric., pp. 451 -58. PrincetOn, 1'0" 19n. Burctllan:h.l. L Trawu if, N..bUI.. pp. 511-16. Lon·

don, 11119. Forand, P. "Early M\.ISIim RelaUons ..i1h Nubia." Dulsl"", 48 (1971):111-21. Hinds. M., and H. SUkoul...... LeUer from the Gov· trnO<' <Jl Egypt 10 lhe Kin. 01 Nubia and Muqumo Conct1Tlinll Ec1>Iian-Nllbian Re1alion, in 1411 758:' In SI"d;. Ar4!>ic" 0" 's/"",i<;;•. ed. Wao!ad ~l-o..di. Beirul. 1981. Vanlini, G, ChriSli4nily in Ih~ Sud"". !'P, 65-70, Bologna. 1981. WIUJ....II Y. ADAMS

BARAM(JN. AL·, cily located In the Eg,)'J'Iian Del· ta about 6 milts (10 km) ""rlhUM of al·Man~r;oh

BAR HEBRAEUS

in the prorinu of Daqahlin-ah. The dry was a bi$h· oprk by 12$7 'h£ft Bishop Mlkhlo'l ofal-Baramfin ..... p«sent the ~ion of the hol., chrism (Municl". 1943. p. 34J,- A medlnalliol of dlurcloes in EcYPt indiClltes tIw there ...... ct..rch of aI·Malik MikId'l in aI-Banmlln ~. 1893, PI'. 578. 580).

<_

IlIBUOOllAl'KY

AmtHnn-u. E. LI GJ.Ofraphit d. /'Ep·ple i:t Npoq,,~ copu, p, 88. Pan.., 1893. Munier, H. Recuei! des IillU J.piscopa!cs de /"igli.c copu. Cairo. 1943, Timm, S. Das chrisllich.koptische Agyple>< in a.a· bischcr leit, Vol. I. J'I), 340-41. Wi...baden. 1984, RA'Iw.u.

SlEvo'."'"

BARARI, AL-. Sec Pilp;rn.ges.

BARDENHEWE.R. OTTO (1&51-1935). Gt:1' man ecclcsiankal ht'llon... lpKialiring in panislic SIudH:s. He """" born at MunicM.l ....·dl and cduo;at~ at Bonn and Wiinbufl. He leclURd OR ne,...is 01 both the Old U>ti Ihe New Tcswnenl at Munich and MUnsler. His one·volume PtllrolOfit (frelbul'll. 18<).4) appeared In numerous edilions and was tranolated inlO Enllish by T. J. Shahan (51. Lo1.II" 19(8), Later he publishl"d .. much more ex· lenslve work enlilled Ouch/chic dcr a/lkirchlichn Lilcratur (5 vol•. , FreibuJ'll. 1902-1932), This work ilthe mosl complele on Ihe SUbjecl to dale. Il deali ....ith the Gl"uk lil......IU'" &$SIXialed ...ith the church wher'S from AJeJUltldria in Volume 4 and Syrian literature in Volull'>eS 4 and 5. ~uoc~

J. ErirtM. ......,,'!;.... Quo &1'dmJte- •. 1931. AzlZ S. Ann.

Sic>ken~. F~bul"L

BAR HEBRAEUS (Ibn al··lbn), Onhodo>. S)..... an. born al Malaliyyah in 1226. His full name "''as Aht:l al·Fa",j JamAl al·Dln ibn Tlj al·Din H;l.rtin ibn Tilrn;l. al·Malali. He came from a famlly of Chri.li.n (not Jewish, as has $Ornelimes been maintained) orilin, He studied medicine and philooophy with his father. and lhen emigraled to Anlioch in 1243 after lhe Mongol inVlUlon, In 1244 he became a

345

_1<. and under the name 01 Grecoriots was CORMcralled bishop of Gubo. on 12 Sq::un>ber. 1246, and lhen bishop of Aleppo In 1252. In 1264. he became lfIyltri... (alRKCrator) 01 Cllicia al Sis (and hence hnd of the Eastern Jacobit",). He made hi$ home in Mo$ul. but oiIen joum~ to Tabrtz and ~ ghah. capital of the Mongol rorc .... ""here he ~ On 30 July 1286. The grealest thinker 011'" Syrian dlUn:h in the Middle A,aes, he composed numerous works in Syriac concernin, nearly every reliJious IOpic. He i. known in Arable for his Mukhlt1f.' T4rlkh al,D~w~1 (Shon HislOry of Ihe World), which ....11I published in Oxford in 1663 by E. Pococke wilh a latin translalion; il ...... f"ffdited and lranslated many tim... thernfter. This history. a risumJ. of his greal chronicle written in Syriac.....a5 compot.ed al the request of Muslim fChoIaB in one monlh'. time in 1285. shortl., before his death. II is divided inlo len ,...".. ages, heJinn.... ..,;u, the CI"CIIIit>n 01 the worid. endin& ..ith the dnill of the Mongo1 IIchan ~n (1m), and CO,...rinll the Me manuscripu shoWi thaI he W3S already known 10 the Copts of lhe founecnlh cenlury, In facl, a manuscript In Ihe Nalional library. Paris (Arab<: 296). which conlalns Ihe History of Ihe Dy..aslies. was copied by an anonymous Copt in lhe fo,.,necnlh cenlury, and the same may be said of a """"..",,ript in /he tao.... oziana, Ao....nce (Oriental 93). Laler. in 1693. Yolsuf ibn "Afin-ab. known by the name of QuzmAn. coped lhi5 same leat (NaliOTl· al Library, Paris, ADbe 299). Al the end of lhe ~teenlh cenlury, an anOflpDolls Cop! a110 made a copy of this lut for the Oricntalist Fourtt-.t; a fragment 0( Ihis copy IUrmes (Paris. Arabe &(9). Ai; the CIId of the eiFletnth cenlury, 5IiI1lnClthcr copy was made in EoPI by MlU06,1 a1~ (Munich. Arabic 311J,- Amnng the thiny-five rnan~ of this history !hIlS far Identified $OJ"l)C probably 00';' Raled in Cairo. bul Information aboul this; is lacking in lhe catalogs. &r Heh",eus' lilUl'lli~a1 work, Man~r"l a!.Aqd4s (Lamp of the Sanctuary), ..el1"J$ to have hetn un· known 10 the Copu before Ihe eighleenth cenlury. Howe,·er. it is allened LII lwo malluscripts al lhe Coptic Palriarchale in Cairo: (I) lhe Theoloi)' 3l? ISima)'kah, no. 4)4). copied ill 1199 Iry bolh lhe

346

BAR1AM AND YUWA.?AF

priest Jirjis al·hn1wj and by lbrthim AbU ,!,abl Ibn Sim'in al·Khaw1nkt and (2) the Theology 323, copied by the laner in Ig\3. BIBLIOGlIM'lfY Baumstark, A. G",ehiehle der syrlsehen Lilerau" ",11 "'"sehlu'j dor ehrl'llie/'·paliisli"enslseh." T.~Ie, pp. 312-20. Bonn, 1922. Kawerau, P. Das Chri.
BARUM AND YUWA~AF, a collection "f fables widely diffused in the Christian East; it is also known among Buddhists, Muslims, and Jews. In Arabic, these fables are found from the beginning of the ninth century. Other ruenslons or reworkings of the lost Arabk original are known. Two of these are in Georgian, and these ga"e rise to the Greek m"taphrastk .'e""ion. The early Christian Arabic ,'e""ion known to uS probably derives from the Greek, and was no doubt made in the e1e\'enth cemury. The earliest known manuscript of this ver· slon (Sinal Arabk 540) can be date Barliim or Barla'am al·Nasik Wa.Y""Ufa! In his Christian Arabic blblic.graphy, among lhe Coptic medieval v"Orks. Indeed, two founeen·th.century Arabic manu· script< of Coptic provenance attribute this novel to a cenain Yuhannli of Da.yr Mlir Mus:!.. This is probably the monastery mentioned by ABU AL-..AKARIM besid. Dahshur, opposite l;Iilwin, This might be the name of the Buthor of a reworking, or else simpl~' a Coptiution of Mekhite lraditlons that attribute this novel to Yul)anni of the Monaster~y of Saint Sahas, or to Yul)ann1 al·Dimashqi, or to Yu!:tannli of Mount Sinai. This question has not yet been stud· ied. The.. are at least three manuscripts gl.'ing this

attribution, all of them Coptic (Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo, History 41, Gmf, no. 566, Simaykah, no. 647, founeenth century; National Library, Paris, Arabe 271, also founeenth cemury; and Arabe 272, copied in 1643). In the seventeenth century another attribution to "a monk of the Mount of Ccthsemane" (al·hs· mliniITah) made its appearance among the Copts, This is found In thr.e manuscripts, all of Coptic origin (Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo, History 4, Graf, no. 5/>5, Simaykah, nO. 619, copied In 1605; Natl"nal Library, Paris, Arabe 273, copied In 1752 and restored in 1763; Ambe 274, copied In 1778). Other Arabic manuscripts of this nO"el are of Coptic pro"enance, witnessing to the diffusion of this teXl up to the modern period (Coptic Palriarchate, Cairo, History 42, Simaykah, no. 604, copied in the founeenth century or at the beginning of tbe fifteenth centu,y; Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo, Histo· ry 86, Simaykah, no. 669, fi""t text, dating un· known, but bequeathed to the patriarchate In 1814; Nationai Library. Paris, Ambe 4792, copied in the nineteenth century; Arabe 4891, copied in 1864). At the beginning of the twentieth c"ntury, two Copts, Wahbli. Bey and I;Iabib Jirjis, edited the only pub· lished Amble .'ersion. The Mekhites often illuminated the texl of this novel with numerous miniatures (see, for example, the Paris Arabe manuscripts 273 and 274, th" Vati· can Arabic manuscript 692. the Dayr al·Sha'Ir 953, etc.); we know of only one Illuminated Coptic manuscript, however (Coptic Patriarchale, Cairo, HistoI)' 19, Graf. no. 531, Slmaykah, no. 611. copied in the sixteenth century with some clumsy illumina· tions: "poorly designed pictures of people," accord· ing to SimaykahJ. Last, from the Arabic recension of the Copts, an Ethiopian translation was made, under Sars,,- Dengel (1563-1597), the work of 'Enb!kOm, or Habaqqliq, an Ethiopian of Yemenite origin, One of the manuscripts of this translation (British Library, London, Ethiopian 275), copied between 1746 and 1755, memlons Ba'¥wm;l. ibn Abi al-Faraj as the author of the Arabic rec"nslon, This person is othetwise unknown.

JlIJlUOGRAPHY Dodge, B, The flhrlSI of al·Nadfm. Vol. I, pp. 260, 359. N"w Yori<, 1970, Cimaret, D. "Traces et parallel.. du Kitab Bilawhar wa·Budasaf dans la tradition a.--abe" Bulle/in d',;-

BARSANUPHIANS

'udu orU..,,,lu 24 (1911):91-133. _ u livre de Bi/awlu.r e' Bi-dba' "10" I" wrsion "',,/>cc Umi>1/iDr,,~. Grnt:Va and Paris. 1911. _ "iljb Bil"wlo"r w,,·BiuI ed. ROo;ti Tajaddud. pp. Ill. 1&6. Tehl1lll. 1971. N..rallah. 1. HiS/off. d" _0>1<'''' lilll,.ire d,ntS n,,~ _""hue d" yo ,.., XX' .14... ...". y"wllf
"'oFJ,,"',.

BARNS,

JOHN

WINTOUR

BALDWIN

(191 2-1974), Brilish Egyptologist and papyrolo8Jsl. born in Bristol. He was educated at the Uni,'~rsity of 8rlltol and at O~ford, T""'re he ~lUdied under C. H, Roben. and B. Gunn_ He was a Lady Walli. Budte r~ar<:h fellow in qyptology at Unh'Cnlty Collel" Oxfonl (1945-1953). Ie<:turcr In pap)'l'O' lollY II Qdord (1953~1965), and professor ol Eml' 010cY at Od'Ord (1965-1974). He was ordained in thc Chureh of England in 1956. Althou&h he published compa""'i'ody litl~ in lhe Mid of Coptic studies. tm Slrcncrn by in his tcal'h· inl ol the bnsuagc and litenuurc.. Apan from his paprroJoPcal studies and articles, his In· clude T1o. ~...." OstrKDrl Sin"", (London, 1951); Frw. 1UImuH..... P",FYri (Oxford, 19.56): F(ntr Mutyrtlanu from "b Piupotll Mo'J"" COfJf/c Codi· (0, ...ith E. A. Raymond (Odon!.. 1973): and N", Ham_Ji Codocu: Gna Coptic ".",,, from dtt C.rIOfln"(e of Iht C_~, with C. M. Browne and J. C Shelton (I.eidI=n. olj?SI). He dH:d in O:lfotd.

at

wocru

0""

IlIBUOGRAPHY Davits. W. V. ··John Winlooir Baldwin &ms... Jour. ".'01 EIY",ion Archeology 60 (19H):243-46. Uoyd·Jones, H. Editorial Fortwwd. Journal of EfYPli." Atcha..ology 60 (197~):3. Mallu. E. "Rcy, luhn Winlour Baldwin Barns 19121974." Sullclin ac I" Soci,;ti d·archi%,i.. COpl~ 21 (1971-1973):219-n. "Ni!crologl~:' S"II.li" d' fa Sodll,; fr"'''fQj~.. d"gypIQIQgic 69 (1974):4. M. L BIUBI.lU

347

BARONIUS, CESARE (IH'-I607). ItIllian cc· c1csiastical. hia"lian and ...... rehman. He was cle....ed 10 IN card;na1aJ~ in 1596 and.tM nn:.1 ).... r. became prdcct of lhe Vallcan Ubnuy. He mis.sed becoming p<>pr beea,," 01 S~nis.h opposition. Hj, major ........, as a historian is 1Iv .....,umttual bul unfinished A",...ILf Eccluiasricl. H~ planned iI :as a complete chronol. . . .l ",cord oi the hmO<)" of lht Catholic chun:h. 8)' hil dcalh. M had rcxhed the yur 1198. and olll.." Iri~ 10 conlinu~ h~ work. th<>U«h unsucc~lly. In hillifclime. he publi$hed lwelve iolio-sizc volumel (Romc, 1581-1593). Tlwc work was ~t.-d by J. D. MAIW in thin)'"fiw: vol· urn~ (l.uc:ca. 17J'-1759). /II. ~ O'dilion (cd. A. n.c;".,r. 1364-ISBJ) ..·tlh all continuations (37 voIs., Bar-k·Duc and Paris. 1364-18S3) "'-as originally planncd in fil'ty .. glum... bul was n....er com· pleted. 83ronh.. rcproduccd num.. l'OIls txlen,iYe ...lections from tM original sollren. and ucerpts from the ,I"".. ICI appurt'd In F<ench, Italian. Gennan, Polish. and Arabic. Tills ambitious enterprise, howevOr', fcll shon of modern standards of research and was ralher dcfccli ... wMn it carne to Eastcrn Chri~tendom. Hc", his information was in· sufficient. ;IS he ....w thc cycnts from • Slricdy Romall Calholic poin. of view.

BIIlUOCAAPlIY

,Ii Soronio. Romc,

Cal~mio.

UTe

G. L.a viJ" •

~rifli tI~1 Cortl""",/~

Ce-

1901. Ubcro. G_ df:.. CUClfl! B........io. p"tI,.. ddt" uoria ~u;tc
BARSANUPHIANS, One of Kven! Alexandrian spliote:r groups of those Monophysllcs ...·100. because they had rejecled I"" communion of their pair,' arch. wen known as AC(plrQ/oi (hca
348

BARSANUPHIUS, SAINT

name was tI01 ~.. urmllS the Anchorite monk bul a pre.ender 10 the ~opaI rank. BIBUOGltAPtly

Neale. J. M- A HmO"! of Uw Holy &.Jl«>r CIu.ln::Ir: 17M 1'dm'UrWe of A1Lundrid, Vol. 2, pp. 131. London. 1!41.

n.

BAllSANUPHIUS, SAINT, lifth-sixth century aJlChorite. Although he is not mentioned m the Coptic: SYHAXAlOON,. Barsanuphius deserves a place of honor because of his OU.-nelinl holiness and the uceptiott,u inll....,nu ~ uerdwd in .he his.... ry 01 CIt""';an opirilualily. He _ of fcyplian ori,in, and his mother longue w... Coptic. We know nothin! of his youth or Iile until we ~nd him Il$ a hermit in .. rnonastuy founded near Oau .0.1 Ihe end of the ~fth century by Serid<». ·'The Orand Old Man." as he was called. never left hls cell and llIW nobody eJlcept Serid<:>s. who acted a.l his secretary. Barw-nuphius was only Ihe spirilual dlreclor of lhe monu of the community of Seridos and the superior but was aIsc consulted by a hoiIl of monks. priests, laymen, and t>ishops of the reJion. All these eJlchanles were carried OUI m wrilinl thl'O\lgh the intermediary of Serido5. who pasaed on Ihe req _ and replies. the Ialler heinl written down by him in Ornk.., the dicwion of the C ... nd Old Man or Ihe ··,uler <:flO" of &nanuphiU$. ,·the other Old Man:· John•• ~nnit ill • neishbonnl cell. About 8SO letters from this COllesponden«, col· lecled by a monk of the commwnlly. haw b«to prnerved and ........, published by N>oDdemus lhe ~ 1M. Vemce ill 1116. A loud many of these leIlers "'ere traD$laled into Ar"abOI: Ilnd Ceorpan. The c...dm of doe Mcmh. published in Cairo. l;'OMains Ionl cn...cts Jrom !hem. Mwitlple editions in Slavonic and Rt"si~ppeared in the eidlt<:enlh and nineleenth eer..uries. Thi. doa$ier of wndisputcd authenlic.i'1ls the only dOClUllenl of Ihia kind tha. inlonns us about the practice of $piritual direction in .nc:oen. monasli· clsm. Broo~t up on the Bible and lhe .poIhq:ma oll~ falhers. w1lieh he quoted constantly, &rsan· \lphius wall In
no'

B1Bt.IOGlUrHY

818,\01 .. _BAP1Ar'OY"IQY KAI lOANNOY. edN~ Hafiorita. Venice. 1816. Se<:ond ed-. Soterios N. SChoi..... Volos. 1960. Chitty. D. J. &r~"upJriuJ ."J loll". Qla.
BARSOM THE NAKED, SAINT. Numerou. sources assure us of &rs(l",·. hiatoricity and gi"" lIS " , m e delails of his life, He "'U hom to a well·lodo family in Cairo al an unSlated date. He losl his parelllS while he was young, IUld his malernal uncle became his guardian, When the uncle squandered his ward'. inherilance, BarsOm refused to take him to cotm. He bec.me aeeretary 10 lhe regent Shapr ai-Dun, widow of the sultan .1·Malik .l·!joili!). in 1250. (Christians were nol unusual in the adminastration.) When he decided 10 liw u a hermit he took up residence In a small, poomy caw !hal was inhabi.ed by a serpen•• The cave is still shown loeby in the Church of SainI Mereuriu. (AIIO SATFA"") ill Old Cairo. He lived .here for Iwenty)'Un (!he An· bic S~ ~ of fifteen years. and .he Ethiopian. of thiny.thfft), but when. period of oppoession of Christians arne. he climbed to the roof of the church. when: he remained. endurinr; then \:he <:'*1 and !he heat. This .._ reponed .., the clbef of poI""e of Cairo and """"""" Muslim lIUu-nies. for it was f
accordinA 10 the

Synuar-

ion. he remained less lhan • 1otietk. ""'hen he arne OUI. II ...." to take refuae In the monastery of DAY1I SHAHIIAM.. '0 the IOUlh of uiro. a monastery lhat ...... dedicaled to SoIinl Mercuriu. and received his name after his Oealh. Acconlin, '0:> the Ie>timony of Ibn al·SuqJ.1. Barsiim remained Ih",re for ~",:nteen years, from 1300,1I>1ng in a courtyard on a heap of dill.1 and ashes. Beca",~ he wore hardiy any garments, he was called ··Ihe Naked,·· He died on 5 Nasi ..... 1033/28 AUlusl ,",D. 1317, H", was buried in from of the door of Ihe church of monastery. Num",rou. miraclet were anributed to him. a. the Arabic life recounts.

I"'"

BASHMURIC REVOLTS

He was aready renowned. and the Mw.lim hlslon· an a1·MaqrtrJ mentions him in speaki", 0/ the Mon· _try of Sh.ahrAn (1M3. Vol. 2, p. 5(1). BlBUOGaAPHT

s.mu

Dudee. E. It.. W. TJu> llDtM af me of lit. Ellti· ."..." Chure/., " "'Ok. Cambriclce, 1921. Crum.. W. E.. HBanau.ma the Naked." hocudi"lS of 1M Soddy of Bibli.,.! Am.wl<>t1 29 (I9ice 33 (1976):330-31.

BARTALOMEWOS. Set Ethiopian Prelales. BASHSISR, • town in Egypt said by medl.val Muslim .uthon to be .be f<>r.runn.r of Nlff Awwal Bashblsh and. Niff Thanl Ba$hblsh, loc.ted In the Gharblyyah province. The HtS'TOllY OF THE PATRJARCH$ mentions Buhbl$b in passing as a geographical reference point. DlJrin, the patriarchate of lAClI,\RJ.,I.S (l(lO.410nl.• conAic. arose betwun the bishop of Tinah and the bishop of ~nUd 0'''' ...·hieh bWlopric coold rightfully cwm a1·Kom Sandara. ~cordin, 10 the lCCOIml, this place Lay between BashbIsh and. Shubrl DanWlah. It is uncenain ..'hether this Bashbish is the $llI'le cloy ken cI hrlhe Muslim

.......

IllBU00L\I'Hl'

J.typI.",

Tun... , S. Du cluiJJlicA-kJ>pliJ&M. ill ..,.•. uM' UJI, Vol. I. pp. 3S3-s.4. Wiesbaden. 1954. RJ.IIrlI.U 5nw.\1tT

.

BA$HMOR. AL-. an area

u..

Christianily in .rea suffered greally as' ~ll of &.shm"rites' fin;>! ~fe.t by lhe Arabs, bllt it was not qllllShed completely. aos .~idenced by Ihe Visil 01 • presbyter from al·Bashmur In C.lro around. 1200. Tlte uact boundaries of al·BashmQr 're lIneel' taln becaliM' th. medieval sources are dlt<:repam. The IIISTORY Of THIl 'ATIO.lARCHS says Wt the area was moSl easily accessible from Tida and Shubrl.

u..

_II

IIIIlUOCItAl"Kl' Mo.spero. J., and C. wie!. ''''UJri41U pour 5Urir.i hi ci<>v_phie de fEt:tJnc. Cairo. 191'-1919. Timm, s.. Dill chrW/i{:"~opriJdoc AcYPr... ill UIJbUc"u uil, Vol. I. pp. 3~-S6. w* d L'1l.19s.t. RJ.ND.u.L Sn:wAJ:T

Sou Ap;wnJu.

Em1>< in which .he

Christian inhitbitanl$ IVOIted '"Pins! AOO n.... in the .i,lllh and nimh centuries (see ~ c '-£. VOI.n).

This SIllement would place aJ·8ashmur in the northern Delta. just _th 0/ Lake Bwull..... .\110 SlUl;ITHE ARME!'llMl .........d thai in • Ia.er period at le.l the i"habillmS of aJ.8ashmur and lhe inhabitants 01 aJ·BashnW _re the same people. The u· lC1 Iocatioo of al-s.hnld ia fimilarly wscertain. but it :rppo:ars 10 have oonhwL'$t of Sakhi (Tlmm. 1984. p. 360). IllS l:lAWQot.I. SUoUd thll the Iakc in NaswiiIt was also called Bu!:laynol alBashmGr [m Maspen:> ap,d Wicl. 191.-1919, p. 16), sugestinl lhal. the region of lbe Bash.......-ites ...near NI!IW'UIt, thai is.. nonh of the cilies known today as DisUq and Kafr al-$ba)ldt. Abo al-Ftda. ......C'Ver. placed al'Bashmllr ~_n the IluJIt)'3! arm 01 the "'d. and AMmOn TlIlitJ (Uaspero and Win. p. 44). It is pos.!ible thai th.. boundanes cI .~Bashmur hav.. nOl been eOJ>lltant throuahou••he eemuri.... Perha.ps from til<: mid-eigh.h to the mid·ninth cen· t,,!)'. al·Bashmllr eneompas.secl the enlire marsh ...,. lion northeut 01 FU"""ah ...t.nding as far to the east as j"'1 north of Olklmll. Later it m.)" ha~. been limited to Ihe easlem pan of this are.., 1be name al·Bashmilr sllrvives in .his region as the name of. Nil. elUl.1 t.... t breaks off .oo...t •. S miles (7 km) 'll$( oJ. aJ·~lIrah b)' aJ·Salamlin .nd run& through the _ bee....." the Damictla ann of the N~e and Dikimis befuft emptyinr; inlO lhe: a1-sirw canal some H miks: (S-S km) _th of Daqahlah.

BASHMURIC. in

349

BASHMlJRIC REVOLTS. In lbe """nllh. riglllh. and ninlh ee...."rics Copu r~led " number of limes apinsl the A....blc .dmin"";tlion in differenl pans of E8YJ>t and were rapidly crush.d. Onl)" in lhe &shmuric region (sec IlMHMOIl. Al.-) were Copts able to • .,ist for a r.latively long period against repealed al1ackl of lhe Arable army by land and by sea and 10 inAie. hel'.')" losses on their op· Pl"e$$Ors while enduring lenl'hy lieges. Though AJ'llbic s:ecgraph.n are not consislent in lhcir delinealion of lhe boo-ders of al·Bashmur. i.

350

BASHMURIC REVOLTS

appears thai the Bashmurit... Ii~ed In tIM: ..... rshy ~ns that by near lhe: Mcdi.lemlnean COtiI in tIM: DOnlwm pan of lhe: Della he:IWttn the Rosella and Oamie..a branc..... of !be Nile close 10 !he !.aU of ldkil., The rep.n had a hmoq of tn..... nsiaence; throu&h the cencun... ill; inhabiwlu had revolted apins< their EcrJ>t.i.o.n. Rom.al1. and Byunline ...,.. len. Th;s _ .also the lasl rqion In Ec,ypc 10 PJ.b. mil 10 tIM: .......bs, yean mer !he ...,. of the country had been CCIfIUld De ....ly an by 1M army irI <:a$OO oIl"f:>'OlL Arabic hislorians ~ the B...hmuric uprit.inp .. a rnction 10 the bea"!t:fiscaJ. dl:m&nds placed On !he CopU, a "ie:w thai _ 10 ....·e ios..enced !he: concl~i01"l of quile '" ~w modem hlsl0rians.. How· ner, one can discern a. relationship Del\Oftn an incrnse in AJ"lIbie inlokJ"llllCC and !he ~inninll of the Bashmuri" revolts. On.. notel a di(fer",ce be· Iwun lhe anilude of Ihe BashmlJrites and lhe pas· .Jve acquie""e""e 01 O'lhtr Copts in the face of lhis llrowina inlolerance. The difficlJhy in defining the exacl limill of In. ",glon occlJpied by tb.. Bashmuritte rnakel It 1m· possible 10 date precisely the beginning of lhe se· rles of ~hmuric n:volts. The recorded and·Arab revolts thai were a reaction apinsl Ihe Ilrowinll

hardening of the "'.... bic policy from doe second part of the _nth eenc,,')' bqao 10 occur as early :u the close of ~I CtnIU')', firsl In the eastern pan of the Deha and later eJ.tendina 10 lhe whole Delta as wdl ... 10 Upper E(wt. Tho: topognpby of the Ba$hmuritt repon and doe reluctanC.. of the anny 10 opente then: ~t lhat tI>e ~u may h:ave begun in thir ..,..,. Def~ Ulttldlna 10 tl'>e l>t:ichbor· inl ....... of the o..luI. One lhoukl ano bear in mind thai il ....... io doe nonhern pan 01 the Della thai Byzantines landed fOI" a $hort tllr>e in 720. ..iOCh could "",an WI Ihe uta ..;os .already in agitation or even in open re-voh. Re-oll$ 8a~ up in !he lasl )'tat'S 01 lhe Umayoyads. perhaps because.he caliph Man>-tn could not 10lerate troIJble in £opt, his IIl$I otronlhold. sAwtlws t8N .u.... UOAIT..• pro.,;dea precious infonnalion aboul tbe dr;unalic last operation against lhe Basbmurit... befu.., lhe ani",,) of lhe Abbuids in Egypt. II .urn, lhal HaWloora. Marwin'l governor in ~t, had already failed 10 end Ihe revolt, in .pile of hi' repealed upeditions by land and by sea, When Marwin ani ..ed In Egypt 10 d<:a1 with the uprising ptnonally, he propo$ed an annistice. probably 10 con.olidate hll po6ltlon in front of the ad....ncing Abbasids, When Ihe Copu n:fused the lruly. Marwin joined the army he had broughl &om Dama.lCU$ 10 Ibe troops already fighting the Copts in Ef;ypc. As funhtr pressure upon the Copts, Hawlhara took O/A'!L 1(744-767). tl>e Coptic pl>Iriarch, """tag<:, tnnspontd him 10 Ralh.ld (ltoseIla). which ..... a &O"I'rnn>ent S1rot'1p,old. and mrtat· eotd to kill him if !he: ~lJric£s did not end lhe honifuioe!.- Far from beinl intimWbled "" this 'lip, !he Copts avtn~ Ie by not only alIadci~ !hot besiq;iog anny, ...nidt hU. 10 ~Ie its pooitioCoonlemcl. 'Ihe .....;. of the ~bha9d1 did DOl implUV't' the sllualion, the political ofuorder belwec:o them and lhe Umayyath encour...,ed ~'ol," by the CopIS and by the Arabic selders, Arabic hi$forian$ lpea1 about tht BashrUds (a conuption of BuhmlJnl.",), who joined the l't"<'OIt of 767. whkh flared up in d", Della. The expedilion senl by 'he governor Valid ibn !:Iiilern agairt$l Ihem w8$ def....c.d. his local high official. we'" killed, and Ihe anoy <etreated 10 al. FusU\1 (Old Cairo). In S30. Ihe caliph al,Ma'mQn,
•

BASIL THE GREAT

P*I1 of 1M ~l .. and in ~dria. bUI '"'"all helpless aplns•• he l\aYunuri,es. Afohln approached 1M patriarch and asked him w use his inftuel>ce 10 Slop tlw mol.... The pauiarclo avee! that had made lhe Bashmurites revolt. Some of lhem were deported 10 Iraq; olhe~ were senl to Syria and were sold as slaves in Dam,"""os. The anny destroyed and bumed Ihe entire area 10 wipe OUt all possibility of further Te"ol~~. Thus ended the last revolt olthe Copts in Egypl. Withoul any ",al pol.itical plan 0..- any national lead· e.-.hip. Wilhoul any orpnizcd anned force. and In 1hr fa<:e 01 a Siron&. eIlperienced anny. lhese spasrnodk re'·ol......'C.e an indication of dt:spente (OUraae. NOI only dKI .hey xhie~e nothl"8 but lhey dnined the rorce and pride of the Copu.. NOMtheless. Ih.ose ~Its an: imponanl lor Coplic history, as ohey lhed li"'l on the ebaDeler of the Coptic

_.

IlIBUOGUPHY

Abbot. N. nu K......"" "linn from AphrodiJo i" tit. onenliil Jl1Uilwl•. C~, 19J1l. Ariya. A. S. "Kibc.~ In £1IC1'C/,,~t:dUa nllS/.m, Vol. S. e; f.. van Donzel; B. 1Awit; aDd C. Pella!. PP!;,o-9S. New ed., ~iden, 19S5. Becker. C. Bei/Tilp ~, G
no.

Trinon. A. S. TM Cd/ifs

"nd

TIl."

351

N(}ft.Muslim SuI>-

jed Orlord. 1930. Wii5l.cnfeld. H. F_ Die Sllillltaltu _ .4rn,un ZeiJ C1u:lIift:n. G6ttingt:n. 1815-1876.

au

~,

MOO!
BASHRUDAT, AJ.... Su &sIIm"r. aJ·. BASHRUT. See Ibslllllur. aI·,

BASIL, SAINT, CANONS OF. See Canons of Saini Basil.

BASIL THE GREAT, archbishop of Cae.......a in Cappadocia (330-379). Basil supported the tradi· tion of ~TH~NASIUS in comlnulng the defense of or· lhodoxy againsl AIUAl'ltSM. particularly in Asia Minor. He .....a. an aCli," theologian, but was able (0 conned theological work with u.celic prn.ctice. Ba.il·. background and edllcalion ""'''' Hellenis· tic. The desc.ndant of a Iich and lon~imt: Chtistian family, he began hil studies ....ith fifteen years in ea.:sa""" in Cappadoc;". continued in Cons...ntinopie. and II>O'Hd 10 Athens in 351. Although Basil considered dassial lea.minC profane and lOok a cri.ica1 point or view loward I,. he made good use 01 his knowleda:~ of !he old ...Then and of the dar ..cal world. M a Christian. he ...... 1or1!1nl)61 an aw:e1ic and a monk. a founder of mOOllSlma ,,'1>0 pthrmd perlOllS of Ilk spirit around Mm. But lie al50 ~ invol~ed in church practice and chanoh poIit>C:S. became .. and in )70 an::hbisl\op of eaes. arca- Basil was n'"flOWMd S$ an eloquent ptea<:ber of ethia. He ooce visiled the rnonaM"ries of f.&ypt. ""here his prindpl<:s of a:sce'Iku,m and orthodox theology "'-e.e -.II actepleel aJona lhe Nile. M a ~h ...·e lind 8a5il's nam~ in Cop(k liltnl"re, ..Ilhough nol '~"'Y homily ...ansmilled uncle. his """'" is aUlhen· tk. A complete corpu. or Basil's works in C<>pIic tran,lation. docs nOl ",,15l.-a lfn.ation true in G.-ed: li(~r:a(ll'" as w"lI. s.,th tradititJm erroneou.· ly handed down 11", homilies of B""II under Ihe nam" of Basili<>s, I1lu.tr:ati~e of Basil's popularily in Egypl, th" homily on the w"dding of Cana of Pall;' arch Iknj;lmin I Incllld"s a quolation by Basil; Ihi. i. not yet ~crified. Some speci6c homil~ al1tibuted to Basil follow.

pash),.,...

352

BASIL THE GREAT

A homily on Noah's Ark (Valican Library, Codex Coplicu. 68, fol., 33-52'} is almosl certainly of Greek origin, but is nol found in Basil's Greek works and lacks Basilian theological viewpoinlS, AI· though this homily is exlarn in Coptic (Bohairic), Coplic rhetoric is missing, The author's view of the world points to a source in northern Syria and Mesopotamia about 550 to 600, Perhaps this homily came to Egypt _ia the Syrian colony, since Bohairic appean to be the original monslation. It waxes •trong in biblical and ethical exhortalions, AnOlher homily exists in Sahidic (two versions) about the generation according to the /lesh of Our lord Jesw Chml delivered on 29 Kiyahk. This i. attributed in Greek 10 JOHN CHRYSOSTOM and is dated about the fifth century, Another homily in Bohairic (Vatican library, Code" 58, fols, 178-94") ttealS the impor· lanl problem of fasting. The Greek origillal has been found in the Greek works 01 BasiL However, the Coptic (two manuscriplS exist) is an adaptalion and revision of the Greek original according to Egyplian requirements. Also, the bomilies on the subjects of the end of the world, Solomon's temple. and the paning of the b<>dy an
Greek church falhers most quoted in Coptic litera· lure. His complete works in Coptic are not yet known, but .urely the Egyptian. lran.lated di.-ectly his m",t popular Greek and Syrian homilies, or revised them, or translated them from existing revi· sion•. Those not known to b~ authenlic were probably tran.lated di<e<:tly from a Greek original lhat bears the marks of Basilian philosophy. Such works comprised biblical homilies, or catechelical admon· itions about ethic., or eulogies of ascelicism . Finally, we ~bould nOI forget thaI the greatesl part of the Basilian heritage in the Syrian language must have been lransmined to 1'.g)p1 through the Syrian colony, whose labors in this field must nol be undervalued, The An"plw,a of Saint Basil, whose best versions appear in Greek and Coptic in the Nile Valley, demonstrate also the popularity and renown of Basil in Egypl (see also AN,\PHORA OF SAIl" BAStL).

BIBUOGRAPHY Budge. E. A. W. Copric Homilies In Ih, Dioleel 01 Upper Egypl. londcm. 1910; New York, 1977. Campenhau.. n, H, FreiheIT von. Griuhiseh~ Kirch'nviil"" pp. 86-100. Urban·Blicber 14. Stuttgart, 1955. Capelle, D. B., O.s.B. "Le. Liturgies basiliennes el saint Basile," In U.. lemoin "rchaiqu~ de la Ii/ur· gie copt, d, S. Basile, ed, J. Doresse and Dom E. !..anne, pp. 45-74. Lou""in. 1960. Doresse. J., and D. I'.. Lanne. Un rJmoin arehaique de la IilUrgie copu de S. Basile. Bibliolheque du Muswn 47. Louvain, 1960. Hauschild, W. D. "Basilius von Citsarea," In Theologisch R,alenzyklopiid~, Vol, 5, pp, 301-313. Berlin and New York, 1980. Hebbelyncl:, A. and A. van Lant.choo!. Cadicu Coptiei V,,'ican!, Sarberini" ..i, Borgiani, Ross;" ..i, Vol. I. Valican City, 1937. Khalil, S., S.J, "La Version arabe du Basile alexan
BASIUCA

BASIUCA, a build;n. type of classical and mtd:i~ val arcMteclUn. 11M Non-Christian 8astlka In ancitnt Rome lbe basilica was a cowred. mostly ~tangubr. publi<: b\lildinl with C1Itrances _11y On llIe long sid", (one of the few exceptions b the famous basilica at Pompei). fr~urntly. and especially in the olde~ buHdinas, the outer walls arc C\'cn opened up into contin_s colonnanslrucled ...·i.h a sing!" na.-e. It was not ,"",!"ired dw .he na"" should be hicher thatI 1M side aisles, a1thouah camplcs ClIIl be found wIwu this is the case.. One oi the mquinmcnts oi the basilica was lhat h should be wi\.llbW: for comme«illl ""chanl"' and occasionaf judicial poouedinp. f'rom plOSSOllcs in anocimt litenatun that contain refe"'"<:e5 lO .he function <Jl the t-ilica (collKled by Ohr, I97J, pp. 1621£.), it "",erges thac it was designed primarily for the rnO'" prominent type of b\Jsiness activities. Thac is, it conccmtd above .11 the entrep.....eurs and veat merchants, whereas retaillradc took place in the shops and sl"lI. alona Ih" columned "reelS. To fulfill ilS funclion. the bumc. Iw:I 10 be spacious and 10 be l<xated at a cenlral and easily acce.sible position within the town, In this regard the area .round the fomm ....... panicularty suitable (Vitro,t· 1lS. S. 1.4).

III its int"rior. the basilica contained a podium mosUy k>c
353

~n-ent

only in the latin West in this fonn. Because Vitru..... -thou,h ;n a ~ry diffcrnlt C'OfII""1 -compare. the b.asllica 10 to-ealIed ~ian IIalIs {6. J. I-IOJ. atlemptS ha.." been made 10 deri\'e It from. the hYJlO5f)'le hall prnalent in phanonic temple arcllit...,tu..., $\lCh halls being in ...:nnl in""mees furnished with a raised middJ" section. Bul this is unconvincing, The ..... ha>-e in common only a very small ntcmal and even dispensable feature, ",hue... they do nQl eOrTe$pOnd "t "n in regard 10 Iheir general architeetu",,1 outline function (see H"eny. 1970, pp. 78-80). Genenl1y .peaklng. one incline. today IOWolrd the .....umplion thaI Ihe Gr«k Moa belorlged 10 Ihe forerunners of the Roman basilica. At any rate. II has the same funclion, and I10t infrequently ;oes baock to royal endow· menlS. An imponant link is pt'OVi
The adopIion of \he lO!rm "basill",," for the Ch.... rian ~ or worship Is all""w quile euly. In lIS cecle.i_ieal HnS(. the won! is r>evcnlteleu nOl rutricted to a p.nicula~ structural type. It is ...Iur • label of rank. and may refer to a Iongltudinal·p1an building as well as to .. eentr.o.l·plan structure. What Is important is Ihat It has to do with a 1"'1e, con· .picuous edifice, as a ",Ie. a c•• hed",], In the history of an and. in archaeol"l)/ the tenn basilica means a -ered by a wooden roof, and subdivided into sevcraI aisles (rnll'tly three or five). Cenaln North African basilieall an even Iarter num· twr cl aisles. The bz-eadt}, oi the nan normally ClIcecds by far tha., of lhe side aisles.. and II is a1so considerably lofti",r. SO as to provide room for a row <Jl windows, the cleracory, in the _ oi 1411 abm..., the coIonnada on each side. thus cleu of the rools of the fide ai$la. The roof <Jl the early CltriSlian basilica ill. lIS a RIle, a wooden yddlet-ck roof. In some l-eIioros whe... wood ...... scarce. a barrcl·v;suh roofing has been adopled at an early Stage. The ~ of the side aisles ate for the most I"'n built as .hed roofs, but they may also be COn· lirueted as flat 1'OOfs-pankularly i~ nl;on~ ,,"'hh liule ",infall 1lS, fo~ example, in Egypl. In gallery churches Ihe aisles often p
""Ill""

354

BASILICA

the ~uiremenl of kcq>inc the seus of the belie¥en apart. The nearury stain ue H... the 1l'IO$t pan located at the :short sides of the Pl.mhu, wbid, in Syria ~ 10 the de>'elopmenl of a kind of double lOWer facade. Olherwise the ...nlto is a kind 01 enlDnce hall, which ordirwily spans the lull width of lhe church and >'ery frequenLly optf1S oulward into a conlinuous series of colu.mn.. The nanhe~ abo ""Cun in the same fom> ""ith cen",d·plan edl·

lieu, The ritual cenler of Ihe ba.ilica. finally. ;5 the $~"Cluary al Ihe eastern end. It e~hibits a variety of design•. in accordance wilh lhe various lilurs.lc.1 ordinance' in the dlfFerenl parts of lhe Christian oikmmte". (world), In Ihe West and in Asia Minor. the basilica normally ends in a semidrc"lar ~pJe I....t a>: a rule ptolrudes from .he otherwise slralghl east ...;011 as a simple cylinder·shaped and ""casion· ally polygonally encased pan of lhe buildin•. In Et;ypt and Syria, the apse, from the- early fifth century onward, is flank" on both ,ides by 1"0 bteral chambers (1CK'llI1etallon of the MaID$. and COllSC' qU'e one or more aUks. A pseudolr3t1"'"JM ""cura whell .only the o:.ter1or profile of the basilica in fronl aps.e is e,umded, ..-hik ill the in.fI'rior only lite numboo:r of ....1es in Ihis pan is increased. as is the Ute ..;th the Leonidas Bal.ili· ca in Lecbaion at Corinih and the Ok! Church at Old Dongola. Besides ~ ..rialions in lhe design cl the basil· ica camed by Ihe Ceosraphlc.al posilion and hy diA'....nt local building lradition•. funher di~er· ,ences arise from lhe d'S1;ncl e>'olution of Ihe wil· ica In ea<:h regian, In Ihe Greek sphe,.." 8S well as in Syria (p ....umably by way of Constantinople). additional .ide cha~l. were requi d, Hen:. in Ihe •e,'enth or .ighth century, lhe called lemplon became fully e_bl\shed. Thi' is a higher rising

of""

""Cttn the upper lOne of which ",-as :lItu' by cur· tains. lIS on,inal funclion was 1(1 ~e ~ emphatically th. from the pan of the church where the laity stayed and 10 guard the acts performed in the sanctuary from !he "ir\o' of the helin-en. A similar dewlopmnl.l is 10 be recorded for almost the entire Etit. On the COnll'lry, in West· ern archile<:IU'" Ihe rqion of .he altar remains open and "isiblr. Notable here is the devclQpmenl of lhe Io..-er of Ihe basilic•. In Ihe EaSI the muhiplicatlon of .h.n led. furthermore. 10 are· markable e1aboralion of the ritual, The conslrucllon of ba.illcas came 10 an end in Easlern architecture al the beginni"a of Ih. Middle Byuonline period, around lhe middle of che tenth e.."tul}'. Before that dale the basilica had been lhe most .,..;desptfld ""'ilding type. despile the con· S11'1K11on or n.umel'Olll cenlm-plan IN!ific.... In the West the ~Ii.ca ...... used almost ....thou. ;nlem.opt;on unlil .he lime of lite Rn>ais.san~. OIorinl ,his lim., il under<1len. lC¥Cm modification. of S1)'1e. nonethelesl newr 10SI its specific shape• The question of the <>I'izim of the Chrislian basilt· ca is also Rill an ob5c..... one. Attemp1S ha.... been made 10 deri.... it from lite pagan martet basilica. from the columned .lretU CQrDR'I011 in Ihe East. Rnman Empire, or from the basilica·like throne hall. thaI can be found In some imperial palaces. Occasionally I .... Iheory Is abo advocated Ihal il was pre<:eded by a hl'»>oelhral Iype of building, Ihe socalled basilica discopul~. which was thoughc to he aue.ced in Salona
saDC'''''''''

r.cad.

""'t

BASIUCA

"",nicular SHUtt".... ')'P<' bul to 11.1' Chrislilln chureh as such. Accon:lioll 10 the suggestive conjecWre of A. von Gcrbut (l9S3, pp. 12911".), lhe name dem'CS from lhe m.agc of lhe early chureh bdwe the ol6cial acknovoiedgment of I.... Chm.lian rei,,· ion, ...-hen lhe lilWD ..... Slill celeb_eel in !he most pnlnhnc1lt room of a "",.. te house. This room l~ bol"l' mUn oorer from here. The Chrlsllan Sullie. In £CYP1 Com~red

wilh Ihe general shape 0111.1' basilica, ,t.. Efyp!iJln basiliCJI e"h.ibils cemin pKulillrllles. Heroe, as in Syrilo. a ""nClu:a.ry wi,h -'CVulll rooms and a 5Iralgtu "'all loward Ihe e""l is well establisl>ee>·.. r the happened 10 be particularly .... rrow (G«mmann. (97). pp. 167ft.). As repn:ls 11.1' ...bdh·lslon of .1... naoI, the £&yptian basilica contains «rUin peculiarities in II... design of tho: we:stnn .sa;Iion. Wh..reas In ,he ....... of the Christ~ world Ihe side aislQ conlinue as far ... the ~ .. nd of ,he basil'· ca. ;n E&YP< !hey art, with few CXcql,jons (Ull .IllSA). CO,' acq"ia the . ~ ~ of :an ambltl. lOry JOing around IhOff.ydn- Th~ oriJin of rJw return "i.... is probably 10 be """'&hI i... lhe demands e.Uled by Ibe galle')' enureh. Abo>~ the rf;turn aisl.. ,,-,.., a kil'ld of bridgc 1....1 connected lhe p1~rics 01 bolb sfdQ. so thai only" sin,le ~I.... ease was ,equjred. SuI>sequ~ntly, OO",.....r, the relum aisle could also be found in ehurdtcs Ihal surely were not furnished w;lh ,all..rics, For (I... locallon of ch.. ,allery Slairc.ase, Ihere is no Ii.cd rule, !lis frequenlly built as an ulernal addilion "I (I... llOulhwesl COmer of th,. basilloa. The walls of Ihe Eto'pl;"n basilica-will. Ihe .... cCplion of some ..dilices in Lower £aypt-ar.. provld..d wilh n.. merous niches, They are Ihc c.~

*"'"

355

of lhe ol1en .emarl<sbly ilrona wans of EtrPtiluI basilicas and should. II i«mS. be considered " pcculiarily of mud briek roMInK:liOfI. An 1Uri..", OC" """ only raroel)' in EfypIian _ilK.. NevntbclCS5. then- art ,",,,.. ptio.... 10 this in Abo Ml..... and al---Ashmiina)'Jl. In chI' nrl)' lI\CdicY:l! peliod. chat io, durin, Ibe lime the Arab oonquesl, die Em'? lian basilica al fint chanJed 'ffJ IIlde. The edifices. n...... rth.-lcss. bcc:ame sm:a.ll.... and ""'"' moGcsl in Ihrir design. In addition. In lhe seveC1uary. later .his pUSllg.. widened out inlO " fun room, Ihe khums. Since Ihe apse opening ilSelf, On Ihe other hand, k..pl ilS lradi.ional form as an arch spannin, iu full widlh, th.. arehltee'ural apportuni.y pre· sented ilSelf to combin.. bolh rooms imo Ihe O""r· riding form of the lriconch, wh.. reby a familiar idea from early Christian architecture came 10 be """ppliC the Ion.gl
1oI""",n,

IUBUOCllAPHV

Apol.lonj-Ghel1i, B. M, fI foro ~ I" ./Isilic.. >C\'Crirtn"
356

BASIUDES

Gartkiewi<:z, P. M, "New Outline of the Hislory of Nubian Chuc<:h Archit""lure.'· BH1/erin Amieke Beschaving 55 (1980):137-60. Gerkan, A. von. "Die profane Wld die kin;hliche Basilika." R;;mische Quartalschrift f~r chris/liche AiI..rlUmskunde und Kirchmgeschich/e 48 (1953):t29ff, Grossmann, P, "Die von Somers Clarke in Ober-An~in;\. enldecklen Kirchenbauten.'· Milleilungen des Deutschen An:hii%psche.. Ins/auts, Abtei/ung Ki:liro 24 (1%9):144-68. _ "Eine vergessene frUhchristliche Kin:he heim l.Ac
BASILIDES, second-century Alexandrian Gnostic teacher. According 10 Cll'.MENT OF AI.LXANDRlA (Stro· mala vii.106.4), Basilides taught in Alexandria dur· ing lhe reign of Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138- 161). ElISEBIUS OF CAESAREA gives the precise date of A.D, 132 (Jerome, 1846, cols. 619-20). He wmdd seem to he the earliest of the Ihree leading Gnostic leachers in Alexandria. The others were Valentinus (c. 140-160). and HEAAClLON (170- ISO). Basilides appears to ~e claimed Glanki..., "Pe· terl interpreter," as his Ipch.. (Clement Stromata vii.I06.4), which also poiins to an early date for his activilies, He and his oon; Isidore, were pnxligious workers. They are credit.d with compiling Ihe 6,.,,1 full·scale Christian commentary on any of the Gos· pels (perhaps Luke). Ihe ~nty·fou,..book Begetica (E.usebius Historia ecclesias/ka iv.7.7). In addition, they were responsible for works on Oriental prophecy, "The Exposition of the Prophet Pan:hor" (Clement Stromata vi.53.2): On Platonic philosophy, "On the [nseparable Soul";' on ethics; and on poe' try, They ranged widely over Iheology, theosophy, elhics, exegesis, and mysticism, seeking to celate

Christianity to the general religious experience of mankind. Unfonunalely, vel)' linle of Basilides' work h3S survived. Clement of Alexandria quotes from it ver· batim and must he preferred as a primary source. lrenaeus and Hippol),us, who also seek to rerut< him, faj] to agree, though in places Hippolytus stands n.arer to Clement's sources than does Icen· seus. H.gemonius, writing the Acta Archelai early in the fourth century, lends to overemph3Size the dualism in Basilides' syslem and relate il to that of Mani (AC/a Archelai 67.4). Both Hippolytus and Icertaeus agree thaI for Basilides, God was the origin of all IhinS"_ Accord· ing 10 lren"""", He was "unborn" (Adversus haereus 1.24.3)~ for Hippolytus, "God came from nothingness" (Refl
BASlLIDES

Jews clUC'ified Simoo of eyn,o~, ..,hI> had aorried the erosa, beliffioll him 10 bt J~ while '"'-'S, wi"ll Ihe rorm of Simon, stood by. J.ughing at oh<~ ~

key 10 this systtm was !hat each of the hish M;ties belie,-ed himself 10 be God .nd was i&JIon.nt of doe uiltence of the hea~ .boIoe his _"ll ~f<'. n-, Yah.......b tbouchl that he .... God .nd ruler of the .. n;"..,nor. and hn>a' had no am_r 10 the IIlaSa!C of "']valion pteacht:tinll this lDCSlIagC. UH~ .....:' Basilldcs dtclared (Cle.......1 Srr-rata iv.12.Be), "one ....... .......t of the will oC God 10 love ~ryth.inc." .nd hel\Ce could apprehend Ihe divine ~e. HOIOo-..... ~r, belief only in ,he lilcral or>C5SaJC oC the Gospels implied lhat such a belicv~r was atilt • dave of y.h....eh. T..... e religion ........ wholly $pirilUal, attuned to NO'Iied, ..... the result of lin. COI'll'esson may not haY<:' bttn grie¥otJ$ oll'enclen. but they potsased the c.apol(:io:y ....d the desire 10 ain-perhaps they wen= e>..... beinS ""nished r0.m commined in a pre>1OUS life. Manyniom cleansed lMm from all l\IiZl. E,,,n JQUO, .. the temptations ........-..d. poss~sd llIe pos:sibilitylo lin. lin« throug.tl his incamalion he ..... become man. Tbou&h C1emcat of Aleundria recoiled from lhese ideas .. "alhciscic'" (Slrom4u iv.12.as.I). they ~re lOunded on the conviction tIw God could noc be the ..uhoo- of t:vil. ~ accepled the P1alonIe: new of P'rovidencc: thliit in rIO St:nSt: coWd it be rQpoll$iblc forevil (SlrDmDttl iv.82_1). E"l1_ due. ntl>er, 10 the inlluence of Ihe arehons, chief or whom _ Yahweh. BasIIi6n W&$ th<: ftrst ChriMian IheoloPon 10 In· terpret the New Te-s.wnenl .H~gorically. PI;sto and Homer, lIS well as Paul. aid in lbe elucldallon of lhe divine eQagc contained in Ihe Gmpels, BasHldes reveal, himself as a thinker of bQldneSi and specu· lallve power. Though he may hav~ been innuenct:
357

ent for its understandi", of God could hardly be ,he real savin, relij:ioT> for mankind. If many of his ideas proved unac«plable 10 orthodo~ Chriscian... Ibsilides nonr:thclra hdped 10 frtt Chriscianity from SI.lbjec:tiotl 10 the Pf"""Jenl lIf'OCalyptic and millenarian conct'pll. He Ill'" thac a .. niven.a! religion must draw on tl>e ..i5dom of all mankind, and that if the end ..... a m)'llic:al faith, lhe ""y 10 thai eDd Ia)' ~ unclentandinc tl>e mr:so;agr of the Veal p1tiloosoPtel'5 ami poeIS. In partieu.1.u Pial<> aDd Homer. The emoersenu of an authentically gmlile Chriscianio:y ......" much to Builides. Basilidcs' views 1«... alrnt:loU cenainly to have inOuenced .....u ...ru.U5: and there arc reminiscences of his ideas, such as IIle ignonooce of Ihe Greal Archon (Yaltwdl) and crucifucion of a SU!:tstilUle for Christ. in $«q"d Tnati5t of the G'eat Seth. Isidore is mentioned in tl>e NaS Hantmadi Codex, lncWe IX. Much of tIM: GtlOiSlic view of the origins of creaticln. and ~n', relation 10 it and 10 God, may be said to have orilinaled .....ilh Basilides. He is pall of thc Alexandrian Jewish and Chri..ian philo· oophical l .... dition IIlal produced PHtLO, Valentinus . Clement. and Oll[(;"".

I""

BIBLlOORAI'HY Rkstcr, W. "Das Syslem des Ba5ilidcs." New Testoment SlUdi~. 9 (1961-1963):23)-5.5. cd. Die Gn<>Jis, trans. .... d cd. R. MeL Wil· son. vol. 1. OJdord. 1972, Hegcmonius. Act" A",~u.i, ed. H. Beeson. [);c g:riechi!IChcn christlichen SclIriftSl~ller doer e""'co drci Jalu10undttte 16. Leiptig. 1906. Hon, F. J. "8luilidQ.- In DeB I, PI'- 268-11.1tcpr. New Yort. 1974. Jerome_ S. H,,~•~",'hl; • f'ltnpnttltio Chro>tictle E.W:Ji; P_phili. In PL 27, col .. 34-676. Paris,

-=:::-

''''.

May. G. Sc/oi}pfun, ous Nidus. pp. 63-86. Berlin.

1978. NulenbcrJ. E. -Ba4ilidoes:' In T1t~he Real· ~>q,yl/cpmlie. Vol. 5. pp, 296-301. Berlin .nd New York. 1980. lM<:ussion in de~1 of Ibsilides' S)'5lcm.

Nautin. P. '·Us fragments de &silide sur fa _ffrance." In .uof/a"r-' offfm e" Iron"eur d~ H. C. ""ech, pp. 393-403. Part.. 1974. Quia"",l. G. "L'homme gtlOSli'l"": la doctrine de Basilid•. " E",,,()S J.. hrbuch 10 (1948):89-193. Robinson, J. M.. cd. Th~ Na, H"mmadi Lib,tlry. San Francisco. 1977. Waszink. J. H. "Basilides." In R.afl«ikon fii' Antike und Chri.unm.... Vol. l. cols. 1217-23. SlUllga". 1950. W. H. C. FP.END

358

BASIUOS

BASILIOS I. See Jerusalem. Coptic See of. BASILIOS II, archbishop of Jeruoalem (18181899). Basilios was born in the village of AI-J?abbah in the go.'emor,Ite of Qen~. When he was twenlyfive he entered the monastery of Saint Antony (D~H ~NB), Ate archbishop of JeTUSlllem was also COIl$idered head of Ihe monas· tery of Anba Basilios, He renovated the monastery, which is next to the Holy Sepulcher, and built a church and a building for the patriarchate, as well as mom:; for pilgrims and olher visitors. The monastery and Church of Saint George in Jerusalem "",re also restored. The archbishop took pains to preserve the church'. sacred obje<:t.s, espe,'ially in DAYR AL-SULTAN in Jerusalem, In Jaffa, he bought a large orchard where he built a church and monastery for Coptic visitors. He had many other churches built in differcnl places and restored others. He was well known for his charit<>ble nature and hi. concern far Ihe poor. He was renowned for hi. broad-mindedness, honeSly, good coumel, and love for the church and his people. Despile ill health, Basilios conlinued 10 look after his dioce"" and its people umil hi. death on 26 March 1899 at the age of eighty·two. He was buried in the bishops' shrine near the Coptic church Ihat he had buill in Jaffa. ARCHBISHOP BASIUOS

BASILIOS III,

archoi~hop of Jerusalem (?-1935).

Basilios carne from th1lOWll of Akltmim and became a monk at llAYR ANM ~NTUNIYOs before servo ing in Jerusalem. Wben, after the death of TlM011lEOS " Ihe diocese ..... as divided into IWO pans, he was app<>inled to Ihe newly created see of Jeruoalem, which con.isted of the governorates of the Canal, Sharqiyyah, and Sinai, plus Jerusalem itself. and changed his name from Jacob Amon)' to Basilio. Ill. He was consecraled archbishop in 1925. He remained archbishop for len yeats until his death on I Bashan. A.M. 1651. He is buried in the monastery of Saint Anlony in Jaffa next to Basilio. II. ARCHBlSHOI' BASILlOS

BASILIOS, ARCHIVE OF. The archive of Ba· .iliQ!;, pagarch of AphrodilO in the time of Governor Ourrah ibn Sharlk (698-722), is the largest and most notable of the collections of the early Arab period. Found at Kom I.hqaw in 1901. lhe papyri were acquired mainly by the British Museum, though substantial collections are in Paris (the Louvre), Tbilisi, Cairo, and Olher cities_ (The earlier archive from Aphrodito, tltat of Dioscoro!l, from the age of Justinian, was published by J. Maspero in Papyrus grtCS d'epoque byzantine, with further items in G,"~k Papyri in th~ Briti,h Mu,"um [hereafter P. Lond.], Vol. 5.) The majority, acquired by the British Museum in 1903, were published by H. 1_ Bell in Volume 4 of P. Lond. (also comaining the Coptic pieces, published by W. E. Crum). The purely Arabic texts were published by Becker in i 907 (hereafter P"'F); some of the Greek and Arabic texls repre.ent twO ve,-,;ion. of the same document (for instance, P, Lond. 1346 [l'AF IV]; 1349 (probably) Papyri Scno!l·Rci"hardt I; 1345-or more probably 1359 [PAF IIIJ). Basilios was the pagarch of Ihe pagarclty of which Aphrodilo was the administrati.'e center, The corre· spondence, which con.i.ts largely of lellers from Qurrah 10 Basilios (wrillen between 708 and 711), shed. much light both on the administration of the pagarchy in the twemy years around lhe lurn of Ihe eighth century and on Ihe general nature and prin· ciples of UmaY)'ad rule in relation !O the provincial population of Egypt and to the pro,'incial adminislration. BasiHos, though occupying Ihe same rank a. his conlemporary Papas, pagarclt of Apollono. AnO (ldfU), e,'idently enjo)'ed a more privileged .la· tu., for whereas the communications of the latter are with the dux of Ihe Thebaid or hi. tOpotu£I'_. (representative.). stationed al Anlinoopolis, Ihose of Basilio•• as preserved, are exclusively from Ourrah, Ihe govemor of Egypt, residing al al·Fu.!'\! (Old (aim). Whether the explanation of this pri,'i1eged correspondence lie. in the greater imponance of the pagarchy of Aphrodito, or in personal relalions between Basilios and high-ranking Egyptian offi. daIs, i. not clear, bul because of il we learn more aboul the policy of Ihe Umayy~d government from Ihis archive than fr
BASIUUS

min~

;admini5lnuor, more anxious for the ,"'elbre of his sub;ec'- than for Ihe welJ..Minl 01 hu oIIiei:ak (see panicobrly P. L:>nd. 1349, 13~, 1330. 1393 [repJbliMoed in full in 1.......<01 of £opf-" AreMol~ D 12 (1926):27511.); ;and, for:an Ilnbic uample,lhe strongly worded no. IV in Abbott's The K..m.1I P", pyrl; d, Hisll;>r1 of 1M PfIlridrr:h$. Vol. I, pc. 1. pp. 571£•• esp. p. 64. for IN host* Yiew). The direct link belween Basilios and \he authori· ties at a1·F,.;il (or, on oc:casion, A1e>;andria) ;s shown abooYe all by the facl that. in oddilion 10 the leiters ;and orders Ihat paswd from one 10 the other. all "'OIl;"', tasa.;and rxxtions required by the ,....emo. wen: oem 10 him directly, and the amir of the 11>ebaid ",as b~. In Ihe P~ art"hive, on Ihe od>er hand. all payments in money and requisitions in kind are centnolly collected at Antinoopotis :and forwarded by the amlr or hit represenlative. Basilios had a permatlent alenl al al· FUll,",! 10 whom hi. contributions wen: delivered, In IIddllion 10 Ihe lellers from Ourrah 10 Basillos (P. Lond. 13n·1407, and in olher collections), lhe archive include. a few ""!agia (P. l.<md. 1406· 11). accOUnt. end .el;!;Iers of the utm~1 importan<:e, drawn up for ~",,:al purposes. These cover all the many fonn. oIlaXalion applied by' the IOvemmem to the paprchy in lhis period: poll la>., bnd IIU, and numerous min<>r and CAlraordi....ry impgsU (P. L:>"'" 1412-M). 1l>e cOlTesp;>ndcoce also cOveTS a c~rxteri$lic nlnge 01 offi<:ial demands for labor. ers. notably c:aulkers. 10 be employed in the &hippreis at &b,-Ion and. panicularly, Clysma, and for work 011 llIe """" mosqut:S brina built at a1·F~, Jerusalctn. and ~ , IN Uma,,-ad capital. If IN ......rdlyof Aphrodilo <:an be reprded III IYPical. thcn: aD br .... doubc dw Et;ypt:ia.Il bbOI" ..-as heavily dra...... upon for tb6c major architcaural undmakinp ol the Uman'adl. In addilion then a~ ConiinUOUS and pres.sU\C demands for sp«od in Ihe pt'O"'i5ion of rnanl'O""= ~ in Ihe paymenl of uues -and it • quile clear WI Btiilios, like Papal 81 Apoll6nopol•• dnggrd h..is feet: • much. he dared on numerous occasionsATIOthe.....jor 5Ubject co..'Cred is the lrxing and ~Iist ... ion of fucllives who repeatedly m(Wed from p:ap.chy 10 pagarchy. The MUI'im aUlhoritles found it diflicuh to ·mp lrad of such h'lIili~es because of lheir conce.almenl and uther fUSt!S (sec Cadell, 19~7. no. 5......ith introduction). The c!"-llreSl guide 10 the .ludy of the COm pie> a~counlS (P. Lond, 1412ff.) ii in D. C. Dennett"! ConverS/O.l ~"d Ille Poll T~x in E~.ly Isl~m (C;,mbridge. Mass" 19~0: repro in Dennett's fsl~rnic T~ ..mi,,,,: Two SI"die.

359

[NC\lI· Yort:, 1'173]). The aUlhor shOW$ by an anal)"$i5 of the rele''atlt rqillers and by a <:ornparison with IN tenns ol IN capitulatio" (iYen in lhe Anb chronicle... and in JOt\r; Of tillUOtJ tlw !be principle applied _ one of IlMli1iidual 1I".ion. in the £ann of poIIla1 aIId land UU in particular. and nOl ol an 0>ffaI.l tribule bMed on a cenlral assasmenl. Dennen·, 5l\IoCly COlTKl$ ~ ac<: Bell's anide;n B~II1"'" 28 [1928F27&H.). BIBl.lOCttAI'HV

Abbot•. N. TIre Kurr<::ient onenlal Civilizalion 15. Chicalo, 1938. Becker. Z. F. "Arabi""he Papyri dcs Aphroditofun· d",,"· bilSellrilt fur Auyriolo,it 20 (1907):6-8-9". _ _. DtT 1.1.",. Vol. 2, pp, 245_68. Sirasbourg, 191 1.

Buder. A, J. The Ar~b ConqutM of EVPl, 2nd cd.. cd. P. M, F",scr. Oxford, 1978, Cadell. H. "Nouve.a\&x "",smenlS de b correspon· dance de Korrah ben Shenk..• RcchercJ.es de POl· pyroJ<>t:ic .. (1967):107-160. On pp. 142-50 i. :a daled list of ;lI1 Gtftk and Arabic papyri &om

"""".

Gtuk P..pyri ito 'M Britislt M...eu",. ed. F. C. Ken· yon and H. I. Bell. ~ vols, Londoo, 1893-1917. Grohmann. A. ArtdIk P.pyri i/o I"e £OpIUm Lib."ry. Vol. I. Cairo. 19~. P.. pyri rw5i.K:"" _d ~hcr 54lt11l1lun",n, cd. G. kroetdi. O. KruIJft", and P. JemOlcdt. S .... b.. Tdlis. 1925-1935; repro 1965, Some item. cOm· plele papyri In P. Lond., Vol. ... POl".,..... pea d·ipoq.. e hy,:... Ii~. cd. J. ,,"~, 3 vols. Cairo. 1911-19Ie. StJmme1lrudt ,necJ/lle:Mr l/,hI"dc" AoPr"". cd. F. hempe, F. Bilabel. and E. Kie 'ng. nos. I04S1-80. Slrasboul"J. Heidelbr.... and Wiesb:a. den. 1916-. VeroffCllll;";",,,,1f" .us de. Heidel1Hrger 1'.1')..... S
BASILIUS (Bey) (d. 1647), eldeSI of three oons

of Mu'allim Ghill who was killed by lbrihim Pasha, son "r MVl;lAMMAI) ·ALI. at lhe city of Zift:!.. Muhammad 'Ali appointed Basillus 10 su<:c«
360

BASIL OF OXYRHYNCHUS

"ver, 10 r«oncilc the GM.I' family, Ihe viceroy appointed the other brothers, Doss and Tu¥, 10 Iwo principal po.lS in the government administration, Basilius remained in charge of the general finances of Empt until his death in November 1847, MOUN1R SHOOCRI

BASIL OF OXYRHYNCHUS, sixth-centul}' amhor of the homily In Honor 01 Lo"gi"". (hegume. nOS of EN~roN), found complete in a codex now in New York (Pierponl Morgan Library, M 579, fob. 103-110, unpublished). According 10 Ihe title of the homily, Basil was bishop of Pemje (Ox)Thynchus). He delivered the homily on the occasion of lhe consecration of a church dedicated to !.ONOINUS in the Monaslery of Salamites On Mount Thone. No infonnalion concerning Basil can be gleaned from Ihe content of Ihe homily; Ihis is a powerful argument in favor of its authenticity, because works composed a posteriori during the period of the cy· CU'S usually contain elements of purported aulobi· ography. However, 'Iyli'lic crileria point 10 the per· iod of Damian (end of the .ixth cenlury) for Basil, as the struCiure of the encomium is .imilar to lhat of PSEUflO.'ISEmlUS of (liFT, In Htmor of O""ph,-;us; other Ihemes r«all the encomia of c()"ST~NTINe of AsyU!, tn HOIl()' of Alhanasiu" The homily begins wilh a eulogy to the virginily of Ihe ascetic life in the figure of John the Baptist. One of those who imitated the ...inl was l. the people to pay careful heed to Ihe commemoration. since Ihis allention i. a useful exercise of moral edificalion. In this conne.olion, the aUlhor cites Ih. example of Joshua in relation 10 Ihe life of Moses. Reference i' Ihen made to the miracles worked by l.
Goteher, J. B. ,',pophthegmala P"lmm. In cols, 71~440. Paris, 1864.

P{;

65,

TITO OllUlNl>r

BASIN AND EWER. See liturgical Ve.tmenl•.

BASSET, RENE (1855-t924), French Arabisl and speciali'l in Berber. He was born at Luneville. H. was dean of Ihe racuhe des Leitrcs of Algiers and a corresponding member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles·Lences. He died in Algeria. As editor, he published Ihe works of hi. friend Falher Charles Foucauld (G'ammar, 1908, 1922; Dicrionary, 1918-1921), and among olher works, he wrote Le' Documents "ral>cs sur I'expedition de Charle· magne en Espagne (l904) and Recherches ,ur fa religi{m de, BerN", (l910). His principal work is his edition of Ihe Coptic Syna:cai" aral>c-jacobire, PO 3, 13. 56,78, 84, and 100. which appeared beIween 1905 and 1928, 8181.10GRAI'HY Coignel, J. "Basset, Rene." In Dictionnaire d'hislOire et de geographic eccMsiasliqu,s, col. 1268. Paris, 1932. Furlani, J. "Basset, Rene." In Enciclopedia cattol· iea, pp. 984-85. Valinn City, 1949. FRANcoIs

GRAFFIN.

S.J,

BASTAH, city localed in the Eastern Delta jusl ,oulh of al-zaqihlq in Ihe province of Sharqi)'yah. In Egyptian the cilY was known as Per-Ba.tet (lhe domain of Bastet, the lion goddess). A powerful political center, Bas!"-h provided lhe kings of Ihe Twenty·second Dynasty (945-712 B.C.l and servc'd as Ihe capilal of the eighteenth Lower Egyptian nome during the lale Period (712-332 a,c,), The Greek historian Herodolu" writing in the fifth century, knew the city as 8<>ubastis and referred 10 il often, describing ib lemples and other 'ights, Allhe localion of the ancient Egyptian senle· mem, exca"alors have uncovered lemples of Bastel, Kel;, Hori. Pepy, AlUm. and Mihos. as well as lombs and cal cemeteries. Coptic source., which give Ihe name of Ihe cit)' as Bouasli or POURSI" record a long Christian tradi· tion for Ihe place. Athana.iu. memions Ihallhc city had a Melitian bishop as early as A.D. 325 (,',poiog,a Seamd" [1,71, in Athanas,us Werke, Vol. 2, p. 150). Other source, speak of orthodox bishops in Ihis ~arly period also (,ee Timm, 1984, p. 363), Bas!ah i. mentioned ohen in accounts of mart),rs from Ih. period bofore 640. l1Jc mart)T Shenule. who was imprisoned in Antinoopolis, came from Bas!ah (Hy>'ernal. 1886-1887, p. 100). Apa Apoli """ put 10 dealh there during Ihe governorship of Ptolemaios (see Evelyn_While, 1926, pp. 87-93). Given the area'. Chrislian tradilion it is .urprising

1iL

BATN AL-I;IAJAR

that &sl"h does not appear in the medie>al Coptic· Arabic scale•. but the city is included in a medieval list of Egwtian bishopric. (Munier, 1943, pp. 4754), and various bishop. of Bas!"h are attested. Bishop Pahom from &slah was present at the con· flict between Patriarch YOsAB I (830-849) and Mu· ~amrnad ibn 'Abd AllAh, where he took sides against the patriarch. In 1078. Bishop Gabriel of Bas!"h attended the synod at DAYR ANItA MAQAR in Wadi al-Natrun where CYRtl H (1078-1092) was.elected as the sixty-sevemh patriarch (Munier, 1943, p. 26). One of the three bishops who ordained John as bishop of Cairo in 1118 w;U John "'bishop of al-Khandaq:' and the see of Bas!"h assisted PMriarch "'ARK 1H (1167-1189) and Bi.hop John of Tamwayh in th. dedication of a church in al· BaslJitin.

Coptic tradition holds that Bas!"h was the 6rst stopping place in EIDPt of the family of Jesus on the fUGHT li'lm EGYt'T. When the inhabitants of Bas!"h would nol receive Jesus and Mary, the)' pitched their tent ottt..tde the city, where a spring was made to flow for them, Later the people of Bas!ah revered this spot. A church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built on the site in 1185. BIBUOGRAPHY

Amelineau, E. La Geographie de i'Egyp/e ~ Npoque coP/', p. 89, Paris, 1893, Alha"as;us Werke, .d. H,·G. Opitz. Berlin, 1934-. Baines. J., and J. M;\.lek. Alias of A"ci,,,t Egypl, pp. 174-75. New York, 1980. E.... l)'n-White, H. G. The Mo""sterie. of Ihe Wadi 'II Na/nm, pI. 1. New York, 1926_ Hyo'ernat, H. us ACMS du martyrs de I'E/:)'ple. Paris, 1886-1887. Munier, H. Ruueil des /ist.. 'pi.copal.. de NgHse cople. Cairo, 1943_ Timm, $, Das chrisr/ich_koptisc1le Jgypren in arabischer Zeil, pI. I, pp. 3li2-65. Wiesbaden, 1984,

.j

RAND~LL

STEWAIU

BATAN'(JN, AL_, a cit)' located some 10 mile. (16 km) south of Tanja in the province of al·Minu6yyah. It was known in Coptic times as Pathanon. AI·BamnOn was Ihe birthplace of Patriarch SHENUTE t (858-880) and the place to which the remains of the FOUY_Nt"E MARTYRS of Sectis were b
361

(Zoega, 1810, pp. 95-97). Muslim authors in the medieval period mention al·Batanun, but they give no infonnation about Christians or churche, in the town. There are today two churches in al-Batanun, one of Sarapammon, built around 1891, and one of the Virgin Mary_ BIBUOGRAPHY

Amelineau, E. L.a G,ographie de I'Egyple ~ 1"fXJque COple, pp. 306-307. Pari~, 1893. Timm, S. Christliche S@/en in AgypUn, p. 63. Wiesbaden, 1919. ___. Das chrisl!ich_kopti$che Agyplen in. arabi,· cher Zeil, pt. I, pp. 372-74. Wi",baden, 1984. Zoega, G. Calalogu5 codicum copticorum manuscriplarum qui i" Museo 80rgia,,0 Vel/Iris adserva"tur, Rome, 1810. RANDALL STEWART

BATN AL.I;IAlAR (belly of slon",), the name popularly given to an especially rock)' and inhOlipitable area of Nubia, extendinil southward for about 80 miles (120 km) from the Second Cataract of the Nile. Here the Nile flows through a denuded land· ~cape of granite outcrops and boulders, with very little floodplain on either side of the river. The ri,'e. channel itself is impeded b)' many small cataract" the best known of which are those of Scmna and Dal. Because of Ihese impediments, upriver and downriver navigation i. possible only at the peak of the Niie llood. The Ba!n al-l:Iajar had few, inhabitants or resources, but it was ,trategicall)' important because it lay on the frontier belween Lower and Upper Nubia. It se ....'ed for a long time as a banier both to the southward ""netration of Egwlians and to the northward movement of Nubian" and it was here that the pharaohs of the Twelfth D)'nasty built an imposing chain of frontier forti6calions. During the Middle Ages, the Ba!n al-Hajar lay within the terriIOr)' of NOBATR It was, however, a kind of economic frontier, fo. the region 10 the north was freely open to trade and ..1l1ement by Muslims, while to the south all trade w;U a roJ'31 monopoly. To enforce this policy there were two customs posts, one at Takoa at the lower end of the Ba!n al-Hajar and one at a place (the "up""r maqs"j near its upper end. After traveroing the Ba!n ,,1-l:Iajar, the tenth-century visitor IBN SAl.IM AL-,o.swA~1 wrote:

_

362

BAwlT: History

~

a.e lhe worst parts of Nubia whi~h I have seen, owi,,& to ,he difficulty and narrowness of the ground and the bliguina road. The river If ~ol$andy in~ br rapid iaIIs and prt;Kt· ins mounuins. so dmI it is precipiutN down ,he rocks. and is in ..,..... places no! abo.e fifty eubilS .....we from one bank '0 the ",hn-. "the eoo.lmry abounds ;" hish rnou.nlains. narrow p40SSa, and I"OIidlo aJo.., ",hich you cannoI pr«eed mounted. ... That mountam. are !he ~ron&f>olds of !he Nubian!. and them !he in}W,iunts of !he di:slrictl borde:ring on !he Muslim coonlry lake

amon,

~tult·

This tunc,ion as a rd'uge and ... n~tuary !:>oKame t'"en m~ fJgni(,.,an' in ,he dislurbed politktll and miliu.ry condilions of the later Middle As«- The..., was a rapid gro....'h of p<JIlulation. """"...,nll)' t1".... ing southward from the depreda,ions of Ihe IlAN!) AI,...... m In IAwer Nubia, and fo... ified selliemen.. as well as minialu,"" ~as
ru".

A number of ,he furtrt5S sites in ,he Sa!n a1'l;lajar ....-ere tllCavated in the period btIween 1960 and 1970. but .he "",ulls have not yet been published in detail. [See abo: Nubian Arch:aeolot;y, Medie>'al.) IIIIILlOGlUI'HY

Adams. W. Y. 11Ie University of Kentucky bca'oa· lions at Kulubnarti. 1%9:' In Ku_ uJld G". $en AU"llrabungen auf den In""ln Sunnani, Tangur und in Kulb 191>11-69." In K"~sr ,,~d Gesd.ichtr N..b;"ns in christl/cher Z,it, ed. E. Dinkler. Recklinghau.en. 1970. Mills, A. J, "The Archa.olOllkal Sun'ey from Gemal to Dal-P.epon on the 1965-1966 Season." Kush IS (l971)'200-210, Mills. A. J.. and H.·A. Nord.lrom. "The Archaeologi.

cal Sun'ey from Cenull '0 Dal. Prelimina')" Repor1 on .be s.:....,n 1964-6S."' K..:
".

w.w..... Y.

AnAlas

BAwtT.

[1his entry ~sius of lit",,, IIrriclu: History; An:hxoJocy. ArchiteCture. and Seulpcure; lind Paintings.]

HIIIOry The to",n of W-w1! is loaled btI...... "n Dayr\i! and Asyil!. The si.e is famous throuCh the acavaUons carriee history of C<.tplic a .... From !he numerous in""rip· .ions di,covered there. it ~ known Ihat it was dedi· caled '0 a Saint Apollo. who seem. 10 have been i15 founder, Unfortunalely, the lite"'ry witnesses-a life of Phif (or PH1B), companion and friend of Apolio (Orlandi and Campqnano, IIl7S). and Greek pa· pyri (Gascou. 1981. p. 220j-lpeak of an Apollo of anolher "",n"'tel)·. very nur at Tit\ois (Greek) or Til\ooh (Coptie). Other tuts speak or a Sainl Apol· 10 in the nome of Hermopolis MaE;na (wday ;>I a1JSIUIONAYN) bu. witl>ou. spedfying Ihe place. such as the "ISm..... MONACHOIl""" IN AEGl"P'fO, rela.ing a pilgrimage by the hennilS of EcYPt during Ihe winter of 39-'-39S. In .be CopIic hagmenlS Qi the life of PAUL Of' T-..H. it is related thai he visited an Apollo in this ...me relion (AmMineau, 11ll!1&95. pp. 7S9ft.). Finally. lhe $TfUlWI-lOH.. wttkh commernontft Pltib and his friend Apolk:> on 2S Blbah. speaks of a site called Jabal Ahliij. nt""U have so many eommon ekmenlS !hat it appears probable thai th~e _ an Apollo who had a friend and companion named Phib ....-1>0 diM ,,,'tnly yeaJS before tum. and another eompanion calle
BAwlr: Archaeology, Architectu~, and Swlpture

Phib and another monk named Anoup (Cledu. 1910). II is very difliotUll l<) delermine what kind 01 mono ascery Apo)Ilo iOunded, in view of lhe Ixl !hal only 5 perc_I of the .ile has betn ua..... ~ and 111001 il underwen' many ~ions belwccn the foundinl and u... abandonn>et1' of the monul:ery. It seems 100 much 10 allinn tlw lhc sile .. of PIoche>",ian char.ctc. with lOme 'iDdiridual lihertia" 01 an anc:horile I)Pe (Tal», 1%4. p. 185), fOI" lhe erea· 'OIIJoIII,hemsel_ haw de ...... II>1nued the e>.wence 01 eells ouuUk lhe IUJTo,ulding wall in the and the numer<>U'l iMCriplmns alle$l.ins lhe tull of "'poIlo. whith ;" always associaled ,.'ith ,hib and Anoup. are found only on lbe wallo of hemtiUCes In Middle lI/ld Upprr Egyp" at Wid! Sarjllh. 06y. aI· Bala·iulh. and u fa. a!l Isrul. bul never On ,he wall. of a monaslery known '0 have I>ccn Padwmian. II tlIe.don: JeCm~ more in confonn;ly wilh wh., is known of Ef;yplian monaslicism '0 ,hink Iha, Ihe $/XalleI",b1l5h· men,' is Ih., ,he hermits a.scmblcd ,here for ,he Eucharis' and a common meal, folluwed perhaps by an address from ,he falhe. of the monas'ery. no, every week bUI daily. as both Ihe Hi$lc,i" "'OHI>C/ro....'" and Ihe fraJ1M1l'" of lI... lifc of Paul ofTamrna clearly M>ow. If Ihe mo,,*,,ol S«m 10 ha,~ exisclcd al the bcJinnilll'

dew".

.,

Dun~Jtt.PHY

kMlineau, E. M......... ou:s pout sen';' o}l'lri""',e de I'£mfe d.,J,ie,,-. Pllris, Igu. C"-inal. E. FI.Ii,." ComplU ,.."dul de I'A ..."dt",ie des ins<:riptionl .r belies lellres (1904):517_26, _ _. £.e Mon".li"e n I" n'crapole de 8"",,;1. M.moir.. d. 1'[nSlilU' fr;",~ais d·...rcheologle ori· entlle 12,39. Cairo. 1904. 1916.

363

"!bouil." In Diclion""i.e d'
Archaeology, Ar<:hlteclure, and Sculpture "'rchlt«ture The archacotope.al .ue lies abou, 1.25 milts (2 km) """"' of the .illoose of Bl.wlllll\d about 17 mi1ca (U km) :oo\Ilh of a1-MhmitMyn. The ruins ~~ became known in the lase decade of lhe ninelcenth cenlury as a nsuh of p.hau: diuin" "'hen in''eSli· gal>Olll werc mad,. inlO lhe prl)\~nanc,. of obj<:cIs WI came inlO the at! Indc. Willt Ih,. limil~ task of um:O"crinl the buildings already v;s;b1e ;md also 6nding
364

BAWIT: Archaeology, Architecture. and Sculpture

in Cairo and the louvre in Paris (de Graviers, 1932, pp. 511£.). The excavato.... produced preliminary repoJ1S and paJ1ial publications of the excavation in which. howe"er. architecture and sculpture were largely neglected. OnI)' plans of the individual campaigns were published. There is nO overall plan recording all the excavated complexes (a hypotheti. cal attempt. inc"rrect in details, is To'l', 1981. pI. l). Since the soundings exposed only panial areas and the area of settlement was not systematically defined, we do not know the extent of the buildings. nOr can we ascertain whether the main concentration of the total complex was then found and excavated, In confonnity with the circumstances 01 these archaeological activities. there are for the monuments no datings assured by excavation data (stratigraphy. ceramic•. coins). Since building phases and even rebuildings. which ....·e can identify in many sections on the basis of old excavation photographs. were almost without exception not observed or even documented at the time. we have no dues as 10 the relative chronology of the complex. The oldest chronological infOlmation in situ (from the beginning of the eighth century) was contained in painted inscriptions (d. Krause and Wessel. 1966, cols. 570-71), They olfer. however, only a terminus ante quem for the layer of plaster. but certainly not a reliable approximate estimate for the building concerned. which may have been considerably older, rebuilt. or put to new use. h has now been .hown beyond any doubt through inscriptions in the buildings of Bawl! that the buildings excavated al that time belonged to the monastery of "'pa Apollo. and a few published papy. ri of the ninth century from Wwi! (Krause, 1956) give us detailed infonnation about the conditions and ~nancial transactions of that period in this monastery. The well-known "'all paintings. most of which probably date from Ihe .eventh and eighth centuries, were certainJ+produced for the monastery. , We cann"l, however. c'onclu
for church architecture (see below). The histol")' of early building in BaWl! (perhaps fouJ1h, fifth. and sixth centuries) has not yet been materially c1ari· fied. An investigation of this problem would be extremely valuable. Similarly. the decline of the monastery cannot be dated with ceJ1ainty. Estimates vary from the year 900 to the fourteenth century. In favor of a fairly early date for abandonment of the monastery is the fact that the Islamic authors of the Middle Ages knew the site but did not mention the monaste!)·.

Archlledure The excavation of the so-called South Church led 10 publication of a volume of plate' (Cna",inat, 191 t) but "nly a minimum of ",rinen information, No consideration was given to the fact that the architecture shows unusual featureS for a church building, that strong stylistic anomalies in the architectural sculpture found there cannot be denied. and that tile structure was accepted for decades as a homogeneous church building of the sixth century because of some column capitals modeled on im]>O't capital,. It has occasionally been c"nsidera· bly overvalued architectu"'lly (e.g.. the conjectured reconstruction of it as a domed basilica, untenable On static grounds alone, or the daim that it was the source of all the important architectural sculpture found in the surroundings of BaWl!). A critical examination of the excavation photo· graphs (Severin, 1977, pis. 32-38) has revealed that the structure went through two building phases, characterized by different wall·building techoiques. The older consists of ashlar work and the later of bricks. "r at least a brick base. The building .ec· tions of the earlier phase contain "riginal architec· tural sculpture. while those of the later phase show the insertion Or reconstruction of heterogeneous decoration. some of it reused piece' of work that ~t "lOry badly. It has not yet been possible to determine the function of the parts belonging 10 the older phase. At any rate. they need not have been part of a church building. The provisional anribution of the older building sections to the fourth century has in the meantime been corrected to a date in the fifth century (Severin. 1986; d, Effenberger. 1981, pp. 791£,), The rebuilding. in which the thoroughly makeshift architrtture of the South Church originated, must have been carried out at th. earliest in the late sixth or even the seventh century. Of the North Church. the excavators reponed

BAWIT: Archaeology, Architecture, and Sculpture

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•

•

.

.'

-

Ex~a,.,.tion

••

•

.. •

"

o •

••

• •

ofa room in th~ Nonh Church at B"""I· CI~dat Expedition, Rew,med /Fom MonastCTesN Ia de Mwit, Vol. I, by leon C!eda', Ca'm, [904_1906.

only that it lay to the north of the ..,.called South Church, was simpler in form, and had cruciform pillars, collunns, and a wooden 'CO~0STAS[S_ Sundried and humt bricks and limestone wece used as building materials. Re~ently the grol.tnd plan of the structuTe uncO"ered has been established on the basis of th1'ee old, unpublisbed cxca,'ation phOIOgraphs, In particular, it emerged that hen:, tOO, building phases wer" cleady to 00 distinguished in the af'Chite~,ura-1 remains, AI least the crudfo,m pillars in the transvrrse section and pans uf thc east ",all Jerive from an older COIlStruction of the pre-Islamic period, Tho., they are ,he cemains of an original chucch building on this site is improbable, In a later phas-:, chur~h architecture made its ap· pearance through additions and reconstruction, of brick wall work in eompartm"nL' alceady existing and through the introduction of reuoed base., ~ol· urnns, and "apitals; the old e'Ca"~lion unco"ered ,he ruin. of ,hi •. The com-ersion of the eady struc· tuc~ into a ~hurch can be dated at the earliesl to the eighth century, as the existence of a pmpec khii'us (mom ootween saneluary and noo<) shows Perhaps th~ North Church, buill into older archi· lectural remoin<, supe~d~d the Soulh Chu
365

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Ne~ropole

a wall that could be traced only in the northwest are ""veml small buildings_ Exca,'ation has revealed that many of th~m were joined together to make up an irregular complex. Inscriptions indicate thai some of them "",rc dwellings (Krause, 1966. col. 56\1). The buildings, deo;cribed as tomb ~hapels afte" the excavation by J, Cledat, were daimed to have been living quarte" proper by J, Maspero in 1913 (Maspero and Unmon, 1931-1943. Vol. 5), who poin.ed out .hat no burials had """n Found and thaI the fOnll of the b"ildings, the inscriptions, the iconography of the paintings, and the hoosehold goods found there spoke against their ha,'ing been used for intcrments, This is by no mCans Ihe final word on the subje~t_ It is beyond doubt that at the lime of the oldest dated inscriptions (beginning of ~ighlh centul}') the buildings were part of the Monastel}' of Apa Apollo and ,hat the South Church came into being in the form of a rebuilding, at the latcst in the """enth century, From the exca,-ation photographs of many parts of the scattcred building complexes_ extensi"e re~onstructions can 00 identified; this points to an architectural hiswI}' marxed by development and change. (An unfOl1l.t,,"tel)' arbitrary attempt to cia<sif)' one of the building ~omplexes inlo diffecent ph""",,s is in To'll, \981, ill 2.) We ought '0 indude in our reookoning the original structures in the area

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366

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E.x<:a,-allon of Ihc passa~ bet" cen Ihc North and Sowh chocch,'~ at Ua"il R:epTinteJ !rem Mona-'Icres cl la Necropolc de Bawit. Vol. I. by J
of Ihe Soulh and North churd'es. Ihe functiu" of "hieh is n", }'el dear bUI which <:enainl,- "ere originally nol chureh buildings. Finall)'. one muSt not lose sight of the faci that only receml, the enure pklUre of .... YK APA J~IlEMl.\ll In le,'mS of loposraph... histolV, and art h"lon, had 10 be al· II"IO&t eOlOplttcly l"f"olo"tlen. Of buildins oper:a,ions in lhe area of 'he 10m of al leasl In 'he finh and siJclb cen'u~ ....'e kno.... nolhinl for eeruin Inll,nl. an:hile<:'u".] fOml. and func'ion). and ,n..,efou. for the tiTnC' bein~ should rule Otll roe;· \her &nl future confirmalion of 1M «M\nnuonaJ inlerpreuliofu nor the possiobih1'o of perhaps sur· prison. ne'O" InsightS (
81"1,.

kulplurc The limatone and ",'00<1 .!Culplore from 8ll.wfl (in the Coplic Museum in Cairo. the Lou"re in Paris, lhe Earlv Chrislian and Dylantine Colle<:tion in Eas' 8erlinl is ClI'rao.-dinarily rich and llylisUcally varied. There arc no finnly daled piec". \lany sculplures ...·ere indeed found in silu in ,he e"C;a,'a· lion, bul a fuiTly large pan of them "'cre reused in Ihe course of boilding, C:Sp<'ciallr in lhe Soulh Church, Hence. a. a ",I". w,' do not know for ",hal position or for whal of arcllile<:ture Ih'1' wcrc produced. The high fX,int of thi' local sculptore prodlX'tiun in lln,eslo"e ""as Ihe fifth cemury and tI,e fi~ haif of Ihe si~th cemu ...·. a_ in Saqqara. :lnd in nUlnj

'il'.

c"""" Ihe'" are quile IlSlonlshlngl\' closc similarities in 'he lypc< and fom,. of 'he sculptor<- produced at Ih" 1"'0 sh.... In lhe I;m"~lone 5C\llp'uT( of DawH. as in Saqqara in ,he ~lXIh cemu...·• there wa-e also imi'alioM of n'odem Con.,tanllnopolilan models (impost capilals. espedallv of lhe fold I,'P'-"). "'hieh in lhe partieular caw: of a fiaurlllh-c and ornamen· tal dttora.lM pillar comes close to being a di""" cor"on ohc whole. such pieces remain '-c"rare and >ooIatM. 1hcv ilt"C far OUlnumhercd bv lhe characteri5lic namples of a local and man.edh prn,incial pmduction. Taken ... a ,,-nol.-. the hmeSlone sculptures do no! re,.",.j a uIIIlonn IocaJ st,1c. The< fall in'o 5C'\eraJ grou~ ''''''I follow di~1 d3SSC5 of models. Quite unique afl' ,he wood sculpcUTCS of lU",i!. often wom of '-Crr IQOd qual ... l11e>' "ere rr>Oboobl) deri~ from bctw«n the fifth and mnth cenluries (RulSChnwKa,·a. 19M). but !beir dalin~ art' still influenced by OU'moded ,dcti and
'·et.

UtSUOGIIAt'HV ChaMinal, E. Fowl/e. h Doo"ll. Vol 1 Memo;ccs publies pac k., memhres dc l'lnstilul fra,,~ai. d'Arch~'()logie orienlale du Caire 13. Cairo. 1911. Cledal. J. "Rccher<:hes sur lc k",n de Baooit." In Comp"",e"dus de I'Acod~",i. des ''''''ripllo''. el bellrs·IClfrcs. pp 525-46, Pari •. \"02. ___ NO""ella Ruhen:ha iI Bao"'1 (lloute'

BAWIT: Paintings

Palntlnp

Efypu): c"...P'W'.... 19OJ-1904. PI'- 517-26. Aea-

dmle des lns<:ripi0n5 <'1 BeIle5-Unres: Complei rep",," des shrIott:I; dr I'annh I~. Paris. 1904. ___ ··Ib...it:' In Diction".. ;'e d".....loi~. df'ilte_ et de liturxie, Vol 2, eols. lOJ-1SI. Paris. 1910. _ 14 .uo..
Crav;e". 1. de. "("""nwrt des ob~1$ C~" de b. Salle de Ibouit au Lou....'.·· RNUla di .. rc"-l~.. crUrl.._ 9 (193!):.50-I01. Krause. M. 1)tU Ap.a Apollo Klosttr t.lI 8II ...·it: UHI",. ...cI..",ge" u.. ~erofful/lichltr Un....d"" .. I) 8eilr.., i:U' Gest:hic!lle des ;;g)'ptischu .110".:11"''''$, Leip· ~IS,

1958.

Krau~.

M.. and K. W.....,1. "BawH." In ReDlluik"" tI" by.....Ii"itc/,... KWlJl. Vol. I, cols. 568-83.

Stuupn, 1966. Maspero. I., and E. DriOlon. Towillu uicuties IJ M~moirts I'lnathul fran~a"

8"ouil,

publiC. paT les membre, d. d'A
C.ire 59. Cairo, 1931-l943. Palanque. C. "bppon ...... I.,. recherd,,~s effectuo!eo • &.O\lil en 1903." Bul/elin de /"fltSlilul /Tan~<>is d'McUol"t" orient<>/e 5 (1906):1-21. Rutseho>oiscaya, M. H. C<>I<>I",..e Qf'$ Ix>i$ de /"EfYpfe Clip'" ("'ush du Louvre). Paris. 1980, St«rin, H. G. "Zur Stin 8oI",'il." Mille;' I..",.,.. des , series 8 nr. 41/2. Winba<;!.,n, 1984, Torp, H. Tlte Carwd Decora.tions of lite Nor/It ."d So~/It CIt,,/clt.,. 01 BiJ:wf(. Xolloquium lIber Spill' antlke und fr(lhmludaherlkhe Skulplur 2. VOl' lnogslute 1970, pp. 35-41. Main,.. 1972. _ "LA: M"nasthe cople de Baouit: Quelque. notes d'intro
x,,_

H

HAIlS (OF.OIl.C SEVEll"

367

n.e <e:ltcnsi •.., pictorial decor at the Mo..-ery Gf 81,,1\ is distinaiv", ret diw~ in style. Yc~. tlt.. 81"1\ picwres do nu..iotain a diMinffiw cltulocter. Sina: tMn an multiple ponnoyalo ollh.. same Ide:a in •.no.... pi..... es at the site, one findo notable .... rialiom in st)'}e (c.r,., the p>up 01 Mary and Ib.. Aposl:lc:s benealh "'" Triumph of Cbm. (aedao, 191)1), oomJlllred Ii) ..... nthe.. eumplc:s of Ihls lhe_). Some Ih.-mc5 arc nURIi,.." In which case ",oc:uai~ scenes may be lined on.. wit.hln another ("'.1.• Ihe M~rc of lhe (nnoc",nlS): on ..... 0Ih.... hand. one :Ihe.- individual poses. AbrTCC'Ilon of the OIIlline. Tht: sc:cond $1)"" ..,id"M," a completely diflercm inlluelt«' that is no less Sfr0llC and indical.... a SO" of 8p;anline implantalion at Bj,,1!. II is und.-niably Ihc ,"ork of '"UY good B)"ZlInline palnl"" or lalenl' ed Coptic Sludems. The mon !)'pical lCe....-unfonun.tely .n i...lal· ed one-is that of Ihe pulle hunl. in ""i>kh Ihe clothing off"'rs proof of Byuontlne inA ....na:, While CIMaI thought he delKled Inc:rein a Persian inAuence. il can be mo~ simply explained as a ..... n$· mission of these c10lMng del.Us lhrough Ihe Byzan. tine occupation of EllYJll at AnTln<>opoli. in Ihe .ixlh and seventh century, as is evidenced by Ihe silk fabrics ......cavat..d the~. All doubt is excluded by tm long bJou... g.thered at Ihe waist over lighl-

""""'00

368

BAWIT: Paintings

I f . paJllS, wilh ilS black bordtrs and «>n$istf'l\t cbrl·cr-n color highlightrd by bright refleclOon. 1M s.aom fl'lay bf said for dlf very MI'IlIOII>OUS composition found in dlc bodies and limbs 01 the .........n fi&ura and Ihc degant lonns of IIw p,.,,1Ies. H_'IOftI'", Ihc vaguenns 01 rm faelal featu.rn most Iikdy indir:a~ • Copf. many lima ~rd. dcsava IlH:ntlon. 11 consi3O of jw;~ fiaurft, IWO of them holdi"l a key. They stand hQidc Ihne ~r fipra _fd Oft .. cushiontd dinn N d«Onolrd banqlottlf. Onf of whom is facina front "'hile the OIMr tWO fbnk him in .. thru-qUinu Or profile pot.lIkm. The dnpc of the folds in lhc elolhinl,*nkularly in that of those seated-Os d(lsdy ~lat fd to thoe wcU-kOO\O'n drap.o common to Bytanline an in the iliJIth cfntury_ Hf~ apin. thf facfS lire impenonal. Fonunatdy, how_vcr, thf Inscription of Ihf namu-cod. InC Or dcsanding bnnchcs. all ueanfd. in KN and outlined in the fincsl; mannfr. 1hf rac~ of this ..yif...ith Ilw:ir diffunlt c ~ and beards. sbow tnOrc rcalistj,;, lnits. ,",c S«nfS of thf Triumph of Christ. whld> are mor<' conn:ntional•• appnor 00 belonl 10 this period. thf last st,lf is ont: in ....hkh convcntion ..... \>«0..... lhf rule, with M ..."Y bod~, folds of klcnti· cal clol~ln•. and faces that vary but re¥fal no at· lempl to ponray the actual person. Ornamentation follo.... ed the :<arne c¥Olution. A$ ....lth thf oculpture in reli.f, it \>ccamf more and mOrf "mechanical." Nonelhel.iJS. such omsmcnta· tion hu th. m.rit of providing frames to sCenes depktina human figuru• Introdutln, a 13nlastic clfmcnl unusual to such
""I'

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.wo

The Yllriely of wbj«\$ is enormous and co>-~rs a Iarze paI1 of Christian konognphy. Ho.-.cYeT. <'fro lain ... bjccts of pri..... importan<:c do not appear .all, such as the Passion, thc (:I'l)$S. the R~ (nO( ""'"'" in its ByzalUiM form of the De5cen1 of auisl inoo Hell). and lhe Asc::msion (nol to bf C<>nfused with the Triumph 01 auw, which appears ~ntly). NonahdI!M. thanks 10 1hc ocopc of 1hc monuments DOW ,""ca'~cd and thf considenlblc number of ~ brouaht 10 li:cht. 1hc sarnplina is «>mplelC cnouch 10 maltf such abKnas insignlficalli. <:<>Wltcrbabnccd as 1hc:y an: by !he: importantt givfn 00 lhf Triumph of Christ and, consequently. His humanil)' as _II as His diYinity. The subjoclS found at Bhil! may be cl.....lfifd moo two categories: Font. thoemft about Christian penonages. such as Chrisl, Mary.•lIjf'ls. prophcu, salnlS, and monks; .nd se<:ond. dcotontiw or symbolic thfmes, usually mfant for Htursifntai vatUf with a more or leIS prfcise sym. bolism.

a,

Chrtilian Puaonagef Chrlat. The icol>Olraphy of Chrnl is more impo<'tanl by lhf way il polU'll)'S God lhe Savior than by lhe variel)' or frcqufOCy of iu lISC. Chris,'s liff, on canh is dqriaM in • Cfnain number of see . Thou&h cadi an bf I«fI in only OIIf ....."p1f ( .... a few ,""clOptio'" 10 be considered laler). in discussing them. we annOt ...elude the pOMib-ilil)' that othcn may ~ bftn da.tmyr:d .,.. have nO( as yet bun dioc"""nd. Onoo seriq for ...-bich there is a ~ """"pH: ill fath calC" is !hal of 1hc clILIdhood of Christ. Found in Chapt:l S I, il jWlt;op !he: AnnunIOIly. the mas· ~ 0I1hc inf\lXfn\:S (Clfdal. 19004-1906, Vol. I, Pl'. 52.4-25. pi. .4). From the public lin of Ch"" there are Ihrcc scenes: the Baptism of Chrisl (found in I"'" wilting· Iy dilfnn>t uampln), tM Miracle at Cana. and the Lasl Supper. "Ow idcnlificaliol\ of tM Miracle a' Can.a in Wwl! is hypolhdical. Thf ftCavatOT, Clef· Ihd.... unlil Ih.re II fun~ef inquiry buod on a more thoroush doc:umfntatlon of Ihe history of this ex
BA.wIT: Paintings

painted blue and one rod. Thot rcpeIilion of Ibae iUIIphorar and thrir dillen!nc~ in color 5«... 10 bvor the idtntificalion with Cana. Thot richnoea 01 ~ elen>enfli IDaI uYe wrvived fro... th. ocent: would 5CaII 10 dale II from the sixlh cenlury. The las, Supper oc=p;ecJ I!le of the san~ ..,. of <M Souih. OIurcb. The phowvaphy 01 this 'UM now owanI is of t:.d quality. but i< does por. u.y tho! table a' ",ilkb Chris! is ocaIed. surrounded by HiI. apostk$. The poses
an!

*k

~"Y.

No Olher ponrayal. of Christ'. lite 00 eanh-1loOl His ...i.xles.. preachi... or <>iher ewents menlioned In the G<»peh, including !hole of the PU$iQnhave' been ...,vnled by the u~'tations. On the olher hand. CIlrUl in His ~eleslial glory Is portrayed al B'''''! In a number of eumples. Th<'Se are of 1_ Iypl:S, One Isolated and rdativdy .imple. and the other more daborale and ~omplex, The firsl i. characlerized by the pose of Chrill facing front, sining between an ea,le and an ox (chapel 26). Christ. beardless. holds the Holy Book On Hil left ann while poinling 10 II whh His ri,ht hand. The rather sumpl"""'" and cIailical style dates thif painllng 10 the sixth century. The ~oi>d type of thil. theme. euridwd with babIy the ~th etnlul'Y. The lICneral schen>;t of tJ>e upper zone compma. the sun and moon place in tbr corners, Christ enthroned beneaah them, fadng fronl, encln;:led by I 1IlIl1dorb. d... ""'Y he IUfJI)OIted by the four e.....• celical symbols and lbnked.by two archanllCls. 1_ \()CaJ wnll. or even by Ille four ....·angclis<S grouped lwO on each side. Christ, wlto may be pictured wilh or withOUI a beard, is holding Ihe Holy Book. The deuoU•• bov~ Christ io his glory ~y Vllry. The mandoria itsoel£. of a wid~r almond shape than usual. tends 10 a perfeel circl~. In the group found In chapel 11, some of the head.<-~ach framed In a medalljon-ar~ lhose of th~ eVlnplislic symbol,. with the head of a man replacing Ihal of a WOlNn. In Ihe lower zone of Ihi. scene. 1he cemral figure

369

is Mary, enthroned eilher ..i1h Or withoul the Holy Child or ehe standing whhoul the Child in an oranl poK' (Chapel 11, pl.• 1). The arouP5 of Iigwcs juJI. taposed abou< Iteo". auemenled on the sides by one or 1"''0 local ..unl5. are mOIl ceneraIl, the ;IIpO$Iles.. Superposina: two »ones whow ligures an: all ptaposed. and lacina fronl does noc ino:l5oe appaunl line of ~ralloo conceals a cloM relalionship between the fiau,e. of the lower zone, ..i>o myWc:aIly aah. ~, and the dnine inhabi....1 of !be upper one. Altha.".. il dia.i~w- the unhIy figures from allill IriUmphant in alarY, this ocene abolishes lhe restrictions of lime arid males Ihe Eternal all-imponanl. 11111; IranllCendence is undersea"'" in the scena wherein lhe sealed Virgin holds on her lap lhe Inbnt Jes.... who. in such Caiel. I. no< also piCtu~ in Hi. celestial exalta· tion. To lhesc ponrayals or Chrilt musl be added a medium·slzed medallion d~covered in lhe excava· lion. al B~wl! by the Coptic Museum of Cairo and now on display lhe,..,. He,.., ehrill" figure is a bust Aanked by IWO angels. ..... can be judged from the above. lhe pictorial iconography of Chrisl al Bawl\ is rich despile the above-mentioned I.e"nae. While rdlecling the ...,alily of sime as one indivisible enlity. Illis iconopaph, xems 10 emphasize Chrisl's human nal"re by portnying the cycle of His childhood and His hapIWn even as it shows His divini!)' .". insNing Oft the ~ of the Tm.mph ol ChriIL Mary. Apan from the scenes of the Chifdhood 01 Christ cycle-",tDch belana co the narnlm: gen"" and of which I!>en!' is but OIIC uample known al 8Iwt;-the ponraya.ls of Mary al this &ite e.....,,.,.,, he.- di_iDe onochcriIOOd and the homace paid !>n. A realism Iha< emplwlZ:!" 1he aolnnnity 01 thl. theme emerges from the c..locIOlro~.. (Mocher numog her child) found in a niche, wberr:iD Mary is erllhzoned but ... • bust ..-ith her ehild lying ~..isc. whom she nunoel II her ri&ht bfUll. The painting seems 10 beloog 10 the fihh or ....th cenlu·

"

The essential element of sokmnity con[el'T'ed upon her by the restricled movement is generally evidel>Ced both by her eI11hronemenl and by lhe child seated facing fronl al her 1m side. There are some details, howev~r. which modify Ihis solemnity-notably. Ihe fia:u-re. added 10 the scene. Such additions mia:ht con,iJl of an archangel [allowed by a deacon at each side of Mary's throne Or a series of person_, .. In chapel 7.

370

BAWfT: Paintings

It is ali<> in Chapel 3 thai Mary. enthroned ..'ith Jl!SUS at her ~ being front, is Ranked by 1..'0 VO"Pll. ncl> 00" consisting of many jwt~ 6g-

\Ires Proc,..,dinB 10 tM ou~ edee of the scene. The 6ra tWO 6gwu an: sainlS """din&. crowned wi!h a two, holdilll in one hand a diadrm and in !he otlwr a staff that terminalcs in a red cross-b.-arin. disl<. 'lMn IioIlow two 10cal oainlS (of ...'bom one is named Apollo). propl>ets. and an archan&cl AllOlher BIber Late dcvelopmcrw: (ninth centu")', accordint 10 the figwn' clothina) KI$ Mary en· IhroMd between hw ....,Is, "",ell hold.", in his rich' h~d an incw5I" bunvr whiloe thoe rishe ann supportS an incenoc 00... Christ's imponance Is In· creased by the Iacl tha, He II Ka,ed in a small circular mandorla !hat Mary holds in ...... 1_ hands in fronl of her brt"". The slill moroe wlcrnn and cosrnlc role gi>"en to Ma"}'-elther enlhroned Or alone and s,andln, in an Ol":/.nt pose-appears in the scenes depic,;ng the Triumph of Christ. Holy Penonagn. The category of holy perso~.. g· es includes thoe ...int. and prophets of Ihe Old Tesla· ment and Christian sain... and monh. In chapel 12. ",ilhin a Inme bordered by garlands of vines and twisted mnlle. is a long line or prophets: Isaiah, Jererniah. Ezeled with ~ and wearinI a blnic htld in 1M lhoe ..m by a belt, c~ by a pallium at the UIouldoers and re"caU beneath its hem the boclO.... of ti&hl pulu and orna led sandals. Each holdina an unrolled tcmll IIpOIl which is inscribed a Jl*5" 5a&e from his woriL fl.etIlIttn HasPI and Zech.arlah then is iflSe:ru'd a 11<:...... of a bow-and-all"O\O' lion hum. lknea!h Ihis highlfrieae tloeff an: 6&ures reprae:ntin. the: Virtll<:S ("""IS). birds, marine animal$. and pulli (cb.-rubs). all of which ahemae.. and interlace wilh each otber..Th.es.e paineings. hi&hly col· ored and well dr;own. ".-obably da,e from tM bqin· ning of the monaMery. Also in this calegory are picrures of the youlh of David. The aposdes are nOl absem from BAwl!, for they are depicted around Mary in the lower regiltcr of the Triumph of Chrisi. Bue Ihey do nOl .Pl"'ar to h.ve been po"l":/.ycd individually, I>Ql even Peler or Paul. Apparenlly no OIle has as )'CI identified e;ttler lhe

peno....,. ..

piclures or sainlS' names amoog thooe figure. oft.... c"""",ed wi!h a luoIo and clothed in a long .....hi'e tunic who are: j""taopU.ed-frequendy at a threefounhs anllk-and wI>o$e lineup ,..,ca1ls me pr... c.essioDs of the martyrs of SainI Apollinaris at Ra•..,nna. ~ may I"'maps be ree~;..ed 1;$ Copts by their $ho" be:ards t.... lenninale in a gOOltte. The 0Il1y sainu th:at seem '0 haw been identified are VIC roll. PHOI~. and Stslnniol (aee: SAINTS. corne). Monks are ofIw ponraye:d. but ...,...., of th.em can n.eussarily be idtnl;fied .,.,..n when his name, pre_ ceded by the title Apa (FatMr), is mWlioned. for the oame name is r.. peated for dilJe:nen1 monb. Their dothln. COII";SIS primarily of a long lunic, a pallium, and sandab. The n....... of one monk has su,...",td on a panel conKnled .1 the Louvre, which idemifin Ih.. personag.. as 1IolENloS. who ....as once of the rn<>naslery of B''''I!. Cc"aln Ioca] sainlS (one of whom i. identified as Apollo) are placed ~tandin. on each side of Mary enlhroned. Angels, Arebnllela, and Demons. As i. panlcu, lad)' suitable in Ef;ypl, angels a"" to be found in all Iypes of scenes and omamentati"n, As in By>.antine aJ1. they form Ihe almost obligatory bodJ-guard of Mary. Oflen thty are: plclured in medallions as b .... ts crowMd ....ith haloea .nd may be recognized bolh by their ,hon haircut and bangs (a ".Joan of Arc" haiR:ul) and by the upper pari of their wings protruding in,o the regis,er above. n.ere are: some Uu\l.lloCCli in ...'hleh an angel iI. lhe: principal fi....,.., in a s.iogle ICe"". For example, the,.., is the ance:I standing and holding againsI his basom the n....,., Hebr...... Children of 8ab)-\on. who. rtduced 10 the du oflnbnll, raI against tlis cloak. OM also find!. tcena in which, al the left of a row of monks proceeding from the cefller, the,.., is an angd holding a ataft that lerminale$ io a c....... standing ber.w:en IIlIO of the -...onb.. who are also standin& and hoIdinl a Holy 8001<. Then: is. another scene with an an.... holding a disk in one band and a staff capped wilh a crow in lhe: other, lIanktd by monks 5l1ndins-onoe of whom is na......d Apallo_ neh canyinll a Holy Book. An angel, flying abo"" and behind Saine P!toibamrn<.Jn on horstbad, i. boIdin. a d..,ular cro....n rtildy to be placed on hi.

'"'"

The ehree great arehangel. also have their place in ehe chap.els of B1w1l. Saint Gabriel i. depiceed al Ihe right of Ihe Virgin M;>.ry in <.Jne of Ihe pictun:< of her as thoe Mother of God. Saine Michael and Saint Raphael are po"rayed elsewhere. Demons are tarely piclured, and only-so ie

BAWIT; Paintings

..,.,m.-benealh a .ymbolic personage, whether it be Ihe demones. Alaba.lria conquered by Saint Si,· i,mios Or those animal, thaI have traditionally been emblems of evil since pharaonic times: scorpion•. .erpent., crocodile•. ibis. and hippopotamuses. to which may be added the mummified owl depicted in the above·mentioned picture of Saim Si.innio•. Withoul exceplion, angelic figures-who may be identified by their deed<-wcar a long tunic "ith ,Ieeve•. which may be simple buT i. more often decorated. u,ually with 'Iripes descending from the shoulder. a border around the bern and up Ihe .ides. squares or small circles (om;c"ra) that de· .cend from tbe s/mulder, andlor laleral ornaments wilh an interior de.ign. either figurative or decora· tive. The demoness, on the other hand. has her upper torso bared, Ornamentation and Symbols With the exception of decorali.'e motifs found in archilecture using geometric designs or plams from nature as handed down from Hellenistic tradition, ornamentation may indicate sacred symbolism. In cenain cases, the symbolism is Christian. Plants. The acanthus is used profusely. as in the friezes and imerla<;ings Ihat are often inhabited by various creatures, One of these interlacing> alternates circles and lozenge., with the circle. containing the head of an angel or a saint (male or fe· male), while the lozenges enclose birds (sometime, a pea<;ockl along with froit. and plants. In the spac· es bet....... en the circles and lozenges there i, a baslet of fruil; in another chapel there are imerlacings containing buSls of the allegorical Virtues. cagles, puni, and marine animals alternating with ea<;h other. ln chapel .3 the ba.eboard is comp
371

positioning of poultry and garden birds. among which one may cite the peacock that inhabits the imerlacing> in chapel 18. The peacock. inherited from pharaonic times. succeeded Ihe phoeni. as a symbol of eternity. Thus, at Bawl! it has not left its nati"e habitat, though it appears in Hellenistic landscapes. The eagle-which in Coplic an is sometimes confused wilh the peacoc~ or dOH'-is well portrayed three times at mw"i1, alwa)'s facing from with wings outspread. It appea,.,. in chapd 12. where it ahernate. in the imerlacings with divers other objects; chapel 27, whe,.., a medallion hang,; from its neck; and chapel 32. ,""here it is given a rich necklace terminating in a metallic crescem from which hangs a flower-shaped cross. The eagle is holding in its beak a Coptic cross. A hind-shaped unicorn with front hoo""s hobbled takes shape near the monk. of chapel 17. The de· gance of the design and colors dates this scene to Ihe fifth or sixth cemury. 11 i. possible that it may already be a symbol of tbe Incarnation. A bow-and-arrow lion hum-highly colored, .et in a decor of mountain. near low plams and a pomegnmale tree-separate. the prophets Haggai and Zechariah in the Chapel of tile Prophets. The feline is turning its head in the direction whence came the arrow, which has pierced its righl eye and cranium, This may be an allusion to the freeing of Israel announced in Zedariab 11 ;3; "Hark, the roar of the lions. for the jungle of the Jordan is laid wasle!" The feline. though somewhat Sl}'lized, is skillfull)' drawn and posed. The same may be said for a bear with its tongue hanging out pla<;ed near a saint in chapel 17. The po.e indicates a realistic pon....yal, one carefully ob,erved and well drawn. To these scenes must be added the marine ani· mals that alternate with other subjects in some into erlacing,;. A beardless soldier. perhaps an infanlryman, is found in chapel 18. H. i. standing. clothed in a .hort tunic (,",'itn .Iee"". covering his ann, to the "ici.I), of which the upper pan-decorated on the shoulde,.,. and down the center by a colored stripe -recalls a BJ'2"ntine miltta')· uniform. The Vinues of Faith. Hope. Charity, Patience. and Ih. rest may be seen alternating with the other subjects noted above (eagle, pun;' marine animals) in an interlacing placed in a regist.r beneath Ihe row of prophets. At the Mona>;lery of Bawi1th. cross may be de· picted as such, with no symbolic ovenones. It may

372

BAYAD AL-N~RA

be Ibrc Roman cross upon a cruciform ~ , decorat~ ..ith simple interlacinp in the cmu· pioece. I'rom ....hich ban~ lwo lamps. One alto fincb lhe anAile crou. iUdf d<-coraled In the empty 5plOC' es wilh pn"Ciom 510ne0.. Finally. in chapel I. one IICClO the CJ'OA supponed br the bruch of a la.~1 lree. wbkh implia heroi.c <W'CI'1OOCI. The C1'Oef may also appear- M a Ouillian emblem on so~ ob;ects. Such is Ibrc caae of the Cotltic c..- found on vnlnIotnU or 00 the pieron: of a bro..... lamp. ee-trlc DNpa. II baxbooIrd of jw.~ squans endo5illg a lIowrrcl. each sq>a.I'1ll~ by in· lenecdng IozcngC5, has been ~ abo~ wilh ,.~

l'.

In the anond reception hall at et.... there was • rather high plinth about 4 reel (1.20 m) cO>iered whh approximately twenty colon:Sl!ible that the ani.t may have invented a new ornamentallon here. It can be dated to the .iJ01 what is P"'"hltp5 11'11' largest surviving ~1CC1ion of Coptic paintinp. BIBLlOGllAI'Hl'

Cha&inat. E. Fouilles il Baouir. Memoir"s pI.lblies par les membre$ dec ['IIl$Ihut fran~alt d'II",h!ologlee orientale 13. Cairo, 191I, CI~dat. J. "Re
rA£
U

......

M:aspcro, J. Fouill.s fAJ""i.s ir BfIOuit (nOtes taUn

and edited '" E. Drioton). Mtmoifft de 1'lnatilUl fran..a;" d'An:hiolo&i" orientale 59. Cairo, 19321943. Regnier
DlI BoolGUET, SJ.

BAYAD AL-NA$ARA. ~. l'ilarimages.

BAYAHU, AL-. Set Pilpimagcs.

BAYT AL."AJIN (Arabic. House ous.c foo- tM pc'eptIration of the WCllUISnC INtEAD. From the early Middle Ajr;ea a.yr o1-'Ai<" h... formed:an imponant "lnDalt of eftry dlurch co.... plex in Eg)'PL Occaaionall)' the room it. alao ~ scribed as "Btthlch"m~ (Bu~"r. 1%7. p. Ilf.). In accordMou wiIh Ita importance. the &ry, fil·'Apn usually lies close: to thee "ntrance 10 !he church, but it. only rsrtly ..,ru:alJ)' coon«ted with Ihe chun:h buildings.. As a ....le it Is a small smokec--black=ed. room cootainin, a Ut\llll ba.lnll <»"en. ""me stOt1lB" spac. lor wood for the fire, and thee C<juipment n«cssary for tl>.o bUinl procCM. BtBLlOGRAPHY Bunnester, O. H. E. T~. EOP/inn or Coptic CI"m:~. Cairo. 1967. Graf. G, Ve17.e;c~"is orablsc~cr kirchiichu Tumi"i, p. 77. Louvain, 1954.

BillA TRIBES

BAIT AL-NISA' (Arabic. House of tlte Women), an area within the church reserved for lhe women, which became usual only in modem church build· ings in Egypt. The practice was incorreclly dated to the tenlh century (in Buller. 1970. pp. 191f.) on lhe basis of a wrong assessmenl of the Mercurius church al DAYR ABD SAYFAYN. Where possible, it has its own entrance from the outside. Thus, in mo,.., recenl churches, the Bayt al-Nisd' takes o\'er lhe funclion of the galleries of lhe early Christian and medieval BASlUCA. There i' a fine example in the al.'Ad~~' church (sevemeemh-eighteenth cenlury) of Bani Adyio;l (south of Manfulut). in which the Bayt al·Nisll· lies wesl of the MOS proper and is separated from il by a wide arched opening with a lanke, and two lateral windows. The separate enlrance is on Ihe southern shon side. In the old church of DAYll ABO IJINNlS the Bayl a[·Nub.' was added on the soulh side of lhe church, where at the same time several large arched openings had to be cUi in the wall. In most cases the Bayt al·Ni~a' is separaled from the church area only by a wooden lattice, Thus in lhe lwo monasleries al Suhij lhe south conch looay serves as a B"yt a[·N;sii'. In lhe church of Dayr al-Naqlun the nonhern side aisle was "'I apart as a Bayt a[·N;sii'. BIBLIOGRAPHY

BUller, A. J. The Anc;ent Coptic Churches of Egypt. Vo], I. 2nd ed. Oxford, 1970. PETER

GROSSMANN

BElA TRIBES. The n"madic and warlike \leja tribes have occupied lhe Red Sea hills of Eg)pt and the Sudan since very early time•. In phara"nk days the lribes were known as the Medjay and were already regarded as a menace by the settled populati"os in lhe Nile Valley. O""'of lhe Emlian fron· lier fonresses built in Nub\,! during the Twe1hh Dynasty bore the name "Repelling the Medjay." Because of lheir fighting prowess, lhe nomads were sometimes recruiled to serve as mercenaries in the phamoh's palace guard. Later. under the name Blemmye, they are mentioned repeatedly in c1assi· cal lex!ll as the principal lhreat 10 Ptolemaic and Roman authority in NUBIA. as well as to the empire of KUSH. which lay 10 the south. Medieval Arabic texIS aiwaY" gi"e lhe name Beja ralher than Blemmye. The earliest of Ihese dale from the eighth century, and there a,.., a greal many rele,..,nces to lhe Bcja in documents from laler cen·

373

luries. Firslhand descriptions "f them and of their counlry we.e wrinen by tBN l;IAWQAL and by IBN S~UM AL-ASWI>NI. At one time there was some uncertainty as to whelhe. lhe Beja of medieval and modern limes could be positi\'e1y identified wilh lhe Blemmy" of classical texts. bul this has been resolved by documents recently found al QA$R IBRIM. in which the name is given as Blemmye in Coptic and as Reja in Arabic. Both in lale classical and in early medieval lexts lhe,.., are a number of reference. 10 Chrislianit)' among lhe Blemmye/Beja. Apparently lheir conver· sion \''';OS undenaken at the same lime as was thai of the Nubiaos (see NUBtA. EV~NGEU2.ATION OF) in lhe middle of lhe sixth century. When the missionary WNGINUS was on his way to conv.n the Nubian kiniloom of 'ALWA, he is reponed 10 have lraveled through the Slemmye count!)· under Ihe proteclion of the "king of the Blemm)'es" himself. However, the lransplant of Christianity evidently did nol flou... ish a.mong lhe nomads, who had no settled commu· nilies or permanent buildings. In the tenth century they were described by Ibn Salim as Ita\'ing no religion, while others described them as worshippees of idols or of lhe slars. Beginning in lhe ninth cenlury the Deja were increasingly interpenetrated by Arab migrants from the l;Iij<\z. who established a kind of feudal aristocracy among them. Through Ihis agency the Beja we,.., convened to Islam, and as soldiers of the new failh lhey became once again a menace to lhe set· tied populalions of Chrislian Nubia, as well as to Upper Eml. Beja attacks played a pan in the weal:· ening and final dissolulion of lhe medieval kingdom of MAKOUltl~. The,.., are four main Reja lribes today, the Bishar· in, Amara<. Hadendowa. and Bani "ArnIe. The first Ihree speak languages of Ihe Kushitic or Hamilic family. relaled to Galla and Somali. while Ihe Bani "Amlr haye adopted lhe Semitic Tigre language "f Eritrea. The 'Ababdah, a fihh group, have IOSI lheir indigenous language and speak only Arabic. bUl still retain a seose of Beja idenlity and hislory. [See 01"" Banllal-Kanz.] BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, W. Y. Nubia, Corridor 10 Africa, pp. S<>~60_ Prinuton. N.J., 1977. Burckhardl, J. L Travels in Nubi". pp. 503-51l. London, 1819. Kirwan, L. P. "Sludies in the !.aler History of Nubia." Un;veF5ity
374

BELL, HAROLD lORIS

MacMichael. H, A. A Wsrory of Ihe Ar~bs in Ihe Sud,,",, VoL 1. pp. 35-5\. l<>ndon, 19Z2, Paul, A, A Hiswry of Ihe Beia T,ib~s of Ihe S"dan, London, 1954, RevilloUl, E. "Memo ire sur les Blemmyes, :. prop"" d'une inscription copte." Memoi,es pres..,'i' POF divas savonts;' I'Acodb"ie d~.' i"s"'iplions et belles-lellr~s, Vol. 8, PI. 2, Ser. l. Paris, 1874. Second memolre sur les Blemmyes, d'apres Ie, inscription, dimotiques des Nub;ens_ Paris, 1887. Trimingham, 1. S, Islam in the Sudan, pp. 10-16. London, 1949. V.mini, G. Chn's,;onlry In I~e Sudon, pp. 91-102. Bologna, 1981. Woolley, C. L, and D. Randall-Maclver. Ka,anag, the Romano-Nubian Cemelery. University of Penn· syl"ania, Eg)'ptian Department of the Uni\'ersity MlJ$eum, E\'k1ey B. Coxe Junior Expedition to Nubia, Vol, 3, 1910. WIUJAM y, AnAMS

BELL, HAROLD IDRIS (1879-1967), English pioneer of papyrology. He entered the Department of Manuscripts of the British Museum in 1903 and relired in 1944 as keeper of the department. He was a member of many learned societies and academies and a fellow of the Brilish Academy and its presi· dent from 1946 to 1950. He published numerous Greek and some Coptic papyri and w.ole many im· portant articles about Egypt, His bibliography, corn· piled by 1. David Thorn,,", is in lournal of Eg)'pri,m Archaeology 40, 1954, pp, 3-6, and 53, 1967, pp. 139-40. BJBLlOGRAPHY

Skeal, T,·C, "Sir Harold ldris Bell." lou",ol of Egyplian Archoeology 53 (1967);131-39. M~RTlN KRilUSE

,.

BELLEROPHON :AND THE CHIMERA. See M)1hological Subjects in Coptit Art.

BELLS, See Metalwon, Coptic; Music, CoPlic: Musical Instruments_

BELTS, Su Costume, CiviL

BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES, COPTIC, societies sel up by voluntary organi'-ations, which

constitute an imponant element in the social fabric of Egypt. Their growing importance and the role they played were condudve to the creation of a Ministry of Social Affairs in 1952, with the express aim of supervising these societies, which multiplied throughout the country in both Muslim and Coptic communities. In 1930, the ministry issued a u,efuI guide unde. the title Directory 01 Soc!ol Soderl,s ond OrganjzOllons, which included Coptic associations and defin,d their functions. A d..cription of the most important aod effective organizations fol· lows. The oldest and still the most important of these societi.., founded in 1881, is the Benevolent Coptic Society, whose first pl"esident was Boutros GMli. Its achie"ements were detailed in a <eport issued on the occasion of its golden jubilee. Though initially il ""'S founded to help the needy of the communily, il developed into a huge organization by extending ilS projects 10 most field. of education and public health by the end of the nineteenth century. Apart from the establishment of schools and technical centers for both boys and girls, il was ultimately able to build its own hospital. Its role strongly moti· vated numerous emerging societies. Next in importance and seniority, the Tawfiq So· dely was founded in 1891, and its name, which means "l"econciliation," ,ignified an aim thaI wa.. essentially the cool"dination between the modem ,efonn tendencies with what was best in the older systems_ The societ}, distinguished itself in the es· tablishment of schoob run by a highly proficient faculty. Parallel 10 the educational endeavo., this society a!tended to cultural interests, first, through the establishmenl of a public library and, second, by the foundation of a printing press, which published man)' books. Ja",';yyOl al-Nosh'ah al·Qib{lyyoh, f<:>unded in 1896 at H~rit al·Saqqa)'fn in Cairo, had three main objectives; teaching the Coptic language, inculcating the principles of religion, and compiling a history of the Copts, The society also published an annual calendar giving the Coptic, Gregorian, and Hegira dates in three .cparate columns, and details of fast., feasts, and commemoration of saints, as weil as agricultur· 101 information related to seasonal crops, sowing, irrigation, and harvesting. Jam'IFot .4~diq~' a[·KiMb al..wuqadda., ,me of the most acti,," Coptic socielies, was founded in 1908 by Basili Bu\rtls, who devoled a great deal of hi. energ)' toward its development. He l"emained as its president until his death in 1921. A graduate of the Clerical College, he spent his early year'S as a

BENJAMIN I

ptet('~~

in the Copok clalrchu <Jl Sua, BahjUra/l, Ninyi, and Tan~ before sellli", down ... a 1eaCtM:~ of ~lip>uI studiu in !he Coptic CoIIq:e, ,... he~ he beeamt inltrested in !he N1'Vice 01 Coptic )'Otlth ....d lOundNI the afonn>elltioned sociefy. He tMn \Wcnt '0 England in Moly 1'110 '0 study Enclish acli... i,ies it> this sphere. 8u\R'S de~ a dosely knit orpnizalion with ,everal se<:retaries, commillteJ., OIudy cirdes, and a board of dircctot"$ to ""a,dt o\'er the fulfillm"nt 01 the religioU$ aims <Jf the liOCiety. In 19.32 summer ClmpinC I~ounds wtre provided On the .hores of Ihe Mediterr.tnean at Ihe Manderah seaside rcson, east of Alexandria, for socion:ligi0u5 galherings. In 1953 the society ...tablished ilS "",n Saint Mark's cloapel in $hub"", and a nOled educationist, I;IMq. Da.... d...... consecnled IS ilS pn..sl. The IOciety paid special anenlion lhe )'Otlng people livinC in the capital a ...-ay from home. and in ~ ... look can <Jl IIrl studoents rot- ""hom • special bf1I>Ch "'. .. ioutIded. Jam';y,.1 n . - I I ,.j.TIIW{Iq "'... founded '" Cairo it> 1908 by Tadrus MikhI.'Il .. a charitable orpI'U:ation 10 pro,ide ~ eduCll\ion 10 the poor. In 1909 it OIll the Community Council in implememinl its resoIUlio.... Amana ilS outslanding achienmenl.$ were the building of lhe se<:ond chu,.,h in Aleaan. dria (dedicaled 1<> the Virgin Mary), alaJ¥e hospital. a """;ng and necdle<:r.>ft Cen.cr fo~ girls, md lI1l e~t'lIC'Doary school

'0

.

~UOG~

t1/ ,.}·1(1..."/Iq ~Iy

Ditlm0n4 1%7.

J,J,;Je~

Dvurcry

of ~;1I1 Soci4tiu Ind

R~porI.

Cairo,

Orcllnhalioru.

n.e

R"Jionai Association 01 Sodeli... in Cairo. Published by the Min;,uy of Sociol Affairs. Cairo, 1970.

FIJ.u> M~t:.
BENJAMIN I, thinY'eia;hlh ~triarch <Jl the SC'~ of SainI Mark (612-061). He was born aboul 590 at

375

Banhii!. a vil.;n lhe prorince of Behcir.dt in lhe ~cm

Delta.

Btnjamin "'... undouboedly one of the 1Jrn.t$ patriarchs of !he Coptk chu~ch- He li,'cd Ihrotllh Ihe Irrmendous uphea>·al. <Jf the Fenian in'"JoSion (619-629) and the ...... 11 (o.'IQl.'EST OF EGYI'T in 6nll5tic rule within the complex of monastic scttlcmen~ bt:ucr known in the Lower Egyptian tradition. H~n', 100, Benpmin found his. spiritual mentor in all old holy man by the name of Theonas who vested him wi.h the le),e",,,, or rnana:slic garmenl. ThconlS also instructed him In .he \inucs of monaslicism-holiness, patience, Ind sclf-<:ontrol-as "'~U as in the study <Jl Ihe Holy SCrip.u...... ""hich indicates tltat he was DOt illilft' Ite. He is known 10 Ita"" concenlr.lted on and mtm<>rizod the Gospel of Saint John. Theonas presented his I'upil to ,he rei&nina palri· an:h. »ODROHICIIS, "'no had become awa~ of Ben· jamin's piety and ability. FoII_'ing a lradillon 01 th<: Coplic ch..n:h. Andronicus retained Benjamin In hi, ""","ice, ordained him as priest. and appoinl' ed him as his 1Wl'13nt, anticipating his possible succession to the patriarchate. The new position acquain.ed Benjamin with the conducl of church affal,.. as well as wllh the various e1emen!> of the community, who.e hi,h esteem he won. This paved the way for his election and succession 10 the patri, archate after the dealh of Andronicus. Unl, is known about the carly years of Ben· jamin's pontificale beyond the iuuanc~ of ~ncydj·

376

BENJAMIN I

cal. 10 fix lhe dale of Easter and 10 in"ruci the clergy in malten of doclrine. He managed to ~eer t"," chu~h out of the difficull ~riod of [he Persian iomosion. Though the origi...ts of the encyclicals of his rtil" were 1_, Benjamin is known 10 haw collected fi&een and ediled lhem in code!< form. In 631. Cynas, or Kyros, tlw Chalcedonian bishop of Pl!asis in lile Caucasus. was aFJX>inted by Emp'''' or Heracliu. bolh aa Melchlte patriarch of Eml and as prefect in command of the military forces or W Byzanline province. wilh explicit orden t. loot 10 ftisht from his new enemy, and ~ &om <Jesen montilef)' 10 monastery in order 10 foil h.. ptll'$tl;ng perwCUll>l'S. A ~ chapter of mereH..... penoeculion of all lhose who refused to declare recognition of the Chalce<\onian profeulon ...." as inaugumed_ It ........ at thil lime thai Benjamln'l brother, Mennao. joined !hit nail;'.., ,..,0. eh apin5l Cyno... Propmy of all clerics ""ho fot. lowed the nalion.aI pau;areh in flip was c0116sca1· cd and many churches were fon:ibly paos.sed 10 Mdchile hands. It ... as at this juncture thaI 'Amr ibn a1"A~ appeared with a relallvely small army on lhe frontien of Ec;ypti. The Arab CO~I of the ptmince began on 12 December 639, and the fonreu of Babylon Fell ;'110 ~ handl on 9 April 641. The in....ion of Ale:undlil. toolr. pIaoe on 17 September 64~. h is nOl known ... hether the Copts plaJCd an aoc1iYe role in lhe ;n'*lioon. What is certain is that they did not stand by the side of their Byzantine persecutors durina lhe war. In t..... meantime. 'Amr iHufli " saf....,ondud 10 Benjamin• .....0 seelJlS 10 have rdurned to lhe nl~ III " slow pal:e e1tm ... the end 01 60 or the becinnlng of 6«. Appart:1'tly Sanuoi.... (or Sbc.... te). lite ausuuaJ
conducted with di8nily, a s!lllalion that 'Amr did nOl find in the Alliin conquClt. 'Am. rCltored to fknjamin all the rilhIS that the Byzanlines had denied him, and recoln~ bim as the iOle rep.....-n· ~e 01 the EcYPtlan people. 1bc patriarch PD)ft fat- 'Amr. addressi,. him with admiralioft. The e ... counter . . . . full Success for the patriarch. Iknjamin ..et OUI 10 r=oyc lhe EcYPtian church by renewing the policies of One of hi. areat prede· . CCS50T'S, DAMIAN. He al.., bid lhe foundalions of an amicable ....wionship with t..... conquerors and 'Amr, who honortd lhe wPeople of the 8001<," Illthouch lhey -..e destined 10 struggle wilh eme~ ing dilliculties at later data.. Tlti:s ... true panly because of disunion bet....-een the Christians them. sel"Q, as IOII'>e pod~ 01 sectarians and Meld"tQ had sur,..ived the lomb conquest. However. Benja· min ""u able in Ihe long run to bring considerable unil)' to his church. Those ""ho had fted to Ihe Pcotapolis began to~, and the bisho~ such as Cyrus 01 Nikiou. and VICtor of Phiom.....fIo had ~ to Ute Cbakedonbn proles.slon, were penuaded 10 coone back 10 the mother church. It is said. however, that the Chalcedonian.....ere too nu· meroul. and thaI aome of them clung to their be· licfs, leaving a rift ...ithin the church, That fact pn>vOded some future islamic authoriilel ""itlt opponunities 10 SCI one faction Ipinst another in an dfon 10 ClJon financial benelilS &om the hard·

J'I"C'IS'ed

pop.>lation.

HOWClo"Cr, for the time beina.. litose same Islamic: authorllies were lalisfied wilh Benjamin's ellom to maintain law and order in lhe count!)'. He rigoromly applied his judicial functions e"en in a"cord, ance wiTh W Byzanline lepl system. The JMIriarelt made pontift<:al 'lisiutions 10 the dioc:QeS and 10 mc>na5Ieria, re5lorinl churches whcrew. restonlion . . . need
BENJAMIN II

subjects_ "'her a long and monumenLlI career, the patriarch passed the last two yea.. of his life stricken with severe illne... After suffering greatly, he died on 3 January 661. So deep was the impres.sion of his long reign on the minds of his contemporaries that the legend was circulated among them that not only did the angels carry hi' noble soul to huven but il was also e,coned by Saint Athanasius the Apostolic, Saint Severns of Antioch, and Saint Theadosius, These legends attest to hb immol"lal role in saving Egyptian onhodoxy. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brakmann, H. "Zum Pariser Fragmcnt angeblich d" koptiochen Patriarchen Agathon. Ein neues Blan der Vila Benjamin I." L. Museon 93 (198(1):299- 309. Coquin. R.-G. Livrt de 10 (;o"shrotion d" sone/unire de Beniorni", Bibliothcque d'Etudes Coptes 13. Cairo, 1975. Girgis Daoud Girgis, "Abba Benjamin the Coptic Patriarch in the 7th Century." In Nubia "1 Oriens

Chri"ianus: feslschrilr fur c, Dellel G, Muller >:Um 6IJ. Gebunslag, ed, P_ 0_ Schol. and R, Stem",,1. Tubingen, 1987, MUller, C. D. G. "Benjamin I. 38, Patriarch "on Alexandrien," Le M",<'on 69 (1956):313-40, _ "Neues tiber Benjamin I, 38. Patriar
___ Die iiornilie uber die Hochuir zu Kana ""d weilore S(;hriflen des PO/r;archen B'~iarnin I ,,"~ Altxandrien, Abhandlungen der Heidelberg" Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philowphisch·his· torisde Klasse, Heidelberg. 1968_ _~ __ "Der SLlnd der Forschungen tiber Benjamin I, den 38, Patriarchen von AleJ<3ndrien." Zeit-

•chrill der deUlS(;h.n rnorgen!iindischen G,sell· schall, Supplement 1 2 (1969):404-10, ___. C"-,,,d,,uge des christlich-islamischen 4J'pte~,

Vol. II, Dannstadt, 1·969_ ZOtenberg, H, "Memoire sut!ta chronique byzanti"e de Jean, h~qu, de Nikiou V," Journal Asialiq"e, ..,r, 7, no, 13 (1879):348-86, :C. DETLEF G. MI)l1ER

BENJAMIN II, eightY'Se<:ond patriarch of lhe See of Saint Mark (1327-1339). Benjamin's life before taking th, monastic vow is ullerly unknown he}'ond the fact mentioned b}' Ih, IllSTORY Of TilE PATIl.I· ARCHS that he was a native of the town of Dimiqnl:( south of Armant in Upper Ejopl. Apparentl~' his nomination was supponed by a prophecy of one of the greate't saints of the day, Before his death in

377

1320, BARSOM THE NAKED (al-')'1"n) from his solitary celi in the hills adjacent to Ihe city of Turah predicted the accession of the monk Benjamin. Thus, his selection and consecration found no oppo.;ition from the clergy or the laity, He was a contemporary of Sultan al-N~ir Mul)ammad ibn QaIAwiln (13101341), during his third tenure of Ih. Mamluk suiLlnate, wben the tempestuous wave of ""rsecution and pressures on the Copts began to subside. One faclor that helped the return to peaceful coexis· tence between the Muslims and Copt< wa< the advent of an embas5Y from the Ethiopian sovereign_ The ntonard pleaded on behalf 01 the Copts and requested permi..ion to let them rebuild and reo store their ruined churches. He threatened to de· stroy the Muslim mosques within his own kingdom if the Copts were not ,,!lowed to restore their churdes. Apparently al·N~ir responded to that
378

BESA

administration. "Ihe History record!; thai al-Nushu' was able to amass immense wealth and that he imposed many hardships on the Copts and abused their women, m,mks. and nuns. It is s.aid lhat the Lord punished him for lhese crimes. 1n fact, the Muslim source. and chroniclers such as a/·Maqlizl and Ibn J:Iajar aJ'AsqalAnI paint an eloquent picture of lhe downfall of aJ-Nushu'. He managed to infuriate the Mamluk amirs by his arrogance and hi. heavy-handedness to such an exlent lhat they worked hard to poison al_N~ir's mind against him. "Ihe sultan dismissed him from office and killed him and his family, while confiscating the ,ast wealth he had accumulated. As additional humiliation, hi. hody was buried in the Jewish cemetery in a shroud costing only four dirhams, However, his lomb ....'as guarded by officers for a week 10 prevent the mob whom aJ-Nusltu' bad oppressed from desecrating his remains and stealing lhem for burning in the open. The History 01 Ihe PlJtri,m:hs ascribe. this sorry ending to his unforgivahle trealmenl of lhe Copts, Although the History's biography of Benjamin is only len lines, the Islamic sources con lain numerOUS details on the evenl$ of his age, including the name. of many Copts ,,"'ho feigned apostasy to the Islamic faith. Benjamin II died after a reign of cantinuou. struggles lhat lasted eleven years, ",,'en months, and twenty-six days. He was buried in DAYR SH~HRAN, and the patriarchal see remained vacant for a year after his death. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lane-Poole, S. The Mohammadan D)'naslies. london, 1893; repro New Delhi, 1986. ___. Hislory of Eg)'pl ;n Ike Middle Age._ London.

1901. SlJ5HI

BESA,

y, U51B

0',

Mth-century monk and third abbot of the White Monastery (DAY!!, ANIlA SHINIiD~H), situated beside the ancient village of Atrlb in the region of Akhmlm, near Suh.1j. The lIl()nastery was founded by PJOL in the middle of lbe founh century, and Besa', imme6,

this i. the year of Besa'. succession as abbot of lhe White Monastery. From a fragment of a manuscript leaf now in the British Ubl
BETROTHAL CUSTOMS

offe...,d nothing more than a penal code to enable the individual to lead the good life. The ideal of fellowship and mutual advancement was alive in his communities. That his writing. contain hardly any ...,Ie...,nce. to the doctrinal controve",ie. of his day may. at least in part, be accounted for by the predominantly pastoral concentS displayed in them. All his writings ue in the $;>hidic dialect with the ""ception of the Ufo of Shenut•. which. in its en· tirety. has been preserved in Bohairic but which no doubt was compood originally in Sahidic. Besa's style is difficult to characterize. It is largely condi. tioned by the subject mailer of hi, writings. In the Ufe of Sh."ute. he adopts the conventional style of the panegyric: in his moral exbonation, be is often formal, stilted, and diffuse. Sometimes. however. when a problem engages his keen personal interest, hia style become. vivid and p"",uasive. It is perhaps inevitable that the figure of ShenUle should dwarf that of his successor. Nevenhe1e.., this fact ought nOl to blind uS to the many positive qualities of Be",. In his writings. he occasionally accuses himself 01 weaknes., but it is clear that, in order to fulfill his manifold duties, this had to be overcome. Hi. humility and utter sincerity shine through all his writings, and his moral earnestness and saintliness must have done much to strengthen the roots of monasticism and to encournge its,

_h.

BJBLlOCIlAPHY

Cauwenbergh, p, van. Etude "" /e5 mo;"es d'Egypl" pp. 137ff, Paris. 1914. Kuhn. K. H. "A Fifth Century Egyplian Abbo!." )O!Arn.,/ uf Th%gie.,/ Studies 5 (1954):36-48, 174-137; 6 (1955):35-48. _ _. ed. /Alle.s and Sermon, of Bun. Tex!u,. In CSCO 157, ScriplOTeS Copliei 21. Louvain. 1956. _ _, ed. uners .,nd SermmlS uf Besa. VerMo. In CSCO 158, ScriptOTeS Co~ei 22. Louvain, 1956. Leipoldt, 1.. ed. Sin"thii vil~ bol",;riee, TeX!US, In CSCO 41. Scriplores Coptici 1. Louvain, 19'06. Wiesmann, H. Sinmhii vila,bohairic~. Ver
379

general B.l.StUDES. comes in and, ripping his dothes off. goes to the emperor 10 reproach him aJld to confess himself a failhful Christian. The lexl ends here. It is odd that Besam<>n is not mentioned in the other Passion. belonging to Ihe same Basilidian cyde. BIBLlOG5tAI'HY

Till, W. C. Koptische Heiligen. und Marryrer!egend"n. Vol. 1. Orientalia Christiana Analecta 102. Rome. 1935. TlTO OltUNot

BESSARION. SAINT, foonh-century anchorile. According to the short serie, of apolhegms attributed 10 Bessarion in Ihe alphabetical collection of the AI'OPHTHEGMATA PUllUM. the saim (festal date. 25 Misr;l) was a contemporary of JOHN OF LYCOPOU:S, He lived, therefo...,. for at least pan of his life. in the second half of the fourth century. at SCEn" He had a disciple called Doulas, who depicted his master as a powerful thaumaturgisl who cured Ihe po5' sessed. walked on the waler. made seawater drinka· ble. and could even stop tbe sun in its course. But Bessarion was also a great ascetic, capable of going fony days wilhout rest and praying in an upright posilion for weeks at a lime, He was, above all. eager for humility and judged himself Ihe mool guilty of sinners. The last apothegm of the series presents Bessar· ion as one of Cod's perpetual wanderers. setding nowhere, but according to the best witnesses, it really refers to anOlher anchorite. one named Sera· pion, It is also to the laller Ihal should he anributed the famous anecdote of the little gospel Ihat the anchorite always carried ",'ilh him and with .....hich he finally paned for the benefit of the poor, Bessarion is men/ioned in Ihe Alexandrian SYN.vtAltJON. BIBLlOC5tAPHY

Cotelier. J. 8., ed, Ap<Jphthegmaw Parrum. In PG 65. pp, 137-44, Paris. 1864. G~baut. S. Synaxaire ~thiopien. In PO 9, pp. 392~ 95. Paris. 1907ff. luciEN REGNAULT

BESAMON, SAINT, a manyr of Ihe Basilidian CYC\.£. Of his Passion there is only one Sahidic frag· ment left. which can be "'I at the beginning of the work (TIll, 1935, pp. 42-48). The text begins with Ihe advice 1<. DlOCl.E.TlAN to begin the persecution. 111<" advice is accepted and Diodelian proclaims his &mous edict. A boy named Sesamon, son of the

BETROTHAL CUSTOMS. In limes past it was both the duty and the right of the parents 10 choose a Spollse for their child. Today it is only required that they gram their approval 10 the malch,

380

BIBLE, COPTIC VERSION

The Coptic betrothal ccrcmony conloiSls of .wo e~PIS: ,he engagement and the offic~ bc1.ochaL The enpg.emr:nt (shllbLJo) tabs place when, after the couple ha!! obtained parental appro.'al '0 ",-rd, the full.tre groom ~ ....ith his parenl5 10 the home 0( Inc briok.(o-be and pnsntlS her wilh • Cl" 01 some value. belittinl:; his 6nancial situation. This is • privaoI... family meeUna. and " simple mnI is un..~. There is no rdipous c..rel1'lOft)'. and Utt eTlplemen. may be rn.,kCil at any time. The official betrothal has " relipus character, and ill _led", .he church in " fonnal proc:~.. re, wlli<:h CUI be brok.. n only by ilS int..noentlon. For .hls ceremony Ih.. hom.. of lbe futur.. bride .. pily deco....led wi.h small Rap ....d colorful strings of lichu OCHSide "nd many flowers Inside, Befoore com· mendng wilh lk prayers, the priesl mUSt Il5CCnain In writing ,hat there a.e no le,,,1 obstaclos to th. marriage by c~k;ng ,h. mutual agree"""n, be· 'we..n lhe couple. th. compatibility of their ages, and the Sil.e of the dowry to b. paid by the fiallct. This custom is gradually disappearing. The da'e for the wedding ceremony is gen..rally se, a, this time, providing tha, th.. "",-,pi.. hav.. ruched legal ago (..Igh'...." yean for ,he boy, sixt..en yun for the girl). Havin, ,hus e>tablished ,ho ,""rrillg.. contract, ,he plic$t da,es the document and has it slgn..d by all panies invol ...... as ......11 as cet'aln notabl ..

.....

Then .....0 wedding rings of told or diamQnds ue wnopped. "long wnh the _ddin, crowns, in a w"it. wilthat "'ill c.,.·..r th.. h..ads of the couple on their ",'edd.ing day. The pries, reads the COntract. bl~ the couple thcoe times ...ilh "is crosa. a"" reciteS the Ux'd's Pra.ytt in CO""""" with all those ~t. Not. turn;"! .o",-..nt the East and buin, his hnd. he says th.. Pn)"eT of Thanksii'ing. a"" oIlen "'I' incense, ",fUk the choir of deacons sines 10 .he aoct:ompanilDtn~ of triandos .nd cymbal... After al'V'op>i,m I~ from th.. Epistlfs, c;o.. pels. and I'$aIms. the priest recites the three pnlytrs of inltrcession, the Cretd., and three special pnyers for.he i)eu'OIhal cnntrac.!. Once apln he recil~ the Lord's Prayer. and $Ily$ another pra)'er o.'er the _-at Then ",kinS one of.he weddinl rinp, h.. phc, es it upon .he right hand of the future bridegroom. .....0. in tum. takes the o,her rinS and places it upon the righ, hand of hiJ brid.... o,he. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burmester, O. H. E. The tJgyP/;lln 0' Copll, Chu.ch. pp, 13111. Cairo, 1967. C£IlU W,SSA W,t,SSO'

BIBLE. COPTIC VERSION, Se.. Old Testa· ment. Cop.ic TlVlS1atlon of; New Te$lJllTlen•• (;Qptic v.."Sions_

BIBLE MANUSCRlPTS, GREEK, The Hebrew text of lhe Old TCSlllUl'nt "'as translated into Creek. The /..rna of ArislltOlJ ~ a 1qenI rook O"er thi~ G......k t....nslatlop lIS Holy Scripture. and Later it formed tnc basi. for lhe translation of tht Old Testament books inlo COl'tic (see 01.0 TESTAMfJolT. COl'll" ""'''$U.rn)NJ OF TN!!). The gr.. at pa",hment manuscript< of the founh or fifth century. wrill..n in unclals-,he codices Sinaitkus. Vaticanu., Alcxandrinus. and Ephraemi Syri ,es"riptus~contain. wilh various lacuna., the Greek Old and No", Testaments and some apocry· phal wrilinp. StHi old..r are the papyrus codices of th.. Septuagint thaI "'ere found in EIDl't (plac.. of discov..l)' unknown) and are now in the Bodmer and CheSl.. r Beally libraries, They dat.. from be· tween the first hair 01 the second .entul)' (Numbers and Deut..ronomy) and Lhe founh century. The Bodmer ....oary (see 8Q[»lER PAPYRI) has lbe major pan or th.. l'salter. dadng from the thirdflounh eel\tu..,.. The Chesler Beauy Ubrary has a grea.tt number of Old Testament books (...... CKESIU BUoTTT Bf&uc.u 'APYU): Genesis in two incomplel. copies. Numben.. Oeulft'Onoony. Isaiah. .Jeremiah, E2eOd, EAher. Daniel. and Ecclesiasles. The copies of ee. esis, ~ incomplete, are especially impom.n. because the book is miaing in the .odices Sinaiti· cus and Vatic.....U5, All 0( these manuscript< are of great value for the I.~.ual history of the Sepl..agin. fsee 81BLE TFJIT. !!GVmAN). To these w .. INI)' add the HA>l8URG PAPYlU)S. It is unknown be.... this manu· script ...., disco~red. OOl it was nn..n aboul 400. It cont..im the Sons 0( Solomon In Greek and Coptic, and also Ecdesiaslcs In both lan",ages, "'hile it presenl< only the Copcic version of tbe lamenta· tion. of Jeremiah, The Coptic translations are writ· t.n in the Old Fayyumlc dIalect. All edition b). Dichncr appeared in 1989). The Greek·Coptic bilin",al manuscript. of the Old Testam.. nt (Na,ol. "Griechisch·kopti.che Bilin' guen ... ,'. PI'. 246f1',) are als.o important for lhe history of the tal. Throuah ,he allegorical interpre·

BIBLE TEXT, EGYPTIAN

Iation of SCts in wriling follow~d, al Ih~ latest, after the middle of Ihe Ihird (,,"lUI)', Anlony of Kom~ (b. 251/252) heard a reading from Matth~w 19 in hi. home (hun::h about 272. Since he did not know Greek, Ihe reading must have been in Coptic. Despite the translation of the N~w Testament into the Coptic diale(ts, further Gr""k manuscripts were copied in Egypt. as is .OOwn by the maouscriplS found th~u (,un'~y in Aland, 1976; and Aland and Aland, pp. lIMit). A papyrus fragment (pII) containing John 18'31-33 and 37-38 (sec Aland and Aland, p. 109) was written as early as abolll 125, som~ lhirty yea,.." after the presumed date of lhe Fourth Gospel. The New Testament papyri, espNOially lhe excellently pr"",rved GTee" manuscripl.$ that Te3.(hed the Ch""ter Beatty coll«tion in 1931)-1931, and lhose lhal lal~r w~re adde
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aland, K. KUT"Ilicfasste LiSle der griechisehen Hand. «;hrilten des Neuen Testaments. A~it~n zur n~ll-

381

lestamemlichen Textforschung 1. Berlin, 1963. ___. Die griechische" Handsehrifte" des Neuen

und Ergiinwngen cur "Kurti!,efassten Liste," Malerialien wr neutestamcm/iehen Handsehriftcnkundc, Vol. 1. Arneiten TeSlamen/s~Kor,"ktur",

ZUT Neutestamentlichen Texlforschung 3. Berlin, 1969.

___. Repertorium der griuhischen chris/lichen Pa""ri, Vol. 1. Berlin, 1976. Aland, K, and B. Aland. Der Text des Neuen TeSlament<. Stuttgart, 1982, Di~bner, B. J. Hamburg... Pap')'rus Bil. I. Die ai/test. amemliehen Texte des Papyrus bili"guis J du Staats- und UniversitiJtsbibliothek Hamburg. Gene· va, 1989. Kenyon, F. G. The CheSler Beatl)' BiMical Papyri, Vol,. 1-3 and supplement. London, 1933-1937, _ _, The Text 17! the Gruk Bib/e, 3rd e
sehrif' lur iigyp/ische Sprod.. tmd A/tenumskunde III (1984):138~64. Treu, K "Griechisch.koptische Bilinguen des Neuen Testaments." In Koptologi
KRAUSE

BIBLE TEXT, EGYPTIAN, a group of Gre~k biblical lexts originating in Ale~andria> the site of the famous CATECHETICAL SCHOOL wheu Coplic and Gr~ek theologians were busy with Christian r~Ji giow; sludies, undoubtedly including texts of lh~ Bible. 11 was h~re lhal ORIGEN compiled his f.lInous He.apla (see HEXAPlA AND TETRAPlA), and surely thi. tradition pel'listed at that school in th~ early cenlurie. of Christianity. it is possible that its scholars collected all available te~ts of lh~ Old and New

382

BIBUCAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Abraham and Isaac

Tntameo15 for srudy:and collaJion of some lulhor· IzN ,-en;"n•• as is "",idenl l'mm the CHESTOt BE.\TTY ,...".........here emendations prow Ih.. Iho:re "'. research :l$SO(:iat~ with lheir labor. The won on the £cyplian lat _ probably atcdoeral~ dwi,,& lhe episcopale olllESYOIIUS. All £&ypIlan bishop and biblical scholar. ,,'hc>se ...-cension 01 the Gospels is cited by Saint J~. H."",hiu.. " ... martymcl in 311. tlollO rears before ColUWlline I es. It is . _ n t....1 Constan. line oc*m1 the preparalion of filly coples of the Bible for di.uibu!ion among lhe Christison churches of Ihe empire. ibest: _Ie made al AJu.andril or Caesarea or both, though Alexandria. with its con· centralion of th~O$"ians al 1M Calechetical School, apP"ars 10 hne been the nalural cenler for handling thl$ lIS•. Of the ConSlanline Bibles. four somewhat incomplete text. have survived, all On vellum (;Other than papyrus. These ere Ihe CODEX \'ATK:~r;us. the CODEX stNAlncus, Ihe CODEX AL£XA>l. t>llI>lUS, and lhe CODEX Effilt,o.EMI nil. Toamer wilh lhe earl;"r Coptic papyri comprilina the Chester !kIlly Collection and the IlODtoII!II .An'.... these c
Alld~/

A2IZ S. Ann

BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART. fTJr-e Ie"" ~bfbl>c_1 udt;.c/t" ".,.., dnip"us .tJ>. f«:ts 11lk." from ,he 0/11 Tat"","",/; ...b;etts from the New Tes,,,,,,Cl' .re tfO"pod with the ClrrUri"" ...b!«ts "." ",-Itoh {u. ClltuS11AN SlIBJB:TS Iii cornc

--

Bib/ic,,' ."biec," "'e (., frOugh Iht)' .... "'" as /teque"r as they ",e, 1<>' ",",,,,pI., ill Ih. Rom." c"l"combs, Coptic ",J ..",. ph"Jiy. Chr;s/i"n J"ble~l5. ,,,Ihor seiectively chc"", ""d "Iw c.rI"i.. the",e. 0' fit",•• of par"" origi" Ih"l h,,~. been ,i~e .. Christi"" ime'p'''I"tio" (."" MYTHQUX;ICAl,. SU8JECTS lr< COI"TlC ART).

This etllry CO"S/SIS ollh. 101l0wi"B sho" articles by dilf".'" a"fha..:

Abraham and llUC Adam aDd Eve Dilniel in lhe ticn'. Den David u the Court or Saul

, ....

D<mo~

.....

'n.e

BIBUOCIlAI'HY

finepn, J. Usftl from IN

London, 1932. ~IU. C. H. Tlte 8ibl,e
PUI, 2nd ed.

I"rincet.on. 1950. GTepll)', C. R. C."on don. 1933-1951. ___ "Hesy<:hiu!l and the Texl of 1M New Testamenl." In Cinqllanle"aln de I'Ecok bibliq_ u "",IJioJogique fr">
Three Hebn..... in the FuTDa<:e Ollou 01.1 TUS._'" Sllb;ect. "re de,,1t wilh i" OIh" Dlltiu IU folll1WS: Adam and be In Eden (sec AlIT A.'lD ARCHtTECT\II.E, ~)

Job (set: lUllMt..,oTlON) MO!IeI (sec Il.Ll,IMlNAnOfl)j

Abratu.m and Isaac The JlO'" of 1M ~lrian;:h Abraham, who wa$ willinE 10 $atrifice his cherlshed JOn, Isaac, in <>be. dience 10 Go
BIBUCAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Abraham and Isaac

Nmaining detaib ~nrrrspond 10 lilt _nlials of W known iconOl"'Phr of lilt scnIt, ,"'I>kl> ani! P1Cllt'S'ed by lOme unidenrifiable tracn On tile ri&ht. This possibility, a> well ... the Ioc:f,lion of tMs munl in a quaner consisti~ of housn anribuled 10 Cllrislian epoch (He:m><:, 1923, p. 2.5, n. S), wrifin tile kkntificat>on of the licure ... Abraham, The Ilnur scyIe pbcn this paintinl In the founh

m..

«nlUt)'.

Abnloam and ' - " otan
in reHd" in a niche l.IOder a broten pt'd,ment originally l'rom IlI*Ya At" JU.OIWi at SaqqaJa atId now in !he Coptic MlI5<"uno, Cairo. Two sequ.,nces of ""roll plIllen>l wilh ~Iiud leaves ~on""rge loward " .,entral SUlTOUndec! by a leafy crown. The two 6&u~ .~ full·face, At th., lop left. !he hand of Cod I>olds Nel: \he ",ised right arm of Ab...h.am wielding the knik """ne Abraham', len hand 8raws lu.ac's head by !he hair. Isaac s1ighdy bends hi' knus, The ram, whkh Cod proYided as" ,ubsthutt -""'rilice, stands in profile under the diyim hand "nd tht patriarch', upraised snn, A good study of Ihis pitc., by J. LAi· bovllch locales it. perhaps a lilde too prtclsely. In the middle of the fifth century by ~ason of lhe special aspect of the pediment (Leibovit~h, 1940). The ,ymmclry of the composition, as wtll as the lifelike proponioll5 of the figures and tM nalural· iom of lhe .,."etaI clements. suggest a date al the bc&inninl of the «nlury. La-ina ....de JI05SibJ., .,umpln that may haY< been destroyed, the theme reappeara much Iaol.". in two woven slee"" bands of the ninth cenlury. One belonp to !he Hiw>ric Museum of Te:xliln in Lyons and is in ncdlcnt eonditiom. n", other, in tJw Coope, He..tn Museum. New yon. has 1 _ dweado in the center. SOe'Obat to the detriment of Abraham and \he nm. Both bands tJw cora· pkte 1«nC. They come &om the sanw model and ha.... tlw same composilioo. 1.0 the Cooper-Hewitt piece. for example. tJw ~ lilh • yellow ochre square. which is 6at11:ed by two paneh decODled witll red ~rossbIItS bearing .. f1owr:r or a bircl, Ihe spread.out hal>es of fIo..,en. a.nd borden of (Wer" lappinl Iea>es. In boIh blonds COJlIic lellen are IUltcred ncar the heads of Ab..-hiorn slld lsue, ..me of them forming pan of the men', I'l&mCl.. BollI bands exhibit fc:oturl:S charactotri$tic of the ninth century-crossbars. spread Ro"''''l'halves. SyinC·lhulIle lines of unbleached lhread, borders of overlapping leaves, and the defective transcription of the nameS (0.. Bourguet, 1%4, pp. 26-30, sec. oul

.,rou;.

u-

n In painting. Ab...ham and Isn.ac appear aSaln in

383

the "",till (sanctuary) of the ancienlchllJ"Ch of DAnt MolB.\. A....'!"tHn"OS Mar the Reel Sn. (Pianko1l, 19S8, PI'- 156-59, pl. I). This muno! matches anal ,ymboIism rebting

10 the ElIcharist. The le"",no! atliwele of Abraham is the same as in the prec;eclin. CMmplcs.. but his head b haloed, and he is clothed In a ionll deronted tunic with sleeves, caudtt a.I the _lsi by a grffn &iJdle. With his right band he hold.o the halr of the kneelinc baac:. ...t.ose head is IUmcd baelward. Wilh hls left hand he pnpaores to pierce him with a long dagger. The style, no doubt InJIucnced by By.zantium, which still maintained SOme cOnta<:15 with tlIe Fal;mids, who RIled EIJ1II in lhe Icntll 10 twelfth century, may place this paintinl a.I the end of the t""'Clfth century. In a wooden panel !rem the Fatlmid period the scene appears in relief. Abraham Is represented in profile, with his le8' apan, He is clothed in a long robe with pleats; his haloed head Ii turned boIck· ward and upward toward that of • winged angel, who appcan in the upper left cOrner. He rums hi. bacl: to a tree whO$e folia&< shehers a ram set in profile above the patriarch and hii 500. The latter is II~Iched on an allar, and hill father is preparing to cut his throal. The reproduction of Abraham', c10thinl and the undulatlons of the foliage are fairly characleristic of the Coptic woodwor. of the period (8ccl.:wiIh. 1963, BO. l~. and R ~ . 1986, nos. 35S-S8). Varicly ~d fidelity clearly ma'" lIIis panel which dou cmlit to the oripnality of Coptic an dcno..., 10 lIS Ii..... period.

IIlllllUOGlUPtIY

,,.,.

Beckwith, J. Coptic Sc.. /pt>
Bourpet. P. du. MlUh NIUioto"1 d.. lAowrc. CaM· q .... gic Copt« 14 (1950-1951), (Cairo, 19S6):151-63. Rutscho.....,;caya. M.·H, CIII"/OiuC des bois de /'EfYPu cople. Pam. 1986. PIERRIl DU BOIIR(;UET. S.J.

384

BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Adam and Eve

Adam and Eve ..,..., "on' of Adam and E\"C. lhe prOloparnlU. .. ho _ .... ..,.pdled from Garden of F.dom tOod~DC" 10 Go Li,·i"l." In lho.> .....h-e"n,ul)' Chapel of P.,..c". bolh Adam .nd E,"C. hid",. lhcir" nakdne.s "ilh ,heir hands, "and nul '0 ,"" T..,., of K"""kd~. around .. h'ch "inds th" ....-pent· I"mpl"'. A l"nlh-eenluN painlin. from Urnm mlBanlk:'1 ;n I"" Fani:im now;n I.... COPllC \Iu.scum. Cairo. pt"CS"nls 1"0 .pi""",," from Ih" biblical talc, In Ihc first. on Ihc righl. "car a IU.'urian! tree u"der ,,·hieh animal. take sheher. Adam and Evc, nude and una"named. are ca'ing Ihc forbidden fl'uil. In Ihe olher. on the left, Itdam lifl3 a" "eeusing arm IOward E,e, Bolh of Ihem, asham«l of Iheil' n"dily. c(",,,r Ihem..,I"". with \'ine lea\cs. Finally, in Da}'r Apa Apullo ., IM""I, in Chapel 28... lone man i. e.UL't! "Our Father Adam" (CIl:
I""

,hem",

BIBUOCRAPIIY C~dal.

J U mcmISleu rl I. "tcropolr dr Saouil. Cairo. 1904 Grabar. A. .\jOlTf\T;lIm. Ilk".. Sur I" c ..ltr de> rr·

...,,,,,s

liquu el /"", r"tiue" an1iq,,~ 2: Jronou"plu" Pans. 19% Sirna-yuh, M Gutde _ .... lre du M",u caple ef drs p..,,<·tp
",Ii.. .

Daniel In Ihe Lien's Den Accord;n,lo II>c book of Oa.n;"l. Daniel. a dc>'OUI J"... at ,he- Bab-Ionian "Dun 0( Sebuchadnazar, '5 C2SI ;n,o a lion's dc-n f... ttis failh. This the...., ~ms to ha.,..,. been illmua,ed ".",Iy in Copci<' an. The' m",,' ancienl ponDl"'!. dalin. from Ihe founh ""n· lury. is a patnlin, fn>m the Chapel oJ lhe E.wdus al al·8:lgawlil lIere Daniel is pic'ur.,.) standin. },.,. l",,,.n t"'O lions and pra~;ng: tWO cemuries laler Ih" san,c .ubjccI ",as painl.,.) in t"" Chapel of Peate. also al .1·Da~a\\'11. The theme lhen seems to di,a"""ar from "ainti".. (Acc"rdin~ to H, G. Evd)'n·Whil", Ih" subject W;~' depicted at nAY'" ~~HA .\!AQAR in ",AnI AL-NATRC.... , bm J, Lno~ questions Ihis identiflCalion [Le.oy, 1982, pp, 45 and 78].) l<.one· thde$S the prophet is evoked in eha",,1 19 in Da,,' All" Apollo al 8.1..1!. alongside the nameS of ,he Th....., Hebl'eu." in .he F..m""". anOlhcr e"iw.;l" from Ih" book of Damel (Cledal. 19(4). Danid is also found m SCull', ..'" and in Ih.. mi· nor arK Two ,e1ie&. ~m I"" ..ory. each from a diff..,.en, aspc<:1. In I"" on.. , Dan..... a h"roic nod" or,tnl (pr.t'in. Ii,.....,). IS ...rrounded Jr, Iwo hons Ihra,min, h,m jaw. ppinIJ. fangs sharpened. and claws baored. The sec"" is fr.tmed '" pilla... caned In lithl ...,Iid and '" d ~ nod ., lilt' heiahl ""m's be" Th.. ..,.,ond ...,Iid. in lilt' RO\711 MUSC'ums of An and Hoston'. 8"""",15, adopt. a ,.,...., clasiSical ;c~ptn' H....e ,he p.,...;n. Daniel "'''.rs a IradillClllaI Middle Eaolem costume: "tuU)'flJ..s fda.e fillln. trou""rs). boou. a b..h.-d lunic. a l\ov.·;nl cloak held b, a &bu1a. and a small conical cap The lions. completelv subdued. arc licking the feet of Ihe man IhC) should ha,"C d<:. ,'ourc-d. Th" COmposilion occupies Ihc cellleT of a nicl><: ..nder a pedimcm d<:cor.u«l ...,th plan" "nd ""..cock<. H~ i. . .1,·le atld technique this .... lid is ,..,lmod 10 works of ,hc fifth and cen'uriC!' (Rassarl,Debt:!'ih, 1976, PI'. 20-21), A l!lird relief. from lhe <e"cnlh cenlury, in Ihe Coplic Mu""um. Cairu. links thes<: Iwu carlier rcpresentation" Dan. iel. dres..," In n Mi,ldle blSlern <""tume. rai«'\; h,s arm.: the lion on Ihe lefl rcalll up threateningl} "hi1e the one on ,he right places his muzz)" on lhe

",th

of.""

.,.,1,

Adam and E"e, Temh cemut'.-, ComICS)' Copti<; Muse· ",to,

Cairo.

BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Demons

I~I

cllM hero (Elfcnbc:rger-. 1975. no. 51), A ~imibr Kene is depicted on No,<> piKeI: in wood duinJ from lhe fifth century in Ihe Sote Mw.eum or Berlin: a com!> from .o.KHM1.. (Ellenberger, 1975, 1>0, '5). and a bam Of" girder pnflapI from (Bacia...,.. 1978, 1>0. 1.U. p. 16.2). On thor beam lhe I>rro and lhe lions--se:oled on their ha1ncha and ..rnc:hi,. their heads lO\oo'ard Daniel_an U11 a",...y frolll Nl archit«tunl beclground. On an i\'OlJ pyx or thor si~th cerllulJ (in the Dumbanon Oaks CoIlec· tion. Washinpll1, D.C.), the lion's dm " "'"Qtrd loy lWO low brid _lis before ..i1Kh the lions ani' cl"OIlchina: (&da...,., 1978, no. l.n. p. 158). Daniel, simply dressed. lifuI h.. anII$ tOWard hn~en while an anee! app""",hes, clooing the "-Jlh of Ihe lion on Ihe ""I ".ilh his hand.

Bi",,,

385

brothers by Samuel, Somu.l'~ ehoke of Da,-id, Saul equipping David lor bailIe. David con&onling Goli· ath. Da,id ..Iaying Goliath. Da"id p1.-yina the I)Te before Saul on his throne, who th~lcns him ",i.h a jaW'lin, David and his friend JOnathllll, and Da,-id at the hewe nf the prirsI Ahimel«h. The SI)'1r of the 'wo KlS of sut;«u is pr:n::eptibly di~rftlL The pa.lnli".s of the iaobted epi50des are more richly deeooated and their 6gura more ""Ttlp" tuousIy clolhrd than thoto! in the deconui,.., ...,ries.. T1>ry appear to be earlier .han the s.eries. pa.sibly from the sixth cen....lJ. Sewnl indicuions, il>Clud· ing the beards of lhoSot ......ehlnl David's lighl with Goliatll and the sketchy ChanlCler of me design, SlIagest a dale in the ,,"ven.1I o' ei&hth cenlury. BIBUOCa"PHY

David at the Court or Saul The early history of Da.id. the shepherd boy eho· sen by the prophet $;lmuel to be ~ing, the hero who ~iIled the giant Goliath and played the harp for King Saul, is tCtld in Firs! Samuel. The appea",nce of David in SCenes from Ihis period of his life in wall r-inlinJS in several eltapds at Da)T Apa Apollo al Bi...i! "'Jr$U that he ....'as so honored al olher liles in Egypt, llllhouSh no e,~den.ce hai sul'iW!d. lte was Imporn"'t in Chrislian iconocraphy as both an anc:CSlOr or Christ and a prefiguralion of ChriiL ),I_cr, it is possible lhal the Coptic rntriclion 01 his story to II.. JOUlh ....... I...pired by ill aoaJocy at comain points to thor soory of Joseph at lhe coon of pharaoh. BoIh youths.. It>.- ~ .... p1e, Sotl'-N a ruler and \O<erc savio:>n of wir people, and both prdi",re'i.d Ceoen photoJnophed Or Ide... tified from ,-arious detaik pcesent lwo isobted epi. sodes and a deconuiw: . . . , . In one isolated e-pisodr, in Chapel 34, Saul Is lho:vwn In pro6le• ...,alnl upon a .hrone. and David appears as an inlerpme.- of dra.... (ClnJat, 1916, pI. U), In another, ,n Cha~112, [)ovid appean as a cupbearer holding two amphorae under an imita· tion Q",o",I,,,,,, (arched cdl in a ca~comb) (Cled.at. pis. 6 and 9). The deeo....t;'·. series runS at middle height on the walls of Chapel 3 (CIM"t. t904. PI'. 10-20). It Is • fri.ze consisting of 2o-inch (SO em) i-quares altcrn.tlng between scenes and decorative areas di.ided into four lin~ed swastikM, The scenes are episodes from the story of David: the reje<:'ion of D.vid's

Cltdat, J. Le MonoSI~ •• el 1« "tcropole de BOO";I, Memoires des Membres de l'lnstitul fran ""i. d'Archeoiogie orientale, Vol. 12 (1904) and VoL 19 (1916). PIERRE Dll BouRGIIET, S.l.

Demons Maleyoleni "pirilS, O'f demons, had great Impor· tance in ancient Eel'! and in lhe litenlture or the CopIic monas.eries. E... n aceounlin. lor lite deotruclioo of so much Coplic an. one would think that demons $hould ha"e left n-aces in ",·hat ..... su".....,d 0< l>een ·eT, ~ extr......ly nl~. Apart fmm the"",", than doo.obIful a:ntiMatlon of a demo<> with a child In a mural in Chapel t1 of Da)T "Po. Apollo at 8.1""", (CWdat, 1904.....1. 2, lase. 2. pl. 46 and p. 78), there was In the same chapel (pl. 55) a freoco in ",'hieh. amid m"lfIc symbols, SainI Sisinnios. piclured. ... a Byz&lltine horseman. pins 10 the ground the whitC1kipned ~e demon Alabaslria- He also PUIS 10 IIIahI a kind of "';nred sirfl', de5cribcd as "labastria·s daughleT, and finally a centaur hoIdinl a I>ook, Tlt.e!ie I.... figures also recalilhe race of demons, lhe siren "by her setpent's U1i1 and the centaur becaus. tht d.mon .ho""ed himself to Saint ANTONY 1"ttt GRUT in that form as cd by Sa;nt Jerome (d. Jerome. 1898. p. 4). The... 3re. however, represematlons of malevol"n, figures ""ith dark skin. who may ha,·c some connec· tion with demons, ;n SOme portrayals of the story of the patriaTch J~ph (see below). Examples are some temh-GCntury leXlile d«Qralions~o.i>ic",l"

386

BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Jonah

(circles) pt'I"h.ps fu~ cU5hiollf, and d ..", (bands fnami"l 1M from opening) and 5ke¥e bands fur prmenu-and min~ po..in,inp IUCh .. lhal of the 0cu.1eUCh of the Se~, whkh ponnoys JoIeph ball' 50kt 10 the hhmadMs by his jeaklu. ~ CKiWnr:CI, 1937-19J8, pp. 266-68), Possibly lhe rwity of demo,," ift Coptic .n ...... due W oupenlitious br of their ;ma&'!'...'hie" could have bern eatried oYer from pharaonic 10 Christian lima. The imlh....... The darlt color of th~ maIevolen' ligures in lhe lu,i"" .nd minialures may be reI_cd 10 'he faCt Ihal Ihe black color given 10 d.mons in other Jl'l1U of Ihe Chrislian """,,Id was prob:ably of COJIIi<: 0 .... gin, II mUSI have been ch'l"1Ictelislic of polilic". relialous precul"S(>~ in Ille pharaonic period lran~ fonned inlO Chrislian demons. Indeed, Ihere Is eve.,. reason Ihink Ihal Coplic monastic SIOriU were lhe vehicle for this iconographic delail, in Ihe West as well as in the East. In such slorie. Ihe demon i. pe-<sistenlly pn:scnlcd as '",he linle black Eihiopian" 01 man: .imply eiThtr as "tile Iinle Ethiopian" or "fbe black one." No other ~ril" lion In early ChrUtiall lilera'u~ Or K:OIlO8raphy specifies the color ofllle demon's skin. 1'l>f! expresaion. "the bbck one" .nd "lhe Ethiopian" (and its synonym "the Nubiao") 10 back '0 deseriptions of lhe wic.ked god Seth, .Ssod.led wi'h lIIe desen and sterility. in \'arious E(ypIian writinp 01 the f'loIeTnltic period. A c"TIe ...·as laid upon Seth by hamlik r in 660 H.C. 10 destroy cY'l'n Inlo !he hcMy places any impulse oIlhc black people of Nu· bia. ...no hod killed his fuhtr, 10 IIS«TWI aptn the throne of pharoah. This curse _ applied to lIIe des«ndan1S of !be Nubian kinp of the Twornl)-.fititt fly...!)'. The ~~ WCl"e passed on Ihrough 'lOrieS of lhe CUSl<>IDS, monaslic: rules, and liftS of lIIe Coptic monks, indtuUn,; tales of fTequent pmag· ing of Iheir m.....rnies by ,he nomadIC B1emmycs (see w. TIIIBfS). who Came nonh from Nubia by w.y of the desert. Thus 'he black color usoclalcd ,,"';Ih J>COllle ... darrtajlinll 10 monastic life In £trypl cO\&ld nOC bul paoli imo Ihe ge-neral lconOfll"lphy of Ihe demons who opposed manllSlic asceticism in Ihe wider CbriOlian world.

'0

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cltdal, J, I.o Mo~~sr~re et I~ ~teropol! tie 8000111. Mbnoires de l'lnslilul fran~.is d'ArcMologie ori· enlale 12 (1904).

Du Bourr;u~" P, "L'ori&in~ phanoonique d'W\ di:tail dam !'icOllosraphie chre.Jenne.: La Pe.au noi..., du d&non." In Procutli.f" of lite XXVII/Jr 1,,1071", tian..I COIt('UJ of OrWot./ws. Ann Arbor, Mich.

B-1'} A"3US1 1961, ed. Om;' Sinol " al. Wiabaden, 1911. J~1Vme (Euoebius Hinotlymus). "'VIC dt Sa.iDI hul "d<;m lhtfw~JiI)' Jownud 01 the Warlt<.r". 11ISIit.. ~ I (l9J7-19)8)".266-68. H

Plfll:J.f. DU BoulI.GUET. SJ.

Jonah Acconling 10 ,he book of Jonah, Ihe proph.... Jo:>nah lries '0 csc:ape God's command '0 pleach Iepenta nee in Nineveh by goins 10 Ra. bOIl he is Ihrown overboard in a SIOnn as • bealel of bad luck and s,""llowed by a a~aT fish. Aftel three day. h~ is coughed up and evenlually carries oul hi. mission. Appanntiy Coptlc 1conoal"1lphy uses nOlhing of lIIe Jonah story exceptlhal he was TCguTgilated bl' a sea crealure. The theme appears in fINO works in the Lou.-re Museum, Paris-. decorative high-relid from lIIe SOUlhcrn church 01 Dayr AJI'I Apollo of the fifth or six'" century and ,,"" laleral panel <Ji a hanging made of an uncu' ~It fabric dating from lI"e ninth cenlUly. III this pm'" Jonah rises vrnically, '" an anitude of pra)'ff. from the IIKIllth of the sea creature in the ~ of a CMlOr oil planl. The fish mentioned in the Bible hen: lakes the form 01 thoe Utos. • ..,. c...... 'u~ a:i¥Cn I...... foo-epaws and 5OmClimes I.... U<$, which the Greeb uW, from the tifth century -.c. 10 pi<;cllte "CC\accans" and. espeeially whales. 1bac lwo reatll
the Chr"fi~n Egyptla" from Ihe late A,u;q"e to the Middle Agn Cambridge. Mas... and London. 1978. Bourguet. P. du "Deu. pi~ce. cople. de la fin de la periode ommeY)-ade:' R~ .."e d" Lt>"vre et d~. M,,· ues de France 19.2 (1969):101-2. PIERRE lTU BouRGIJ1IT. SJ.

BI8L1CAl SUBJECTS IN COPTIC I\RT: Joseph

387

Jonah delh'ered from the ... hale Mnulh Ihe lU''P''n1ine Iree. Un>el>tone, 1lA.... 1! Sixlh un,u')·. Heighl: 3Xm. COuJ'1eS1 Lou~,t Muu",". P..,U.

Joseph The $tOIV of Ja;cph...... of the p"'''i.a~h Jacob. ...1>0 ....-as IoOId intO da"ery bv hit; jealous brothers bu, ~ 10 bvor "ith th", EcPtiall pharaoh and fed hi> hunpv people, is told in Genesis ]7. II is lhe DIlI~ b;bbcal ,he-me that is ...idely depic:led In Copbe .n-on about fifty IapeSUy ....... menl$ on CoptIC 1U.ules (\',kan, 1979. pp. IDSI' note 4; Uboi:r«· 1967. no. aJ; WeittJnarl, 1979. 1'10. 411; add 'l.utnh. 1978)_ Thus almost all ,he Jaracr lUUseum eolleclioons of Coplie ICrlitu (>« Tf.xnu.s, lCO~T OP COPTIC) possess one or more p~u rq>roduc,nl pic:tl>1"eS from the $tory of J06<'ph, "The theme .ppnrs on the different form$ or lhe trimmina of tunics of lale antiquity: elt' piellU"tS depiets th", follo....ing; (I) ph.raoh·. dre.ms, whleh a. a nIl", w",re pre.cnted ill a cem,.al med.llion, while Ihe eight o,her epi""dc.. nm around Ihis med.llion eilhe. c1ock""i~ or emuller clockwise; (2) aoove Ih.. c..mer, the picltlre of Jacob. ,,'1>0 sits on a splendid bed and sends Joseph 10 his brothers: (3) Joseph meeting ,hem in the field

".l:a\o... .

al Siehem (Vikan, 1979. p 106, n 'I); (4) Joseph cast inlO a ,,·.. ll (Vibn. 1979. p, 106. n Ill. notes an ~p1e in ... hieh J06t'Ph is d.......n nul of.he ...-ell); (S) Jooq>h's brothers djppittt his coat ;n the blood of a sbup,teT'Cd JO'It. aJthoodt the- lhooglll 'M lhe brod>ers "ish 10 murder Jooq>h. ",no IS small >UK! has • nImbus. probabh pl",'S so""' part io lhe poetu"' (on nal comrae\;on of scene, (e,@.. scenes I. 2. 3, ~) indic.te lhm the ori@in of Ihese illustrations ;s to be .OUllhl !l01 in lexlile a11 but in book illustrat;on. On the hasi, or an exact .nal}'~is of the indh'idual scenes. G, Vilan ha. ,hown that the Coptic f1lbl'ics drew on ,he Sir Robert COllon manusc,ipt .....,he"'.. tm, Joseph ..cnes

""n.

388

BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN

corTic

,\RT: The Three Hebrews

In

Ihe Furnace

StOry of Jmeph. Tapestry, Ninth-lenth century. Hdgbl: 26.5 cm.; w;d'h: 2R ,m COl/ru.'" I'l<,hki" MU5€"'~, M05CO><'.

on 'he Lens silk lcx'ile did not (WeilZmann, 1979, no. 413). This relalionship al lhe same time pro· vide5 a proof thaI lh~ Co{{on rnanlISCl';pl is of Egyp' lian origin. The fuCI lhal lhe illustration, in th~ Coplic manuscript are limit~d 10 Genes;, 37 is s1i1l • problem, which is probably connected Wilh 1he assessment of lhc figu,"" of Joseph, His Egyplian career, for nampl~ i' nol further ""presented (We;l,.mann, 197~, p. 462; Vikan, 1976, pp. 99 and lOa, wilh n. 62), although admil1edly the chapler is ;n literary terms also a sel£.contained hlock belween Genesis 36 and 38. The original "'quence of ",ene, was altered in manifold ways. oflen .Imo" beyon'l re~ognition, b~' lb" omission of indi,'idual s~ene, or figures, This is especially obscn-able on lb. sleeve band., on which lhe mirror·image arrangement of ;ndi,idllal elements slil! plays a spedal role, (Problem. in det"il ar.. perhaps also 1echnically co"dilio"ed. nmndy, by lhe lIse of w~a";ng slen,il.; d, Nauenb, 1978, pp. 158/).

BlBUOl;RM'HY

Lil:>ere~·K}b"lo,'", M.

Die alren Web.. am Nil.

Prague, 1967 Naucrth, C. "Die Jos.ef,gcschiehle auf k()pli.chcn Stoffe"."' Enchoria 8, 2 (1978):15l-59. Vilan, C. l/Iu.
Ephraem's Life of Jo~eph ,wd the Romance at I,,· Jeph and ASe'leth. U"pubIishcd dis<, Princelon, 1976. . __ , "'Joseph konogmphy on Copli, Texliles."' Gesta 18, 1 (1979):99-107. Weit,mann, K. Age 01 Spiriwal"y. ,,,,,log of lhe exhibition at the Metropolitan "·Ill,eum of An. 19 No,"eml:>er 1977 10 12 F.bruary 1978. New York. 1979. Cl.'.U{)IA NAUERTII

The Three Heb..ews in the Fll..nace The SlOt)' of 1he lhree )'oung Hebrew, in the fur· naCe, """'~limcs ~all~d lhe Three Hoi" Child,,'n, is

BIBUCAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: The Three Hebrews

told in lhe book of Daniel in the Sepluaginl and in the Apocrypha to lhe Bible. Exiles in Bab}'lonia, they were thrown imo a fiery furnace by the Baby' Ionian king Nebuchadnezzar for refusing lo worship an idol, but, prai.ing God, lhey were rescued by an angel. Their name. in Babylonian are Abednego, Shadl7lch. and Meshach (Azariah. Hananiah. and Mishael in Hebrew), The theme "f lhe three y"ung men i. abundanlly illuStraled from lhe eartiest pee angel side by side. The three Hebrews raiSE lheir anllS in lhe altitude of pl7lyer_ They are dressed in Panhian co.tume. con.isting of a knee· length tunic with puffed slee>-e. closed at lhe wriSl and lied al lhe waist; trousers; and a chlamys (cloak), faslened on lhe right shoulder by a cla

In

the Furnace

389

The lh<e" Hebrews are equally called to mind in the Chapel of Peace at al-Bagawill, be.ide a .hth· centu!), mural .howing Daniel in the lion.' den (.ee above). Some allegorical figure., carrying their name in Greek, allude lO various episodes in lhe life of the prophet; among lhem eukht ("'proyer") recall. the song whi<·h lhe young men addressed to God. In a .ixth·century drawing, from a pri"ate house in Wadi Sarjah, now in the Brili.h Museum, Lon· don, the lhree Hebrews stand in lhe middle of a group of haloed bUSlS in the posture of prayer amid flame' that thC)' tromple down, In an effort 10 cOnvey mo,'emem and pe~peclive, their bodi~ are seen from the from, while the faces are .hovm in three-quaners view. Their gaze converge. on a small halo~d figure, wearing lunic and mande and with bare feet, ""ho stands above lhem. His left arm i. raised to waist level. while his right hand holds the long rod with which he is quenching the flame•. The inscription angelo, leave. no doubt as lo h,. idemity. All three Hebrews wear tunics caught at the waist and swelling over lrousers; the chlamys, fastened under the neck, is slirred by the wind, which will calm the f1ame_ Dn their head, the}' wear Phrygian caps, and their feet are shod ""ith ,lip]JC'rs. The theme also appeared in DHR APA JEREMtAH on the e;lS1 wall of cell F, \0 the left of lhe niche. This mum!' from the seventh century, no longer exiSl', In the early twentielh century, color had already disappeared and no more <emained of the piclure of the lhree Hebre",s lhan an oudine in red and black (Quibell, 1906). Ne>'enheless the 'Cene remains legible; the three young men standing dose together raise their arm', They art dressed in Panhian coslume, tunic falling to the knees wilh lhree flaps, according 10 Ouibell', drawing, long lrou",,"', chlamy, hdd by a heavy brooch fixed on lhe chest. The curls that frame their young and beardless faces do not seem to be toppe
39<1

BUll

01 this apar1n>enl was peculiar to il: for example. a ;....~Ied c....... stand< on a dais fnmed by columns and hanpnp- Ac<:ordinll '0 QuihoeU. "There were ,races of human figures S1andilll arno.... 60........ ,heft an inscription 01 Sain...· names and beyond them 00 a white groo.nd jwI the na.rne5 ~ (Nebuchadneuar) and ~ (slave), evideDtly a descripl:ion oIa ",,'One ",'hlcb has dhappeared. ~ ....nen the buurusa ...-en: bulll~ (Ouibefl, 1908. p. 11). I'erhapa ;1 ...·as a picIW'e 01 the )'0'1"1 men beinll: ftunc inlO the furnao:e ,mded by a da,~, in the presence 01 Nebuchadna·

g,.

~th·cen,ury Dayr Apa Apollo aI

1'he iconography of a

pein'inll aOOniinll Room .JO of Mwf! is unique. An ""Ilt'l holds in his bosom Ihree small figures clad in tunics and wean", boou. The Idea of punishment has completely diu.ppeared, The an· lei Is lining up those ",'hom he Iw. juSt snatched from ,heir tonnentor. This va,unt iconography mlRht be uplained by the importance accorded to the iaving angel in the valley of the Nile in the ChriSIian era. From SOme centuries later comes the paimlng in the nonh u.nctuary of Dayr Anbl In Ihe Widl al·Napun described by H. G. Evelyn-White, "In the space at the nonh end of lhe easl ",... 11 are tun !he upper pans of four li!UI'e$ ralher less tJwt life size, 50 se~I)' scan-ed and battered dial it is hopeless to descnbe them .... The identity of IhlSC fiCURS is estabJished by inscriptions ~led In ...hite on the red border a"""" the seeM' the first is labelled Ananias. ". Ihe founh Misael •• " the IttOnd and third are ulC.dooe Aurias and. proba. bly. Micl.ad" (E.,..,Iyn·White. 3. 1933. p. 10». In 0.)'1'" Anbi Anp:in;,u., the n\lmerou.s painli!>&s_ _ 01 !hem da10d with certainty 10 tile first half 01 the thirtttntll cennuy-then is one in the choir dlaI lIICco:m:linl 10 J. LeI"O)' '""Presents the theme of !be ~:1tebrews. Today ills scarcely ""lib"". bu1 one can ..ilil di.5linl"ish IIw anael. boldinl in his ripl hand a long sWf ... hic" PMSft in Ironl of the three )'OUI>« men. All are d.ad in a tunK wilh a mantle fastened: IIol !he neck. On .he ground and a~ lhe figures one can make OUt leaping

!ion; witll his tight hand he bolds in frolll of the you", men the rod "'·i.... ""hlch he has al1led the

.=

Two funher pieces dne-rve mCl1tion, a11hough iIrictIy ~g one <:annCII calilhem Coptic. BoIh the Murano rrory in the NaIionaI Museum 01 Ita· YMllla and the icl>fl 01 the H ~ in the Mo.--!ery of SIIilll Catherine. Mwr>I Sinai, shan the ic.... IIoOIrapby 01 the ~ic worb cUd lIbo>-e. Th\.lS. apart from lhe rq>resentalions at al· Bap"''iI and Bl~. _ can demornttale a Iazge degree of unity in the icollOgraphy of the thrft Hebre;,;s. n.e-y are pra}ing, their arms raUed to heaYC'll. and tile an~l. JOlllelimes in the ml
Maq',

arnon,

"m~

At DAYIl .o.NM BOlA. the same theme appean Oil a p;r.inlinl of Ihe eighleenth cenlUl)'. Desphe Its ,ecent date. this piclure corre=sponds to the ancient pattern, lhe th,ee Hebrews. represenled as oralllS, are prolected by the angeL who Sll.ndlI al lheir nlht; he stretches his left wing ove' tbeir heads. while his rilhl wing. folded. closes ofllhe compos;·

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Evolyn-White, H. G. Tile Mo"u'eries gf lire w"di'" N"rrun. Pan 3: Tile A,clli/e<:r..n ,,"d Archeology. Ne... York. 19B. IL""" J. "L.e Programme d6conIlif de 1'lOgfise de Saint·Antolne du dne-rt de fa, mer- .-ouge." Bulk· tin de /·Irutit.. r tr""f.is d'.,cllEoJocie orktrl"lc 16 (191&):«7_79. Meinardus, O. ''The XVlllth Cenl\lry WalJ-Pain,ings in the ChuI"Ch of SI. Pa1.II. The 1beban. Dair Anba Bula. &/110/;" de kl lDCi~1i d'.,diolop Cople 19 (1961-1968); pubfuhed in 1910;181-97_ Ouibell. J. E. Exc• ...nons ./ s.qq.,. /906_1907. Cairo. 1908. Rassart-Dtbeflh, M. "w Trois hebr-ew< dam Ia foumaisc .w.,1·an paibhrflien. Ico~hit:· Byvuolitnl 48 (1978):430-SS. H

~

RA$.WIT.0EBaG1l

BUU. !He Jabal Khashm al-Qu'ud.

BILABEL, FRIEDRICH (1S88-I94$).

Gennan

papyrologist, He was a profenor at Heidelberg and edited nearly ISO papyri. Including Coptic and A",· bi~ papyri. publlshln8 Griuhische. kopri,che u"d ar~lnsche TUle t ... ReUtion .."d relig;osen Lilerat..r b., AgypleltS SpaIlA;I. with A. Grohmann (Heidel· berg, 1934) ant:! lwei U.~ .."de" ~." dom bi$Cho(.

BIMIN

Uchm ..t'Chiv von P"nopoli. in Agyplen (Heidelberg, 1935). He also wrole many articles on Coptic oslraca (see AegyplUs 2, 1921, pp. 586-88, and 13, 1933. pp. 555-(2). BIBLIOGRAPKY

Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Who Was Who In EgyplOlogy. wodon. 1972. Preau". C. "Friedrich Bilabe]." Ch,oniq"e d'Egyple 23 (1948):247-50, MAR.T1N KR.Ausl!

Bll.A-D, lown io Egypl, tho localion of which is now unknown. The SYNAXARlOK under Ihe com· men>oralion of lhe martyr Anbi Bajl1sh on 26 TUbah. stales that Bajiish. a weallhy man. was from ... place to the north of Bilarl. Arianu•• Ihe Byzantine governor in Anlinoopolis. imerrogat.d and tortured Bajll.sh, who was ev.ntually martyred near Salml1n, "'esl of limi. in lhe districi of the city of Tkow. E. Amelineau theori~s that Ihe Bilad mentioned in this account may be Ihe modern Biud ai-Mal in the province of QinA in Upper Egypt (1893, p. 1(0). '!his identification, however. is unlenahle .ince the orthography of the two place names is different and because Bil;\d al-Mal is Mt aUesled before the nineteenth century. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amelineau, E. L.o Gtog'aphie de rEOPle ~ "iptX/"e Caple, p. 100. Paris, 1893, Timm, S. Vas chrisllich·koplische Agyplen in arabisehe' leil. pt.!. pp. 391-92, Wiesbaden. 1984. RANDALL S'rnWART

BILBEIS,

city in the province of Sharqiyyah locat-

ed at tho junction of the ~tern Des.ert and the

Delta about 30 miles (48 km) northeasl of Cairo. Though Bilbei. is seldom memioned in Greelt and Lalin sources from the Roman-Byzantine era. it is apparent that the city exi.ted prior to the ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT in 641 and that it had a bi,hop .. early as lhe sev.nth century. The name of the city appears often in Coptic scales. which is an indication of an older tradition. Bilbei. also occun in the li,ts of Egyptian bi.hopric. (Munier, 1943. pp. 47. 54. (3). The firsl bishop in Bilbeis whooe name we know was Apa Abraham. The Coptic ac· counl of the FORTY·NINE MARTYRS of $cetis stales Ihat Abraham soughl the remains of the martyrs when

391

they lay in Ihe cave of Piamoun. From Ihis slory one un reasonably "",,ume Ihal Abraham. who was a contemporary of John. Hegumenos of Seetis. was bi.hop in lbe pre-Arabic period (d_ Evelyn-White, 1932, pp. 270-71). Another Abraham who served as bishop of Bilbeis was pruent at the synod held in Cairo in 744 to choose KIIA'IL I as palriarch. Under Ihe direction of King Arnalrich of Jerusalem, the Crusaders look Bilbeis in 1168. and some Copu lost their lives in the baUles. However. by the fourteenth century. Ihe city was once again Ihe .eal of a Coptic bishop. There is also evidence 10 .uggest Ihal Bilbeis h<>a'lled a Chrislian wriling school al Ihe beginning of lhe fourteenlh century. Coptic tradition says thai Bilbe" was one of Ihe 'lopping places of tho family of J.sus during Ihe FU(;HT INTO

E<;YPT,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amelineau. E. La Giographie de I'Egypte a /'ipoque COpl•• pp. 333-35. Paris. 1893. Evelyn·White, H. The Mon4Sleriu of Ihe Wadi 'n Nalrnn, pt. 2. The Hislory of Ihe Monasleries of Nilno ,wd of Scelis. New York, 1932. Munier, H. Recueil de.Ii.lu episcopales de NglI.e cople. Cairo. 1943. Timm. $, Christ/irhe Sial/en in Agyplen. p. 64. Wiesbaden, 1979. ___ Dos chri.s/lkJt-kopllsche Agyplen In .rabisch" 2eil. pt. I, pp. 401_406, Wie.baden. 1984. RANDALL SrnwART

DIUAy,

town localed in the Egyptian Delta aboul 5 miles (8 Itm) soulh of al-Ma~l1rah in the Daqahliyyah province. Bilj;ly taltes its place in Christian history as the birthplace of the manyr DICS who was killed during Ihe reign of Ihe emperor Maximian (Rossi, 1893). BIBUOGRAPHY

Amelineau. E. L" Giographk de I'Egyple a I'epoq"e COple, pp. 100-101. ParU. 1893. Rossi, F. Un nuova codice COplO tiel museo Egizio di Torino. pp, 3-136. Rome. 1893. Timm. S. Do. christlich-kopt"rh, Agyplen in .,abiseh" leil, pl. 4, pp. 1886~87. Wiesbaden, 1988. RAND~U. STEWART

DIMIN. Su

Pamin, Saint.

392

BIRMAo

BIRMA, lO",n located

in the Egyptian Df:lta aboul

7 miles (II bn) north~ of Tania in Ihe Jl'I'O"ince

of GMtbi"..... Ahhough Binni is lisle In Clllinian-Anbi<: lileran<.e and "0 bOslIop foo- lhe plllee Is allesled in a1l]" """ra. The earliesl. menl.... of Blrmlo in C<>pric.An.bOc: lite,.,.lUn Is &5 a aeo....pbical rmrenu poinl for the place ,,'here the am;. ai·JuyUih ~ed the Kurds in 1077. Fallureh MATlllEW' (1371-1409) had Ihe .elics of Saini George !hal were ,..,,,,,,.,.,ed in Binni brou&lu to IMn ""BA ~..O"II. of lhbmun in !he F.yyQm. In 1424, PIIlIriareh GABItIEl. v (1409- 1427) return«! ,he reli" to Binni (Viaud. 1919. p. 30). Birmt h.. two Coptic churchK. both of which are dedic.led 10 Saim Gemg•. One of !he&'" church. e& W3S buill in 1206 and later abandoned: Ihe other Wllll er.cled in 1611 (Viaud. p. 30). BIBI.IOGRAPHV Am~lineau,

E. LQ G~ograph;e de I'e,yptc " I·'pcq". cop'e. pp. 101-102. 1'30';$, 1893, Munie'. H. Rec"eil de$ /;$Ie$ ipiscopa/u de /'Igliu Caple. Cairo, 1943. Timm. S. D<.$ ch-ull;ch·loptiJ<:he ,lop,.... i .. arabi· ..,h..r z"u. pi. I. pp. 407-409. Wiesbaden, 1984. Viaud, G. l.a Nlerinagu cOplu .... Ef)'pte, From ,he notf$ of Jacob MU)'SOOr. C.im. 1919. R.ulDAU. STVO'ur

BIRTH RITES AND CUSTOMS. Binh prac. ticK m f&ypI are based on *"Cierll. lime-bono.-ed ctISIO<m, and although they ha"e tended to disappea.- - I urban d"",llen. ape<;ially ,in<;" the t....... ,ieth ccnlllry. u...,. an Hill maintained &5 _sly &5 ......... in rural sociel)'. An up«lant ""O~ ~.es l1luch .lIemion from Illox abou' her. as lhey ......k 10 $au./y h.... ....ery cravilllll for cenain Ioock. for il is believed lhal !hey mi&lu o!h.. rwise appear on the bod)' of !he newborn. Another pr~erI' belief ;, lhat whatevlCT com... into Ihe prospec'ive mother's view will Inllu· enc.. Ihe unoorn child. and thus die Is careful '0 surround herself with lovely ~ilhll. ~lerrinl 10 look up<m 'hose who ar.. distini"i~hed by their physical beauly or social prcslig... Among people of mo
birth. During the rony days of confinement followinr: !he birth (pl"&Clice
In the country. the pIaceft,a .nd umbilical cord are r;ivcn particular .u.... don. for it is bdie",d dw they proccet the moI.her and ........ long 1m. to the dlid (5CC' Blackman. 1916). Tlleir ;mportna1>U may be trao:orIto pl>anoonlc Ec>1M. where. special priesl wouJd h;n.", cared lOr lite royal placenta (Ayroul. 11'52).

Because prqn.ncy .nd childbirth ha,.., left the new moo...... euremely ....m and $U$Cep1ible 10 infeclion. th...., anendlnl ber take precautions to help her regain slreng,h and 10 proIect hcr from all evil- On ,he Ihird day .fter lhe binh. d>e is purged "ith caslor oil. and then she must lilerally large he.....lf in order to restOre her health and acti,ate Ih., mamm.1')' Il.nds. Funher, in order to spare h". any ."xiely 'hal could cern im.. rmediar· i... for e,il. for eumple, If lhey have ju.a returned from • buri.l. or h.ve ,he pIolm. of their hands and soles of Ih";r feet CO\.. ~ ",';m henna. or if they haw: juH httn circumcised. or are _aring Iique BOld pi...,.... precious Slones. Or park. H r. ~ld evil befall the rec (Ayn>U1. 19S2. pp. 121-22), and thus barren MH11en pay many mils 10 neatby necropoliu:s and !be Cairn Museum. The Cop'ic Ceremony of Ihe Sevenlh Day is ceIebraled ..... eD daY' after ,be binh of a cllild and ., lU<ended by women only. II \$ a Talher comple~ evenl Ihal .equires much prepanllion. 'The prec-eding evenlnl the family in.tall$. in the bedroom of the mOlher and Child. a largo winnow· ing $ie,e, a monar, a knife, an, and _I'. There is a lray near lbe ba· by's pillow upon wh;~h se"en ilem, have been placed to corre$pOnd 10 lhe $even days jusl p..." wh
grot.'

BISHOP

anemisia oc inc~~. and saiL On lh~ ...heat ruts an "" lNot is .0 ~ cook.... Ih," nut day and olI~ 10 iOme.one ad,'lUlc.... in yean. This is.o ~nsure 1M child', lonF'ily. NQ~' an: .. W>l.ch. inkstand. and pu for a boy. oc sc'->rs. a thimble. needle, and rhread a girl. The m\dv.iJc Come! abou. no<>n. As ,hoe suoesa arriYe. they slip c a luse .~...,.om child. for il i, consider~d '0 be ,he mOS' benefic~nl. HoldIng th~ baby in her ann•. ,he midwife tak~s Ih~ 'Tly Wilh i,s .even item. and .callers Ih~se con· l,"nlS throughout the house. She i, fonow~d by the mOlher, dOlhed in white, wilh a bra:O~ns heT fac~ while formulalin, wishes of 10nSe'>'ity for .he Il~wborn. The pa""nlJ of 'M new mo,her send Mr cakes ook'"
roc

Mugh#! io lhe ~Iished dtinl: ofF~red to any ,"'i1or

....ho calls to con,mub.e

th~

new mothe•.

BI.UOC.....,HY A)TOUI. H. H. FeU..1u "'Ec>JHt, Cairo. 1952. Bb.:kn\an. A. M. ''Jhe PIlanoh's Plaoo,...,... and tht Moon God Khons." J"",..at 0/ EDptia" hchtobD J. oeries 1 (1916), B1acbnan. W. S. ~s f
''''.

lMoe. W. E. hi Ace.,.."t 0( the 101.0" ntl C,u/OmS of tlu Mori.lI.l. 2nd London. New York. and Mdboum~. 1'90. Leeder. S. H. Itfons of lite PhtJrtJohs. Lon· don. 1918_ Was.sef. C~ W. Pr..riqu.J rit.. ~fler ct ..time"ttJius J~ Copt..... Cairo, 1971.

Ctles WtSl;A WASSEf

'0

'''S

393

BISADAH. Sa hoY,

BISHOP, a derg)'man oi 1M highe.t urder, senior in r;Inl to pries'5 and deacons. TM CopIic lerm (episwposj and ,he ATlbic (....quI) are deri,'ed from the G!"ed< and Latin ,,,,rsIon5 (episkop<>" ~pi."us). ",·hich. etymologically. mean "~rseer:' Bishops are SucctSSOn to tht .posIl~ and. from tht hio'orical point of lIiew. II~ ~pisc~e is a conrinualion of "'~ apos.oIate. 11le 1"asI0rai Episdes by down in ... me deoil .he ~uisil~ qualities of • penon wonlly of be;n, I &ood biohop (I Tim. 3:1-7; Ti. 1:7-10), whkh CUI he summarized ... foDows. {I> A$ God'. Sleward. a btshop midi be above repr<>Kh. (2) As SUI\! Paul's suec,.....,.-. he muR he .. compeunl teacM', able to npound the true ChrUtian doclri~, ha,ina a twofold duly: to fill the £ailhfu.I ilh 7.fll. and 10 rtfute the argum~nlS of diose -hco hold unorthodo~ vi«p of Alexandria at the age of lWenty-Ihre~, (2) A candid.t~ should a1l"'""-dy

ror

394

BISHOP

~ oro.ined priest and pmloprie5l (Connolly. 1919. chap, 3, p. 24)_

SeI"Uon of Bhhops

11M:

stipubtes Uwc uTWlimOl.lll appr1)'lal c( lhe .,...... fplion of the chosm pnwn, ~ COOl' WlJonJ '" rite Holy Ap"'JJleJ also SCl"ftSa Uw !he peqon w be ord.ined bishop "is '0 be chown br IIw: whole ~, "ii<>, ~II Iw: if, named and lippI"OYed. 1ft til., people ..-mille with 1M Jlft'byIery hd bi$hops thai"" ~t. on the I..onl',
N

ConHcraUOII of Blabops Accordill' 10 the Didouc4/U. the collteCration of a bWoop should rake Dbce on a Sunday aI Ih., ca. thedral, In !he p
ouglll not 10 be bilhop •• ,~ (Cummings, 1951, p. 110). 8e:£or., the senice of lhe consecr.uion s1arU, !he eandKble is IISkd 10 ""blicl,. affirm his adherence 10 the onhodo>. lailh, ,he churcb 1a,,"S, Ute ClLIIO... 01 the councils 01 Nic:aea, OONST "TUOOI'I.E. and EI'lfESIJS. . . . .'ell as the other CO\Joci He Mould abo declare his comoant rndinns 10 safquard th., doc. lrines and rites of the Copcic onbod<>.. church, 10 care for and proIec1 lhe COIlareption, and submit 10 !be chun:h and her II..... n..,n, followinll W rnding from !he Ac:1$ of w Apos.Iles. !he elabon", ceremony continues, indud. inC the foIl""';n. fntu~s: layJlIll-on of hands; holding the divine Cos.pels open upon his head; makinK the sign of Ihe croat ,hrlu and living him his e<;o. cle$""'Iical name: clOlhinl him with lhe ~ I vestments; partuinll of Holy Communion: ,emm'in.lhe new bishop's whhe ves,menls, and clothing him Wilh his black ones: and en'l1.l5tin.the episcopal .taff and crO$S 10 him, white the congn:gation chan" "Worthy, worthy, worthy."' Before lhe newly consecraten arvund the church. He then stands ou'. side 1he SU>C1Ua»' booo,..... his head, wh.iIe the other bishops SW>d inside, and be&ln the Jl
""""

"We herft,y enlhrone him who has by divine grace been cons«l"llIe
BISHOP, CONSECRATION OF

Functions and Duties As the main spiritual leader of the diocese, the bishop assumes the responsibility of teaching and preaching in conformity with the exhortation of Saint Paul (1 Tim. 3:2: 4:11, 13. 15, In). and in 2 TImothy 4:2. "Preach the word. be urgent in season and out of !leason. convince, rebuke. and exhon. be unfailing in ~tience and in teaching." The Didasca· lia also urges the bishop to pay particular allention to the interpretation of the so:riptures and the teaching of his people (chap, 3). The bishop ordains priest. and deacons in .0.<;' cordan.e with the needs of the church after careful consideration: "Do not be hasty in the laying on of hands" (1 Tim. 5:22). Canon 9 of the Council of Antioch (341) states the following: ", .. For each bishop has authority o,'er his own parish, both to manage it with the piety which is incumbent on every one, and to make provision for the whole district which is dependent on his city; to ordain presbyters and deacons; and to ..ule everything with judgmem.'· The bishop .upe....ises and comrols the clergy and administers discipline, "Let tbe elders who rule well be considered wonhy of double honor. especially those who laOOr in preaching and teaching.. , , Never admit any charge against an elder e.cept on the e"idence of two or three witnesses.... In the presence of God and of Christ JeMlS and of the elecl angels I charge yau to keep these rules without fa.'or, doing nothing from partiality" (l Tim. 5:17, 19. 21). The nUla.calia specifies Monday for the hearing of grievances and passing judgments in diocesan disputes (chap, 8). The Crm'titutians of the Holy Apostles makes similar provision" "Let your judicatures be held on the second day of the week, that if any controvef$Y arise about your sentence. having an interval till the sabbat!i"bl"0u may be able to set the cOlllro\'ersy right, and tb reduce those to peace who have the contests one with another against the Lord'. day." The bishop consecrates ~hurches, altars. vessel. needed for the liturgy, and the Holy Chrism. The bishop pmvides for the needs of the clergy and the deacons, as well as of the poor, the widows, and the orphans in his diocese. The bishop manages church finances: "Let the bishop have the ~are of ecclesiastical revenues and let him administer them ;OS in the presence of God." Likewise. "We ordain tbat the bishop have authority over the goods of the ~hurch: for if he is to be

395

entrusted with the predous souls of men. much more ought he to give direction. about good•. that they all be distributed to those in walll. according to his authority, by the presbytef$ and deacons, and be used for their support with reverence." BIBUOGRAPHY

Cummings, D, The R~dder. Chicago. 1957. Habib Jirjis. Asrar aJ-Kanisah al-Sab-ah. 2nd ed" pp. 216-19,223.224. Cairo. 1950. Ibn SibA' YI1~ann6 ibn Abl Zakarly~. Ki1tJ.b al·lawha· rah al-Nafisah fl 'Viii", al.Ka"lsah, e
BISHOP. CONSECRATION OF. In lhe event of a bishopric becoming vacant as a result of the death of its bishop or for other reasons, a su~cessor is nominaled by the clergy and congregation, and his name is submilted to the patriarch. tOg'Cthcr with a tC$timoniai called a deed of election, The patriarch refers this testimonial to the Holy Synod (see HNOD, HOLY) for approval, after which a date is set for the ceremony of the new bish"p's consecration. This takes place on a Sunday and is usually held at the cathedral church of the patriarchate In Cairo. Clothing wllh the Schema On the eve of the consecration. a service is held durin, which the nominee is given an ecclesiastical name and is clothed with the ",hema. unless he has already been vested with it at the outset of his monastic life. The s~hema is a long plailed leather girdle ad<>med with cmSses and is worn crosswise Over Ihe chest and the back as a .ymbol of striCI austerity and asceticism. At the stan of Ihe proceedings. a further verifica· tion of the unanimous agreement of the clergy and congregation on the ~hoice of the nominee is car· ried out by the patriarch or his deputy. With the bish"p-elecl .tanding in from of all. they are asked three times if they consider him t" be the right man, one who is ca~ble of sh"uldering the serio,," responsibilities of the bishopri~. Thi. is done in fulfillment of the .tipulation laid down in the Con· stilulw~s of Ihe Holy Apas/les:

396

BISHOP, CONSECRATION OF

And let 'he principal of ,1M, bist>ope . . lhe pr~ bylery and people wbe.lM,r this be .he penon whom .hey desire for ,heir m1er. And if 'hey p'''' their consent. let him;a.sk Further whellX'.. he has a IJOOd tnlimony from all men &i 10 hi5 worthi. _ for so gre;>' and &Iorious an au'!Iori.y: w~bcr all things relating .0 his pie!)' God be richl; whed>C'r ~Ke "",,"aI'ds men has been oburw:er do accordillllO Inllh. and no, 1CC0rdini '0 p.-~e1icc. witness he i. wch a one. lei !hem the !hinl time. M bdore G:>d !he judae. anel Christ. me Holy Chos, boein, also pusenl. as ...·ell as all me holy and mini$ler1"1 spin.., ad< again .... hether he be 'nlly wonhy of thl, mini..ry••ha. so "in ,he mO\llh of 'wo Dr ,hree witnesses ~~ry ...-ard may be: eouobliohed:' And if they agree ,he lItiro,ime .hat he I. worthy. leI Ihem all be demanded ,heir \/OCe: and when ,hey all ttl,'C il willingly. lei them be heard.

.owarns

,ha,

Pledge The bi,hop..,lec' ,hen reads a solemn pledge I8.ken before Almigh,y God. ,he invi'ible Head of lhe Church: lhe ~red allll.r; me palriarch. bishops. and prubyle,",; ,he membcT'l of.he Holy Synod; and lhe people, in which he undertakes .0 uphold .he 0'" Ihodo. faith 10 .he lasl brnth and obey Ihe canon. of ,he holy apo:>!ille< and lhe ecumenical «>Uncil. of NICAEO (J25). COr<¥r.v
'0

al council. and me holy bwn of .he church; safcguud lhe riles, doclrines, and .radillons oflhc Coptic Qnhodo. Church; 10 Ina! all the II>Cmben of his ..risft ";!h jI.J$tioce and wit"""l bia$ 01 fa'Vl>r. not condemnin,: anyone "" MAnay bul affordi"l him an opportunity 10 prove his InlOOCetlce: 10 «>& ,;nue 10 Icad all ascetic life. n_r tTeali"l the chun:h uwu as his _"II; and 10 5l.Ibmit to the Alp«m.e authority of~ church. >utell In His H... lincu, the pope and patriarch of the Sec of Sain. Mark. and in me Holy Sp>od When the bishop-efect h.. read lhe pl..d&e. hi5 epiKopal VCSlments receiYC Ihe 'I8n of lite crnss. and hi. nr:w ecclesiastical m.me Is announced. Sunday Procession In lhe course of lhe celebration of Ihe Di~ine Lilu'1)' on the lollowing Sunday momina. and ;m· media,ely aher Ihe reading. from the ACI5 and ,he SYNHAJUON, the bishops. clergy. and deacon. go to

where the bishOj)'Clec' is a",ailinc- 1bey bring him Into the ca,hedralln an Imp"""';..e proce;sion. cal' rying c........ and lIab,ed candln and chanting in Coplic: !he h)mn beJinninc- '"The o..ly-bcgC' pope asks 1hc archdeacon or a pri51 .0 read me deed of eIec'ion.

Dftd

or Election

This ,estimonial is addrc5SCd by ,he clergy and congregation of Ihe ,·acan. bishopric In the pope. beginning wilh lite honorific title< of the successor '0 lhe Ih",ne of Sain. Marl<. II describes the $Or· """ful .l<>'e of the pari,h after Ihe depart"re of iI-_ bishop and the evenlual choice of .. monk of a certain monastery 10 ~11 the vacancy. he being filled w;,h "inue and piety. a man who has forsakeo the world. a good leacher. eagcr.o lislen '0 Ihe Gospel of Trulh. The pope de!Cends from ,he throne and .lands al Ihe allll.r. facing eas'ward. With the bi'hop' SUI' ro.",ding him. he offers Ince"",, and says Ihe Pr.iyer of Incense. while the bishop-ciccI knttls a, me aI· ~.

Petilions The archdeacon says the following prlitions, after each of ilich lite conVCption respoMs by ",,)'inc

the ..\)

cINc'"

I. "A1mi&hty Cod. wbo an in hca,'co, _ heseech ~, hear .... and have mercy upon ........ 2. "Pray for the puce 0/. the One Holy Calholic ApostoIK Church.3. "Pray lor !he li~ and salety 0/. our Father the Pauiarch. Abbi (name). and all thc bishops. the clergy, and ,he ChriSl·!oving CDnIl'qlaOOn." 4. "Pray for thc for&j,·enes.s of our $i... and delivery from all tribulation." s. "Pray 10 Cod. to bl~ Hi, inhcrilan<:e ;mel ha,~ mercy upon His peol'l~ •• hrough the intercession of the Blessed T'hlOlok05, Saint MMk. and aillhe ",,;n..:· 6. "We be.sc«:h T1tce. Lord•• end Thine Holy Spiril upon thl. eletl sen'an, of Thine [name]:'

The cong~ga.iort lays the Kyrie de;son fifty I;me<.

BISHOP. CONSECRATION OF

I..-yllll-on or Hands

1M bishops lay

lMi~

hands upon ..... bishopelecl'l Ihoulden ""d llnt\3.. Then, facina; the wesl, 1M pope pny$, "God Almighty, Lord of aU, fOUrce of all "'e!'CY and c:omlort. ... Thou art He wtto didst redeem .. ",ith Thy Blood••.. Gralll Thy 5eI"\1&111 (namellrace I<> !rind and 10 l<><¥e. Ghe him ""'sdom I<> shepbc:rd Th)' Bock in purity and ;..uioce. for Thine illhe p"""'e~ and !he glory...iU1 Thy Good fillher and u.. Holy Spiril. nOW and fooeO'U". Amen." He plKft his r1&h1 hand upon Ihe bilhop-elech

fon:head. until Ute arc:hdeac:on has "n>slted sayinl !he fol.lowing pronouncement: "May the Oi"ine grace ","iocll nuke< good all inadeq\dCy. heals all infirmity. and provida fo~ the Holy Church of God, come upon enamel Ihe se\Va1ll of Cod. the prlesl. and mo~k of the monastery of [name] in Ihe place of [Mme} whom lhe Lord hath taken umO Him. Let uS all pray. beseeching God 10 granl him the Brace of the Hoi)' Splril," All Ihen say the Xyrie e1eiso~. looklng lowsrd the aha~, Ihe patriar<:h says this pnyer: "Yes. Lord. make him wonhy of rhe episcopal olIice. 10 ..,rve Thy Name ann <Ji Thy Saints. IhrtH.lJh lhe mercic of Thy Only-bego1lm Son. our Lord Jau.. Ch~. wilh whom and the Holy Spiril Thou .., b ~ now and forenr. Amen." He loob toward the ""e!il and placn his ri&hl hand upon Ute bishop-elecl'l llnod. The bishops lay lheir .... nds IIJ'O'I'I his ...... and. lhe pop.- ..eeilleS the I'l'lII)"'" of Laymc_ ol Hands:

Maller. Lord God, the AJm~, Father of our Lord.. God and Savior J.....,. Olrisl. ""b;) has neither beJinnilll nor end ... wtIo cho'elleth in the ~ and Ioob upon 1M lowly ... do now pour Thy Holy Sp;rit "'hidt Thou hm gramed 10 Thy pun: apo$Lles. &i.e.~e same crace 10 Thy IC'tvanr (.... me], whom Thou hasl cJ>oo;en bishop. that he may shepherd Thy holy flock, and becollle unl<> Thff • blameless ..,...·eT. and pray unto Thy coodneSll day and nighl.... Give uniO him through Thy Chrisl lhe .....thorily 10 £o... i"" sin5 accordinl 10 the commandmem of Thy oniy. begouen Son. Jewi ChriSI OUr Lord. 10 ordain cle'llY. to 1005<: all ecclesiastic.l bonds, 10 conte· cnle new chu~che. and allan, and aerve Thee without blame. all the daY' of hi. life, with put"(!. holy bloodl .... sacrifices. Fill him. Lord. w;lh Ihe g....ce. of the Holy Splrh. snont him the grace of healing and teaching,

397

thaI he may becortM: a &ood IUjd" to thost who go asttay. a li&ht 10 thoee who ......I.k in darkness and siD. a lear:hu 10 the iCRorani. disclosing the won:! of lruth righlly, following !he eumple of the Truo: Sbephml. our Lord Jaus ChriY. ~ 10 Lay down his liff: for his sMep ... duu he may stand. with boldncso before Thy a-.ome throne. 1ooIrina; 1Orvo....-d I<> lhe put reward wt.ioch Thou halt ~ for lhooe who labor for 1M preaching of the Goopd. Then the pope tums to the eas'. tow:ard the a1IaT, and OOIUinues, MLook upon \.IS. Lord, and upon our minisl')", and purify uS from all defilemenl. Send from above upon Thy se ......nl [bishop's name] Thy grace <Ji high prie:'ilhood. that he may be wonhy dtrough Thy good pleasure to .hq>hcnl Thy Bod: withouI blame. fur Thou an merdful and. worthy of honor and wonhip. Falher. Son. and Holy Spirit. now and fon:"e~." Turning to the west. the p<:>pe ,i,ns lhe head of the bishop with his IhUlllb Ihree lime•. saying, "We ordain you [name} bishop in Ihe holy chorch of Ihe Christ·lovinl city e>f [name] and its nOllle. in the Name of the Falher and the Son and lhe Holy Spiril." Hcre rhe bi.hop " helped on wllh lhe episcopal "eSlmen"- while the ~ says. "Glo')" anly Carholioc and Apoou:oIic Church_ Bleacd be the Lord God forever. Amen." He makes the !iiV' <Ji the cross Ihree timn ",..th h .. thumb OVeT the head of lhe bishop. sayine. "We ordain [name], eleee of God, bishop in lhe One. Holy, 10dissoIubk CIru...,h of the UftSftn and. U''inI God, n£ the O>rist-lo..rn, cit)· of (name] and iU noll'><:. unl<> the cIory and hanOI" ollhe Name <Ji the Holy Trin.. !y. 10 the peace and editOcation <Ji lhe Ho/)' CItu...,h. n.. archdeacon reads a few lIlOl"e petitions. and the pope $lOy> anoUtcr prayer of thanug;'ina; and returns I<> IUs throne. Al Ihis poinl. the celclmotion <Ji the on"ne U!U'llY Is rdlImed. and. the Pauline episl;le is n:ad from Hebrews .:H and 5:6. followed by the TriM.pn. the Inlercession of lhe: Goopd. Ihe ~l n:adinl. and th~ rest of the anal'b;)ra. The pope admini5ters the communion 10 tM n~w bisJJop. giVC5 him the b",alh of the Holy Spiril, places his righl hand upon his head. sa)'ing, "Worthy, wonhy. wonhy. bishop [name] of Ih~ cily of [name} and ilS nome." His Iilurgical vestments a", changed fur his black cassock. and Ihe pope hands him his cro.i.. and cron, M

398

BISHOP, TRANSLATION OF

Epbcopal Exhortatioo Fmall" !he fJOPI!' &li.,cn a stnnon known .. Ihc episcopal C<>mmlUlo:hnenl. """ch II a compendium oJ pilliUpu ol.inue and godIinC!lS culled from !he H~ T~ft1 10 sen'e as ~ina for the I>CW bi:lJ'Iop. as sec.. from the folknrting ~

Be always humble. quiet. conlented and merciful. and ncv.... lose your ~imir)'. Eachew the ~ of mon~, and be kind 10 o~ v.i
BurmtSler, O. K. E. The Emritl" or Copeic CltNrdJ, pp. 166-73. Caim, 1967. Ibn Sibil' Y~ ibn Abo Zabrfyi.. XiUb ./,)...... MraJt fI1.f{.~ /I ...,..... "I-Xa,,1J#4, loci Vihilr Ma"fllr. pp. 122-25. 'Caim, 1902. T....M. into LMin .. "'etiosil Mmr"rila tk JCj~"tiil ~cck.Jill#il:u by Vlncenlio Mi5IriI]. Caim. 1966. ARCH'ISItO~

BMtuos

BISHOP, TRANSLATION OF, the transfn· ence of a bishop from Ihe see for ....hlch he w;U eonse<:Ialed 10 some other diocese. Thl. pracUce I. forbidden by Canon 15 of lhe Council of NIC~f.A (325), which stales, "On account 01" the lIreat dillur· banee and discords Ihal occur. it Is d«reed that the

pbc~

contIwy 10 lh.e Canon, muM be ....holly done a_y; so thai oolher bW>op. ~. nor deKon wI] pass from dty 10 city. And if any one after thi5 dec-= <:I.lh.e hoi)' and Synod Wll attempl all)' !ilJCh thine. or continue in all]' such eounc, his proccedinp .haI1 be ullcrly ..,id, and he shall be restored 10 lh.e Church ior whOch he ...... onbined bishop or pnsbyter.~ This prohibition is based "" thoe assumplion that monsIation II l\IOIIvated by ambition....·hich is detrimental 10 the proper <:Irpni:w:ion « the vari· ous clturch parUhcs, boll> bite and smau. Saint ATIWlASIUS (326-373) coodemned the pra<;< lice of abandoni", one'l parish as tantamoun. 10 di..,r-ce on the pan of lhe bishop, siner his parish is his spouse. n,., founcenth AposlOli<;a1 Canon allo..... Itte translali<M'l of bishops only for valid ",awns: "A bishop is nol 10 be a110~ 10 leave his own p.o.rish, and pass over into anolher. although he may be pressed by m.ny to do $C), unless there be .ome proper cau.., conSlrainini him, IS If he can confer oorne grealer bene6t upon the persons of thai place in th" word of godliness. And Ihi. mUSI be done not of his own accord. but by the judgment of many bi.hops. and II their eames, exhortalion."· On mi. basil.. Alexandnu woa lnlDdatod from the bishopric <:I. Cappadocia 10 Jel'\laalem, an episode commemo.... ed in lhe Coptic Synaorion on 12 BanunUdah and I eanomhi. and mentioned by various church hislorian.. Canon 21 of the Council <:I. Antioch (341) decrees that "a bishop may not be lI'atlSbted frnm one paT' iah to ar>otI>er, eidler intn>ding himself of his own suggcnion. or UI\du compulsion by the people. or by a>nMBinl <:I. the bishopa. but be shall remain in 1M CbW'Ch 10 ...'hieh he was allOlled by God from the her;inllifl&, and sftall IlOI be translated from ii, acconline to .be decl"ft IOl1'1ltrly passed ....
"eat

--

GItEGOU or NAI.L\NZtIS (329-38') WIlS comec...ud againsl his will in 312 as pries! 10 the see of Sasima,

• small village in Cappadocia. Nevcrthe-lesa. be remained in Na>;ianws as a ."ffrapn 10 help his . the•• the- bishop of Nubnzu•. until the I.IU . dealh in 374. GrellOf)' Ihen retired 10 Seleu<:b, but he Wa!l called 10 CQnllantinople in 379 10 .uppon the adherenlS to the Hlcene bith. who had nellher paslor nor ehurch. During Ihe Council of Con.tan. Iinopl". he ""as appointed bishop of Constanllnopl". The E~lian and Macedonlan bl.hops ""hQ altend· ed Ihe council dispuled .he .-alidi!}' of his appoint· menl. He resignt
BISHOPS, BIOGRAPHIES OF

nah, I will give myself for the ...lvation of our ship [the church]. though I am an innocent of the ",onn. Let the lot fall upon me and c...t me int" the sea.... I reluctantly ascended the episcopal chair and gladly I now come down," (Schaff, 1891. Vol. 2, pp. 918-19). PROCLUS (d. 446 or 447). patriarch of Constantino· pie, was consecrated bishop of Cyzicus, but the people lhere refused to receive him, so he remained in Constantinople ... a much-admired preacher. In 434 he was enthroned by the bishops at Constantinople, and the scruples felt about translation had been removed by the leiters of Cd.,.tine, bishop of Rome. 10 CYRtL I of Alexandria (412-444). 10m. Of ANTIOCH, and Rufus of Thessalonica on the subject of transiation (ibid" p. 175). Proclus then sent both to C)'ril of Ale~andria and John of Antioch lhe usual synodical letters announcing his appointment. both of whom approve:. impatient with the lack of supervision. clamored for a bishop of their own and for the appointment of Sidelius. Siderius was accordingly consecrated, No penni..ion was received from the pope of Aluandlia. and only a single bishop could

399

be found to officiate. conmuy to the ApOSTolic Cartart., which command that a bishop be ordain~d preferably by three bishops but at least by two. But these were the times of th~ Anans (see ARIANtSM), and th~ majority of the people were heretics, Thus, in view of the immense utility of the appointment, Pope Athanallius overlooked its irregularily, cOll$id· ~ring that in such perilous time. Ihe laws could not alwaY" be closely observed. and shortly afterward, he promoted Siderius to the metropolitan see of Ptolema~.

Pope K/lA']L I (744-767), said, "Sword I)r he Or casting to lions or exile or capti";ty,-the.e are things that troubl~ me not; but I will not enrer into what is not lawful. nOr incur my own excommunicalion. which I subscribed with my own hand and initiated, to the effect thai no bishop shall become patriarch. For the excellent fathers excommunicat· ed him who shall take a degree in the hierarchy by the help or favour of the government." The only ;nslanc<'S of translation In the Coptic Church are Ihe translation and prom(llion of Kht'll. bi.hop of Fuwwah, to the metropolitan see of Ethiopia by Pope JOHN VI (1189-1216); and the transla· tion and promotion of CHRISTOOOULOS 1JI. bishop of Jerusalem. 10 the metropolitan see of Ethiopia by Pope PETER VI (1718-1726). In the twentieth century th~ Caplic church has cOIl1inu~d to adhere to that cuslom, with the eJ
Heide, K. J. von. "Not~ •." In A Select Library of th. Nice". and Post·Nkene Fathers of tile Christia" Church, ser, 2, VoL 14, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace. Grand Rapids, Mich.. 1950. Schaff. P. Hi'/ory 0/ the Christiart Church: Nice". and Post·Nkene Christia"ity. VoL 2, pp. 918-19. Edinburgh, 1891. EMILE MAJID. ISHAQ

BISHOPRIC.

See Eparchy.

BISHOPS, BIOGRAPHIES OF, The anciem Iite1'llry Ionn of the biography was taken over by the Christians, all is shown by the Panegyricus on Con·

400

BISHOPS, CORRESPONDENCE OF

the C~I by Eu5dJius IlJld Jerome's De rim iIIltllriOtts. From the founh century on, the live! of oainl$ such as the Vir" C)'Pri.. lli of Pontius • nd the Vir.. .411l....n of Arnan.ius "'n"e at the ct'i>" ter of Christian btogtaphy_ The "tltt wort., " mill· lure of btocnPhY and encomium, had a considuable intlumu in Coptic lilCr.otun, wtIh ~'I"" emphotsis on the elcn>ltnl of culOC· ~ docsiI'" riom of thae wo.-b ~-.uy bet"fl'n el>COlllium .nd NI, and occaoiooally the). lin: abo called poJile;' (Abodel Sa)'ed. 1984, pp. 2nlL). The finl $IIbjecu of bio&r.ophies or "ncomla "''CO"e manyn: and !hen ..--oks. follo..ed by bishops. For u.ampl". an "ncomium On .wN::AllU5. BISHOP OF TI((MI. is MCrib..uiareh. In ...., early lounh century. Archbishop AI· uandcr I. ninele""lh patriarch. had rcponedly ""rln"n an ell<'omium on his predcc~r rtTu. ! of Aluandria. $Cventeenth plllriarch (iU Krause. 1979. lip. 110 and nn. 171!.: funhe. e.amples al pp. .~nline

710-15),

In the $tventh century. when Coptic literary worb were inneasingly wrillen in Coptic and no lonltT transilled from Cruk into Co,:>tic, a blogno· phy of Bishop Pisemius 01 Qi~ was ",rinen. This has been pt'UCrvcd in the Sahidic and Bohairic dialecu and in Arabic translalions (Ab the cootenl of the biognophy. IpIJl from '-aNtions in 1""lIh, agrees word for ......rd. The Bohairic "",.. lion reponedly was wriuen by Bi~ Moses, ...., SUCCl!S!lOr of Pi..,ntius .. bishop of Oif!; the Sahidlc, by 1M priC$l John, I discipk of PUenlius. The lon.· er Arable tl'llnsialion is $.IIid 10 hi"" been comJXl$Cd by Tbcodorus of Sect... ....ith ~l
""thors

BIBLlOGRll.PHY Abdel Sa)1:!d. C. C. U"lu.ucIlU"8~" til d~" Te~Ie" /lb
GcrsIingcr, H. "Bio&nophi~:' In R~"lkxik,," lur AIlI' i1. Vol L Stult,gan, 1985. Mum .. KaAU'iE

BISHOPS, CORRESPONDENCE OF.

Tht

inhoobiunu of Christian E01't reveal a dclil!ht in wriling. 00 rar 1$ tM, "en: able 10 write. Many InlJIS&<'liom, C'SJ'eCiaily I~ of lqal content. were fi.ed in ",riUen form. Among lhe papyri and Mtraca found in numerous "rchi~i and deriving from the anliquiliei trade, Ihere are leuen from bishops to the failhful of lheir dioceses. and from Christians to their bishop<. It "'as one of Ihe duties cf the bisht>p to ha,.., the Easter leller from tlte patriarch cr Ale.andria !'Cad in lhe churches of hii diocese_ A ccmpanion piece te> an Ea.;ler leller, fre>m Ihe diocese of Hermonlhis. is preserved in Ute Brilish Museum (PapylU~ XCI; Crum. 1905, no. 46-4). The bi~hop, nM mentiooed by name. writes Ihat he has sent the arehpric51 ApI K)".... ",ilh the hoi)" EaslC'r letter of the palriarch. in order that it may he read in the churches of D.i"m". TIlerc mU$l ha~", bun simil&; lellen> in 11'B" numbC1'5 from all Ihe Ec-ptian bw."",.

Tbe COtTcspondence of tWO bishops from .he silIm and ..,...,nlh ccnluriQ in Upper ~'JlI parriculari)" ~'CS (Q be mentioned. Bishop Abraham of HermonthiJ AlIraham, "'bo rnidcd in the lIM>IIISlCf)' of Phoi· bammon, sillwed ncar o;c...... ,...101 numerous lei' Ie,." to the ChriJtians of his dioe~. both d"ric:aI. and lay. He abo rccei,-ed l~n,," from Ihese pcnoll$ (114 ....T ilings are del" .....ith in Knwse, 1956. Vol. 1). Part of the c~ndenc~ ........ found by lhe escaVl'or E. Naville in lhoe cou..,... of pulling do"n Ih" Pboiha.mmon monastel}" dunn. lhe cxcaY:Otion of lite temples of Halshepsut and Thutmosc III a' DAYI. Al lW1R1, be.un by Ih~ Eg,ypl E>.ploJ1l,lion Fund in 1893. Whi~ !Ome of the COlTC,p<>Tldence reached Ihe museums e>f Cairo and London, anoth· er pan. comprising mQre than 300 le~ts, was thrown on Ihe eXClvalion rubbish heaps, and was ne>t found until the )'Carsloilowina 1922. durin8 Ihe jnspection of Nlville's dumps b)' Ihe Metropolilan M""",,um of An. The discov~l}" was dj,'ided hetween

BISHOPS, CORRESPONDENCE OF

museums in Cairo and New York. [n 1959-1960 the Metropolilan Museum $Old these le,ts and olhers 10 Columbia University (Schiller, 1976, p, (04), [n addition, lex," were found during the excavation of Coptic monasleries buill into pharaonic ~mples or anchorite setdements. Some reached museums via Ihe anliquities lrade in Luxor. Only SOme of the texIS ha,'e heen published. While 114 texIS from this correspondence were known in 1956, since then the number h3$ grown 10 aboul 200, The existence of a large number of other writings, no longer eXlalll, can be inferred from the lexlS lhat recapimlate the early history of tnmsacli(ms. For example, in Crum's Coplic Os· """~ (CO 30) we road, "After I entroaled wu, you ordained me a deacon at Ihe monastery of the holy Apa vietor." Since the bishop himself, on the e,'i· dence of his testament, could not wrile, he employed four scribes. It has become evident that for many tranoactions there were set forms, inlO which only Ihe relevam personal and place narnes had 10 be inserted. This coOTespondence, the most comprehensi"e and best-proserved Gn ostraca, shows the activity of an Upper Egyptian bishop around 600. It includes lexlS on Ihe ordination of deacons and priests (see OIlOINAll0N, CLERICAl.. and CLD.lCAL INSTIUJCTION) as wen as documents relating to appoinlment to of. 6ce. For these documents of appoilllmem Ihere was also a set fonn, in which clergy, for the moSl part deacons, were named as titular heads of churches (and monasteries). The lask of the.e lilular heads was 10 watch for or prevenl any negligence and to instruci Iheir subordinales, thai they mighl walk in the fear of God. The disobedient among clergy and laity were 10 be excluded from communion (see EXCOMMUIICATlON), umil they came l
401

essary for the celebration are inspected and blessed by Ihe bishop, and he insists on the mixing of water and wine for the chalice in the Correci proportions, as laid down by the falhers. Anyone who adds mOre water is threatened, together with all his household, with exclusion from communion. Anyone who does nol comply with a commi"ion 10 administer communion is excluded from communion (CO 53) or from the clergy (Winlock et al. [Ep.] 154; CO 485), The bishop also makes provision for other sacra· menl-" baptism, which takes place th,..., limes a year in Djeme (Papyri und O$tr~ca i~ SI~af5mu5eum [BP) 12501). and marriage, 10 whieh four circular lellers are devoted. These repetitions show thai there evidently were often infringements againstlhe marriage laws. He quotes Luke 16:18 (CO 72) and emphasize.s thai only when Ihere is unchastit)' can a woman be divorced from her husband. Anyone offending is excluded from communion (CO 72), In a further Jeller (CO 73) Ihe bishop reilerates his posilion on marriage, and names various relalions of kinship that stand in the Wa}' of a marriage, such as maniage 10 a niece and to brother.;- or sisters·in· law, which is forbidden in the church canons. The bishop also inlervenes on behalf of poor people who were badly lreated, Such an occurrence (CO 71) is the occasion of a circular letter, in which he compare. Ihe culprits to the e,'ildoers of Ihe Old and New Testamenll! aod excludes them from communion. He uses almost Ihe same wording in another circular (Jernstedl, no. 80), which is concerned with the hindering of poor men in their 6shing. Again excnmmunication is Ihreateoed, The bishop is al$O active in the exercise of his judicial power, AUDIENTI~ EPISCOPAUS, as peacemaker and mediator. He allemr>1S 10 senle a dispule (BP 8727) and to mediate between two parties (CO 49). In cases of disobedience and offenses against Christian conducl, both laity and clergy are excommunicated by him 3$ well as by the tilulars of churches and monasteries. Clergv who are disobedient or offend against the church canons are deprived of their rank Villages aod monasteries are threatened with imposition of lhe INT~ROICT, The bishop evi_ dently encouraged the lradition ¢f burying Ihe dead as mummies (see lduldld'ncAnoN), for he commis.ioned a man 10 buy bands, which were emplo}'ed for the wrapping of the dead, and shroud$. Bishop Pisenllus of Coptos Thi. bishop, who came from the ranks of the monks, did nol gO"em his diocese from a mO"as-

402

BISHOPS, PORTRAITS OF

lery ex~epl during the PERSIAN INVASION OF EGYPT. The """r~e of his correspondence, now chiefly in Ihe Louvre, is unknown. In contl"a$1 with lhose of Bishop Abraham. most of the letlers are written on papyrus, Only a small pan of the corresponden~e has been preMrved, for oft,," leu.rs of lhe bishop. mention"d in answers by lho.., addressed. have nol survived. The correspondence is concerned-like thai of Ab...ham_with questions of ordination, problems of adminiMralion of Ihe clergy. frequently discussed problems of betrolhal and marriage. care of the poor, adminislration of juslice, and uclusion from communion or from Ihe clergy. III addition. a number of conlemporary bishops in neighboring dioces· e, arc named in his correspondence-for instance, Bishop Antonius of Ape and Bishop Pisrael of Kus (OIls). who jointly inve'ligaled the complainlS against a cieri." and Bi.hop Horame of IdfU. The Iwo ..,Is of correspondence complement One anOlher, and skelch a piclure of church relalion· ships in UpPer Egypl in Ihe sixth and ..,venth cen· luries such as has nol yct been provided for other c"nturies and other region. of Egypt. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Crum. W. E. Coplk OJ/'ac", London. 1'lO2.

___. C"lalogue of Ihe Coplic M""USCr;pls ;" Ihe British Museum, London, 1903, ___. The MOnaSMI)' 0/ Epiphaniu. "I Thebes. pt. I, pp. 223-31. New York, 1926. Jerosledt, P. Koplskije Tehl)' Gosudarslvennogo M,,· teya lsobrazile1nykh ]skusstvimen; A. S. p,.,hki"a. Moscow and Uningrad. 1939. Krause. M. "Apa Abraham von Hermonthi., Ein oberligyptischer Bis<:llOf urn 600." 2 vols. Doclor' al di.... Berlin, 1956. ___ "Die Kirchenvisitationsurkund"n. Ein neues Formular in der Korrespondenz des Bis~hofs Abraham von Hennonlhi•." MeroitictJ 12

(1990),223-36.

.10

Re"iIlout. E. ''Textes copt"s. Extraits de la corres· pondanc" de St. Pesu'mhius. eveque de Coptos. el de plu.ieurs documents analogues (juridiques au economiques)."· Rev"e 'gyptologique 9 (1900):133 -77; 10 (1902):34-47. &hiller, A. A. "A Chedl,.t of COplic Documents and Letters."' Bullelin of Ihe Americ"" Society 0/ Popyrologisls 13 (1976),99-123. Till. W. Dol,erung "nd Prosopographie der koplis· chen Urku"den au. Thelu". pp. 168ff. Vienna, 1%2. Winlock, H. E.; W, E, Crum; and H. G. Evelyn. While. Mon",,'ery 0/ Epipho"ius. New York. 1926. MARTIN KRA1!SE

BISHOPS, PORTRAITS OF.

From a period unknown 10 us.•he bishop possessed Ihe righl 10 a ponra;l. The Monophysile bishop John of Eph"sus (c. S07-S86) givcs detailed infonnalion about Ihis in his Church History. extant only panly in Syriac (ed. E. W. Brooks. CSCO 105, 106). According to John. port...i.. of Ihe new bi.hop were hung in the churches of hi. diocese after his accession 10 office. Such a ponrait of Bishop ABRAIII.M OF HER.MOPITHtS has sun.ived, This often·,..,produced work (see Krause, p. 108 and n. 19) passed, through Ihe amiq' uilies lrade, into Ihe possession of the "arly Chrislian and ByzanTine """'tion of Ihe State Museum in East Berlin. Ii shows the bu.t of Ihe bishop, depicted full face......ilh ,101" and the Bible. The head is surrounded by a nimbus, and the inscriplion "Bish· op Apa Abraham" i. written in venical lines 10 right and left beside it. Investigalion. have led to Ihe conclusion Ihat the ponrail probably came from a small basilica .....esl of Ihe greal arcade of Ihe lu~or temple ......hich Grebaut excavated in 1893. and nOI from BAwIT. as was form"r1y Ihoughl and slill i. often claimed. In this excavation, part of the church tre3SU,.., was oIso found, and this likewise bears Ihe name of Ih" bishop, The ponrail was painted be£<>re 600. probably about 590. From Nubia, which was under Ihe jurisdiction of Ihe archbishop of Ale>andria and Ihus belonged to Ihe Coplic church. severnl bishops' portrnitll have .urvived, mOSI of them in Ihe episcopal calh<:dral of UROS. the ancient Pachol"a$ (sec Jakobielski, 1982), In contn5t wilh Ihe portrail of Ihe bishop of Her· momhis, which i. paimed on a boaid and represent. the bust of Ihe bishop, Ihe bishop,' portraits from Faras are painted on th" walls of Ih" cburch (see the plan in Jakobielski. 1982. ill, no. 3), and show Ihe bishop in his enlirety. In addilion. th" bishop i. often protecte
BLESSING

bishopI. In addition ...... V"~$On" of l1IVly bish· OPS ",lVi\'e and PO'" the e,- bishop MutOi (810· 826) 00" ChaeI I (826-827). ",-nile dte Itllell pan""';l .-..U a bishop _ on the list of biIhopI and daled 10 the thinetnth or fowteI'ndt .,,,,nl1...,. (Jug. bielskl. 1982. p. 01). From Ihe .kin colo. of the bWloc.p$ pon."yed.. we ca>I deduce lhei~ ethnic origin. Alongside bishops wiIh a light .kin .,.,10'....·hieh points 10 origin from F.8YPt. Ihere are some with a dart.e~ .,.,mpluion, which indicalCi an origin in NubUo. BIBUOGRAPHY

Go1lOWlki, T. "Rcmarques su. I'iconographie de I'b~ue de 'Rivergate Church.''' In Mtl,mge' offe.t, • K~d... im: Mil:h"lowsH Wanaw. 1966. Jakobielskl. S. A Hiel V. Ephc:M>o.H In Luik&l fUr ~ u"d Kircloc. 2nd eel. Vol. S. col. 1010. fl"riburJ im Bmspu. 1960.

B".i.

N

,,,ttl

403

47. pp. 15-16 [AntIMe IUIJ; vol. 78. p_ 18 [Latin tramblionD. and his relia an kepi in Shibin aI· ~ in the pnninc", 01 Oab,.\>. and J>OI in ~h11 al-Qanki•• as aas,.,c read (Mru!:lin.,.u, 1893. pp. 432-33). A!'1:Iad1111 a misr'odinc 01 Cnf (Gra!. 1951, p. 111. last line).nd does not e>tiM. Bist1ra!t'$ _n .. a .,oIl~ 01. m~ poems in very simple literary Arabi<':, saptetM. and. of moral contmL The scyie recalls thai 01. eenain boob of the Bible (Proverbs. &:elQiasliau. Cle.). The lim poem or m~,,1o (U'eatise nr dllcOUf'Sle) suggeus lhat the author ...... a monk. Accordin8 10 Cnf, dte collection emnains 149 poe....; $boolh S&)'!l !Ie\-"eJlty. 1bex interesUna ponn$ are n(lll yet edited. One manuscript from a public libnry conWninI Ihis collcction of poems (Coptic htriarchate. Cairo, Theology 290; Gm. no. 533; Simaykah. no. 3D) was copied in March 1709. It h", III foliOi with eleven lines per fu!io (21 " 16 em). The verses are wrinen afte. the manner of prose. The.... a~e 6ve other privately owned manuscripts, all in Cairo. Two we bought in Cairo by Shath before 1928. The firsl as 8iven the code 1025 and is al present in the po$Ieuion of hi. family; it was copied in 1135 on commission frQn, the 105th palria~ch • .IOHN "VII (1726-114$). The secde and is now lost. The three: other Cairo manuscripu rne1uioned in th., FiJrris (indo or cauloV or Sbalh belonged ..,. opectively to 'AIx\ al·Mas!h ~I\> al·8MamUsi atMa$·... dl. a _lI·k"'-"ll hieroP"lOllk; Murqus Jirjis. the boobeller ....ho edited many aneienl AnbicCoptic: tens; and Maul Ttodrus. llRCIIher Coptic bookseller in Cairo. BIBUOCIlAPHY Am~lincau. E. La c~;, d,

BISORAH AL-I,IARlRI. littl.,..m--n righl«nthcenlUf)' author. The _u$ripu give him tlte lide of " • • which is ..... a1Iy applied 10 bilhops.. and more- rve-Iy to monks in the sevenleenth .,entlll)'. His nam., is given in a11.the manu>cripuln Ihe folTll Bist1rah. ",hich al lim glance S\lf!geitl the reading BasUrah. G. Gm (1934) COtTCCU thi$ 10 BiWlwrah or Pistauros, whel-eas P. Sb.toth (1939) simply transcribes il as B;l$$O\lnth. ACTually, lhe rOITll Pistaur"Oi and ilS modifications (....hlch correspond 10 ~11b .... hen Arabized) are ab.enl tTom Ihe5YNAXARJON, although Ihe name Bist.awnlll is aneSl, ed 10 in Ihe modern period (nineteenth and Iwenll· eth cenlums). Howeve., Saint B;"ilrah is commem· oraled on 9 Till in the Synaurion (d. fo'J'"l, vol.

J'ED'f'" a

l'ipoqu~

cople. Puis. 1193. (Oral. G- C,mdoeue d, ",,,,,..JCril• • ntbu ehrinen. CO>l5cn>U .... C"ire, p. 200 (no. 3S5). Vatican City, 193ot.

Sbatb, P. Bibli
BLEMMYE.

s"

~Ja

Tribes,

BLESSING. Jesw Christ blessed with both. hands. when he tool< Ihe children In his anns, laying his

404

BODMER, MARTIN

hands upon IMm (MI<. 10:16): ",hen he asc:n>ded into J...a'<en, lie lifted up his hands and bles<ed lhe apo6l1... (Lk. 24:50. 51). The .opostolic IndiOons an sikm aboul • panicular .....noer with ,,-bieb Jo:ws Chrisl b1~ the people. In the COpli~ church Ihe prieSU have uscd se,'eral varianls for exlending the benediction. The hltSs' ing with the Index finger of the I1ghl hand Is • typical CoptiC praclice. For Ihe Copts, lhe one fin· ger ""presents Ihe unily dlhe Holy Trinily and the unity of ,he na,ures of the person of Jesus ChrUt as formula,ed br the lirst Ihree ecumenical councils (325, lSI, 431). Moreover, on Mourn Sinai, the twO w.ku of the lesti..... ny wen: wrillcn ...ith the finccr of God (EI. }I:IS. Dt. 9:10). and it is Dr m., finger of God that demons an: c:asl oul ILk. 11:20). T.....-ard the end 01 the lWelfth Centul)', the blessing with ,he inda linger heame • contro¥cr$lal lhco~cal ~ bel"'ttn IoIUJ.OlJS IBN QAloo'llAR. who, for the sake of ecclesiastical \lnion. allempled 10 introduce the bl....ing wilh two finge". as Ihe Mel, ~hite. do, and MIKHA·lI.. bishop of Dolmielu., The belief was llul lhe etemallrulh of the Holy Trinity is ex{>ttSSCd by the th,..,., joints of one fingu, the facl thal One joint ends in lhe fingernail heilll • ~t n:mlnder of the inc:una,lon of one of Ihe IItn:-o divine pcnoII'" 1l>e same arguments Jo:r the usc 01_ finller lor the b1CMiI'll wen: ao,..-n bles.sin& "'\lit the inde>: and middle linger. Coplic prieosts ",plain the mode of using two fintel'$ for tlte blcssina by rd'crrina 10 lite I"''' natures of Jesus Christ, wlti~h "...,. nevenlteJ.oM. part of one hand. TIte bl ....lng with three fingers. symbolidng the Holy Trinily, wa5 the COmmOn bl....ing from the fO\lrth century in 1M Easlern and Western churches. T....o pnoctlcco a..., known. The thumb, inck., IUId middle ling"" are .... lendCil for the blei.sin, lI$ Jiipula1ed by Pope

Inn<>oCCI\I III of Rorn.e (I 198-1215). 01' the blessoi"l i5 CIte~ ..lIh Ihe Indc:o;, middle, and small fil'ller while the I.... mb and Ihe founh finller arc joined 1~t1tcr, symbolizinl the myslery of the Holy Trinity and lhe two natures of Jesus ehtisl. The hCI thaI Ihis manner of blesslng is also used by Ihe Copts is evidem from the k:onographical representalions showing Jesus Christ ....ilh Ihe th...,e, linger blessing in the altar-domes of Ihe Church of the Holy Vlflln in BibllOn al·DI....j, the Church of SailllS Se'lius and Bacd...s, ancI the Church of the Holy Vi'lln In Old (:aim. Over lite ""nturie$ the Copts hayc adopted """"cral modes I() extend lbe blcssln&BIBl..IOGlUP1lY

AssfaIg, J. Di.< o.-a".III8 ~ ~~Urt"tm. Fin a/us tu"rrUclotJ HanJb",,1o arT loptistlom Kin:Ju_ Publicalion d\l Centn: d'l:1udcs orientales de Ia cus'

lode de Tern:-Sainte. Cairo, 1955, BUller. A, Tlrt A"ci..u Coptic Churches of ElYpl, Oxford, 1884. Feh...,nba~h, E. "Bl;nir (manihe de)." Diu;rmnaire d'ardololOfie d,rl-tienne et lil"""e, VoL 2. I, pp. 740-58. Paris. 1910. Graf, G. Em Rclomtve.-storn. 1923. Mcinardus. 0, ·'Ocr Scg~ Christi im ko9tischcn Alta.rziborium. ~ Arch", fIl. litu.,;-'Wt... sch"ftl9 (1978):106-13. Ono F..... MFJNARlIU5

BODMER, MARTIN (lS99-1971), SwiM collec· lor and ma~ of l"uen;, Bodmer WlU the founder in 1919 of. library of world lilerature. Bibliolheca Bodmniana. li~ in Zijri.ch and frolll 1951 in Geoc+ va. Shanly befon: his death. the library won public recognilion and the rights of a pm,ale illSlitution (Foundation t.b,nin Bodmer). The library loday holds about 160,000 ~O/UmQ. II inclutln 300 man· lJSCripu. 6S papyri on the E&YPt1an Book 0'- !he Dead. Greek and Coptic biblical tUIS, classical and early Chrislian lUIS, 270 incunabula, includinl " Gutenbera Bible. and 2,000 aUlOsraPhs. II conlains ...Iuable collection. of Shakespea...,. Goelhe. and Zurich and Heidelberg sludie., In 1921, Bodmer established the Goufried Keller Prize for literary worb. still awarded """'1' other ycar. In 1929 he slaned publlc.tlon of the lilerary rnagwne Corolla, which he orpnizcd and edited Iog<:the~ with Her·

BONE AND IVORY CARVING, COPTIC

ben $I~Mr unlil 1943. This journal made possible numerous conlaCtS wilta bmous ,,"bon. In Gn>eY3 he ...., Yiu pres~nt or the IntC'matio~ Commit. tC'e the Rd Cf"OS.S. He received bono,,!)" dq:rtts from the univ"nitieo of Frankfurt am Main, a..m, ...d c..n"''ll. His 11'I05' important publications an Eme BibIiotMJ: d" Weltlil"",rwr{Ziitich, 1')47) and V.n.rionu UUPl nDtlQ W,hlil""ttul (Frankfun. 19S9}.

or

BODMER PAPYRI. Sr, Appl'ndi~

BOESER, PIETER ADRlAAN ART (18581915). Dutch E,yptoIogiM and Coplo!osist. He stud· ied qyplololl)' in Berlin und". Adolf EkMAN and at LeipIil under Georg sreJNOOJ.f1', He laught al ,he Unh'el'$;ty of Leiti· KIu~ ""d ltOptiKhe", Z.il: Besd"eib,,~t de, aDPI;' KIse~ 5<>""",1..", de. Nied"IJ."disflu" Rei"hsm.....um.s der Altrt/iimu in Lride" (7 .-ols" 1915). BIBUOGILU'HY

Dawson, W. R.. and E. P. Uphill

WIo<> Wu

405

Society of Jesus ....-as suppttiSt:d in Belgium. Their activities wc:re raumed in 1837. when funher .... ~ pkmtnl$ to lhr Acl" $Ot"'''fOn<m ......,n: publi5hed in the A"~ue de 5/. P""I de Thibes (A""lul. BoII'1.1uli""Q ..4 [1926]). and U"e vie i"Uit, d. 51. I'"wm""i,,, (A""lur" BolIQ~di"~,, S6 (1927]).

Jg,..,

J,,,"

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cross. F. l. "Bollandist$," In ODCC, p. IS3, o.,lehale, H. A t,avrrs trois siieles: L'oeuv,e des BoIlt",distes, J6/S-/9/5, BIU"",b. 1920. Thi$ appeared in English as The Wo,k ,,' Ike Bolia ..di", Through Thr.. C.~tu,ilJ. Princelon. 1922. Kamm"rer, W. A Coptic Bib/iot,,,phy. Ann ArOO,. Mkh.. 1950; rcpr. New York. 1%9. PffleQ. P. L 'oeuv" dlJ SoI/tmdilIeS. Academie roy-ale
Who ill

EDP~.

Lnndon. 1972. Kammerer. w. compo A Copflt: Biblio(nlplty. AIln Arbor. 19SO: re,>t. Nn.- Yon.. 1964. AZIZ S. AnYA

SOHAIRIC. &e

~\

or

BOLUNDISTS, societ}· Jesuit b.lhen n;lmed .ner JOhn ...an Boll..nd (1596-1665), .......0 fouoded it On lhe bam of a plan concd\"ed by Hetiben Rosweydr (1569-1629), ....'Ito did nol li,'e to """ it malerialile, The pi .... called fur the ~mbJing and publlcallon of a unive"",1 reg"'te. of the Jives oaints from all possible original sourceS. The ou,· cOme of the labo/5 of ,u<'cessi,'" g"n"ralions of Rol· landi$ts Wll$ publkltion of a multivolume work en· titled ~CTA SAIiCTOIlUM ($till in progress), The WQrk of ,he 8ollondi,IS was .uspcnded in 1773, ....'hen Ihe

or

BONE AND IVORY CARVING, COPTIC. Following the lead of Aluandrlan an. and """,,urrend,. with its decline II the close of the ""'enth cen,u')'. lhc Copts made euensi"" u.se either 01 i,'OI)' or of bont as a .... terial appropriate for sculp' Jure in relief. When. in its brsinninp. Coplk an s.ill depended on Alo:andrian art. Htl1eniilic .hecnes were fn:. q"",nl:: G.-etlo: sods or goddesses. nereid... pulli. and w.ncen male and female.....·hO$C proportions in Coptic an were often sacrificed to a <:ot1""m 10 Ii.. the """,ntial fraturcs. In addition. lechnie;tl elements like spindle whorl. and \>obbin. were oh"n ado<-ned with interesting li"", or small drd.,. marked with a poi", at the cen",r, th" lin.,. being traced hy ind.ion. The heads of hairpins were Clno"d to rep""'''''' a human head or male or fe· male busl. a bird, • fruit. or an Imphr>ra in propor· tional. ,mall dimensions, Wlrhout any pretension '0

406

BONE AND IVORY CARVING, COPTIC

Inls1le in,~n•. a ~e quantity of nalTO"" and fIa, human fiForn. "i!hooJt .,..... or "ilh Slump' of and lhe f<::uu= 01. lelv in varin..., museums• ...-presentin, .... b;eclS lueh as a P:ttlhian hOt'S"man. a dog pursuin, a hare. and birds race '0 bc~. Ther<: au aJ", Christian subjccu such as a slanding angd clolh~d in a long IUnic Wilh uccnding b~nds rising from Ihe bow,.., (Wultf, 19'09, pI. 20), or a haloed Sail'll George, wilh a round head. full·fac~ on a ho..., in profil~. from tile Mamlu. period (Wullf. 1909. no. 1613) and an unequalttioo .•hl- ,lems of ",hich usually rm<: in inlerlacing work from a ''as<: ag.Unsl the vertical rectangular backp'OUnd. " ,,-hole emlul;on of Sl\le can be

amt'

rrom

""BOn'

Fiau.... of a saint holdin, a cross. Hone.

COl
Copl'~ \Iu..,um, CoirQ.

ob,erv~d h~r •.

Comb depicting a warrior saint in a mandorla sup' pot1ed by t"o angels. h'ory, Founh cenlury. Co,m~sy COpl;C M"s~u",. Coiro.

fronl Ihe nMur:.l!sm inspired by the Coplic .to"~ r.,liefs of {riel<:S lhl ro.e in liers in· side or outsid~ churches as at a.'wIT. 1<> a mechan· ical design of lh~ se,."nlh 10 the eighlh ccn'l.Iri"s, in lh~ lou",~ or in the MuSok des Beaux An. in Lyon..

BOOKBINDING

407

,,·erie. Konigliche Mu_n "" Berlin. Berlin. ,." PIUU D\; 8Ol.'IlCl."ET,

SJ,

BOOKB1NDING. Tlte ..odo fomu'-sheel. of malerial "Tiuen on boIh sidQ and an..,hed OIl one etl8c-C2JI><' in,o me lITOUnd ,he bepnninr of the Christian era and l..- II", foo,u'lh "emu", had. suprrsnIed.he ""mil. AJdw:o.tglo evldeno:e of In.. slruc'un> of the "ode" bookblock and ......-..... m,.,hodo; ~T' ';,'es in man~ urI",r manUS'-'npos.• h.. founh cet1lu· rv p....·ides Ients. four pagCS) for lbcse earliesl papyrus "ooi"ts wcre: Cui from lOlls. Ih" heigh. of ,he page hy '"ic" i,s b,e:uhh. producing a r""'ant"lar fonna.; .he """are shape of many pan:hmenl Coptic Cross Inlaid ",ith ivo,y. o"lail alx",c Ihc $
tn combs ""ilh a handle, ellhey Ins-:nt"d bel"" . .,n ''''0 SelS of '''''Ih or commandin~ a sinsJc row of ,hem, 1M inlermedial')' or principal part may ha,c be-en omamenlt,d in relief ,,-i.h Ihe same SUbjcclS Ihal ha.e bN!n menlioned in regard '0 liotgc of iDl...-bt:inC 'ines s!artS From lhe basr and. ~rIJ the fronl ~"'~ of ''''0 liom pbcrd bock to bock. nsel ab",... Ihr head of each animal, lIe~D1ed 11)' the space .hat ..,commodal"" the handle There are abo ,..,me spec......... of cylindriul bo:les CUI from a .....id pirc.. of malnial, "uh a CO\'U faslened bY a piece '.\ m..... t The bod" ".., "",,,red "'nh rehefs I....,ing a double row rA in'et"Ixinl vi"" b""ch"", be''''""n Iwo borders rA flow. ems; a, ''Uiou:! places a bird prch al Ihcm (Vk'.... na and Alben Museum, London. 1l6-18M) AnOlhcr e.. ample Is a nal case "ilh slide·bars ""h Falim'd .'e~c,al decoralion.

--

Stab -in&- d<'ri'ed h-orn 1M blOdil1& of "'OOdcn tahlets. Dr"..-,,,, "OIU'es>' I""" G,u,.~IJ.

J.IlR'.'OGRAPHY

Beckwilh, J, Coplic Sculpt",,, )(X)-!J(I(), l-ondon, 1%3. Enrly Chris/;n" u"d BYl,,"'i"e An Walters Art Gal. lery, Ibltimore, 1947, ",ulff, 0, Allchri5l1ich. u"J ",i/Mlal/erli"h" SdJ.

Sln~le qui,e ""winll. ~"IJ,

Dr""""1 "o,m"s}' Ja"" G"'",,.

408

BOOKBINDING

Chain stitch Sl'wing. fidd.

Dr~",ing

co"rM'y

J~"e

Crun-

codices ..... diewed by the $hApe oflhe skin. !'a&i' nation. iol.iacion. qul...,~. pridun,. and ....1· int _ .... fn:quenily wed at an early da<e. but qui..., II>llUup ...... ilTeJUbr. and the arnn,emem of pages wilh like surfxe £a,c,ing like ...... intermittenl. Vuianlll of bookblock makeup were- a ~ngle qui..., of sheets plied one on anooher and folded in !he middle. mulliple quiTC5 formed by pl~ing folded sheelll one ...tlhin anotha. and oc:caslon.ally quir,." of single ,heets folded indi,idually. These qui"", had 10 be &lUK:hed to each other sequential·

" Slab

Sl'wing, in which the needle went Ihrough the lea" ... at a right angle to their plane and sllghlly in from Ihe spine edge. resembled the _'ing of

~

w

tablets waf plObably I......,ly lied, as the tablets had to be. allovo' the booIt to ~n 1111 tht _y back. Sev>in, through the fold "'... usually done ",itlI. two sepanote needles and threads. Indi"'dually folded ~ we..., stab sewn; sin,le qui,..", were ,..,...,n willi 1"'0 ";ngle wlclles of lealller or cord; multiple quires _re sewn wilh two .....nole cllains of $Iilehes. Although a wooden board. wh!loul book· blocks /I...., thooght to be early. most murth-century board. consisted of layer$ of waste papyrus carlon"age (paper boards) pasted inside leather Cove"" to stiffen them. The bookblod was either sewn through the outer co,..,r <>r to a liplne llnlng of leather or part:hmen.l. ",hieh adM...,d 10 il. In lOme

'l"W

Cover coml"'nents. Dra...·ings ~eld.

eO~F1e'Y J~"e

Cr.w"

'0

BOOK OF EPACT

cases lWO P"oP\NS boards, double lhe "<:$ of the bookblock _r<: of· len ~ed do"... IMide lhe """.... 10 reinfon,e I~ allllCh........" Goal or ~in, USI.IalIy tan. bnJ,o,n, or dart red. . . . U$Cd for CO\~ng. Man. founh..,,,nlur, (Vl"'fS. suclt ... 1'''1 Hlunmadi codK:es and lhe Bodmer I"lopy-ri. had one or mOre lIaps ""lcooins from a f(lle eJcc and '•.-ere fastened "i,1t an endr· dinl!hon, and onall 'irs. In I"'" S'"llt 10 ri&hlh ""nluries. ""rh I«hniquel' conlinued in u~. "'illt lhe addllion of dOlh ~pine lin,np. lOt"ill/lal1 along lhe fold. and board allach, men' ll-' numerOUS lealh.". longu<:!l laced lhrough wooderl board•. Methods of faslening wen: daborale U5C
I"'"

Sitmple.; of c<".-cr d<::silln

O"..-;"r eQlm"N

409

JQ"~

Gn",,~ld.

,he,..,

" binding from lhe "all Hammadi llb""1' V'a""n;: Jane GreOllfield.

."",,.5\'

BIBUOGRAJ'HY Cockerell. D. '-n,,, nenlopmenl of Bookbindins Methods, Coptic InAutoce:' p,., l.Jbr",.. 4 (19321170-90_ ~r. R.. ed. P"J»7NS ~r XliII, AC1"-f du Apdde hequ"•• Pi"TTe. Je"" e' Jude I.... uodu<:lion, p. 7 lfasrenings) and p 8 (SpI"" hn· in&> ~ne, .... 1961 _ P.T''''' Bodmer XXIll. E.ui". XLVII. 1.LXlil. 21 ..,hwlUiu" Inuoduclion, pp- 8 IS (l\apf and &$I 'n..). Lamacoo, C. T. ~E.arh· Bocl;,.l.indinl from a COP'Ie MOnaSlcn" The LilJrr,1)' 4 (1939-19-l-Oj:214 ·33. 'C1~rscn. T C "Earl)' Islamic Bookbin
t,..,., £vi''''''

.

RobInson. J M. ''!'he ConSln'c'ion of lhe Nag Hamrnadi Codices:' In lOs...,.. '''' th~ N", II"",· ",aa; TUI •• <:
BOOK OF EPACT, lrealise on lhe calculalion of lhe da,e of Easler attribute
Codex co"c" decoraled "jlh geomelrical mOlifs, Leather. C""rl"'Y C.",,,,n M"$e"''' of I.•",h." Offen/><>.h.

410

BOOK OF EPACT

pall'im>h of Ale.ulldria (1119_231). We shall n,omine the a11libutioll ill liglll of the historical. liturg'i. cal. and Utenry Arabic tradition, of the Middle

......

Hl$Cor1all TradllloD

11M: hlswrian Sa1d IaN AL&tnIO. Mckhite pam. lll'Ch of Alaandria (933-'MO). tells U5 in h., His"".,• ..At this period. Oeme".,u,," the pal~h of Alexan· drilo. wt'OIe 10 Appi..,. bishop of Jnusalem, 10 MD· im..." patria"'h of Anlioch. and to VIClor, p"lriarch of Rome. conccmin& the ""kublion of lhe Eal.ter of Christians and their fast, [so as 10 know) ho'" 10 ""kulale lhem from the PaMo,-er of Ihe Jews. Nu· muous boob and e~istles _re compo.ed on Ihis subject. until the Eastcr of ChriSt;"f\S "'~ fi~ed. ;1$ is done loday." According to A. Harnack (11I9J. Vol, I. p, 330), Ihis ~ller was written in Ihe )ur 202. St",n,dy enwih MW!RtJS IElri Al.-MlJOAfI'A' makes no mention of Ihi, leller in hi, Hislory of II,. P~lri. '''chs. fio_ver. Ihe Copts' Arabic SYNAXARION. composed at the beginning of the Ihineenth centu. ry, mention. il Iwice, on 11 Babah and 10 HatuT. For 12 Bibah we read. This
The fenny for 10 Hat~ reads: When OUr Father Demetrius was made patri· anh. he .... a ~ ...·ho knew Mi!heT "'ThinS nor boob. God illuminaled hOs in'felle<:1 by d;v;nfe pace ... and he compo5ed Ihe c.lc"b,ion of fel'" acl whferdJy the fast and lhe ReloUrre<:lion are worked OUI. He composed it in Coptic .nd Gree~ and Ihen lent. copy to our Falher Victor, pope of Rome, one 10 OUr Falher Maxill'lOll. p8lri.rch of Antioch, and one 10 our Father AppiOlI in Jerusalem, When his letter reached the three sees, Our Falher Vic lor. pope of Rome, Judged wtal was sent 10 him to be excellenl, and it • ""Iiim great joy. He summoned fourteen lumed bi
.00 • number oJ. wise pri<$ts. Hfe read the calculation to lhem; they approved it. ac"'"J'Ud it. and mac:Lr a .....,e number of copies oJ. il whkh tbry sent to !he othfer epi:scopal sees. HoJ)' Lenl and the glorious .tauer "-fere if\Sli'u!ed as they are

_.

UtW'JfCllI Tradition The folIo..i ... S.f"m (pnce) is ... ng in ~ CopIk lilurtr on me rea.,1 of Saint Demetrius;

Hail III Demetrius, ....ho ordfcred abstinence from drink, .lId organized bstinl from foods for Ihe filly days! Had Ihis not b«a under lhe inspi...lion oll"e Spirit who reveals, how could il have been po<Ssible to discover and I1nd lhe computation oflhe periods of lime call..,l epaet, Haillo you, 0 priests. be Ihanked and prlbed for having come wilh diligence and wilhout delay 10 the meetinSl'llCe of the 8S$
Uterary Tradition In hOs hisl:ory of Anbic Christian lilenture. G. ~ ""'ntiorls no.......t. anributed 10 Demetrius. palriarch of A~.undria. despile lhe fad he bad llirndy m.,n,ioned lWO of his "'Orb in his C"t.om,..., u/ l1Ie ChriJtilln h
...1.... Demetrius is attributed .u'honltip of a work en,;' lied Ifisllb of-Abuq!I, (Calculalion of the Ep3ct). deKribed as ""a treali&e on chronoiOlY. w;lI> tabln for lhe finding of £asler and other etdesiastkal f.S1~ vaJ, and commemorations," and ror Ihe Passover of lhe Jews. Tit" lexl is IS yet unpubli.hed. bul il was lranslated into English by Ge'lIl1e Sohby from a manuscript in his personal posse.,ion. In actual facl. Demelriu" name .p»'l.n only loward Ihe end. There are at le"'l lhree manu..:ripts of IhL~ text . in Birmingham (Millg.na Christiln Arabic 11. daled

BOOK OF THOMAS THE CONTENDER

IS99): In the Coptic J>atriarch.ale, Cairo (HislOt')' 60, eitl,,~mh century); ""d in the Gc:oTge Sohby Collec:tion. Cairo (1768), The Birmingham rnamueripl is mnltioncd in Graf5 G~idoJt dt, cltro,lic/lt" v~Jttn til.,..,... (Vol. 4. p. 159). I.. 16304 mt """"JI"'Dtd ownel'" of a fine ......". serip! of the BooI: 0/ EPIIC' of al-As':ad ibn aJ..•.u.aJ dated I July US4 (Vatic3,. Library, Arabie lSI) wrote in a iorL& aIoss on folio Ill. that II Dayr aJ..8anm6s there was a man"""ript: entitled KitU, d.£4i/il (11M: Remainde.) of tht Book of ~t composed by the Patriarcb Demetrius of Aleundria. This mayor may nol "" the ....me book as .he one diK~ here. The 800k of EpKt was tral"Odaled ITom "rabic i.. lO Elhiopian 8t 81' unknown date. M, Cllalne ""ri'es. ·"We 1IOme1;mes find auribult:d to huiareh Demetrius a treaC~ of compulation known .... B~~, I!a.~b. This work is e~piicilly aunhuted 10 him in the Bri'ish MUlot"m manU$(:npl Or. 8IS." He men· tions It:n O. 110 Ethiopian manuscripls of lhe same texl that Uo nOt credil Demetrius and explains. ··The name B~~'If(J.$~b me...n. 'The Ocean of Com· putadon,' h is the lranslalion of an Arabic title "'hic:h has become the title to de.ignatr any composition
tife.",.".

In a II'IIIrlUlCripc in ~ Patriarcllate, Cairo (Theolou BO). there is 00ef tesl enlitled "Corol· I:ary conctn>ina: the blessed New Year. the day of the year 0 .. ,,-hieh i1 occurs'· (fols. 93b-~b). This may be an cUracl from the '!iJiJb "f·,4b..qfl. This tnl is mtnt!o...,d in Graf (Vol. I, p. 3S4. no. 8). unde, .he n...me of Demotrius, patriarch of Antioch, whereas lhe manuscript al1ributes it tQ Deml:1rius of Alexandria. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Armllah, I. CAIAlog"e de> ""'""$<'ril$ de Cha1er, Jounieh.1936-1937.

411

Chaine. M. l.a cluonol",;e du temp. cltdtiens de I'Etyplt U Ih l'Ellliopit-. Paris. 1925. Gr.of. G- C"'~t de "'''''''SCN'' a,• • chdJitrls roouervh "" Cilia. Slutfi e T$i )4. V.... ican Cily. 193~.

Harnack, A. GtKIt"ltle de. ",ltcJrriSilkhor I.i,,,,,uo bis EM.d/W.s.. 2 woIs.. In 4. Leipzi.. 1893- 1904. $;unit. K. ''Ce que I'on sa;t de fa ·Mr
B"ntt'"

KJt.wL SAMII..

s. J.

BOOK OF THOMAS THE CONTENDER, seventh and I""ltraclale in Coly .randaled from the Greek; ,he edRencot of the text is t>theTwUoe lUlalt$e
ewptl Aceo"',,,,

412

BOOTS

poeveel on .,arth in his """ di"ine ~on. 10 Ill/Ill bolh H., ~d His >;l)1ngs were anibble 10 s.elecl aposlla in a foon unclOU<>n anthropo!op:al (body/"""") than C09Ilic (lhe above/below).. ... mo.., Ippn>prilole dc:$lJnation M lhe doctrit>e of Ibis WOI"k is ChrislianC.. edj wisdom with ascellc applicalion. Finally. il is clear that th., Boo« of TIwootu tM Co~t.,.dcr displaya ...., marb of I "'
mat ""'"

BIBUOCltAmy

Kirchner. D.• et at.• '{)as Buch des Thoma<s: Oi.e siebent.. ScMfi a"" Nag·H..mmadi·Kodell II eingdeilet. uJ\d iiI:w~ \'Om Berliner ArbeiISkreis fUr kopa~h-pO$liche Schrift..,:· n.eo1oriMlte Lirn"tltryirun, Hl2 (1977):793~804. Schenke. H.·M.·'T1le Bocdt oiThomas (NHC 11.7): A Re,ision of I Pxu~1 EpWle of Jaoob Ibe Contn>m: BMl,.. ,'n HOft/JM, of Iloben Ml:L W.-z-t. eeL "- H. B. Lopn and A. J. M. Wnlderbum. Edin·

hurch. 1983. Tume., J. D...... New Link io lhe Syrian Judas """,mas Tradition:' In Esuys .... Nq Hturmuuli ,.. HOllO", of Alu"nd... 8OJ,1i,. Nag Hammaodi Studies J. Leiden. 1972. ___ The BooJr. of Thom". ,h.. C'''''end", "."., Codu II o/th" C"/ro Gnostic Lilt,,,ry /Tum N"I H" ...m"d; rCG 11. 7): The Cop,ic rut ·",,'th T,,,mJ... lion. /nlrodul:lio" ""d Cllmme"ta'Y' Revi.ed lexl and 1",... lalion. Missoula. Mont. 1975. ___. "The Book of Thom8ll the Contender:' In Th.. Nag Hamm"di Lib,,,'Y i" E"glish, ed, J. M. Robinron. San Francisco, 1977. ___. "The Book of Thomas Ihe Contender: Introduclion, EdIted Coptic T.... Fre.h EniH.h Tntn5Latino. Critical ApparatUI to ... 11 Oth.,r Edition.:' In Ntig H"",,,,,,di Codu II. 7: Tog"llter wi/h )(Jl1. 2". Brilish Uh."", One",,,I. '916(1) and Papyri Oxyrhy..chus /. 65', 655. Wilh contribution. by mall)' schoLa.... eel. B. Layton. n... Coplic Gnostk Library. eel. with Entlish IBn&.. iotroduc:tion. and notes.. Leiden. 1938.

BOOTS. See Coslume. Chi!.

BORGlA, STEFANO (1731-1804). Italian prd. ale and prefect of Ihe Con&R'illio de I'rupotganda F">de. He possnsed .. collection of Egypl:ian ant;q"iI~

and Coptic manuscriplllha, formed the bas.. of the coll..ction in lhe Naples MU5CUm catalogued in G. Zoega's

C"I"logNs cOOleN"" Copli(;O
"'''''1'-

S<'rip/orum qui i" Muuo 8<>'1;',"0 velltris ads..",,, ... 1m (Rom". 1810; repro Leiptlg. 1903). DIDUOGItAPHY

Sauget. J,·M. "Inlroduction hislorique et n"l"" bibHographique. au caillogue de Zoi'gl." I.e Mus,o" 85 (1972):25-63. MA..TlN KRAUSE

BOULE

BORSAI. ILONA..

S~~

Music. Coplic: Musical In-

"'""n.,nl5.

BOULE. toooo'tl coundl

in .Egypl durin, Roman

domiNtion. One of th., features that K'I £cypI apan froIlI OIlla' koman provinc.". ..... the KanilJ of towns (In 1M IepJ ... nsc of the term) and lhe pecu' liar staW$ of the _tropolN. !he nome OIpitals, 'flM, wIer. tile-rally .. 11lOtbC'<- citie!l.~ ..·hiJe- includlne: IhC' dnlpadon polis (dly). were in bet diIJer=t fn:>m the- Cr«k potu as well as &om the Roman .....nkipiu... (town) at least as far as thrir lepI status was C01lC.,med. The E&YPtian ..,~lPOpOIu did nOl enjoy the paraphC'malia lh., traditional Gruk pol.. had pratr'VC'd ewn In the period of the Roman empire. llDIOlIl th.,m IhC' lown council (boul.,). one of lhe 1\'10$I Importllnt and lypi<;al pt>/is InsliMions (see GU£l( TOWNS H< ECTrT). Nor did the al.,nei." of I"" ~lan ..,.,"opolis ha,'., adminl'lrativ., competence over l"e nOme temlot)'. BUI lhe Greek cili." 01 Emt (Plolemais, Antinoopolis) wore t".,re to remind I"" cilizens of the nome capitals of lhelr Inferior Slatus and of the desl....bilily of a chanle. This chan,e Came about in 200 ..·.. en tN: emperor &ptlmlus St,-tn1S not only COflCeded lh., boul., to A\e.u:ldri& bul upgr;oded the nome capitals by Il1Inllnl them Ihe bo"k as well (£Or th., "hrono&<>ttY. s« ........is. 1981. pp. 78£.; for the boul., of Alellandria. seC' GIl.£n 1'0"'1<6 I" EGYPT). 'The reasons for this move are nOl on record. and Ylrioos upbfWions can he thouaht: of. As for 1M p1eiequisites of lhis c.bange, we an!! on finroer 1J000nd: lhe ,..e,ropoku, lonl conside~ '"villa,es" (i"",...) by Roman law. had ;n fact fulfilled in 1M p&SI many functions of llrbtn cenlen, lh.. -'I desotniina; lhe label ...."ropdi<. b«auK 1My "'t'ff the political. economic. social. am:! relJajow focus of their 't:SPC"'IivC' "0..-.. The pp bet..'ftn the no_ capil-llls and lhe ~...,k "ilies 01 Ef).... had lone been D>l.........-ed as many m.,lropo!ilOI least so und"r lhe inOuence of the metropolitan elile. the IYrrmasial class. which ....as or prolesud 10 be of Creek st<)Ck. NOlwill!stanc!inlthe Kcretion of honor and presIiI". the crulion of the m"tropolitan boule proved al ben a mbed blessing. The boule had no l.,gisla, tive author!!y; lIS activity was restricted to routine bu$;ness and 10 lhe admlnislrallv. handllng of the requiremenls lmp<>sed by the cenlnd $lale authori· ties. Financial wpel'\'ision and the collection of tax·

413

eo were among the: bo-I.,·s q n annbul;"1\$. A$ a rule. memben of th., boule (!>owl.,,,ta'l ........ nOi trained officials. a factor that, under the "...,..-aiIir,1 conditions. partly accounted lhe bil,,", of the ltot,,/e as :an adm;ni$:I.... unil (this aspect is S\TflSed by Bowman. 1971. p. 12M.). We do no! know ..-hether all me""J"C>kis had the ""me !lumber of "-kill.; (probably II<M). DOl' do ..., knoo,o,' the "xacl number of """,I.,..,.; in any giv· en IfItlrOpolis (perhoops 100 In Oxyth]TIChlUJ- Upon enlnonce into the bo>n«a....). II amOUllled 10 10.000 drachmae. clearly an irnportanl sum only lhe weahhioesl among the melropol;\al'IS could afrord. Mentben!lip in lne boule was for tife; ;IS prni. dencJ was timiled 10 One year. Boule"la; normally were male adull•• btll l"U !ilual!on cluonl':"d when the lradual reduction of l"e boulnolic class made il desirable 10 include women and to retain "old of lheir property for public $trvice ($te Ih~ nd half of the lI.in:! century (foreign ",-..no. lISUrpalioDs. economic difficuhies). muni<;;pa1 mag. Iwxies became a heary burden WI Nined many of !heir holden aJSd pfO"Obd abandonment of functions. family. and 10"'ti'·., ror 414 BOURGUET, PIERRE DU, S,J, in o~r to r~ie....,!10..... of the I""emment officials of 1M .uponsibilil)" for local adminislnl1ion- ~ In Byumine 1J&)1Jl. lhe boule"l"i (ao;l....1 memo bers ollhe bc.rle) and tht po/iM"omeJfoi (c..rion and abo<».., all til IU coUec:' lion. Tbeir a<:elrlly encompao.sc<) and lheir influ· 'Once On public affa.irs in Byzanline £cpt (oee (;as. <:ou far a difterrnl ri.....· aboUI lhe Q,Am). 818UOGltArHV Bow........ A. K. 71u: Town C",,,"cUs of Rom"Jf EVp', American Studies in PapyroI"IY 1L Toromo, 1971. This II; !he SWldanl Wive bibliocraphy of eame.. re- _h. _ _ "Papyri and Roman Impoerial History. 196075:' Ja.o",,,/o( Rom~Jf StutJiu 66 (1976):153-73. J>nw.Bear, M. "Les Arcm~cs du c~ll municipal d'Hennoupolis Magna." In Am de' XlIII Con' . .USO inlenl.;iDndf~ .. pl>piroloPt, \'01. 3, pJr. 807-813. Naples. 1984. Intereui..S for the co..· t>KQon among alhlelicism, memben.bip in Ihe /oo«le. and fel~liun5 betwten HennopoJis and Ibl! OUl$ide "'Grld. nOl Ieasi wilb Rome and ehe 1m· perial coun. GaKou. J. "Us G..... _ _ The Citi~l of lhe Easltrn Roma" Pro~i... cu, 2nd ed., esp, pp, 327-48. Oxford. 1971. I.llJlellUllnd, J. L'ildmi"istrario" civile de ['E,yp/e de /'""""emen' de DiQcUlie.. _I" ,",ilIlion d.. dioc~~ {184-3811. Contribution .I N,..de des ."pport:> en· trIO I"EDPfe 10' /'Entpiu • I., fin d" Iffe el " .. IVe ~de_ Br\U;$C:1s, 1964. Lewis, N. "Notuiooes Lecemis:' Bunesi" of lite Americ"" Soc;e" of p"pryolot;isu 19 (1982):71- ". -C-~ life in EDP' U..der Rom"" Ibok, pp. 36-64. O:dord, 19A1. Rouillard, G. L'AJlmini#ootitl" civik de rEDP'e b,.. ....ti>le. 2nd ed, pp. 62-74. Paris. 1928. W~ •• E. P. '"The .8-1'; and eM Nominalion 10 Ihe in liq.. e e' C<>ple, ed, P. W. Pcslman, pp. 62114. Papyrolosica Lugduno-Blo,,,,·.. 23. Leiden, 1985. Work, K, A............ _ fJtNA~." Llil5ChriJl lu. p"pymlo,ie .. na Epr,."plrik 30 (1978):239-44. "",r.., HEINZ HfJSEN BOURGUET, PIERRE DU, S.J, (1910-1988), professor of Egyptian and of Coptic for mOre lha" lhlny yea... al lhe Inslllu, calhollque de Paris, where he al$ll ",,,'ed as director of lhe School of "'",,;enl Oriental Lal'\fluBgCS. In addition, he was profeS5Of of palw'(:h"",lian, Coptic, and Byzantine an and arehaeolor;y a' lhe Eo::ole du Lolu","" for approximalel)' lWe:nly }'nfS. A dud curator III Ihe Lot...re In Ihe De:panmenl of I'.g)..,.ian Anliquilies. he ,,-as in charKe of the collertion$ 100- !he Coptic and pbanlonic I..ov>..,r Epoch periods, and, foo- a eenain time, lhe paleoChnman and Byun'ine collections .....-e:ll In Eg)..,. he tramecl widely to ~n and .-.. alike. He puticipaled ill tile excnation> III UUlA and To He published in ..........." fielda, and wroIe grammars of !he IWO $IagelI of ancient EcYptian and a crammar of Sabidic Copric. He U5ed lhe latter, which rnnains unpublished, _ a tool in his teaching. He published widely in all lhe a!:>ow,..menlinned disciplines. A selnlfil bibllog:r:o.phy of his wrilings ;r>cludes: e"t"foKue d" ~'off.. eop'" (M..de d.. wuvrej, Pa.. is, 1964; and L'''rI cople, Paris, 1968; lran: BOURIANT, URBAIN (1849-1903), French Etoplc>logi'l and CopIol"jisl. H. was horn in Neve.... "'fte. he became interested in Egyptology, he BOUTROS GHALI $,,,died under Gaston N.O&UO and b«:am~ an ori&!tW member of Ihe Mislion uchColopque mn(ai:le du Cair~ in lUI. He: was appoin'M "",~n' con~n'alor 01 1M BuUq MoH.t:I1D"I in 1883 and ~.....ed .., direclOl" of 1M MiMion a>chWlogique from 1&.16 1898. H~ diM at Vann"" HOI it....., an liRed in A Copli-c S;W..",.,pIIy (Kammerer. 19500, 1969). ,..,.i] Bouriant. p, "Noli« sur Urbain 8out'iant:' Ru..ril d~ T,........, 26 (1904):29-32 (bibliocnphy). o.",'SOn, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Who Wu WIIo m EfY1'kXot:l. 36·1. London, 1912_ Kamn"O<'fW, W., compo A Capric Bibliogtaphy, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950; repro N~' York. 1969. .ut~ BOIJTROS CHALI S. Any.. (1846-1910), Capllc itat~'· man. lie wi'S bom in Kimin.al-'Arm, a vlllag~ in th~ provinc~ af Bani Sue£. His fath~r, the I\~ward of th~ ~stat~ of Prince Mus~ n<,1il, brOlher af Khe· di~ Isma'il. first,ent him 10 the palriarchal $Chool, which had recently been founde personally to ha"e sull~r«l &om 1M discrirnin_ion thtn ........ panl in favor of non·Ef;ypti.ans. such as TURs and Orcassians. On eompJetinl his studies. he became a leacbeT at tIN: palriarct.1 school, beaded by YA'Q/)B HAIOIlAH It... AYlAIl. who ...- bt.... 10 publish a hislory of 1M Copts. In th~ ma.n~, Boutrus abo altended d-.KS • the School 01 Lan~ founded by !U&'ah u·Ta\:.14:i..-i. !it bqa.n wori 415 English, French, and EaYPUan. ..... formed. tIN: Egyptian bein. R.i)'k Pasha.. His assi$tant ..... Bouuw Ghill. 1lle Reporr OIl the Land Tu "'. . ~ted 10 the commission by Boulros 011 IS February IS8O; il is .. thorouah Sludy oJ. tIN: I'I'OP"ItJ oJ. thrtt dd~n, ..., '" """- In ISII. Boutrus Chill ",-as appoinled undl:nec· rewy oJ. Slate for justi«, a plXilion that he occu· pied for ....... lve ynn.. Durin, his ~"". the rr:orpnizalion of thor judicgJ s)'>lt'" Pma~ l'rovirKiai couns. district couns. and a coun of appeal ......'" established. JUSlk:~ becamt secu1a· rized. In 1893 he became min;"" of finance" and in 1895 h~ \025 appointed minister of foreign affairs. all office thai he held for fifteen yean ulltil his death. Tht main line$ of his policy remailltd uo· changed: 10 pre,..n.., tIN: 1~lltlm8le authority of Iht khedive in face of the BRITISH OCCUPATION: to rt'duct lht impact of the unavoidable cllUhes bet""""n tht on~ and the oth~r; and, al th~ SlIme lim~, to moderni~ the country by ~ndowlng h with a libe",1 parliamtnt;lry rtllim~. in ocder to r~mOve Ihe p""text for occupation. Tht Anglo-Eg;)1l1ian millta')' campaign tnded with the dd'tat «the Sudanese' and thor signing. on 19 January Ig99, oJ. an av«mWt bel>veCn Etol't and England establishinl a condominium or joint autborilJ over the lerTilory. Bout.... was criticized 0\.." this issw::, but it had the "nani_ apprm'101 of the mtmbers oJ. lhe cabinet. f&ypt could not ignort the di$proponion 01 lon:es ",-bile ilS .,....." territory was under Joreian OCC\IpMion. II "'.... pr0bably the best that could be done in the: circumU&n<:os. AI leasa., it assured lhe n.lure Or pnwnUng Engbnd from .-ming toU1 $Oftreilnty a¥tr th.. ... "' Khed\.e 'A!>bis II came 10 power ill January 1892, and be Y:>On found himself al odds ...ith the British. II became nect5$Bry 10 reduct: friction beI",«n ltgitimate lWlhorily and the power of Iht occupying: forc~, and, at the sam~ lime. 10 pro1~cl Ih~ ,..,I~r apinst th~ th,..,al of dethronement. In Ihe pursuil of Ihe-e airnto, Bou,ros Chill mow..d much resourcefuln..", but he sometimn became involved in initiat;,'e, tha! Wtre acutely criticiud, ",-,en though lh~ir final PUI"])05e .... as c1~arly to preserve the dy"asly_ In 1906. :as acting miniSI~r of jU~lic.. in the abo ..,nct of lhe minister abroad, he wlU called upon to pre-idt over the coun appoim~d to judge th~ Dinshawi)' case_ On a snootlng lrip In 1906, a group of 416 BOXES AND CASKETS Briti5h office... had accidentally shot Ihe wife of a local official al Dinshaway, During Ihe a!templed escape, two British office ... and several Egyplians ",ere wounded or killed. Four of the Egyplians were hanged and four semenced 10 life imprisonmenl, The resl were Aogged and given prison 'enns, as well (King, 1984, pp, 260-61), Boulros GMll la' bored .'ery hard 10 reduce the number of Ihe accused and lhe harshness of the sentences, but Egyptian public opinion binerly Tepreached him fOT having accepted lhe leadership over Ihis courI, In NO\'embeT 1908, Boulros GhAll was appoimed presidem of Ihe Council of Minislers, despite Brilish objeclions. His firsl move"""" 10 try 10 I",nsfunn the prerogali.'es of lhe Consullative Assembly and IUTTI it inlO a lrue parliamem, before which Ihe minisleTS would be responsible. However, lhe na· lionali51 press, which had been unleashed ap.insl him al the lime, dro"e him in 1909 10 reinstale lhe 188l law of Sherif Pasha lhal pUI re.trictions on lhe pres.<. Wilh the agreemenl of Ihe Brilish, he submilted 10 the as""mbly the propoS;l.1 for a fOrly·year exlen· sion of Ihe Suez Canal Company concession. The prestige oflhe assembly would Ihus be enhanced by having Ihe opponunily 10 discuss the proposal. The refusal of the proposal by Ihe assembly would bring aboul a final dedsion wilhoul running Ihe risk of a polilical cri.is. The proposal was, in facl, rejecled by Ibe assembly Ihree months laler. On 21 February 1910, a month after submitting lhe proposal 10 lhe assembly, Boutros was assassinated by a nalionalisl. Hi. death sparked serious quarrels between Copts and Muslims, lasting lhroughout the yea... before World War L ConcoTd and a nalional consensUS were reached only when lhe Wafd parly c"me 10 power. BoUlros GhAlJ look an aClive intereSI in Coptic affairs. He cooperaled in establishing Ihe firsl COMMU· NllY COt:NCIL in 1874. 11!.t1883, he obtained a khedi· vial decree de",iling lhe ;organization and Ihe com· petence of Ihe council He had many conOielS wilh Ihe clergy and Palna",h,'CYRIL v (1874-1927) concerning lay parlieipalion in the administralion of Ihe church properlies. BRAZIER. Su Melalwork, Coptic. BRECCIA, A. EVARISTO (1876-1967), Italian arc~logisl. Brecda was direclor of the GraecO" Roman Museum in Alexandria from 1904101931. He was made professor of classical antiquity and epigraphy al Pi.a in 1932 and professoT of ancienl hislory lhree years Ialer. He look pari in many e~· cavations in Egypl, of which lhe ANTII.;oOPOLIS exca· valion, which he recorded in aLe prime richerche ilaliane ad Antinoe" (Aegyptus 18, 1938, pp. 285318), is especially worthy of mention. His ,ignili· canl works include "D'un ~dilice d'epoque Chreli· enne a e/·Dekhela el l'emplacement du Ennalon" (Bul/ Barocas, C. "Brecda, Evaristo." In Di:/(>t1arW biografieo degli lro.li~ni, VoL 14, pp. 91-93. Rome, 1972. Calderini, A, "A. Evarislo Breccia," AegyplUs 46 (1966):293-96. MARTIN KRAUSE BRIGHTMAN, FRANK EDWARD (18561932), Brilish lilurgisi. He was lihrarian of Pusey House and Inen a fellow of Magdalen College al Oxford. He is known above all for his Liturgies E~st ern ~t1d Western, Vol. I, Ea.tern Lilu,gies (Oxford, 1896). The second ,'olume ne''''T appeared. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bale, H. N. "F. E. Brighlman." Proceedings of Ih, British Academy 19 (1933):345-50, REN£-GEORGES COQtIl~' BRITISH ISLES, COPTIC INFLUENCES IN THE. In Ihe early Middle Ages, lhe 6fth lolhe BOXES AND CASKETS. Su B¢ne and Ivory Carving, Coplic; WoodwoTk, Coplic. ninth century, Ireland and England were open to monastic inOuence. from Coplic Egypl; lhe Irish, and 10 a leslit:r exlent the Anglo-Saxons, responded favorably. There is no proof lhal any individual • BRITISH ISLES. COPTIC INFLUENCES IN THE Cope ever came imo conuct with any indiftd....l Anclo-Suora or Irishman. nO~ is tha" Welle.-n Continental Monasdcl5m Kllowlcdi:c of the Coptic mono of E()l"l and their -)'5 reached lhe West wouP Greek chuKh· men, .. ho usually bvored the more atroc:tu~d discipline of lhe Western chuKh. Even "'riten and d'UKh dilniuria such as the palrian:h A1lW'lASt05 I preferred monu to be obedienl 10 hieran:hkal au' lhont)'; and when they praised the eremllk: (soil· tal)'l life. lhey did so in an idcaliJ:inl way. as some· thing wonderful in the day, of the primilive chllrch. Other Grcelts. such M Saint BAStL THE GIlf.AT, stronl' Iy crltlclud the hennits and emphasi~ed episcopal Authority Over Ihe monks. The coniervarive ecciesiMtic. of the WCSt shared the Greek view. 11>ey were .koplical of henniu and Fearful of ",-.nderina ho./y men .....no pined popular adulation. GrcJOrY of Tours ;n II", ,iJth cenlul)' tells or • Gaul who ",,,,,heel to be • stylite but "''as talked of hia pillar by lite local clergy. who reminded him thaI he was In Gaul, DOC S}....... and !hac he wotold freeu in winter. I1$s amOiKnc btll mooc ~ Is Sulpjci.... 5eYerus' 6lih<enlury Life of Manin of Toon.. ..ttich tdb how Saint /.br'Iln·s ernnitic life cndca..,d him 10 the people but oItendcd the hieran;hy. ..+>o.-d his ascetic rruonnen and IJlJ'CllraJlce 10 ~ his elev.uion 10 the epis. Copale. a1thoush they did not su<:ceed. In the Western clwrch. m<>nUtic:iso'n increased. but ....... Uy;l ..... of the cenobilic (communal) nth· er lhan Ihe e..,milic type had close connections ....h bishops. Bishoops _~ mquen.ll)' chosen from the rinks of monks. In the filih centllry. for exam· ple. lhe isbnd monaMery of Lerins oft the cOtii 01 _them France was ,,;nually a seminal)' for Gallic bishops. Ambn:>s .wi.. aIJ' 417 Roman, he bvored ... orderly monutic en";.-onment with a 5e1 of oIlice. that demanded rcspeclrqanlJcu of "'!IM one mi&ht think of the offic.,. bo1de.--and ctWljKi.tiOP ~ the monks and tbe local bishop. who had authority (n-"'" them.. Although he ilCknow~ the e:dSleJICe of soocl ....... mils. Bcntdicl really had no place fur 1bcm in 1m system. He prdeTTed monks to be uDder tht control cL ilI1 abbot. and he A ~ the Roman ,inut of stabiliuu. en.-isioninc thaz a monk would spend his life in Oft"' mortaIle:ry. He had no 1IX for the wandering monks who fi&u~ in the II'O<>SI primili•.., E()-pIi.an accounts. MOllulld..... In 1.... land and England This preference for a disciplined. organized monaslicism ..,fleeled lhe fOCie\)' of the Western empire with iu la'1le urhan communilies and strong. often poIilically minded bisltops. aut ""lten Chrisli. anilY reached Ireland in the fifth century. it en· coutl!ered a completely different """iely. one in ""hich the typical Western Christian culture had lit· tie rele''ance_ A rdillon tltal gre"" up in a warm. Mediterra.neall. IIrnan. classical. lite"'te environ· ment was now emelinc a chilly. Atlantic. """,1. ba.... barian. t>Ollliterate en'ironm.... L When the Ang» Sa.<.ons conquered mosl of SOtlthem Brilain in Ihe 6fth and sixth centuries, they crealed a similar world on that idand. These condition' were made fur monasticism, and they ~"i6ed tbe prim;li'.., F.£)ptian fonns. The lrisll had no cnOes, .nd while some Anglos..~ lOOk ow:r Romll.llO>Bri'isIt cities. most lived in rural area>. The episcopacy ..... an urban institution, but monWkiJlII...ttlc:h had bqun as a flight from the ciliel..... run! and filled ...",11 in EnVand and Ireland As barbarians (WI is. DOncbssical pcoople$). the 1ri5h and ~isb li''Cd in heroic 50cieIies dllu .... oed. a man's individual qualilOes more than the of· 6<:e he held. Tbcir heroes. 5 Finally. the Irish ant! Enllish we'" convens Wilh alltlte .ell of convens. The centuri...·old Chnstian religion "'"i'S as new 10 lhem ln the eariy Middle Ages M il had heen 10 lite Jews and Romans in the aposlolic age. This teal fount! Its oUllet nOI in lhe lives of members of the Mottled euabli.hmentoot in 418 BRITISH ISLES. COPTIC INFLUENCES IN THE the liws of thox ..·Ito ga~e all for thelr blth, the m~'" Tbtse facll>l"5 combined .0 ",.,ke the Irish and EngJiUo rccepIive 10 EcptiaJ! mo~icisJn. panic... (arty 1Iw. of the deKn's heroic ,.... Eventually the tOfTW"IiDtion of both the Irish and EnclW. ChUfCh. a eliminated !.his influtnce. bul for SOfO" yean iI was .. poeenl and creatn't~. In Irdand. Alhanasi...• Life 0{ was kD0v0ll in lal:in ttaMlatkm. • _Jerome's probably lictiliou$ life 01 PaW..... omer Egyptian henoiL The Scyfnp of I~ (DesuIJ F-.h.r• ..-as lnlnSI.ued from Creel: inlO Lalin by the Spaniard Martin of B",p in the .lxlh century. Contacts bel-..n Spain and Ireland wen '11""'11 in lhe An""" early Middle Ages. and the Irish were bmiliaT ...ilh the &ryin,S. The llreal Irish monastic ...ints were, like Saint AN. TON~, origin~J1y henni'" who were forced by popu· lar pressure to accept disdples. for example, Saint Kevin of Clendalough. Uke Antony. bUI unlike Ben· edici. Ihey ..... re fond of ....andering. and th.re arou In Ireland a funo of "I'irituality called tile pererri"mio pro Christo. a u"'andcring for Christ." Th. lrie;h lhou!:hl lhal ne," to man~Tdom. voluntary e~. He "'lOS lhe greatest sacrifice One COOJId malte. Abra· ham had left Urof the Chaldees.u God'a call. sc> the pnclice !tad .. biblical foundation. Bolh Saini C~ lumba and Saint Columbanus wenl InlO "",,ile in the ainh and seventh cenluries. When Saint Adamn.... ""fOIe Ihe life of Columba in the _nth CenIUT)'. he llO' only Presnlted lhe saini in Antony's mold but aho include deRination. To slresi lhe Ec-plian panllels. lhe anonymous ..uthor ~n has Brend.on meet Paul lhe HermiL TIM, QillfltlO the da.m is .. S)'TJIboIk _urn 10 the ""tu~ ...'Oriel of lhe Garden of Edw from the world of human brinas- This is .. plUffiinenl theme iIIlrls), ha~phy. in ...ilio;h Ihe Imh hennits Ihot wilh rwure. and many of theiT mindes iIIV'ol\ot the ....imals wilh ....hieh mer 11\" 10 peace. That lirem!)' lIlotifs eatend bqond the hagiogno. pity. Recent Kholanhip h.a.s ntablished Iha1 ntaIly biblical apocrypha ...·ere In Coptic cinob_ some "'ere known only in tllesc circles-and man. II$CrIpu of mew le~15 date 10 the fourth and ~fIh centuries.....hen the hlenrchical church ........ con· demning lheir uM:. Manin McNamano ' - demonstrated 1 1 Ihe lri~ knew and U!led a great man)' apocryph includin8 IIOme known only from E£ypt:. II is vinually impossible Ihat the Irish had direct access 10 Coplic ....orks. but it i. certain that the)' did kno.... and aPPCeciall! th¢$e works far more than other Western peoples, Visionary and apocalyptic book! ,,"'ere especially popular with them. In,,,,,,.., Irish Arl Artistic deo.ices and mQlifs also domon5l"l1e the contacts of the Irish "'ith Coptic influence. The cirded Irish cmss may dcri,~ from lhe ancien' E0!>lian ra" symbol. whieh had bet-<> Iurned into a Crt al I~ by IN: fifth century. a5 .. Coptic manuscripl in the PieI-ponl Morpn Ubrary in N.,.,.. Vorl,.J>ows ((;.67. p. 215). The famous "Virgin and Child with An... h~ iii_ration 01> folio 7v of the illuminated Irish manuacripl the Book of Kells has been sftown by F. Henry (1963) 10 be relalcd to .. Coptic man"""ripl. Henry abo points out ..u the use of red dots 5lItTOI.Indil'll .. fisure in order 10 illuminate il. a praclice uSoCd in sn'tta.lln"n manu· !iCr1pU. is of Coptic ori&in. Por,,;oits of Clui:sl in some Irish .....nuscripl$ and on llish Slone Cn>5$t$ bear WOOl resemblance 10 ponralts of Osiris. Irish church ""'""c also .00..'1 Coptic inlluence. "The Irish uoed .... nd bells, lid did the Copl$ in lhe sixlh c.ntury. bul lhe resl of Ihe Ew.oIern chu BRITISH OCCUPATION OF EGYPT Ul.Iic.. M the Romans .,,~Iiud .soulMrn En· gland, Ihoy ncntu.al.ly came in.o conlK' and ~. .ion ""i1h the 1rW!. who had heen e>'anselWng NOT1m.mhria. A. the Synod of Whilby in 664.• he NOT1h"mbrian kina Oswy d..,ided for lhe 1l.0TlWI poany and p>anut.eW that the AnsIo-Sa>.OfI ch"nh _ld he the ordered. stable ...,Lil)' SO familiar in the West. Indeed. Bede himself .... a Ben«llclinoe.. Bul lhe ~oIficial~ triumph of Roman views ""as I>Ot a triumpb of the heart. and old way$ penis.cd for a "'hile longer. One of Bede'. heron "-as Sslinl Culhben. a cnoobilic monk of .he M'~lh cen.ury ""ho left I'lis communily '0 become a hemtit. He li~ed on a d~ island. built a wall around him· telf SO high .hal he c(MIld oee only the ~y, bauled with demon•. aOO perlonned mi....c!n Wi.h ",ild animals. Only lale in lifo """" he impos«l upon 10 accept a bilohoprlc, an office Ite ....d pre>''ouMy reo fused (Hislori" ecde.i"Slic" 4.27-29). CUlhlac was a monk al Replon in the sevenlh cenlury bUI left 10 beeome a hennil on a manhy island, where he pracliced strict asceticism. Hi. bi· ogntphe,. Felix, in his Life of Cuthlac (chap. 30). ~ys Ihat demons lried to lempt him by offering \0 leach him the way of life of "Ihose reno"'ned monks who dwelt in E'.gypI:' On anolher occasion Guthlac routed 50me demOM by IT<:;ting Psalm 67:2 '0 litem, lhe same .......e SainI Anlony of EIYP' had ~ (chap. 14). The famous Rulhwdl Cross, a lara;e stone cross thM eontains verses ITom IItc poem '''Tho Dream of Ihe Rootl·· has represenl.Btiom of An.ony and Paul e"V""ed upon i•. The patti!;ubn ...laie 10 sutface mdeo>«, but lhe Coptic spIri. lived on pasI the Sp><>d of Whilby. Bede ... a ~ fIoh>ees the heroism and ind....idualil)' that also dlataclerlzed .he desm fad~n (HislnriJI e""'si"'rica S.12): This man "lOS livcn a onOre $CCluded dwdli ... in ,he mOI\ll$~ry. $0 thai he cDtlld dewoce himself more fuely 10 the M'rv>ce of his MUer in "nb,oun pray.:T. And since .his place m,nth on the bionk of a river. he often "oed 10 ~nler II for severe bodily penance. and plunge repeatedly ~ ~ath Ihe wal~' ",hile he recited psalm, and prayers for :u long as he could end"re I., sland· inll mOlionless wilh Ihe waler up 10 his loins and romellmes to his n<:<:k. When he returned to sho.... he never rcmo~ed his dril'Pinli. chilly gat' "",nlS, but lei them warm and dry on his body, And in winter, when the half-broken cakes of iu _rc swirling a ...... nd him whkh h., had broken 419 '0 make a place .0 ....nd aOO dip himself in the tho:tse "'be saw him used .0 say: ~Brother Drycthdm ... ,it is wonderful how you can manajte 10 hear 5UCh biller cold." To which he, being • man of simploe d1spoait and ..... f·restrMn •• would reply simply: '·1 ha known it colder_~ _t....-. 8lIJUOCllAntV Henry. F. L'N1 ;,/",,114;•. Vol. l. Paris. 1963. Kelly. J. F. T. ·1ltc DeKrt Falhers .. Models for thc Jolone of the Wesr." In God lind Ch"rily, cd. F. D. Costa. pp. 55_74. Brookline, Mass., 197<1. ___ '1be Gallic Resistance .0 Eastern Asce.i· cism.'· S",dit> P"rriSriCIl 18 (1982):S06~ 51 O. McNamara. M. The Apot;rypluo in l1te trish Church. Dublin. 1975. Ritner, R. "Egyptian. in Ireland: A Ques.ion of Coplic Peregrinations." Rice U";"fr$;ty St~dies 62. no. 2 (1975):65_87, Rousseau, P. "The Spiril"al Authorily of Ihe 'Monk· Bishops': Easlern ElemenlS in Some Western Hagiograph)' of Ihe Fo"nh and Fifth Centuries," Jounlill of Theological Srudiu. n,s.. 22 (1971):380 -419. Stevenson. J. "ASoCent Th......lIh Ihe Heavens, from EgypI t<> 1...land.'· C",.,bridge Med;"'va[ Celric St"dus S (1983):21-35. J. F. T. KEiLY BRITISH OCCUPATION OF EGYPT. WMn the BriLish occupied EfypI in 1882, lite Copt< '""... no! p1ayina any acln.. role in £cypIlan political life. 'Ibo liberal ,,;nl of the nalionallil move........ t. which dn'tlopal unde~ the In8\>t'1'1(e 01 Cluislian Syrian ilrtmi&ranu. did noc include CClp'Iic names. The. p<-..e11<:C 01 Copu in !:be EiJlptian army .... '00 recenl to be of polilical 1'e'1cvan«- Although EJ.un.pear> ..... re... 01 the .il1M' ta>d 10 iden.ify Kenophob;" <"'S of the Itaf'l.li, or Christians. meOlioninl Syrians, G.-..eu, and Brilish victims bul no Copts in Ihis comnl £. L BUlcher (11197), who echoes the Bri.ish aUilude. seeing in Ihe riots Qf 1882 an argumenl 10 occupy Egypt in order to secure European Inleresls. wriles .hal possible harm could ha~e come 10 Ihe Copts had the British oot inlervened al Ihe right time by occupying lhe CQUnl".., In facl. lhe ... was no real antagonism between the Copl:s and Ihe 'Urlhl movement, which was di- 420 BRITISH OCCUPATION OF EGYPT reeled fint apimt TurIrish and Cire...ian ~lemenlS in the Efyplian army and I....,.. apinsl Europnon inlervenlion in Egyptian politics. II is e~ ~ned !hal JOme Copts supported 'lhiIbl. 'UribI, Ilo>o._, could nol .u>p flInalic elements !'rom beinl in...,lwd ill his remh... faccor ~ ",ost him dle 1)ll1poom)' of Christian Syrians who lim iIUppOned him. The Copl:Ic: ~h and <>!her Coptic: _ble$ w~ a.mona the si&ners of a petition add.-d CO KhediV'P'ian land aristocncy, they rame to en101 greac econotnIc: advanlap under British nale. The Coptic PreM....... W.l.... (founded In 1871) and Mi¥ (lOunded in 1895). Sl~y supported the Brit· iah occupation in splle of.j>cir eOll$tan! ailicWn about unbir lreatmC1ll of !he Btirish loward the COpi$ in lhe civil sem"'e_ n.e Srilish lried 10 di· minish Ihe tradilional CoptIC: monopoly On ecnain p""ts In order 10 culti\'ale ao image of blm_ toward lhe Muslim majority. In 1896 a Cop.;", cIeleption presenlcO a list of claima 10 lhe lovemment and 10 Lord Cromer, ask· InC fQr equal lre.almenl with Ihe MU'llims In Ihe d\'il service; for Sunday [0 be th", holiday lor Ihe courts: for cal"'chism for Copt.s in public schools; and for more opportunilies occupy high sovern' menl posl$. '0 The Coptic presll 1l00d in loW oppm;llon 10 Ihe National pul)' of M"flab Umil, althou#t the pany included Copu. Mip orpnized • petition $igned by rnembeB of Ihe Coptic: communhy 10 P",U~"I lIDy chaoge in the pollli<:al situation that could Introduce _ chantea. This petition ...... mel with opposition from nationalist Copot:a suppnnen ol the National patty. f"ro9osals 10 found .. Coptic p;u-. Iy were also made. but they did n« pre>'ail ~ secular .endrnciQ \O'ithln 1M Coptic eommunil)'. A crisis between the Coptic and lh.e Nalionalist prea bunt oul aitCl" "J.W"I.OIt, In ilS ~ the Britiah occupation of EcYPt, deKribed the M_ lim conq_ of Egypt as beln, as oppressi"", as an)' mh.,.. conqU<:sL "The chid" cOilor of tJl-Lnri', the pa~r of me National party. reacled wlIh " highly iO$Ulling and provocali~ anicle aplnst the Copts. 8e<:ause lhe aUlhor of lhe article. 'Abd aI··AzI. UWlsh .... as of Tunilli.n ori,in. Ihe Copts wet'C coo· firmed in their animosity IOward pan· Islam. For many modem EiYPlian hiSlorians, Ihe conAiel between Ihe Copt.s and Muslims at Ihe begin· ning of the \Wentielh cenlury Was a rCiult of the British policy of divide and rule. The nominalion of BoUlros Gllall as prime miniSter...." due 10 his efficiency in repre..,ntin, Ihe Brilish as well as Ihe khedi...e's inte,,"lI. both of which were supported by many 1>I..."hlO5 as well. The assassinalion of Bou· lro!I Chili by a Muslim panisan of 1Iw Nati,,"",1 party brougIu Coptic-Muslim rebllom 10 a new crisis. Boutrns Chill "'1$ II;Cusec! by Ille Copts of nOl havina ~ himself 10 Coptic inlCn$l$ "'hile he ..-as In JO'"'I'mme1ll. In Asy!l!. the city with the ~ cont=ltnUon of Copu in EcYPt. Coplic: naubks decided 10 hold .. congress 10 Slreu again thrir demands 10 the g:o-'CT1\meol. 1O"ft"OlDCJ\1 feared lroubIe in As,Q! and asked hlr\arcll cn.n. v 10 inll'n'CnC and pl<>p(*: another location. bul rtri....... 1he governmenl OOr the .-triarcb himself manaced 10 .....y the Cop!$. 1bey hdd • _1l'aIIcnded ""O&T'"SI' in March 1911 here they demanded • ehaol" in the election Ia II;CO"tding: 10 ..hat they ~h was Inadequale rep-esenl8olioJ'. and they req~ lhe makini of Sunday. holiday fur the Copts. In his repon of 1911. the Brilish Hl&h Com· mlssionar EJdon Gorst heavily crilicized the Coplic congress. which he said Will oqanized by a minority of Iich land owners, He emphasize ..w ro.- n.e BRITISH OCCUPATION OF EGYPT 10 him, more CopTic influence. as demanded, would make the Copts more unpopular. He accused the Copts of interpreting British impartiality hetween Copts and Muslim. as prejudicial to lhe Copts. According 10 official statistics of the lime. Ihe CoptIl held 69 percent of tlte posts in tlte minimy of interior, 44 percent in the ministry of post and railway, 30 percent in the mini.tty of justice, and 14 percent in Ihe minislT)' of culture. According to Coptic estimates, they c<>rnrolled 19 percent of the EgypTian economy while they made up only 7 per· cem of the population. After tlte Coptic congres.. publi.:;; opinion turned again.t the Copts. The European pre", of Egypt /1$ well as part of lite British press supported the Cop' tic claims. From the Muslim point of view, the Cop' tic .uppon of the British and the success of lite Protestant missionary activity among the COplS since the Brilish occupalion gave enough re""on for mistrusling the Copts: and e,'en Ihough official Brilish policy did nol favor Ihe Copts, Ihe missions crea~d a common ground bet""een British and Copts, encouraging the Copts in anti-Islamic tendencies, The missionary aclivity also played an importanl role in Ihe relations belween the community and ils patriarch and clergy, 'Ole palriarch, Cyril V, sa"" foreign inlerference as the reason for Ihe troubles he was having with the communily as it asked for Jay represemalion in the Community Council for the rule of Coptic affairs, This conflicl wem "" far as requesting removal of the palriarch from lhe chainnanship of the council in 1893 and the subsli· tution of anOlher church prelale in Ihat po,ition_ In Ihis conflict, Ihe Brilish sympalhized ""ilh the refonners. ln 1911 the Egyptian Congress of Heliop& lis was held as a reaction to the Coptic Congress and to answer Ihe Coplic 421 in Egyptian nalionalism slowly opened the door for Ihe integrotion of the Copts into lhe national movement. 'Ole newspaper a/·Jaridah became Ihe nucle· us for the Ummah Party, one of whose members was SA'!) ZA(;Hl-Ol. A/·Jorfdoh expressed a nationalism based on an Egyptian idenlity sepamte from pan-lslam, and managed to win Coptic sympathies. When Ihe 1919 revolution against the Brilish took place, it included at! classes and groups of Egyp· tians, regardless of religion. One may say that Ihe main achievemem of this revolution was the total national unity of COplS and Muslims around Sa'd Zaghlo.l and his Wafd pal1y. The emblem of Ihis revolution was, in facl, a crescent enclosing a CrOM. The nOminalion of a Copt, Yiisuf Wahbah, as prime minister during Ihe boycott of Ihe Milner Commission's visit 10 Egypt in 1919 was con· dcmned by the Coptic communily as a Brilish in· lrigue 10 embarrass Ihe Muslims, who would fear being accuS«! of religious fanaticism if Ihey opposed the Wahbah governmenl Sa'd Zaghlo.l succeeded in attracting Coptic en· Ihusiasm for his Wafd. Three Copts accompanied him to Paris, and Copts as well as Muslims were exiled and put in jail during the Wafd slruggle for independence. One }'ear bef"re Ihe British proclaimed Egypl a British protectorale in 1913, a new law for the Leg' islalive Assembly reserved four seats among ",,'en· leen for the CoptS, among Olher ethnic and professional groups. The Copts were Ihus represented as a minorily, blll nol as part of Ihe professional groups of enginecrs or merchants. This law reflecled British views and traded concessions granted to European stales for the proteclion of foreigner:<> in ~vpt with Ihe privilege to proteci the minorities of Egypl. Lord Cromer regarded Egypt as a conglomeralion of different groups withoul a national bond or a national identity and felt that the representalive bodi.. should be constiluted accordingly, In their dedaralion of 1922 of Egyplian indcpendence, the British reserved for Ihemselves four dauses, some of which granled them Ihe right to protect foreigners and minorilies in £gypl. Thcse clauses were rejecte. Since Islam would be the stale religion, a legally 422 BRUCE, JAMES $eCureel nrp~nwion would male up for ineon· ,'enieno;u nused by this fact. Since snenI Europe;o.n coonn;,c, were adopIing such ~trnS 10 5«U~ ,he rlPu of their minorilies, mil; measu~ would not be IUcO'J'lional. This >dea was rejK1ed by most poIilical as ""II as inlcll«lual ponnr!"nia. Sa'd bchl(l] feh !hal "ithin a par!.iarJ).,nt only political a!'JUllWn15 should rule. M_ of the Copu also rejecled special trtalmenl for 1M Cop", as bet", i... compatibk ...nh 1M $O.... 'eigllly 0I~. No ~. raI Behrenl·Abouscif. D. Die KOplen in tI.. IIgypliwhe" Cele/lschall. Freiburg im Brei.gau. 19'2. Blunt. W, S, Secr..1 History olth.. E"Slish Occupa· rio" of Elj'pl. london. 1%1. Butcher. E. L Th.. Srory of Ih' Church of £Cpr. London. 1891. Crn...... r. Lonl. Modem Egypl. London. 1905. Miknail. k. Copts a"d Mudims U"d.., Brirish Con' troI. London. 1911. MUl;uommad Sayyic! KIUnI. aJ·Ad1 der H....· tal. rubin,.,.,. 1912. BRUCE, JAMES {l1lO-l1941. Sco ant BIBLIOGRAPHY Dawson, W. R.. and E, P. Uphill. Who Was Who itt Egypralogy. p. 41. London. 1912. MacD.-nnOI, v_ n .. Boob of J~u "nd Ihe U..,ill..d Tut m Ih.. Bruce Codex. NlO& Hamma
BRUGSCH, KARL HEINRICH FERDINAND (lJ21~1894). G.-rman Ea>l'loiogist. He became profnsor al GCittinltC" In 186J and di.tttor cf the ScbooI of £f;ypwloc in Cain:> in 1870. wortm,; in all fi.-Ids of EcYJItoIos;y as .......1 as in Coptology. He' rounded I"," jcM.rmal ~hri/l til. dgyplu<:/te Spraene "nJ AI,......mskunde. In 1861. In 1881 be "'25 gi""n Ihe litle pasha by Ihe ",ling Ithedive because of his conlril)tlliOQl 10 EcPtology. BIBLlQGRAI'KY B",pe-h, H. F. K. lid" LeN" " ..d m.i" Wa"d.rn. Berlin, 1891. Dawson. W, R.• and E, p, Uphill, Who Was Who in Egyplology. London. 1912. Erman, A, "Heinrich B",pch." Zei'jeh,i!1 /ii, ~g}'p" ,! BUDGE, ERNEST WALLIS ALFRED THOMPSON (IJ51~19H). El>glish .Ec>pto!ocist. Cop- tologist. and Orientalist. H.. became a S1Udem al Christ CoII'1!'". Cambrici&.-. where he lUe..lled in lbe study of many a..dent cultures. In 1191 h. became keeper of t.hc DO'panmen' of E,ypIian and Assyrian Anliquities at the British Mu..e\>m. a post be I>.-Id until 1924. Budg.- "''f:n' 10 Ea>pt. lhe Su BOLUS AL-BOSHI eomlums by Th~odoslus Archbishop of Alexandria, S~verus Patriarch af Anrioch, and Eustathius Bishop at Tra'~, Captie T~xts with Extracts from Arabic and Erhiapic V~ysions, edited with ttllnslation, London, 1894; The Earliest Known Copric Psalter, the text in the dialect of Upper Egypt, edited from the unique papyrus codex Oriental 5000 in the British Muse' urn, London, 1898; The Egypti"n Sudan, Its History and Monuments, 2 vols" London, 1907; Coptic Hom· ilies in the Dia/ocr at Upper Egypr, edited from the papyrus codex Oriental 5001 in the British Muse· urn, London, 1910; Coptic Blbli"a/ T_xts in the Dialect of Upper Egypt, London, 1912; Coptic Apocrypha In the Dlal~ct of Upper Egypt, edited with English translalion, London, 1913; Coptic Martyr. doms In Ih Dialect of Uppe, Egypt, edited with English translation, London, 1914; M!sallaneous Coptif: TUI5 in Ihe Dia/eel 01 Upp~r Egypt, edited with English translatiQn., London, 1915 (for contents, see Coptic Bibliography, p. 32, no. 716); Egyptian TaJes and Romances: Pagan, Chris/Ian and Mus· lim, English translation, London, 1931; Stories of the Holy Fath~" ' , . of the Desuts of Egypt Between 250 & 4()() A.D, Ciycit~r Compiled by AtJMnasius, Pal/ad!us, Jerome and Others, Oxford, 1934; Th, Wit and Wisdom of the Chislian Fathers of Egypl, the Syriac version E. A. W. By Nile and Tigris (autobi<Jgraphi· call, 2 VQI., London, 1920, Dawson, W. B" and E. p, Uphill. Who Was Who in Egyptology, London, 1972. Kammerer, W" cQmp. A Copt!c Bibliography. Ann Mor, Mien.. 1950; repr~tJew York, 1969. Smith, S, "Budge. Sir (Er~est Alfred Thumpson) Wallis." Dicllonary of Nallonal Biography, p. 121. LondQn and Oxford, 1931~194(). Thumpson, C- "Emest Alh-ed Wallis Budge," Jou!'> nal of Egyptian Archaeology 21 (1935):68, whi"" include. a pal1rait. Aw:S. ATtYA , OilLUS AL-OUSHi (Paul of Bush), an Arab regarded as one of the most significant personalities in the Coptic hierarchy during the Middle Ages. There is no precise information about his bil1h date 423 or his secular life as a young man before he took the monastic vow. It is p<JS.ible that he was !>om between 1170 and 1175. This conjecture is based on the fact that PQpe JOHN \'t mentioned him as a possible successo< in 1216, and it is known that no patriarch of the Coptic church could be nominated before the age of forty, ThAYR AND.'. 1<01.4) in Ihe Eastern Desert "ias located, it is certain thai he did not enron ;n either of these mQnastic institutions. He probably joined the mono astery Qf Anba :>am,:ril of Qalarnun in the FayyUrn province, which was within easy reach of Bush and where he resideeen vacant for nearly twenty years, durin~ which moSt of the hishops had died, and lheir s~ats had lQ be fiiled. This proved to be the new patriarch's opponunity 10 offer these episcopal seats to the highest bidders in order to collect as much money as possihle by applying the ,hartimiyy" ah (simony-see CHEtRO'IONt~) to enable him to pay hi. own promised bribe tu the Muslim administration. Cyril III actually filled lony episcQpal vacan· cies in simoniacal fashion, which irrilated both the clergy and the congregation. As " re.ult, it was decided l 424 BOLUS AL-HABIS, SAINT In fact 8ulou aI·BUsh; is r"membe«d more for his "'ridnp ihlon lor hi. posi.ion <JrigiLancoe In tM p...·larcNlIe of Cyril III. Of his su""'i~inl wrilloeo _ria. I"" eodic:es haw: been known 10 e..at. !NIi.... Iy in manUKript in numemw; Tq>OSitorill$. and only a roew t-oe been published. Of u-e. his ri&bl miMe record of a dispulallon with Cyril ibn La'llaq in the l'Oyal pre" encoe of Sultan al·lOmil (1218-1238). AccOrdinllO the Hi.wry "Ilhe Palriarchs. the Melchile palriarch Nicholas ll$ wen as !he '"Iema (Muslim learned jur· i,a) a\lended Ihis dispulalion. th<: itlbJe<:1 of which Is unknown. Thoe Iasl m.c.... ble and preciK dale in SUlu.·a life ..... the year 1240. during whieh Ihe I)nod that C<)ll.",ned in lhe Citadel of Cairo under dte su...·oeU· lance of Ihe ".....im adminisU'l1lt1on ~ .hal 8Valchdol lit the .-trian:.hate. II is noll known how lon, hoe ouupioed thaI pDilillon, bOll ...., must assume .lDt his death OCOlrnG Ii....., after Ih,u )-ear. AcC<)l"din, 10 lhe aVJoilllbk he must !oa''e roemalMd a prloesl thfOO.lJhouI his ccclesiasl>cal c:are« unlil the JOUr 1240, ,.,hen ~"'3:> elented In the epiocopale nl MOfr (al·~WJ. known 10 be lhe IOOSl imponan. of all the E&rJ>t.iaft ~ H~ life end«l in Ihis Cll~il)'. thoush it is impossible 10 proddoe a p~ eiK da.e for his dealh. 'wo """"'ft. DlBuoCRAPHY Samir. K. Maql/tlh {I ,,/·r..lhlllh __ ~I·r"i.JJ"d ...... $jl.>~al "I-Masl~jyy"h. Zouk Mibi!. 1933. Azrz S. !lTIYA 81'JLUS AL-I:IA8IS, SAINT, a Coptic monk and .. ne.... manyr" of lhe Ihin~ntn cenlury. BOlus al· l;labb (Paul the Solitary) appean in lhe Islamic· Anlbie sources as harioa de.cended from a respect· able Coptic: family of scrihoes in Cairo_ MlkJa-~. as M "21 known prior 10 tatlna the monasllc '"0"1'5, vas hiJnsell" utib (scriboe Or secretary). Durina the niDI' of the Ayyubid sullllJ' ai-Malik al·SiJiJ:! Najm al-Din A)')'lIb and th<: ... hana Shajar aI·Dun". hoe sened in the iltMe chancdlery in Syria. In the n:ir:n of the Mamluk sullllJ' a1·Mu~1ZZ Aybak ",·TurunninJ. Mikhl'11 _ ~ 10 Cairn. Thereaher he len his d.,;] C.1"«1"" 10 be<:ome :II moo'As a monk. hoe tl!Ceh'oed Ihe name BU!w; (Paul). He spent hi. life from thai Ii.... in a cave in the: Red MOUDWo (aI·Jabal aI·Al;ImarJ. near !:IiI........ south of Cairo. Th~ relreal did not &lOP him from C<)nlaCU; wilh the world as a moendicanl monk. Biilus I,,*.-eled widoe'yln Upper and I.ow<:r Eg)'pI. Besides offerinll people lho: reti,>ous and moralislic Ie"",". of hi. prie.t1y profeujon. BUlus pro~id«! them wilh concrde ass;'la.. ce. Regardle.. of a per_ son's religious allegiance, he .upponed Ih",e in need and paid Iheir debls. He rreed prisoners who were held for deb! or unpaid fine•. He e,'en .e!lled immense .....te imp<.l5ts for ","'hole communilies. Wboen Ihe DhimmlJ (non·Mush,,": Copts and Jews) in Upper Egypl "",roe unable 10 pay illegal finaneial pIic: anaJ)'R of lhe period. made the comment thai A1-l;Iabia achle>-oed aslonished. the people of A1eundria. ~ The dimu of SUI ...', C1Ireer occurred in 1265 when he _ d communitia <J Copll and Jows in Cairo from immin""l dlsMter. The Copts "-ere blamed for reducl"l Iwy·three I>ouoes in aI·Bali· Ii)yah 1'll:, E•..,n lhe Coptic: palriarch JOH!ol ~1J was dnoued to the iKl!:no:. When the commander of Ihe Egyplian anny submitted a plea fur lbeir live5, Ihe sultan vas pe..... ~tkd 10 spare his viclim< in relum for a bea")' fino:. Bulus ca.me forth with 11M: whole amounl and paid It on 11M: "",1_ The wllan al.~ihlr Bayballl oftl!:n mingled with ~i ••ubjecls in disguise. and, of coullle. became ap' prenen.h·... of the popularily of Bulus, Ukewi,e Ihe I"q~~a·. lhe I.lamic spirilual aUlhorilie. and legal scholars, felt Ihrealened by Blllu•. In panicular. th" I"qaha' of Alexandria iei'll formal opinions con- ror ''''''ha. BURIAL RITES AND PRACTICES demnin@ BUlus 10 death and submitted a plea for his e~eculion to the sultan in Cairo. The sulUln summoned BUlus to the citadel. of· fered him food and lodK;ng. and asked him to reo veal the source of his money. Bulus refused to dis· close his seo:ret, and insisted on continuinK 10 use his acquired wealth for the ,..,Iief of the poor and needy. Bulus may have discovered the treasure hid· den by the Fatimid caliph al-l;Iakim bi·Amr·AIl1h (996-1021) in the Red Mountain. Bulus practiced passive resistance to formal Slale repression. But the Mamluk rulers did not tolerale anything prejudicial to the power of the Islamic state. either from lhe rebel Muslim 'ul_rna (schol· ars) or from the Arab tribes. let alone the Coptic community. Bulus was condemned 10 death and executed. The memory of his life and work survi.'ed for centuries aher his dealh. Five hundred years later, the Muslim writer Ibn al··lmad al'l:IanbaH reiterated his story in his eight·volume biographical dictionary. BIBLlOGR"-PHY Ibn ShAkir al·KulUbL FawM al·Wafay(ll. 5 vols., ed. Il)siln Abbas. Bei",t. 1973-1974. $tJBHl Y. L\BlB BUQAYRAH AL-RASHIDI THE DEA. CON. See History of the Patriarchs. BUQTUR. See BORAH, Vidor. older name of the 1O,,"'n now known as Kafr al·Banilth, in Ihe G~rbiyyah province. The town is located in the northeast , p;lh. but as soon as the buildings had bttn constructed they were confiscated by the Mus· lims. Eutychius also mentioned that Ihe patriarch KM'l1 was ;nterre 425 The HISTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS relates Ihal Palri· arch CHRtSTOOOULUS (1047-1077) was from Ihe town, When the Crusaders slormed BOrah during the patriarchale of JOHN VI (11 89 -1216) and occu· pied the town in 1218. many COplS were among those who losl their lives. This information makes it dear Ihal Ihere was a Chrislian communily in Burah until at least Ihe Ihirteenth century, BIBLIOGRAPHY Amelineau, E. La Giographie de l'Egypu il!'ipoque copte. p. 336. Paris, 1893. Timm, S. Das christlich-kaprische Agypte" i" a,ahi· seh" Zeit, pl. J. pp. 448~49. Wiesbaden. 1984. R.o.NlW.L STE..... ART BURIAL RITES AND PRACTICES. The acl of intening the dead and laying Ihem 10 resl is an old practice dating from biblical times, When Abra· ham died. his sons Isaac and Ishmael buried him in Ihe cave al Machpelah. the burial place that he had bought from the Hitlites 10 bury his wife Sarah (Gn. 23:2-20; 25:8~10). His own de"",endantl. Isaac ano Jacob, were later burie 426 BURKITT, FRANCIS CRAWFORD mou,hs: and mey bore mem away On Ihelr shoul, den and lak! them out; and lhey cluns 10 Ihem and embnoced them: and lhey prq>are'0 ""OMS are. "For as in AlbIn all die. 50 also in Christ .hall all be made alive. BUI eaeh in lIis O\O'n order. duisl the fi .... fNits. then at his cominl tho§c wh... mant is read, then a pelition and the Lord's Prayer. Finally the pries! reads the absolution. The final prllyer said just before the tomb is closed CQDlains the following pelition: "We beseech Thee. our Lord God Almighty. I..over of ~, on be.... lf of Thy ~I [Name] who has relinquished his body. thai Thou may graciously KDd Thy .nlel of mom;y before him. _ Bring him into lhc ""..... disc of ;0" ;nlO the boson>!; of .... r urI)' blhen i\btalIam, lsaac. and Jacob. And. as we conlinoe IQ oller prayers for him htre below, ftc ",ill remember IlS bftore n-.. ..... The priest then reatk the .bo soilrtion. lhc blessing. and the Lonr. PrayC'". CommemoralK>n prllyeIS an: oftered .1 nnaln lnl,"""," that, n<>W<Wlar-, are usua1ly rc:sllicled lO lhc ,hird .... d foninh dot ~r death ....d on lhe annivcnaO)' day. In ,imes. hown'Ct", these lnlel'\U wtte more: fre<juenL [See ,Iso: Funerary CuS1oms; ~k>umin, in Wly Christian Throes.) . n.e fane:;, BURKITT, FRANCIS CRAWFORD (lll64193~), FngIi'" p1"ofessor of divinIty. He was ach'", 3$ a Syriac ""halar ....d historian of n:ligions. S« C5pCcia1Iy his boob noe Re~ ut l/oe 1Ifarric:Mu (1925) and c/ou,.,/o ."d GnoN (1932). 1I1BUOCItAP1fY Bethune-Bakel". J. f. "8tJrkil1. Frando Cra",btI.O>ciWruuy '" Na,""".1 Bio6C'pJty. 19J1-194(), J'P. 124-25. Undon. 1949. BURMESTER, OSWALD HUGH EDWARD (1&97-1977), Brilish scholar of Qnhodo"y and the Eastern ehu~hes. He obtaiMd his red numerous books .nd a.rticles in the fields of liturgy and Coptic h;'lory. Apart fmm numerous anides. his most important arc: I.e l.eclioff· naire d~ la Semaitte Sainl~. in PO 24-25, Pari... 1933 .nd 1939; "Turuhal of the Coptic Church,N OJie"ra/u. C/o,...,;a"a Periodica 3 (1937):78-109, ~os_~a9): A CuUk /Q I/oC Mo"..,lene.. oI/he Wadi '" Nd{riln (Cairo. 1954): '~ Coptk-G~k·ArabM: Holy Week l.et:oonaon of tJu P.rrtlreh 01 AfU _.ks BIBLlOGRArHl' BIBLIOGRAPHY Gabriel Y, Patriarch. A/·Tarllh a/''f"qsl (Ri,wol 0.· decr), pp. 131-49. Cairo, 1964, ~al'l ibn al·'AIs.a1. al·. Ki/{l.h "/·Qa,,, "In Memoriam,'" .rticles by M. B. Ghali, L H. Rasch, O. Meinardul, and I, Ebeid. B..lIeli" d~ la Socill~ d'.4rch~oro,te corne 23 (1976-1978):1-2, 3-4,309-310,311-13. '"In Memoriam." Le Mo"de COpte 10 (1983):56-57. Meinardus, O. F. A. "Biblioa:raphy of prof, Dr. O. H. E. Bunncste.... B"lIeli" de 10 $ocilli d'ArcM%gle cople 13 (1976-1918):235-44, MI~UT Bounos GHMJ BUSIRIS 427 BURULLUS, AL-, town in Egypt located some· ROSH, IOwn situated on the lefl bank of Ih. Nile ""here between present-day Bal!lm and al-Burj on the eastern shore of Lake Burunus in the northern Delta, Al·Burullus had a bishop as early as the lirst third of the fourth century. Bishop Nonnas was in office in 339; he was succeede about 4 miles (7 km) north of Bani Sud. Nearby are the eSlales that supply the food for the monas· teries of Saini "ntony and Saim Paul (DAYR ANIlA ~NTONty(rS and DAYR ~NBA SOU) near the Red Sea. The5C' t\O'o estates appear to be relatively recent, The ancient texts speak only of Da}T al-Maym"n, ""hich was situated on the right bank a linle {an her to lhe nonh and ",ems to have been replaced hy BUsh toward the end or the sixteenth century. In fact, J, I'AN'LEB wa.. apparently Ihe first European tra"der 10 mention Bush. calling it "the farm or the religious of Saint Antony," Fonnerly, one crossed the Nile at al-Maymun 10 take the road for Da}T AnM An!uniyus via Dayr al-Maym"n, cited as such by d'Anglure in 1395 (1878,1',68) and J. Coppin in 1638-1639 (1971. p, 204). Bul since that time, (ravele.. cross the Nile at BanI Suef and take the road to Bayao;! ai-Nasi"'" on the e",t bank in order 10 reach the monastery (Van· sleb, 1677. p. 295, and 1678, p, 178; Sicard. 1982, pp. 19, 23, 46), The HISTORY o~ THE PATRI~RCHS (Vol. 3, pt. 3, PI'. 16-4-268) mentions that in 1718 a dele· gation wem to Bush. where it seized a monk of Dayr AnM Bula and took him in chains 10 Cairo to be consecrated patriarch under the name of PETER BIBLIOGRAPHY Amelineau. E. La G~olJ"ap~ie de /"Egyplf il l"ipoque caple. pp. 104-105. Paris, 1873, M"nier, H. Recueil des listes oplseap,,/es de Nglise cople. Cairo, 1943, Timm. S, Das chrisrlld,-kaplische Agyplen In "r"bi· scher Zeil, pt. I. pp. 450-55. Wiesbaden. 1984. RAN1Hll STEW~RT " BIBLIOGRAPHY Amelineau, E L" G;o~,tlphie de I"Ep'ple il Npoq"e wple. pp. 366-70. Paris, 1893. Coppin. J. Voyages m Egyple. ed. S, Sauneron, Cairo, 1971. d'Anglure, Le Saini Voyage de lhe",salem, Paris. 1878, Jullien. M. L'Egypl<, PI" 62-64 Lil]e, 1891. Meinardus, 0, MOHks aHd MOHaste,ie< af the Egyp_ liaH Ve"erI•. pp. 221. 371-74. Cairo, 1961, ___. Ch,ISlloH Egypt. An,'lent amI Mode'H. Cairo. 1965, pp. 252-53; 2nd ed" 1977, PI', 355-56. Sicard. C. Oeuvre", VoL l. ed. M, Manin and S. $auneron. Cairo and Paris, 1982 Timm, S, Das chrisllich_kopli$che ;jgypleH '" Q'a· bischer Zeil. pp. 742-47, Wiesbaden, 1984. Vansleb. J. M, Nouvelle 'elalion en forme de journal d',,,, voyage fail en Egyple en 1672 el 1673. Pari •. 1677. Translated as The PreseHI Stare of Egypl. London, 167$. RENt-GOORGES COQum MAURICE MARTIN. S.l. BUSIR. See Abu~lr. BUSIRIS. See Abu~jr. 428 BurCHER, EDITH L BUTCHER, EDITH L. Very Jinle is known aboul Butcher's backg.ound beyond the fact thaI she is lhe autho. of one of the 6rst detailed accounts in lhe English language of lhe Coptic church, The Swry of the Church of Egypt, Being an awUne of Ihe History of the Egyption.• Under Their Successive Masters lrom Ihe Roman Conquesr Until Now (2 liols., London, 1897), She also wrole Thing, Seen in Egypt (London, n,d,), She spent about twen, ly years ~a.ching her subject, not only from a~aHable sources of her day bul also directly from all classes of the Coptic people. >'Is the wife of a ProteSlanl mi ..ionary, she must have liv.d in an atmosphere of congeniality in order to feel comfon, able choo.ing to pursue 1M task she brought to completion, Since her book was publishe the Egyptian side, the witnesses are four Melchiteo: Bishop Ars:iniyils, tM abbot of tM Melch!te monastery of al'O~)'r near Cairo, Ibe deacon MatUi, and MlkM'Jl, monk of Sinai. The agreement v"as concluded on 14 Ayya. onno mundi 6798/14 May 1290, The Genoans swore on the Gospel and the cross, "standing, with their heads uncovered," The Arabic text was published by J;Iablb Zayy;lt in 1953 On the """i. of a manu5Cript ",'Titten in Eg}l'1 at the end of the thirteenth century (National lJbral)', Paris, Arabe 1704 [not 174 as said by the editor). the 6rsl wilnessing in fals. 338a~4Ob, and the second in foI •. 341a-52b. The official wil""••es cho.en on the Egyptian side are Melchites and not Copts, probably becau.e the treaty w,," being concluded with the Genoans wh", according to Muslim Categories, were "Melchj~." BIBLIOGRAPHY ~bib ZaJ-Yat. AI-Rum al-Malkiyyun 1. J;Iarf¥-, 1953. Ii al-Isl~m, KHAUL SAMI~ Vol. S,J, BUTKUS. See 01.0 under Peter, S, AnYA BUTRUS I, S.., Jerusalem, Coptic See of. BUTLER, ALFRED JOSHUA (1850-1936), English historian who w,," educated at Oxford, be, corning a fellow of Brasenose College in 1877 and receiving his doctorate in 1902. He wrole a number of works on Egypt Ihat spanned from the Copt;" era to the medieval period, including his Anciem Coplk Churches of Egypt (O,ford, 1884) and 1M acclaimed The Arab Conquest of Egypt (Oxford, 19(2), $. KI;J .j BUTRUS, thirteenlh--cent(,ry Mekhile bishop of Misr. Butl1J$ is mentioned,twice in an anonymous M~.lim 'work .elaling ihe life of al-Man~ur Qa1iwim, king of Egypt (,,0 1279-1290), entitled Kiliib Ta,hrlf ol·A)yiim wo·al-'U~"r (History of Ara, bic lJteralure), In botb cases, the context considers treaties of armistice between the Genoani and alMan¥ir, following naval battles. Both texts are wTitten by the bishop, who sign, himself BU!nls usquf Mi~r al·Malkl (Pete., Melchite bishop of M~r), The Genoan emissary was Alberto Spinola, accompanied by consuls and traders. On BUTRUS II. See Jerusalem, Coptic See of. BUTKUS IBN 'ABO AL-SAYYID, a deacon who may have lived in Ethiopia, His name is con· necled with the Fetlie Nega", the Ethiopian ,'ersion of the NomOCtlnon of al-'iAFI lB" AL-'ASSAL. According to A. Dilimann and I. Guidi, Bu!rus ibn 'Abel al·Sa)Yid translaled the le't from Arabic into Ge'e:z, 'Abd al-&lmi' Mul,>ammad AJ.>mad (1965), who made a detailed study of Ihe relationship of the Arabic text wilh Ihe Ge'ez version, has shown that it is unlikely Ihat Bu!rus made Ihis translation, because numerouS elTOrs "ppear in the lranslation, TM eITors .eem to be due to Ihe trons· lator's inability to read Arabic correctly, as he mi.. placed diacritical marks, e\'en when the correct .eading was evident; nor had he mastered Arobk style as if Arabic were his native language. Furthermore, M.tmad show, tluot the word meaning "10 cop~" or "to translate" is used in the Fett,o Nagasl in the sense of "to copy," BlJfRUS IBN AL·KHABBAz Hen«, Bu!n.rs copi«l Me of the manuscripts al the Fe"," ,VagiW for !he £dIiopian priesl IbrthTm ibn J:bn~ Na!ian, •••ftiol:h ~01'Y was """'" as a ~ for u... matltJl,CriplS, This lot least ew.bIMn lhal he bid a tood b>owJed&e 0( Ce'eL BI8UOCIlAPHY Guidi. I. II "Feth" Nilg"SI" 0 "ugisl"zjone dei Re," ,odiu UclM;",sli'o e civile di Abl'srirlia, Vol. 2, pp. 9-11). Rome. 1&99. KIto.UL 5.lMIR. S,J. BurRUS IBN AL-KHABBAz. thir1ttnth·cen. IUry metTopolitan of Ethiopia llIId coprist of biblical IUts. nm prinl is kno"'ll From DOl,.. found in fouT Arabic manuscripts of Coptic orilin. l- A. fnur1«nlh-<:entury l\\llIIuscripl in !he Coptic htriarchate in Cairo (Tlwo1ocY 220) contains lUO mon->c lexts (Gnf, 19M), ... KwnlCell accordi"l to Sitlla)bh aDd Y_ 'Abc! a1·M~ (1942). ,,'hich &I"l' faww:I on 170 le*~es. On fol. 1 Ba-IS. .appurs a Col/letion 0/ hvofooonu"",n's u/ me Ftl/hers c::om. Prisin$, amonc oWeT lelllS. uuacts of the twenly' thiTd chapler of the book or ~jnl Gregory the the<>Iopan; extracts from lhe Wi$dont of Solomon; and exlnoc'" of the thi"ielh lrealise of Xif~b tll.Jf~ ...1 (The Comprehensive Bool).•n abbrevialed woli< (ik"f"~r,,ltu) by Ihe MUl"'n Anbl Bu!rus, known by lhe name Ibn al·Khabb.l:z. This l.xl is ciled lwice by G. Graf (1944. p, 387. ~oncerninll lhe "pophlh~grn,,(,,: 1947. p. 453, co ..... cernins: Xi/lib ,,1'1f~) who mistakenly named this bishop BU!ru5 aJ·KhlIbbiL In addilion, Gmt: eonsidered the bishop 10 be the author of th. . .oril, whicb is "",,"' apJJIITenlly 1<$, whell in &ct be ..-as only its c::ompiJeo-. The rdennu could be to the P""d«u oompoRd b)' Antlochus of Palestine. a _ k fn>m !he Saini Sahas ..ioo liwel aI the be-p;illning of Ihe sn'C1lth unwry (I'(; 19, 0015. 1'21-IM'll. "hose work __ bM>wn in Arabic b)' the title Kitl/h.,J-Hp..f (Gnf, 1944, p. '12). nil composition consists of 130 bo... ilies (actually, monl ""'tences dno"'ll frorp !he 5Cripwres llIId early write...). an analysis of wMet. appean in Ahl· _ry* 429 aDd ~). "The manllSCripl _ copied at the monastery of. Si1im AnIDrl)' by I~ ibn FarajoJllh ibn i\bl al~'il ibto Hibatalllh Ibn Abl a).&noJtjj, known also as Ibn Qinlra},. He finished his woTIt or> 6 TO• ........ 997/6 Ju.... da I A.IL 679{3 or' September A.D. 1180. The <:oIophoo publW>ed by Guidi (lUI) lndi· cales that lite manuscnpl was copied fro... a model tranKl"'ibed by AoW BUl"'"' Irno..n as Ibn .1·Khabbiz, who had copied il in turn from lhe autograpMny for al.sJu.ylJl./·!UI'rs al-ThiQah, son 0( 1l/·Sh.,U "Mltl1s aJ.san1 (or aISanl1',1or SanI' aJ·[)awlah), which he completed on 2& Banmhat A.M. 101'/2' March 1298. Gm daled W maltWlCripl to 1294 (11'4'. p. 1&3; 1941, p, 3.59, I. 9). The colophon was publishell..". On Pill" setms 10 be the only manuscript 10 ....ve presoerwd the conunentary thaI 111'1 uno llA~ made on W N",' Tesumeot (minus the Gospels), even Ihough the authocs name a manuscri]X written bf the pri$ V.'qUb, nepl'ic .. fJI "'Ulrin BuJnlS ibn al·Kha~ whicb RseIf wenl back 10 a copy pnserwd al the MonasleT)' of s.int Anlony (Gm. 1947. p. 3&5, par. 2: observe, lhal I'n. 1 has nothing 10 do with lhe plie&t Ya'qtlb). 1947. I'P. 4(J7 1>0_.,.. ward! (1897). 2. A Ihi"""nth-.eentury manuscnpl in the Ambro· sian Uhra...,., Milan (C 47 lnf.) provides an Anoble l....nslalion of the four Gospels, plus II gener.oI imroduction and four indIvidual inlrodu~tions, done by AI·Mad Abu al·F.....j Hibatallih ibn al-'AsslJ from Greek, Coptle, and S)'nac (Gnf, 1944, pp. 162-63; IlIBUOGItA.PHV Ahlwardt. W. Veru/cltn/s d.. arabisch... Hand· Jchri!u" der AIJ"lIliclten Bihliolhd; :u Bulin, Vol. 9, pp. 551-5'. 00. 10185. Bulin. 1891. Gm, G. "A....Imc:he Obersetzungen dC'r Apoka· IY!"'"':' Bibli.,. 10 (1929):170-94, especially p. 430 BUTRUS IBN $AHYON Al-GHANNAMI 179, Calaloc_ d~ ma""seriu iUaks ch,triens COf'IvTVb alt CaiT~, pp. 197-98, ...,. ~24. V.lie'an Cily, 193-4, Guidi, I. uk IracL.arlorri degli ewngdii in arabo e in _ A""IId_ia dd (I1lS3):4-31, "'Specially pp. 19-21. etiopico.~ A4~~ 4~Ua LiJK~i 2S~ R~ Ulfgrm, 0., and R. Traini CuaJoru~ of Ih~ Ambi<: Ma~"K"f'ls in I"~ Bibliouca And>rosWt""" Anric.. F<mJo and M~dio I'-ao, Vol. I, pp, 6-1• ...,.6. IJicerwo, 191~. BUTRUS IBN $AHruN AL-GHANNAMI. elglll«mh..:enlury Cl\lholic Cop! born al Akhmlrn in Upper fsypc. G. M;ocaire. who in 1899 became the ~BI Coptic Catholk palrian:h under tile name of Cyril 11, ....)'. of him, "AI the lime of Ih~ vene ... ble prelate [Athn..i"", Coplk Catholic bisht>p of Jel'l/salem]. there ",as Ii>'ing in Cairo the pious and wise S.nioun Ghann~mt. born of a Family belon" ing to the old orlhodo~y:' His name "'u in bCI SUp'UI ibn ~hyUn, nicknamed (./.... IJ-·rtrian ca~nd3.rs." We no,,' know only Ihe lauer WOfk. He composed il in lhe ~ar a ..... 1485/....". 1182/A.D. 1169. He enlilled it M"'''I.~r tll·8u,JWr .J....-ak14 fI I!"qdqtll "d lOt )'011 ..... '14) al-Fi¥! al.P1UIjftI (Sumnury of the 0 •.,.... whelm1nc -proof cor>cnninl the cia", of lbe glori/lU$ feau of Eaoter). The won. is composed of thiny chaplet'S. The ...thor wiIbe1 10 pm>'e tlw tM Gr, ian calendar b the only In>e one and lhoc only <>ftC 'hkh, unlike lhe Julian and Coptk calendars, is in conformi!)' ,,'ilh the lUlllu of utronomi<:al sciel'l«, He remarks Uw the presenl Coppc year .... no! the EcrPlian yt:ar of yon, but is asi:was l,fomMd by Julius Caesar a few yean btfon ChriRianity." He .Iso nfutfS the ot;eeliOIl. of his opponenlS. 'The work e/llloins numerous tables of asIronomical calcuJa. tions, beinl composed 10 juSlify the Gregorian cal· endar i~lroduced in Egypt by the Calhollc missionaries, Three copies of his work au known, although the present location Ollhe th,ied is uncertain. One Is in StiNt (Or~ntal library 206, ninetcenth·century, 164 palles), one Is in Sharfah (Syrian Catholic Patrl· a",hale, Arabic """ circa 1800, 190 folios), and the third Is in Cairo and belonged to Murqus Jirji•. _II-kno....n boolo$eller and editor of numerous Coptic Arabk lau ........ nd 192Cl-1930. Buuus a}.(;hannb>I mllSl ~"e belonged 10 a ""'ll·to-do family in Akhmlm, which Iurd SU$lained lhoc small Coptk <:atholk community from the ...... ginnmg. On 4 October 1747 Jacqua de Krcmsir'r, the prefeu of the franciscm MiWon of E£)'J"I. ....TOIe a detailed and ;"fonnatM report on tht C0ptic church in ~ to II qUCSIion~n: ,..nt by the Cn"p-tgiltio d" I'roP'l(uiJ" F"ld~. The foUo,,"illl reply i. iVten in """'PO""" to the founor:nth qut5" lion concertlinl Ca.holioc TKKables ..-ho could 011.,.. IDO'" -mance In Ihe miylon: "At Jiliah, a cenain Bu!rns Abu Medri {Miu1], At Akhmim, Sul;oymjn al-GhannAml, ....ho pve "cry gentrous help for Ihe fabric of our eh..n::h by pr.... ig;n. us with all Ihe material" At Cairo, lir MakAtiltS Knsa"i !~wJJ. ..-ho oIfercd considerable help to thc falhtTS of the Holy Land durinl the persecution unleashed against th.m by the English comul'" (TJ'05Seo. p. 204), BIBLIOGRAPHY Anna/ah lsl)aq. AI·r.. rf..h If ..... kh!tplt Ju.. XVI ...·u Rom~ (l616-17/8}, lu:<embou,& 1948. .,"= KH.wL s.uua. SJ. BurRUS IBN SALIM AL-SUNBA:rt. a Mdchile hieromonk front lbe _ilia". of Sunba!, ..-ho in 1199 was liwin._ lhe mOnaslery- r:i Saini Catherine in Sinai. Sunbi! i5 in lhe diSlricl of Zilta, in lhc pro>ilKe or Gharbiyyah on lhe Delta, and is sirualtd 2'1. miles (about 3Vl km) southwttt of Mit DamsIs. Al the lime of BU!nll and in Ihe lhirt,enlh century. it w;lS considerable religious Importanct, especially as regards haalOllraphy, Howe.'er, no worn ncr mention Melchite. li.inl the",. This monk was Ih~ COpyisl at leut Iwo Sinai manuscripts. One (Sinai Arabic 159, a eode~ of 213 sheets) comains a leelionary of lhe "CIS of the Apostles and lhe ""i,tles of Paul for the emi,., )'e...r or or BurRUS AL·SIDMANTI I wid! brit:f CGni.-nuria: Ie ....... com~w. on 14 Ab 6707 of Iub.m{l.O sn"...vll u. 596/14 Aul\'5l ,'-D. 119'l (c£. Ali)... &lid YGUUd". 1970. p. 312). The GllbeT (Sinai A...bic 96. 352 Wcu in addiOOt:l '0 ,~ missill& undated) eOfl,inues .. m_ripe (Sinai Anlbic 159) giving !he Gospel .-eadinp for ,he ...-hole year wi!h a eommenlRry Gn each pencopc: (e£. A.iy;> and Youssef. 1970. p. 19J). But".. a1·Sun~1 ...-ro,e in .. dear, pl~n, hand (a specimen nuy be s«n in Allya and Voussef, 1970, p, 312). AlThough lhe foli<>s are nol num· bered, his work was very eaeduL Each folio be&1"S a ,l,le I"I.mning alon~ Ihe 'OP of lhe recIO, and each fascicule (quinwn) .. numbered al Ihe fool 01 ,ho recto in A",bk lellOl'S (cf. Sinai Mabie 96, fob, 9. 19. 29. 39, etc.; Ih .. shows tha, ,he fin, lony-twO folios allh .. manUKrlpi have di!appc:ared, a dciail noI men,ionel! in !he alalop). ~, each bscicule ~vised, and bean .. the lIooI of!h., !'«to of the fi~l Iolio W ..-d tuba.. which meam ~, ,he 1101' ....... rttbede w. IIBUOCIUf'lil' Amo!!i,...,.,u. E. l.tl Ck>frllphU 431 hiSlory of rdi,;o..s CUSlOms. Tbrre is an e.dftlSive acCGUJU of the cotIlt'nU in Ibn Kabar. KiJ~ .~B"rlo4n (Book of J>rooI) is an apology for O'lriMiaJliIJ, .rcalinl !he 60ctrine abouI Chrisl and provin& ill parti<:ubr !he imposs.ibili.y 01 !he dmni· ty's po'U'ticiptilll in ,he 5lJlf",rin~ of 1M h\lJllill\ .....ure 01 Chrisl. h also deals ,,~!h w questlon of !he repboc",men, of .he MOOoIlIc law by 1M more perfect law of !he Got-pel•. Tbr Holy ScripeurtS, partly with llOUf<'tS, an: int"''PM,"" lhoroughly. The work uses. somelimes lilerally, material from lbe ''''0 ;mthologi"", a/·DUlR. AI,:ntlM1N (Precious Pearl) by S;l."'1,.". and /'r;r~' ~1·Ab ",. 61BLlOGIlAPHY Scve,."s of Anrioch. Con/u.ion of Fai,It, ,"", and Iran .. V. Cauvin. PO 2, pp. J08f, Paris. 19()41973. BurRUS AL-JAWLI. S,e Peler VII. BUTRUS sAwlRUS AL-JAMIL, ,hil'tCtn,h· «nwry bishop of MalIj and lin!: <;omptkr of lhe Copcic SYNA.'UAlOH. II is euctly when he lived. and no details of his life au known for <;el' rain. He I""'" probably a, lhc end of 1M twell'ih cc»ou<)' .nd the beginni. . of 1M ,hinetnth. lin« he comes bc...."Ctn M1IoIJl1L., BlSfIOI' OF IIAMIEl'TA (d. ahc. 1:rolI) and CYalL III ibn Uoqlaq (I233~12f3) in ,h. au,hor ind",~ of Abo a1'8aniW ,B.'! KAllAl!. His work is listed by G, Gm as foIJo,.... K;I~" al·/slt,aq (Book of the Sunris.e) condemns lhe non· Jacohile ChriSlian nation. oe panies. lh. Franko (Lalins), Mdchile., Annonlans, and Syrians (Nesto,.. ians) as heeelicaL The uhau.live enumer.tl;on of ,hese "he.",;.,," makn ,he week im.rtSlin& for lhe no;:mo..." BU'fRUS AL.SIDMANTI, a monastic ...Ti,er in Arahic duri. . the m""lIm c<:nlUry. Bu!NS nme m.m the >'ilbi:. 01 Sidmanl in tho: distrkt 01 BanI Sucf.. Tbr >'illage is known /16 Si-dmanl al-Jab.l: E. AWElJIoa'AU n:c:ords il aa PO>OlO""""l. The pn:<:ise dares 01 binh and dealb of Bu]1"'s art unknown beyond !he lac, .Iull M Ii""" around ,he middle of the ele.'enlh c~lIlury. H", was primarily a biblical scholar, and his ex<:gclk work on 1M (;00. pel. 'lands nut amonl his m;sc"UaneooJ' wrilinli!' in Arabic, induding blographie. of SOm<:' sainlS and a number of rtligious treall."s. Appart'nlly his works w.,.., known '0 laler wrlters and Iheologlans such /16 Abu al-BaraU, ibn Kabae and Abo ShakIr Bu!rus 432 BurRUS AL-SlDMANTf row- ibn al·IUhil•• "oho lived in the thiruellth at>d teellth cmno.nes. He is ~ described ... Moo -..." {a.eikho. 1924. p. 62)• .....rnd>.ppean lO be "'TOfll. ... _ know his blnhpbcoe ..-as in Upper Egypt. A tt>eologic:allrnltsoe by him lJlauoGJ,,\PHY AnVlinoeau, E. LiI Giorrqllio: do: rElJYPlO: .it l'if'O'l"O: copt"'- Paris. 159J. Chriiho. L. AI..w.d},j"{A1 r , CAETANI, LEONE, Italian Oriemalist, born in The Coptic year is the Alexandrian year, which be<:ame the civil year in Egypt in 30 or 26 II.C., shonly after the Roman conquest of Egypt. The evidence for the date of its actual introduction is ambigu<>us, hut in any ca"", year 1 of the Aleundri_ an Era, or Era of AUglUtus, is reckoned u 30/29 B,C, The Alexandrian year is the ancient Egyptian solar year, coonlinated with the year in the Romans' Julian calendar, which is itself the Egyptian solar year, but with a different date for the beginning of a new year and a different division of the days into twd\'e months. The Aleundrian yeu retains the ancient Egyptian division of the year into twelve months of thirty days each, plus five more days, called epagomena!, at its end, u well as the ext", day whose intercalation at the end of every founh year as a sixth epagomenal day wu onlered by Ptolemy III Euergetes in 238 B,C.. in onler to rectify the old discrepancy between the calendar year of 365 days and the natural solar yeaL The Alexandrian year's coo Rome (1869) and died in Vancouver, Canada (1935). While young, he llSSC'mbled a great library of texts and studies rdating to the history of Islam and a collection of photos of Arabic historical man· uscripts. Then he started the collection A....ali del/'Islam (first volume in 1905, ninth and final \'01· nrne in 1926; published in Rome and Milan). His volunteering for the army in 191 5 interrupted his studies, and he lI"""r resumed them. In 1924 he established the Fondazione Caeta,,; per gIl studi mU5ulmani (.till acti,,~ within the Accademia de; Uncei). Thrtt yea", later he left Italy, mainly for political reasons, and seuled in Canada. BIBUOGIlAPHY Gabrieli, F. "Canan;, uone." In Di!ionario biografjco degli ;talian;' Vol. 16. pp. 185-88. Rome, 1973. Trro OR~NOI CALAMUS. See Ja~l Khashm al.Qu'ud. " CALENDAR, COPTIC.: Early Egyptian Christians, like those d""where, took systems of reckoning time used in the world that they knew, modified them, and adapted them to their own obsen'at1ces and practices, The civil day of Christians in Egypt began in the morning, as did that of the ancient Egyptians and the Roman's: but their liturgical day began, then as now, at sun""t, like the Jewish, Muslim, and Greek days. The se\-en-day week was taken over from the Jews, with ilS first day made the Lord's Day, 433 434 CALENDAR, COPTIC the- JuHan ~s own intercalation is made OIl 29 hbru.ary, aftu which the eom,spondinl cbys aTe tho5e of oroiz>ary ~ Since the iourth C«oll.lry the en rqularly usN by the- Copts for reckoninC !he M:quence of Aleundri· an years Ius been the EnI of Diodetian. in ",hieh the,ear of Diodetian's m~itary elec1ion as emperor In Noytmbtr 284 is taken as !he staninl polnl, Among Christians, the £no of Diodelian .. usually called the EllA Of' nlE IoloIIITn.s, and in Weslem le~tlI tht abbrevialion ~.IoI. (for conven· tlonally indicates thlt a iiven year is "" reckoned, Thul, Ihe year ..1.,11. 1 is Ihe Alexandrian year Nn· ning from Ihe Julian 29 AUillSl 284 10 28 AUiulI 285. The yean; ..I..", divisible by 4 begin on the JI.II· ian 30 (lMlead of 29) AulU", as e~p1lined above. In the colophons of mao....,riplS and occasionally elKwhere, the succession of AIuandrian}'CaIlI may also bt given ac:eotdlng 10 the EnI of Ihe Inc..... rion, or -of C'hrisr:' wllkh is M:''tn ~ (!hroush 31 Decembc..-).,. ri&ht )'eST'S (from 1 la.tmary) behind the Dionysian En of the Incanuolion, or ac- "''''0 ",",ry,,,,,,) ,- '" ,-'" ,- '" ,-'" ,-'" 29) Augusl. Th........ CDplic inftue...,." lhe Aleun· drian year is aiM> UM: don Although Ihe exige-ociC's of modern life lu",e led 10 Clttenoin use of the Gugorian calendar and of 1hc Islamic calendar with years reckoned from lhe Hegira, ohe Coplie churcb also continua to observe Alenndrian years bC'Jinn;ng on the Julian 29 Aup in an ordinary )'N', and 10 reckon !he wcc"" siofl of years accordilll 10 1hc En of Diode""'n or "of the- Man)TS. ~ FOO' die lVo"1Otw ..-.!hs of Ihiny CopIk (A1nand.....) Days and Moolh5 Sahidic Bobairic Arabic (forms \'aryl (forms ''''''Y) oooyr (Thooul) ~(Th6ou1) Tm Julian Teqemt 2"'9011' (Halh~r) A9IIf' (Ath6r) Hlilur Khedlr ~ 'Wl.U< Ki)-ahk TlkhW T.a (Tobi) Tubah Ter """" (Meehlr) Amshir YaUtit !WlfII (Koiahk) _(T6bC') (MdUr) 1-4 j-JO >OTlI' (1'arem~cp) fO./R. +...- (I'hamen6lh) .,. IUf'HO'T'TII (P~e-) ~ (Choo,k) (1'WIons) . . - (l'1I6IIC') 1Dfl(Epq» I'tIlIXIf'H (Mesort) {No name for lite period: ;II. day within il i. [Greek] +"'f"OY'llt (Phacmouthi) u...,. ....... """""'"" • and Mombs Maskaram 29 (30)" AUjUSl_ BJ.bah (Paope) Da)'S Ethiopie (Poopi) rn.on6 ,-'" R., I·JO l-JO 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-5 cording 10 the En of !he World of Ammianll$, wilb the blnh of Cl1risl pl.-ce-d i .. u... year of the \o'Orld 5500. If • year IPWft KCording 10 ci!her d Ihese lwo eJU is divisib{e- by ..I., it. 1<>0, 1iL: a yea• .u.t divisible by 4, begins on the Julian 30 (illlle-ad of • .. 27 (28)' September 28 (29)' Seplember27 (28)' October 28 (29)' Octol:>er26 (27)' Novt",ber 27 (28)' November_ 26 (H)' Docember 27 (28)' Docember25 (26)' January 26 (27)' January~ 24 (25)' February 25-28 (26-29)' Februal)' 1-26 March ....,.....- Misd al·Nasi 17 MaKh-25 April 26 April-25 May 26 ~-24 June25 June-24 luly ",,,,J< 2S July-B AuCUst N.~ Pi(lueml'n 24-28 Augulf • • • (rachon) _(f'a6ni) lWl:.fl (Eptp) ~(M~~) (Pikougi enabol) Ba'\lnaI\ Abili ""' "". 6 ~ (Epagomen~) 'Potes in parenlheoei oro ll\ose "hen a yeor A.M, Is I1ly .. the end ofo CoJotooAlexandri:m)' CALENDAR, COPTIC 435 I days, the ancient Egyptian names introduced in the first half of the first millennium B.C. are retained, in forms that are copticized or arabized. In the Bo- hairic dialect. the epagornenal period added al the end of the year is called "the little month." In Arabic the same period is called al-Nasf'. "the ex.· tension (of time)" or "postponement." The coordination of the twelve Egyptian months of thirty days each and the five or six epagomenal days with the months and days of the Julian calendar appears in the accompanying table. The nature of the Gregorian reform of the Julian calendar makes it impossible to give Gregorian equivalences that are valid for more than a century or two. Once the Julian date is known, the corresponding Gregorian date can easily be computed according to Rule 2 below. There is no need for such conversion if the Julian date is earlier than the introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 5/15 October 1582. To convert a Coptic or Ethiopian date (day and month) to its Julian equivalent in an ordinary year (a year A,M. or Ethiopian year not divisible by 4), add the numeral of the Coptic or Ethiopian day of the month to the day before the first day of the Julian period that corresponds to the Coptic or Ethiopian month in question (which can be found in the accompanying table). Por instance, to find the Julian date corresponding to the Coptic 15 Ki· yahk in an ordinary year, add 15 (the numeral of the day of Kiyahk) to 26 November (the day before the beginning of the Julian period corresponding to the month of Kiyahk in an ordinary year). Thus, 15 plus 26 November becomes 41 November, that is, 11 December. [f the year A.M. or year of the Ethiopian Era is divisible by 4, add 1 to the corresponding Julian date of an ordinary year, if the Coptic or Ethiopian date is one from I TClt through 4 Baramhat (from Ethiopian I Maskaram through 4 Magabit). Thus, 15 Kiyahk in a year A.M. div~ble by 4 equals J J December plus I, or 12 December. , To convert a Julian date;1O its Gregorian equivalent, add to the Julian date·lO days from (Julian) 5 October 1582 through 28 'Pebruary 1700, 11 days from 29 February 1700 througb 28 February 1800, 12 days from 29 February 1800 through 28 Febru· ary 1900, 13 days from 29 February 1900 through 28 February 2000, and so on, remembering that in the century years not divisible by 400, the Gregorian calendar has no 29 February, while the Julian calendar has it intercalated in those years just as in any other leap year. To convert a year A.M. to the corresponding Coptic calendar showing commemorations during the month of Misra. Courtesy L. Atiya. year(s) A.D., add 283 to the year A.M. from 1 lut through 31 December; add 284 to the year A.M. from 1 January to the end of the Coptic year. Thus, A.M. 1700 equals A.D. 1983/1984. To conven a year of the Ethiopian Era (or old Coptic Era of the Incarnation) to the corresponding year(s) A.D., add 7 to the Ethiopian year or Coptic year "of Christ" from 1 Maskaram (Coptic 1 TClt) through 31 December; add 8 to the same Ethiopian or Coptic year from I January through the last Alexandrian epagomenal day. Thus, Ethiopian ITer 1980 (a year divisible by 4) equals Julian 28 Decem· ber 1987, whose corresponding Gregorian date, lying in the new year, is 10 January 1988. To convert a year of the Alexandrian Era of the World (of Ammianus, rendered coextensive with the Alexandrian year beginning 29 August) to the corresponding year(s) A.D., subtract 5493 from the Year of the World from I Maskaram (Coptic I Tut) 436 CALENDAR, GREGORIAN .hrouch 31 Deccm~r; sulMnc. "92 hom the Y"ar of .he _rid from I Jarwary !hrou~ !he last AJu· andrian ~ day. 11ms. 1 G¢llbot (Copti~ B.toshans) of I.... Year dIM World 1155 (a date after Julian I January) equals Julian 26 April 1663. To cOIl~n a date in Iht A1r:undrian Era of Iht Wond ifll0 ~ of Lht Ethiopian Era. (tql>a!s C<Jptk Era of the 1ncama1>on), subma 5500 hom the Year of !he World. Tb..... I Gcnboc 1155 equals I Gtnbot 1655 of !he F.tlUopian Era "01 GQc:e,~ [Ste ,,1= Calendar, Grqorian; c.ltndu, Julian.] IlIBUOGIlAPHY Batnall, R. 5., and K. A. Worp. nre Clrro"Ok>fic.1 SysltmS of 8,vlltline Et:Ypf. Stud... Amsltlodarn· ",nm ad El'iyaphicam> 10.05 An,iquum el Papyn> Iocium Perti""",l;" S. Zutphen, Netherlands. 1918. BIlker, R. "z.,ilrcchnullg: }.gypten:· In Realen~ydo padi, dor dassis<:Ir.~ AIIUlu,.,sw/u,nsch.(t. "",r. 2, Vol. 9A/1, pp. 233S-2454. Stultpn, 1961. Boulos, N. "Pr<>p<>M:d AdjU5tmen. of the Eflypllall' Copll~ and Ethiopian Calendars," gul/erin de la Sociil, d'"rcMolo,ie cople 10 (1969-1970):219- 38. Chaine. M, La Chrcmo1o(ie des le",ps chrtli.ns dt /'Etyple el de /'Elhiopie. Paris. 1925. Gromel, V. UJ CIr...n"Io,k !'P- 16ti-/i8., 304, Tnil~ d'Etudcs Byzan.ines I. Paris. 1955. Pe:s.man. P. W. CJrro.wIogie tt>7'liennt ".prU I.s tUlu dimotiq"u JJ! ..... 1..(;.•'53 ..p'. I.-e. hpyrolocjea luJduno-Batava 15. ldden, 1%7. Tables of cOllespolldtrlce foe each d.y 01 .he yea•• valid for Il>e GJqOrian calendar from Match 1900.0 February 2100, are in P, Peelers. BiJmotIIt· Cll Iwotiov-Pmc. orle><,........ Sl>blkli. Mstioctaphk.a 10 (BruNdl,. 1910). pp. u-uiii, and (for Ethiopia) i/1 Eo H/lmmenchmidt, AIh,ofTucirt X.ltndena!ebr (WlnbJdert. I9nJ. AnnD CODY. 005,8. CALENDAR, GREGORIAN. A rdonn oflhe 3ullan calendar (!ICC CAlDinu. Jl.UAH) was prom"l· pte vemal cqui""x would occur 20 March illMead of 11 March. as il did a' lhe lime of the refonn, and .he 'C1Im so that the calendar TOITtctions ncccssary from yea.- 10 JUr in a 44»ynr cycle could he diminished by lIIIe day. 8y pbclng d", mean >CI"IW equinox 011 20 March, lhe tfto,...."B made sure lhou !he ltut equinoo: would never oc:cur laIer than 21 Man:h, the fi,cd equi!'lOClul date C'5tablisbcd in tIM: founb. century, ",ben Eala" ... defined as the Sunday sher Iht faurteenlb moon on ... ailer (nc>'CT bcfun:J the ~ cqUilKlll_ In me lunar calendar .hot ~ ........, tftonnee len days dr1>ppt .... Periodic cOlTeclion of the lunar calendar _ provided for by pl'QCribinl (I) .he reduc.ioll of.he Ilumber 01 nch lunar fl"'c, by one althe begillni"ll of eYf:ry cemury·year 1101 perfectly divi,ible by 400 (thereby addin. one day 10 tile new rnoort da.es thereafter-the "solar equalion" equalilll Ihe ad· yance of dalt$ In the soJar calendar caused by tile omission of the Febroary Intercalary day in Ihose yearo); and (2) Ihe raising of Ihe number of each lunar epaCl by one al .he beginlling of 1800 and of eYCTJ Ihird cenl"!)'-year Ih",,,,.fler (Ihereby moviog CALENDAR, JULIAN nev.' moon da,es bad on.. day-the "lunar equa· lion" roOTKling W JOO.year accumublion of eo· c~ of the lunar eyele ",,-er ilS ~I ....1"'" and thus It«ping 'he ma..imum la,; of ul<"lldar roew rnootlS behi.wi lheir ....... n ....... mo<>rIS from Increas· days). ing bnond In cenluf)"YftfS in ...ilkh both !he oolar equation and the lunar equalion occur."lhe simulW>eOUS ltd· dilion ill>d sublraclion nnnnlizt one another. '10 tbM ,he eJ*u.. and hence the new and full moon da,es.. remain unchanged. Aft... 3.200 yean lhe Gregorian 'IObr calendar ...iU an aecumubled net'd for funher correction, which can be uken care of b,. rworinll as .. I....p year a een....')",...... divisible by 400 (with a con-e5pOPding sola. equa· 'ion in lhe lunar calendar). with provision for repeating tha' step e''''fl' 3,200 )-e..,., n... Grqorian lunar c.lendar can run for 20,000 ,....n before needing a day's funher adjustment by mUn' of an addilional lunar equa.ti(ln. The Crea:orian calendar "'-'" accepted as lhe legal civil c.lendar on S/lS (klober 1582 by ,he Iialian "UleJ. Spain. and Ponuga!. Olher Ca,holic lands accepted It from the 6nal monlh. of 1582 through 1584, but ,he Proleslanl regions 01 nonhem Europe retained ,he Julian calendar illlo lhe eighleenth century for ,he mosl pan. and the reformed calen· dar ""'" nOl: accepted as the d"if calendar of ,he non-CllIbollc nalions of ta$lem Europl' unlil lhe I_nl~h un.ury (Bulpria in 1917. Go-eece a.wi Rumania In 1924. Russia in 1918. Serbia In 1919, Tuner in 1927). (For ,he diveJKence belW«n 1M Grqorian calendar and the Aleundrhn calendar used by Copts and F,hiop"ans. see CAt.D;D,U,. co.. "''0 ha,'" ~) An;her, P. Relorm. n.e ChriMitln Cat.."dar and Ihe Grq-ona" N..... Vor\, 1941.-, Cbmas, c. ROfffani ca/eruUJi a Gre,orio XIII ~I/ I .. n uplieallo. Ro......, 1603. Cinzel, F. K. Ha"dIt""h tin ..."lh.....aJi$ehe" ..nd leehnisehe" ChrottOlogi~. J vol•. LeipDg, 19061914. See especially Vol. 3. Kubitschek, W. G..",drin d~r ,.."ik~" bih~eh"u",. H""db..eh d~r AIIen......""i.... n"'''''!I. Vol. I, pl. 7, pp, llO-I~. Munich. 1928. AELRED COnY, a.S,B, CALENDAR, JULIAN, lhe Roman adaplalion 01 I~" EiYPli;on solar cal~nda.r in,roduc~d by Julius Caesar. wllh lhe lechnical aid of t~e Alexandrian 437 ....Ironomer Sosi,.,nn, in ./0 8e.: ,hal year "'-as ..,.. '<:ndtd 10 445 days by inlercalation in order 10 bring !he ci'ic )......- inlo line with lhe solar year. While ,he Egyptians dlYloded the sobr year of 365.25 days into 12 monll.. oi 30 day$ each, ...it~ 5, 0< in ~ery fourth ynr, /0, ;nlercalar)' days added after the """ day of the IWelfth monlh, the Romans, in theW Julian calendar, retained tI.e 31 days of March. M2y, Quinlil.. (July), and Octobe.-, and the 21 da)" of February, as they had been in the oIde.Inman caleodar, bur IlK-reased lhe other monl"", ",hich unLillhen all had 29 days. by OBe day (June, April. Scpu:mber, November) or 1"''0 da)" (january, Seuilis [AUjt\ISt]. OK~mber). in order 10 ba,-e ;lll annual total of J6.5 days. 11Ie inl~lary momh prnriooW}' in5ened periodically, at the di$c tion or th<: ponli''''' mlUim.... arl... 2J Feb",..ry ~. placed by the in'ercalary day insened e" ..ry lo,mh year after 2l Feb~ry, and in such a year the 24 Feb ......ry (anre diem .....,..... Kolenda. Martio$) was coumed IWic.., Ih.. intercalary day \)cing onre diem hi. sutum Kalendos Marlias, hence lhe expression an"u. ms"rlili. for "leap )'ear." In t~e firsl thirtysi" years of the Julian calendar'. ~, the ",tT;ll day was intercalaled every lhr« y..ars i1l5tead ol every four, by mi.tak..n inlerpreta'ion 01 ,he original pre· scription, and in 9 B.e. Augustus prohibileplans, ..... CAU.N1M.ll. con1C and CAt.£ND,U. Gll(i()U. ~) BIBUOGItAPflY Ac~elis. E. Of T;",e a"d /l<e Ca/e"d"•. N<:w York, 1955. Hofmann. M. C,u.o.s Kole"der, Munich, 1934. Kubitschek, ...... GnmdriJJ de. «"'ike" leir.ech.,,,ng. Hondbuck do• .4lterl..mJ.... isu"seh~/l, Vol. I, pI. 7, pp. 'f9-109. Munich, 1928. Reid, J. S, "Hiotory." In.4 Compo,,;on 10 Loli" Stud· ie.. ed. J. E. SandY', 3rd ed" pp. 99- 10 1. Cambridge, 1921. Sontheimer, W, "Zei'rechnunl' n. B.a.3: Di.. \(a. lendernfonn Caesars und das juiianische Jahr." 438 In CALENDAR. MONTHS OF COPTIC Rt",lt"qc/opiJd~ der c~" AlttrluJ'uwisse"$€'''>f/, sr:r. 2, Vol. 9Af2, pp. 2~1-68. Sl"u· pn, 1961. Afum CODY. 0.5. B. CALENDAR, MONTHS OF COPTIC. Of an $Urvivals from pbuaonic F.gypc. the calendar irI the Eacl> of the lwd,~ n"""M of tht __"kin,. CopIk calendar srill ~ 1M nvne 01 one oItht dtitit$ or fc:aIlS of ancienl E«YPc. Wi~ doubt. this rdKlS "'" consen.,.lism Uw c~ttrUa the inhabiu.olS.,f lhe NilI' Vall~, who are reluC/.ll.nt to _ aside their moditio""l way of life. The year ...... dr.i'aI$ of the months I'Iwmoo...thi (~mtlclah) and ~ (Ba'Unah). FinaJly. thank. to a hieralic: papyruI acquiral by the Cai.., Museum (no. 86631), which dales l'rom lhe R.amessKle peri· od ""d contains the so-called Calendar of lucky and Unlucky DaY!'. telT>j (1~3, pp, 173-81) __ lIbie to IdemilY the festival for lhe firsl month of the ,,';nltr season. T«'i (Tiibah). Tht tw.lv. months and the origin. of theIr names are as follow", I, Bobairic. 91I0O'(I": Sahidic. 600YT; ...rabic Toll (Seplember il-12 to October 9-10). The first month of th. Coptic )'ear was dcdi~aled to noth, god of wildom ~nd ocience. inventor of wriling. palron of scrihes, and "he who de5ignues lhe sea- IOns, months, and years:' Thoth »'Uided over the "House of Ufe," ,,'he1'f ""t1'f compooed and copied all tel.OnI!; Anohie. Babah (Oc1Ober 11_12 to NoI'embcr 9-IOl_ O\lring the .....olld month ..... celebrMed !he ''beautiful feast 01 Opel." ..-n.- name I"aop; 1i&nifies "that of OpeL" Accordin« 10 Ermall, the ~colonnade of the temple 01 u.xor. deco.... red by Phanooh Tm·Ankh-Atnon. depiclS the unlioldi"8 oIlhis great festival in all ill di..enily. We SCi! Amon·Ra tra....ling from Karnak to Luxor to cdd,rale lhoe brnous lQtival of Opel. l'rom ..t.ich the ITKlnlh &kA derivtl ill name." 3. 8ohairic. ~ Sahidic. zj,Mf; "'rabic, ";Ii.... (Novemm 10-11 10 December 9-10). Th;,; month commcmonued H..tltor. a "ery andtnt goddtlS, found ev.n in pr.dynl\5tlc limes. lhe "Co,,, of Heav· en," "'Il<> gavt blnh 10 the SUn and to all beings. gods and men .... ~ lhe living 5OU1 of plants and I~, nu,"" to the rulers of Egypl, and mOlher of Horus, like 15i5 (with whom she was assimilaled), Hathor Wal lhe "Gold of th. CodoN and clothed herself in lhe form of a lion . •. 8ohairic. >lOW<; Saltldic. Konzo<: Arah;';. Kiyahk {December 10-11 10 January 8-9)_ Thi$ month derives ill name from a rilual vase that WlII probably uxd for me.unnl inee""" and was '~ry important in lhe c.lebration 01 !he runerary ftall originally known as the Union of obI' ...... Ourin~ this month, the grut Osirian f.",iYals "...- held, ~ of consldtrablt Impomonce to the EcP'ian. loT obey rq>Toerued: (l)tM queu iOI" the dis.......... bered body of the martyftd cod. 05iris. pomued by 1M haired of I..... 1'fJIreuntinl the focus of evil; (2) /h.t r'ftU\iti"l tond 1'fCOTlSln>Coon of his <e-allered. parts in.o the font\ of. mummy; "nd (3) the burial of this Ii..... bcrum in the sacred ccmelCry_ These mysteries w.,re carried 001 in .iltnce within the tempJe. Small 5Wt.teS macIe: of wet clay mixtd with ""cds were &shioned In Ihe form of Osirl$ and placed upon a bed. ...fter a few days. the ICetls germinaled. and the figu.... became lUny. keeping the o>riglnal conloon of the clily $l.&lues thai l-t giv.n thtm birth. Such are Iht "Vegebting Osiris," those green and ~irile figurrs. those .mall and holy ",.dens. tMI art occ"lionally f"",nd faded in lhe Th.ban tombs. A ~.f1«tlon of this andent practice is found today among present·day Egyptians, who slill make I.ntiis germinate In moist colton pads for certain religiou. fei/ivals. ~. Bohairic. THl; Sahid;';. Telle; .....,.bic. Tiibah (January 9-10 to Februal)' 7-8). During this month CALENDAR, MONTHS OF COPTIC a Vnt ~tl,...l known as lhe Swellin, of the Barley ..... celebrated. This rtamf: is listed in lhe Eben papyrus, ....hich due. l'mm. the t>epnnlng of lhe New tangelo"" AewnlinllO Cerny (lIM3, pp, 17381), lhe; monllt "''U orillinally called Bolti (Buley). but by ..... lat'-i!l b«ame T6bi. •. ~ , tCq'; Sahid>c, R"~ ABbie, Almhlr (february 8-9 to Uut:h 9). This is OM 01 1"''0 nMlnths (dislinl"ished from each obj«u by a t:.ra.lff from ""hleh li~ esc..- (Pao-keT, 1950, p. 46), Thi. is the "'omh of lhe .......... li~" becawc it is the coldesl lillie of year. 7. Bohairic, tl.H&~ Sahidic, 1lJ.l'A:GTl'; Al'l1lbic, Bantmhll (March 10-11 10 April 8). This .....onlh was originally com«.... l..d 10 a festival; bul af1« the dUlh of Amenhotep,li"'l king at the Elghleenth Dynmy, h.. beea""" the object of a panicyl.r cyll and was ",orship.ed as one of the divi~ palrons of lh.. n ..b.n necropoli•. Around Ihe Twentietn Dynasly. lhls cull bec......e .0 popular lltal hi. name replaced lhal of lh.. early fl'Slival (Park..r. 1950, p. 45). 8. Boh.air!c, ""fHO"('9I; Sahidic, lU.fHOYl'e; Ara· bk, aaramudah {April 9 10 May 8). Thi. monlh was dedicated 10 &monlhi5, goddtss of the hannl. ~P' rflented as having a setpl'nl"' head and sometImes .. numng her son Kapri, the god of gntin. t. Bobairic, ~ Sahidic, _ : Anobic. Bashins (May 9 10 June 7). This monllt rook Its name from the ano;ienl fe.ival of Khonsoll. a lunar god wtIo in very ~y Limes "'.. integrated inlo lhe T1teban lheoklcY lIS the son of Amon and MUI.. With many qualities atlributed to him, 1M: is dacribed .&Ii IO.:"*,,, the Mapanimous, his rOl'tll>OSI Theban ~ II. 8ohairic, ~; Sahidk, ~; Anobk, !N'(). nab (Jllne 8 to July 7). In nl limes, "Ihe Bel.... liful fesd...l 01 11M. Valley~ ~Jebraled durin, this monlh. Held in the Valley of the Kinp and lasti", some len da)-s. it ..... withwl doubt llte most importanl celebration in. the life of lhe £cyplian people. As lhe annual <:ommen>Oralion of Ihe 439 llna name i5 ob5t:ure, bul il is probebly a laler form of '11»1'. idenlihed at Thebes with Toeri., al.., • g<>f"lt of Roo "''U also the momenl of his binh (Mes6rt), the occasion of his first .ppea~e (Parkn-, 1950, p. 46). Finally, lhe epilgtlmenal, Or lntercalary, day5. called the "ddayed . during leap )-ear). 1'lte lint of lhese Cemt, J. ''1'he Oriein of the Month TybL" An"ltie. 'L "Age of lite Egyptian Monlh N.""'.... An· ""Iu d.. Suv;"e du Qntiquilis tfYpti~.",rs 51 (1951):441-42. _ _. ilncie'l/ Em1ian Religio". London, 1952: upr,.1957. _ _, Copric El}mological Dicf;o""ry, Cambridge. 1976. Chas.lnal, E. u MySI~r" d'Osiris au rna;s de Khoiak, Cairo, 1%6. Derchain, P. Chronologie d'EDPlr, Cairo, 1954. _ 440 CALENDAR AND AGRICULTURE Erman. A. lA Telipon du EnptiDlS, p. ~. Paris, 1952. Gardiner, A. Eml of 1M I'1t,,,...,Iu: AJII JIt,roJ"c-. Udortl. I%L Ghali, I- ~ Ca1endrier COfMc et I'~~ does mar· tyres." Bullchlt de rI,ulin" {TlUlfrUs d'.rdNoIof~ orienlole 66 (1968): 113- 120. Pukei', R. TIl.. C..lend,m Andcnl EOp'. Chicago, 1950. Wissa WaMCf, C. Pr4liques Tiluelles el Glime"'G"e> des Copl.... Cairo, 1971. at C£IU!l; WISM WAM!F CALENDAR AND AGRICULTURE. The Coptic caknda. hQ $urvi,"ed nol ooly;n IIw lilll!"KY of l~ Coptic chu"h bul al50 in the acncuhunllife of lhIe Nilc Valk)', for • selS tbe schedule bJl ..... ich d... fanners (fdlahin) ""&Uble lheir work In the fields. Many deliglnfuJ ........... and ~.... isms tummarizitlr. the es&enlbll of whal must ~ dr;>nc each Iloe_ 10 poannlH IiUCcessful cuJti.....lion of o;rop, mainlCnanc.. of aood heahh, and proIC<"tioo apirol !he .."elUher a~ "ill beard loday. Usually I" rhyme. lhey IC",", ll$ acellenl ",,,,,monic devices 10 ...,. mind bnncn 01 whal muSI be done al $pecllk limes 01 the ycar. II Is po55ible thu lhey derive: from ancienl EsYPl. and were Ir.m.laled inlO Arat»c so the counlry became a...bittIembcr, ..-hftl the flood rcaches Its maximum, and the mO$I opponunc lime lor irripling I~ lickk, as Inclicalfd by f't1~1 sayings. /Jl:rt Ttlt: roYT,,-.J14 ("Dllrinc Ttlt, imple. or for,:<> it:1 Tid: (The "..",.., is a W<JOdcn P"ll used ." r...len I~ yoke t<> a ""'" thai lOOll' al' keep Ihe y<>ke In plxe.) Ttlt: Jlill/lil /)ord lill ("Tul says 10 Ihe cold weather, 'Enler:") The advice inherem in thesc sayings was si,nil!· ~anl umil Ihe nineteemh and twentielh cenlurieS. before Ihe ""ilding oJ,~ Aswan Dam changed the method of irriplion. Before then irrigation was Ie· coomplishcd by tloodi"l individual basins protceled by dikes. The WllI..... filled wi1h lhe lenili.Iin& sill. would stand a few m<>nIM and then ~urn I<> the n.... The fil'Sl of rOI marb the bcptni"l ol plamins: lhe winleo- erops-ci",_. dill, eabbqe, and lu,.. nips. C<>locas.ia, letluce. and celery make their lip" ptararK", a$ _II as corn ""d supr ~ane in Upper 11gypI. Onions bepn 10 ripen, and dales grow in abundan~e. alonl with pomcgranatcs, lemon, and quince. COIlOn II harvested: beans are plan led. Advice is ;iven In the almanac 10 a\/Oid imercoursc at Ihe beainning of the mon.h. '0 obsel"\"e thc clouds and lhe weath... drink no wa,er at nighl, take no medicines. and dress warmlJl. The froll of ,he month is dal.... "'(db Tut. 2. B<1W. The month bqinni"l 11-12 October when the Rood _en ~p;;n I<> ....biOde. Some ,..,... inC' warn apinsr hurnidiry. B4br>h: U .. sIIs11 ,n'fJ id..J.",,4br>" f'DurinaBibah, I" inside and pull the Iatch.-, The entire ~ depends on BIbah, !or in lhis mondt liIli"l and planting begin Ihrou""'w lite counlry. as lhe provcl'bs lell: I" Mr.!)!) tilT B<1M, ,1uI1"b-iJ.tl'" ;".n"hhlbalJ. win kIt"ff laT B<1b ("If lhe erops of &bah af't scarce they will fall Ihe marauders. and if these crops arc lcam, no! even a crumb will remain."') In Eb\bah, Ihe Iollowing crop. arC planted: c1ovcr, wheal. barley. fenu&"",k. pcas, anise, fennel, rice. garlic, and onions, Sesame. henna, and peanUl. are han:eslcd, as well as I~ second crop of coUon. Fruits grow in abundam:e-"'llIenndons and melon$ known as Hin. _named for I~ Nile Rood. It is the season for lhe Iinr. ~ Quail also thri,.... 'The almanac announces the Wrrinl ol emo6c>ns al the bqinni,. of the month. ;md ;t adrisc:! api.nsl: blccdinp and eIpOSUre 10 thc fresIt rnornins air. The fruil of lhe monlh is !he pomt:l'anate. RI"" m H,,"". HG1(l,: Ab~-d·d"hGb·cI·m""ru, ("Ha!l1r, the month of scaltered gold.") This sayina Is ~nicularly inle...",lin;, for il depict> the Pl'KIict! of phanoom who would occasionally st~w grains <Ji wheal mixed wilh gold peUCIS CALENDAR AND AGRICULTURE Ihrough lhe lemple. Other m.a>ims indil2le lhal lhe fanner "'ould lake ad\'llnlllie 01 HalOr as lhe moA la..,rabJe lime for planli"" J~ l/t/d at' Hill.., 4bur 1iInmt/t·...._J. rid.., nf you mbs the planting_ 01 Halllr, ",~I unlil the year rolls "round:') Al I'" tlme wheat. s;affiown, coriander. ~n1ib. alld marile1-.ardeninc crops on sown. After lhe bst COOlon haoat.. tLlmips, pmacllCS. and com a~ pbnled. II is me end of the planlinll 'IC25Of\ for lupine. fenugreek. broad beo..n<. llfId chick peas. It is aho me sea50n when ~ ...... "nd fields Il..m ,reen. Radish seeds aJld oli>"e$ ""10 preuecl for oil: housewives begin 10 make bunu. and Ihe fil'S! Ian· gerines appear. The alm"na<: indicales lhat this is the ......nth ....,hen lhe bile becomes lurgid. h advises e~e'c"", and caulion5 againsl drinking waler at nighl, The fruit of Ihe mOlllh i, Ihe banana, "'Ot IImii,. 4. Ki)'ahk. The m r4m ",In ,.,>IId t-1JadiJ.r ·"sltllk ("In Ki)-.hlt. you..me in the moming.o p~e your li't>yh4 illl ltal4k ("The beaK lhat mis.ses its ....re of dO\"er durinl Klyahk. is beller 10 perish.") ~re occun the fi"n agricultural forty- year. wimer pbntin& must come 10 llfI e"uiewives find Ihis Ihe 001 lime 10 prepare Iheir ye~rly supply of bune,. The almanac advi5es people 10 protecllhemsc!vu apin'l Ihe cold. and avoid drinking exposed WItter al nlihl. Kiyahk is lhe monlh w","n rivers abound in fish. 441 ,- which is !be food of lhe momh. sam"k (fish of) ~, 'fubah. Beginning 9-10 Jan...".. the co\desl month of winler, as indicalcd by lhc:sc S:II}~nr:o: 'fiJ>ilh.: .""'-bard ..·.r,,'i1bah (,1"flbah. lhe month of c:olt:I and its comeqtIenc:es..-) 'fuN": /kJulUi-s-fI'lti»·,,1o fi/rUIo ,,·;I·.I~ ird.h f'Tubah rects a younl girl 10 skin alld bona. and Uui~-d.s an old WOnla.n. -) A1",.,J ",i.. "."yyi, 'fllk" ("Colder than me waler of Tolbah:, The Epiphany, II Tl1bah. marb the beginninG of Lbe .-:<>nd forty-.day aJriathural period. which ends 011 20 Amshlr. Durin, this lime the: pre"".... lion of the: ground For Ihe first summer cropo Co"," 10 an end, and Ihe w;nler crops of lJpper Egypl. broad heans and fenUl",ek. ripen. Also durinllhis month, lOme germlnale lenlil and/or wheal grains on dampened pac\$ of COlton .. an au,pi· cious beginning. The ireetln, m<)51 often heard is. i;'./htl 'alay"J s.".h I:h.e make the year green, Le.. prosperous, ror US." Thi. ;. Ihe lime when Ihe .hrubs and young palm I...,.,. are mlllsplanted: pome,ran~te and peach are planled. .. _ll IS lomaloes. euplanl. pepper, on· ions, carrolS. anise. saRlo",.,.r, SUmmer C<J-isa abs.!inenc:1C from bro.d beans and aCesN'-dy salty food. and lhe _ of pepper and sp;ees. Tuba}, is chanclerile Llr", Jlmshir: ,.J,i<·~l ("Anubir. the monlh of many 51orm..·, Arruhi, yiJ.1 Arnshir yi·iillikllr'slr bUJ T.'slr ("Am,hl' lo3.)'S 10 Ih. crops. 'Orow with ease.''') E.. leJ.. zar',,1c M~I.il.K6'" '·A",shir Yurn "I"'I~I<# ·al.yh·...e·''''!,l 442 CALENDAR AND AGRICULTURE ("'If your c,.",.. arc sliII underzround. don'l unCOVCr Ihem 50 lonll aswue yet re~ll5 OIIe cby in Am5hIr.j Du"';nl the third avicullu!1d l'ony-e first ctlcumbcn make lhcir appcanr>cc, !he tru:s },epn ,n bud. and In,-cs appear on the wi"cs. for this mOlUh lhe :olm:onac i:scs .voidinl the su.". and rKomn>c:n<15 d"';nki"l aler 6n! winl in the I\'I(Irnin,. II also warns thai it is the time when emotions :It'C .roused_ The rood of Ihe month i. Iamb, k"a",! ,4"1$111•. 7. B,m",,"M. Beginning 10-'1 March, Ib....mhll i. the momh fur abundant crops and Iia....ellinl. 8I1ra","41: rU~ ;J.ghayl we·hdl klll/.eU/did, ("In Biramhat, go to the field and g.1 everythina, ") This is al.., the month of Lenl for the Copt•. who must abslain from all animal producu at Ihl. tim•. Hence lhe Q,Ying: 'obh-"""",-!r6nl " .•.".,u ""'.rtifsii J"hl /ill ~ir61 "'c-jibn,,11 f-btJ,,,mhdJ ("'In Banmhil. a Copt li\"CS and dies e .....,.n, lOr vecn beam. and clxoeoe.··) Ther.. are Ihree inauspicious days in Il'e calendar. knowa as -'!"U5ltm.olt or "JJrin@: born IIbnormal. This 'dea probably survived """" o....io.....fle'cr. aIIer ohc $prin8 equinox. the Monm subside. and su.m· rna- crops pro6pCr in tnc nonh of the Delta. Farm· en plant supr cane. conon, 5C5:Imt, legumes. ~ min. okra. and waterme-loN. T'hey harwst pea>. Ba... on....... bl"l:*l bcanf, and fenuveek- Abo Iccb bcpn 10 sproul. and tnc lreel COIn<" inlo bloom. With this bel,. sprinp...... the almanac: indicalCi that it is the bcsl. _ for lnl.n:our.IC. Thanks 10 !he ;ob,ondancc eX c......".. the COW bullalos produc. eotccllcn. mil'" /IIb 8"."",;.;d"h: d,,' bil"~"'Qd"h ...~I.& Jib'" fil·q.,,'j< waLl ';;,da}, ("In Baramildah, threu. with lhe olak•. and no!. singlc maw will rema.in in the field:') In many reliono, especblly in Upper Egyp,. an old cuslOm ni:quire. Ihal Ihe reapers he paid in kind. During Ihe wheat harvest, ,h. fin.S! can; of corn a'e braided lnlo dolls Ihal are known by thc villagers as "Ihe bride of whcat." :ond a'. hung above ,h. doorways as a sil" of 10<><1 omen 01" placed upon piles 01 winnowed lrain. lbesc plOloC' .ices. which ...ry in different provinc.., havc doubl· less')" su.rvived from .cry ancienl cuh rituals. Durinl ~ h . the roIlawinl crops arc bar~ brood beans. lWt, ~n"lreek, onions, b...-lcy. lupine. poIiU<>CS. and ",-be•. II to also the lime for gathering honey. aM for planting com. $Upr cane. rice. prar>l.W;. henna, and indiao. Wll.nn<'lo.... and muIbt .. ;u appear. whil.. lecb and okra are found in abundance. It is abo !he ...->II eX roses,. from which csscnc:. ilo e:lUrllClcd and ~. Accor-cIinB 10 the almalloK, the _nth cby of the month marb the bccinninl of • seaM>n I_ing ......., tifty Rhe-umal>sm becomcs widespread. Sailed lood!I ... ch as fish should he avoidtd. ",_I..n dothinl SCI aide, and ",hite linen pnncnos should preferably be wom. ~ rose is Ih~ ftoVl'I!:' of lhe mo"th• • ,'"rd &",. cia,,. mUd,,},. 9. B".,,".... The monlh beginning 9 May when th. crops have bee" Iiarvested. and nothing re· mains in the fields: 8ll-slr"ns yiJr.. iu iI·th~yl kIlns ("B.a.shans Jwecp!l the fields dean.") During Buhns apple,. plums. mdons, and apri· coos appear. Wheat. onlom, and lh. lasl crops of CALENDAR, SEASONS, AND COPTIC LiTURGY dover are ha",ested, as are roses and the flowers of safflower. Palm trus are fertilized, and corn, ~sa· me, rice, coloc;>!;ia, and indigo are planted. This momh marks the beginning of the summer crops in lipper Egypt. The almanac states that, at Ihe beginning of Ba· shans, blood runs more slowly, hul thai the humors are likely to become active as the summer heal seu in. It advises the partaking of refreshing drinks and abstinence from salted foods, The fruit of the month is the nab' (from the ju' jube tr",,), nab' Basha"s. 10. Ba'~nah. Beginning 8 June is the month of intensive heat, generally known as Ba'imah.al-/Jajar, for the extremely hot and dry weather causes rocks 10 split: Ba'imah {"IIa' II./Jajar ("The heat of Ba'unah spli" rock apart.") Ba'iinah.al.hajar y,nashshif iI-Mayya fe·sh·shaiar ("Ba\in.h drains the tree dry.") During this month the following crops are sown: rice. mulukhiyyaJr (corchorus olitorius), cucumbers, and com, In the Fayyilm and Lower Egypl, dover is reaped, and honey is gathered. This is also Ihe fruit season, wilh figs, plums, prickly pears, grapes, peaches, and apricols making Iheir appearance, as do green beans and :wcehini. Watermelons grow in abundance. At this time Ihe Nile is al its lowest level of the year, and its water becomes muddy and turbid. The almanac ad,;S/:'S filtering water and recommends drinking acidulated liquid<. On 12 Ba'unah, the traditional, miraculous drop of water falls into the Nile, causing the walers to rise, and flooding to begin. It. Abib. The month beginning July 8 when the fip and grapes ripen. ..Ib'b: Iqbbakh iI·'inab wl-l-u"l.. ("Abib, the cook of grapes AI<;!. lip.") Ablb: e/.m~yya f'~wwill pool., and the earth is prepared for crops. The almanac advises a moderate The food of the month is honey, 12. Misrd. The month of the Nile on 7 August, when ,",'aler overflows running into the canal" sowing lhe 443 ne~t intake of food. '~s~1 Ab'b. flood beginning the river banks, Misrd lijrf {iho. kuli lir'"h 'i!r~h ("During Misr:l, Ihe water runs into every dry canaL") During Misra the following crops are plamed: rice, radishes, carrots, onions, tomatoes, turnips, and beets, Cucumbers, watennelon, figs, melons, and grapes are found in abundance. Green olives and sesame are harvested, as is cotton in the South. The heat is scorching. The almanac recommends drinking fresh water fir$t thing on arising, and eat· ing mild foods. One must beware of insects and mosquiloes. The fruit of Ihe month i. grape, 'In"b Mi5FQ. With lb.e construction of the Aswan High Darn, Ihe three growing seasons now partially overlap one another year in and year oUI. Consequently, the seasonal rhythm, inheriled from antiquity, has disappeared. 11 survives only in the liturgy of the Cop' tic church. Cids WtSSA WA$SEF CALENDAR, SEASONS, AND COPTIC LITURGY, The three seasons of Ihe Coptic calen· dar, a su!'>'ivaf from pharaonic E@ypl and based on agricultural activities, are commemorated by spe· cial prayer$ incorporaled inlO Ihe divine liturgies. The seasons and prayers appropriale to each, as computed according to the Gregori.n calendar of lhe twentieth centut)', are as follows. The Nile·l100d season (12 Ba\inah~9 Babah/19 June-19 October), during which these prayers of ime",e«ion for the water (aw,h,yyM ~1·miyl1h) are recite 444 CALENDOLOGIA droplC'l:' w.......he ri,-er reached its lo~st level. ;0 tni11OtuJous drop of water fell into lhe Nile. and t-.:l the ......en 10 bq:in risin,. This beHef ""'y have tome from """iem EgypIian myohslike thao of bis sMdding 'nn of mourning ror het" 105. hushnd. Osiris. One of kr 'ears bllin, inoo the Nile caoJK 0 Lord. pant Thy blewinp 10 the planl$, .he he.W, ~d vegeo:ables of lhe fieWs:' DeatOOl. "Pray for lhe pl:anls.• he heriK. and vegetabl~ of lhe fields this yar thai Chris', our lord, ""'y g....nl .hem !tii bk$sinp•• ha•• hey may grow and bring fonh plentiful m..i.: Iha. He may have compassion for lhe crn'ura of His hands, and forgive us OUr $ins." (:(mgregation. "Lord, have mercy" (chanted three limes). The hanest <eason (11 Tubah-II Ba·un.h/19 January-18 June). during which .he5e prayers of intercession for lhe ltan..," (Ilwshiyydr al'lh;m~r) are redted al each liturgy: PritS!. "0 lord. ple...., lI .... nt Thy bl~in .. lhis year to lhe winds of lhe sky and the fruht of d.e ea"h." lK.ocon. UP",y lor lhe winds of lhe sky and lhe fruils of .he earth, the \Tees and ,-;noes, and evft'Y fn,il·bearinll "-eo: so Uuo' Ch.u.. OIJr Lord. "",y ,",n. Ihem His blessings, bring .h.!:m to ing ..tthaul dam:age. ;000 ~ us OIJr slrat." CongneplioR. "Lord. have mercy" (c""nled thrft" time<). "".-.....c- Alternaliftl)'. a common il11<'n'esston ~ be used ... a substiMe for;ony of the pre<:edinl pra)"et'S during all sc_.. throud>out the ,.ear. PrieIl:. "GBciousb'. 0 Lord. 101_ the .....t<:l'$ of .he ri,..".. d... ,~, Ihe planls of Ihe fiel .... Ihe ...i...... of .he sltt, and lhe crop< of .he bnd Ihis ,·car." Deacon... P....y for II... _en of Ihe rh·cr.•he '"qC.alion, the pl:ani!; of lhe field<. lhee "in'" or lhe sky, and lhe crops"r lhe land, lhal ChriSt our Lord may I>Iecs< them and protoet them this l""u. and fo<"zive us our sins." Coniregation. "Lord ha~ men;~" (chanted three limes). BIBLIOGRAPHY Ceern~. J, '"The Origin of the Monlh Tybi."' ,4'm"lu du Se",ia des Q'l/iquil~ efYPli..""u 43 (1943): 17)·81. "Ai" of Ihe EcYPtian Momh Names." A,,· ",.Iu tlu S ..",ict: du ""Iiq'-Ulis ig)"pI;e.."es 51 (1951):441-42. "Some Coptic Elymolo&in." B..Heli.. tk n...rilwl /r....f.i$ J·,4rrhiQ/.,p orienu.le 58 (1959):2Q6.-2OlI. Ct.as..inal, Eo. U ""yU~Ff d·Osiri..... "fOis tk KJro...I:. -pt. I. Cairo. 1966. I>o.rchain. P. ClmwrDJorie J'ECfple. C;oiro. 1954. Dicrion"..ire de I. eivJi.. rio" iC1'ficl"e. P:oris. 1959. DriOion. E. '''pi d'itYPgie onen· 'ale 66 (1961);1])-20. Parl<er. R. Tire C4Ie"tl4'. of ,4rrcient EO·pI. p. 8). Chicago, 1950. ""isla Wassef. Urb. Pttuiq.... riluelles e, "lime,,· l"iFf' des copres. Coiro, 1971. CUEs ""Iss.. WASSH CALENDOLOGIA., tre"ises comparable to tOOse u~d in ...lroIOBY and containing prognos.tications aboI'I future evems. made either by correlaling a given dale of lite year with a certain day of the Wttk or by correlatin. Certain il>\fI\05PIteric ph-e. nomtna wi.h a panicula, day of the week. Since 'hey are well "'>o>.,n in Greeclr.. i. is quite prob:able lhat lhe Copl$ derived 'hem or simply Ir.onslated. lhem from Grft"k uamples. In Coptic _ ha,.., lhe remnan.. of thrtt (peThaj>5 four) oodices containing a calendologium; (I) Vien· ...... ~ UhfV)'. 1'1112 and 9Sll5-9900 (ed. Till, 1936); (2) Vienna K5506 (ed. Till, 1936); (3) UrU.-enity of MlchipJI Ubraty (papyri;" du 1m;'.... m, 01 Miclr;,.n C41lecli4ol. Iny. 6590, ed. B.-o'•.-ne. 1979); ,.) (uncertain) Stale Museum of Berlin (>eo: B........... p. 56). Tbt ultndologi:a in tho: fir", Ihree: 101$ a.e ...b!.tamial1y alike. nch coMi<.ting of 'wo p:ans: (I) lhe conneclion boe''''ffn 6 Tub:ah and ... ri· au< days of .he -.:k, lhal is, if Ihe sixth b.ll. on Sunday. a certain prognos.ication ..ill be: made. bu. if ;t falls on Monday. another prrdiclion is called for, etc.; (2) the connectlon be,ween the ........k of 6 Tubah and lhe wind. which m.. ~ 101.,... more or less <everely during une of lhose: days, The date of 6 Tubah w;o. chosen because it correoponds to Janu· aI)' I. thai is. the beglnnlng of Ihe legal year of the Roman empire (J>erhap5 another indicalion of Ihe Greek orillin of Ihese Ir<:atiloCS). The progn.",tica· lions refer to Ihe incre:asec in lite Nile', now and 10 event, concerning agrlcuhural life. In ....ch tex", as I CANDLES these there were probably imeJ1>Olat;ons made by Egyplian writers. IlIIlLtOGRAPHY CAMOUL, SAINT. or Chamou!. a martyr under nIOCu:Tl~N (feast day; 16 aa.hans). Lacking a fi~t part. the texi of his Passion has survived in frag· ments from only one Sahidk code~ (British \Jbnll)'. London, Pap. V, ed, Winstedt, 1910, pp. 169ff.). The action opens with Camoul in prison under the governor Pompeiu•. He has ob,'iously been lor' tured. and has miraculously been healed; he then has a vision of Christ, who foretells his glorious end. The te~t is foJloweout the seventh cenlury. BIIlUOGRAPHY Winstedt, E, 0, Coptic Texts on Saini Theodore Ihe General, SI. rh~odo," the Eastern, Chamo,,1 and Justus. London and Oxford, 1910. TJTo ORU.~Dt CANCELLI, Churches. See Architectural CANDELABRUM. SU \Jtu'llical Instruments; Metalwork, Coptic. CANDLEMAS. Browne, C. M. Midtigan Coptic Texts, no. 13, Barce· lona. 1979. Till. W_ C. "E.ine koptische Bauempraktik" Mille;· lunge" des Deutsche" ArdriJologisohe" {"stlluts, K"lro 6 (1936):108-149.175-76. TITO ORUNDJ Elements of 445 Se~ Feasts, Minor. CANDLES, Candles have been used in churcbes since the early days of Christianity on many occasions. According to Ibn al-'AssAl's Kllilb al-Qawlinln (Book of Canon Law) and the DIDASCALlA, candles must be lighted during all services, a reference to the words of Jesus Christ. "I have come as a light into the world" (In. 12:46). Inside the sanctuary twO candlestick. are placed either on the altar or do," to it. one to the nonh and the other to the sOUlh. \Jkewise two candelabra stand outside the sanctuary, repre .. nting the Old and the New Testaments. During processiom, bish· ops enter the church preceded by priests and dea· cons <:an"fing lighted candles and chaming relevant hymns, In the evening and the morning offering of incense, standing at the sanctuary door and looking eastward, his hands e~tended and holding in his righl hand the cross with three lighted candles, the priest says the prayer of Lord, ha.e mercy upon us, Then he turns toward the Jl<'ople and blesses them three times with the cross and the throe lighted candles. When tbe scriptures aro read, the reader holds a lighted candle. When the priest Or deacon reads the Gospel. two deacons, one to his right and one to his left, stand holding lighted candles. This established tradilion was mentioned by Saint Jerome (c. 342~ 420): "Through all the church~ of the eaSl, when the eospel is to he read, lights are kindled, though the sun is already shining: not indeed to disJl<'1 darkness, but to exhibit a token of joy; ... and that under the ligure of bodily light, that light may be set forth of which we read in the psalter. "Thy word is a lantern unto my feet, and a light unto my paths.'" In the petfonnance of the Di.ine Uturgy Ihe dea· cons serving in the sanctuary hold iighted candles, particularly at the choosing of the Eucharistic Bread; the Proce..ion of the Lamb, crossing the oblations, the sanctification. the fraction, the con· fe..ion, and the communion. During the liturgy of consecration of the holy chrism, the clergy hold candles in a procession. preceding the patriarch. who carries the myron and the oil of the catechu· mens 10 the sanctuary. \Jghted candles are carried during the perfor- 446 CANONICAL HOURS, BOOK OF mance of tlte churclt sacraments. In BAPTISM, candie. are placed around the font and au alsn Iteld by all persons attending. Catechumens used 10 be given lighled candles immediately afln being baplized as a token of tlte inner light they Itad jusl acquired. Saint CYRIL OF JERlJS.\LEM (c. 315-386) ,'ividly describes tlte practice thai illuminated the dark night during Easler celebration at the Churclt of tlte Resurr«tion: " ... on the eve of tlte Savior's resurreclion, and at the doors of lh. Clturch of tit. Anastasis, the wltite-robed band of the newly baptized was seen approaching from the neighboring baptistery. and the darkness was turned into day in the brightne.. of unnumbered lights." likewise Salnt GREGORY OF NAZ1ANZUS (329-389) rerers 10 tile symbolic meaning of tltesl' lighted candles: "The lamps which thou wilt kindle are a mystical sign of that lamp-bearing from tltenceforth. wherewith we. bright and virgin souls. will go forth to meet tlte Bridegroom" (Or"l;o" 40.46. cols_ 425-26)_ In the celebration of the sacrament of Itoly unction of the Sick. se,'en wicks and seven candles are set on a table before tlte sanctuary sCreen, Each time a priest begins to read on. of tlte seven prayers for the sick. he lighrs a wick and a candle until all the prayen have been read and all wicks and candles have been ligltted. Candles are also lighted when the sacrament of Matrimony is performed. and during tile ceremony of betrothal, Candles are used in a special way on Good Fri· day, when tile .ervices begin in early morning and last past sunset. Tlte sancfUary is dosed, and the service is conducted in the nave of the church where candles burn only at the pulpirs. where readings are conducted. In mid-afternoon tlte condemnation of Christ from the Gospels is read. As the reader reaches the passage "and from the sixth hour there was darkness" (Mt. 27;45; Mk~"5'33: 1.1<. 23,44) the candles are extinguished. At tlte twelfth hour the black curtain c<)ncealing the sanctuary is drawn bade to re· veal candles burning "I:ain on the altar. Two icons of the crucifixion and the bunal are taken in procession around the sanctuary and lite church, as deacons facing the icons cany the lighted candles during the procession. Tlte icon of the burial is tlten returned to the sanctuary. wrapped in white doth and laid on tlte altar. Two candles symbolizing angel. are placed one at the head and one at the feet of Christ. Lighte Jeru.alem. which i. overcrowded with people on this occasion, when the sacred light is kindled fol· lowing tlte circuit around tlte Holy Sepulcher, all candles are lighted, and the church is transforme Butler. A. J. The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, 2 vols. Oxford. 1884. CANONICAL HOURS, BOOK OF, book con· taining the offices for the seven canonical hours. It indudes all the prayers, I'5:Ilm•. Gospel readings. and petitions to be said at the various Itours by day and night. appointed in accordance with analogous poinrs in the life and Passion of Jesus Christ. Ca· nonical houn were appointed in conformity with Psalm 119;164 ("Seven times a day do I praise Th~ because of Thy righteous judgments") and in fulfillment of Christ's commandment that prayers be of· fered at all times and with unAagging energy (il, 18: I). Both tlte DlDASCAUA and lbn al'AssAI'. Book 01 CANONICAL HOURS, BOOK OF Cano" Law (chap. 14) set the following time, for the ~ading of these seven prayers: early morning, before sunrise: at the third hour; at the sixth hour; at the ninth hour; at the eleyenth hour; at the twelfth hour; and at midnight. It shonld be borne in mind here thaI. following the practice common at the time of Christ (Sn, 11:9), the day is computed from sunrise 10 sunset: thus. the third hour corre· sponds to nine in the morning. the si~th hour to noon. and so on. This practice had been followed by the Old Testament prophets (Ps., 5:3; 55; 17; 63:1, 6; 119:62, 1M; Is. 26:9) and was later maintained by the apostle. (Act. 2:15; 10;3: 16:25). In adopting this approach of distributing prayer times throughout the day, Slr",s is laid on cenain analogous points in the life and Passion of Jesus Christ. The Prayer of the First Hour. also called morning or dawn prayer, is designed to be read ju.t before the beginning of daylight and is a reference to the coming of the True Ught, which is Jesus Christ. &sides being the hour at which Jesus was arresled at Ceth.emane following His betra)'al by Judas Iscariot, dawn is mainly associated with the lime when Christ rose from the dead. This office is intended to offer lhanks to Ihe Almighty for having broughl one safely to the morning. The tone of earnest requesl characlerize, lhe opening of the Prayer of the First Hour. increasing gradually in ferYor and intensily "0 come, let us worship! 0 come, let us requesl Chrisl our God! 0 come, leI us worship! 0 come. leI us b.g Christ our King! 0 come. lei us worship' 0 come. lei us enlreal Chrisl our Savior!" Spiritual guidance and a Chrislian plan of action for the day at'<' supplied by Ihe words of St. Paul: "I therefore. a prisoner for the Lord. b.g you to lead a life wonhy of Ihe calling 10 which you haye been called, with all I"wliness and meekness, witb palience. forbearing One anorher in lo~e, eager 10 maintain the unity of Ihe Spirit in the \x>nd of peac... ~here is one body and one Spirit. juSI as y"" were ;called to the one hope lhat belong, to )'our call" (Eph. 4:1~5). The Prayer of lhe Third !iour is a reminder of three significant eyeOls: the trial of Je,,,s Chri.1 by Pilate; Christ's Ascension; and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the disciples. He..., one prays that the grace of Ihe Holy Spiril be renewed within one, that the hean will be cleansed, and that true peace be giyen through the Holy Spiril, Ihe Comfoner, The absoiution prayer for this hour conveys a deep sense of gratilude 10 God, who has called the devoul to pray at this holy hour, which i. Ihat ""herein He poured f"rth the grace of His Holy Spirit in abundance upon His blessed dIsciples and apostles. 447 The sbnh hour commem"rales the crucifixion and Ihe Passion of Christ. Here one prays that the fellers of ,in be torn asunder, that suffering be broughl to an end by His redeeming and life·giYing Passion. that through the nails by which He was nailed on the cross the mind be deliyered from the recklessness of insubstantial works and w"rldly lusts, by the ...,membrance of His heavenly judgments. acc"rding t" His tender mercies. The ninth hour. at which lhe darkness thai had pervaded the eanh since the sixth hour was lifted. serYCS t" commemorate the redemptive death of Chri.t in the flesh on the cross and His acceptance of the repentance shown by the thief on His right hand. In Ihis hour one pray. Ihat the Redeemer, who suffered death for sinners, may mortify one's carnal senses and make one a panaker of the grace of His life-gi"ina sacraments so tbat, ha~ing lasled of His benefactions. One may offer Him unceasing praise. The devoul also pray lhat jusl as He receiYed the confession of Ihe repentant thief. He rna)' also reeeiye them unto Himself, when Ihey confe.. His DiYinily and cry out. "Remember us, 0 Lord, when You come inlO your Kingdoml" The eleYenth hour is 10 c"mmemorate the act of remo_ing Christ's body from Ihe cross and its prepamti"n for burial by Joseph of Arimalhea and Nicodemus_ It is also associaled with the parable of the Yiney.rd (Mt. 20). and so the 13ilhful pray thai they be considered worthy 10 be c"unted among the laborers who were called at Ihe eleyenlh hour. They lOis" giye lhanks for God's protecli"n Ihrough the day and confess, wilh Ihe Prodigal Son, that they haye sinned againsl heayen and are nor wonhy to be called God's childt'<'n. The Iwelfth hour commemorates lhe entombment of Christ and is a ...,minder of Ihe evanescence of human life. Mindful of their imminent slanding before God and followiog Ihe example of the contrite publican, Ihe deyoui beal their breasts and beg forgi_eness and proleclion through the night. The midnight office consists of Ihree watches, also called "noctums," corresponding 10 the three slages of Christ's prayer in Ihe garden of Gethsemane (MI. 26:36~41». The first walch is a t'<'minder of the necessity of being prepared for Christ's Second Coming and of having to meel Him like the Wise Virgins (Mt. 25:1-13). The second walch points 10 the urgency of repentance in anticipalion of God's judgment. In the third watch, where stress is laid on Christ', word•. "Walch and pray" (MI. 36:4\), Ihe devout pray tbat when Ihe Son of Man comes 448 CANONICAL HOURS, BOOK OF He shall find them on the alen (d, LIt. 12:36-38). 1n addition to these hours the..., i< llI10ther pra}'er call«! the Office of the Veil. According to the Aibiyo", it is for the use of monks. but the Didascalia directs that it be read by bishop, and priests as a means of examination before sleep. In all these canonical hours the reading chO$en from the Psalms. the Co!;pels. and the Epistles, together with Ihe accompanying pelitions and absolulion prayers, a..., all dosely relaled to the main theme of the relevant houL There are, however, certain common ,ections that are recited at the beginning and end of each hour. The following are Ihose which are read at the beginning: l. In the name of the Father. and the Son, and Ihe 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Holy Spirit. Amen. KYRtE ElElSON, Lord ha"e mercy, Lord ha>'e mercy, Lord bless us. Amen. Glory to the Father, and to the Son, and to the HoI)' Spirit. both now and ever unto the ages of ages, Amen. the Lord's Prayer Ihe Prayer of Thanksgiving Psalm 50 Each hour conclude. with the following: l. Kyrie deison (fony-one times), representing the Ihiny-nine scourges, the spear. and the crown of thorns 1, Holy. Holy. Holy. 0 Lord of SabaOlh, etc. 3. the Lord'S Prayer 4. the Abwlutlon 5, Ihe Petition: Have mercy on us. 0 God. and have mercy on us. Thou who, al all times, and at ,"'ery hour, in Heaven and on eanh an wor· shiped and glorified. etc. The principal element in the structure of the canonical hours is a selection of Psalms specially arranged to harmonize .,th lbe basic theme of lhe hour in question_ Neediess to say, the Psalms possess and impan unique 'piritual dynamism and cover all the aspects of the relalionship between man llI1d God. from the depth of misery to the height of mercy. from the depth of sin to the heighl of grace. "In the Se"en Penitential Psalms we ha"e th" seven weapons wherewilh to oppose the seven deadly sins; the seven pro)'en inspired by Ihe sevenfold Spirit to th" r"penting sinn"r; the •• "en guardians for the seven days of the week; Ihe se.'en companions for the seven Canonical Hours of the da)'" (Neal and Litlledale, 1867, p. 7), It is a sublime Iribute 10 th. efficacy of the Psalms thaI Christ Him- self frequently quoted from them-in the synod. during His temptation by the devil. at the Last Stlpper. and on the cross-and to note thaI His lasl words, "Imo Ihy hands I commit my spirit." came from the Psalms, The apostles, too, drew heavily on tlte Psalms in their teachings and their prayers. Saim Paul strong· ly urged the use of Psalms in worship (I Cor, 14:26; Eph, 5:19; Col, 3:16). The incorporation of such a rich heritage imo Christian worship was adopted first by Ihe church of Alexandria. The comemplative Theraputae. Ih" Jewish Egyplian ascetics who li"ed in "",Iusion near Lak" Mareotis, many of whom embraced Christilll1ity. must ha"e inAuenced. to a cenain degree, the mooe of worship in the emerging church. It must also be remembered Ihal in earlier times Ihe Psalms that were included in the canonical hours were sung, and not just read, de.pit" the fact Ihal some of these hours. panicularly the sixth and ninth, are aswciated with sorrowful e""nts such as the Crucifixion and the death of Christ on the cross, respectively. Hence the use of the lerm "h}'lIln" in Ihe introduction preceding thes" hours. "the hymn of the .. , hour of the blessed day. [ now offer to Christ my King and God, beseeching Him to forgive me my .ins." David sang his Psalms as hymns of praise to the Almighty and lbe apostles w.re always cheerful, despite Iheir tribulations (Acts 16:25). Among Ihe wrilings of the early falhers who de· scribed the fonn of worship prevalent in tlte Church of Alexandria is the testimony'of EtJSEBlUS OF CAESARE.A. who quoled Philo (c. 20 B.C.-c. A.D. 55): "While one sings [the Psalms] regularly in time, the olhers listen in silence, and join in chanting only Ihe close of Ihe hymns" (Eusebius 2.17.22). Ukewise. ATHANASIUS of Alexandria (c. 296-373) likened the singing of Psalms to a "balm which heals the spirit," The same point is underlined by John CASSt~N (Bk. 2. chap, II) in his description of Ihe proc· tice of Psalm-singing by the Egyptians: "They do not e"en atlempt to finish the Psalms, which they sing in the se",ice, by an unbroken and continuous reci· tation. But they repeal them separalely and bit by bil, dh'ided imo two or lhree seclions, according to the number of "erses, with prayers in betwe"n. , And sO they (:onsider it better for ten verses to be sung With understanding and thought, than for a whole Psalm to be pour«! fonh with a bewildered mind." Wilh regard 10 the number of Psalm. used in the canonical hours. the church now specifies se"enty· four (i.e., one half of the total number of Psalms) to CANON LAW be ~ daily. Apparently no ....ed ponion was pre- scribed in former limes, and lhe choice ""as leh to Ihe discretion 01 !he .'arious bthen, "'" Ions as lhe appoimed times ..... 'e adhered 10. Thanks 10 the ",Ialive peace !hal it enjoyed dUl"ina the lint and st<:Oftd ""ntulies. !he E,yplian churc:h. Iona before 0Iber chul'(h, "'~ able 10 est8blish the pollll"" of these anrn the Mew. The lih sl(Wy 01 Saint Antony lhe Creal (251-3)6) bears ample c";den« of lIti< awom. When he broke his fasI al 5I.In_. he would say a Psalm be· fore his meal and lhen off.". lwel.e pl'llyera. foI· .......ed by Iwelve Psalms. before he ~reated for a lew houra of T'UI. At midnighl be would rise 10 sina Psalrru unt~1 daWTl. This E&Y!>lioan ttoldition later found Its way .0 Glher.comers of Ch",,"endom: it wu carried to Pal· "line by Saint Hilarion (c. 291-371). to Mesopo.a· mia by Saint Basil (c. 330-379),10 France and Italy by Saint Athanasius the Apostolic (c. 296·37)) and John Casslan. The I.,., wrote 10 his disciples: "I think it bes. to '<:. 10nh the mO!lt ancient lyI.em of the fathers which is Olill observeout the whole of EgypI, .so tn.t yotlr """" monasl«y in ;1$ untrainod infancy in Chris! mIly be ins'n1(1ed in the most anei.en, inslilu.ions of !he urliesl farhen. The canonical hours of the f.ID.'J'IUin church wen evenl~ly if;(:oopooated inln ohe oIIicial canons of the Second eo.."",il of Tours in S67. an" N ~ioesl ptnor>s 10 ~ canonized were lbe martyI'$, who submitled 10 death for Chris!. and !be cOl1fes5ors. ",bo .""""ed !heir failh in Christian life and acqujred a reputalioon for sanclily. Nexl Wft"e the early btheB, wnks to whom the basK <\oe. tri"", and teackin~ of relipan Wft"e firmly est» Iished. and who dedkaled \heir I;,,~ for ~ pmcb.. mation of the J1l5f't1 of Christ. III \he early days of ChristLanlty. churches t.ISed to ""chang<: n"""", and informalion ~prding >lOCh mal1)'B and confessors wbose ~ wen: _nhy of being menlioned ;11 pl'l)'e..... W$OIU!S f:E CA£'iA. r.FA. lite fame.- of churd! hblOl)'. re«>rds • kIter senl by "Ihe church of God whlc:h dwelleth II Smyrna to the church of God which dwell",h in I'h.lomelium·· in conneclion with lhe man)Tdom of Polycarp. bishop of Smyrna (e. 69-155). Tho: leuer ends with these worth, "And SO we aflerwarth gathered up his bon"". which ,"'0("'" more valuable than precious sto~es and more to ~ esteemed .han gold. and laid Ihem in a suitable plaoe. The.., the lord will permi. uS .0 come logether as we are able, in gladne.. and joy to celebn..e lhe birthday of his martyrdom for the commemoration of thoot who have already fouah. and for the .noining and prq>an.tion ol thOS" who shall hereafter do .he same:' In .he Roman Calholic church the aUlhorily to canoniu Is the J't'"'ropli.... of the pope of It.ome. In !he Coptic church. as wen • OIher Onhodo" Churdtes. !he powet'" of canoniullion rt:SU willt lite T1te Holy Synod. B1BUOGRAI'KY New. 1. M. Hisl.", of lite Hoi, £a$ltm CIII,,·clt. Vol. I. p. 12. London. I M7. Neale, J. M.. and 11.. F. Littledale. "A Http 10 .he Spirillw Inle~ of !be I'enitenlial Psalms.. ~ In £Days on Ul"rgioIoa "M C",,~h Him>? 2nd ed.• p. 7. ~n. 1S67. 449 B.lBUOGRAI'Hl' w. C._itarlon .td A"tJo«;ry iN me Weu...... CJuucJo. London. I'M!. N.... R. ''Causes de bblikadon '" de canon... lion:' In Dtcn-n"ir-e de droit c_oniqae, Vol.. 3, Kemp. Eo. cols. to-37. Paris. 1~2. • AilcHsl5HOI' BASruOS CANONICAL HOURS, HYMNS. See Music. Coptic: Oescriplion. CANONIZATION, lite fonnal declaration of a deceased perso~'s sanctily. whereby his or her name Is added to the roll of the ""i~ts of the churc:h .nd commended fOl" "enenorion by lhe bl.hful. CANON LAW, codified law CO"erninll a church. The Copt.ic chul'(h hall no codex juris ""nonie', as the i1.oma~ church does, but it has remained closer to its sources. which it hltll grouped in chronologi. calor .ystematic collections. From .he Coptic ptrlod, the church of Egypt Wall concerned with Coptic tn.~sJation of the source. 01 church la"". but these most frequently occupied a codex either by themselves or alo~ll wi.h other 450 CANON LAW _1Ls. weh as biogn.pbies or sermons. Thus there .re th Apootolic Canons and the Eccl~_icaJ Canons 01. the Apo$lIo$. or the I,)IllASCALlA and the Testam~t 01. the Lon\. A ~n,Jc code" Us come down, the con~nl 01. ...hid! fonM • .-mlable UNJ'US II was recOMlruc,ed by W. £. Cnun (1915. pp. 13-1.) and e ~ by R..(;. Coqula (1981. pp.•2-.J). T1w: law of lhc CopIs is abo kno\<,... from _rKa and ~. the data 01 "fUch ",e". ~OUecled by A. "Schiller (1938). Wilh pro6t OM may abo consult "Stein_nler'• ......I1 bool o.u !keN. II will lhus be possible to attain. lor _DI of direcl sources. 10 ,he "I.", in llClion" 01 which Schiller ~ CopIic law is further distinguished from the I.", of the Roman <:hurdl ~ since the Maslim Invasion the "."-;/1r(:lI. in his <'apIII<:tcy as head of the Cop!ic nalion. has exerd.'iCd the fuocllom 01 civil I..... For Ihis reason lhe documelllalion of the Ia... of the Copts includes e1emen'" that in Ihe West would be: in !he pro,'nce of civil l."'-everylhing that conCerns what is called the law of pel"'5onal iUliUS. such as Inheritance and maniage. The <:olle<:Iiom lhat have sUrYl,ed may bt divided Into the chronological .nd W systemati<:. Chronolopeal collt<:tions consist of three main groups. 1. The .nonymous <:olk<:tion in Berlin. This Is pre~ed in a single undated .... nu~ript. Berlin Anlbi<: 10181, rollos 5 I -219. An _lysis of thi.s codec is I" Riedel (p. 129). Unlortu....tely. the end of the manuscript is mil.sing.. 2. The collcction of Macarius. a monk·priest of the monastery of John Coloboo in WAdi aJ.Natnln. He <:ompiled a collectiofl 01. anons. poobably in tho: 61'SI half 01. the fou~....th «ntury. that is of the same !}'PC as !he anonymoo<J Bertin OM. It has 1U"""''Cd in cleven manus<:ripu. some of which are incomplew. 1hTff an; <:<>pia 01 ancient """nuscripts mark in the aalfttnth century. nw 01dcsl and mOil oomp!ete maP.\lSCript is Puis. NaJionaI Ubrary. Anobe 251. It ..... ~n alUllyzed by Troupnil (1912. Vol. I. pp. 208-20\1). T~is fMn\ISCript is dated from A~. 1069/II..D. 1352. The colle<:lion an be: divided Into foIIr m3.jor paru: (.) th~ p~·Nkene canons, ... hic~ loclude the Cll/>Ons atlribllted to the apoillei and those of the provincial councU,; (b) the C.nOnS of the Coundl of NICAIlA, (cl lhe canon, of the kin,. (Byzantine emperors), borrowed from the Melchlte, and atlribmed by the Copts to the Coundl of Nkaea, (d) the canonS of the medieval patriar<:h,-cHRtSToooulus. cYRIL 11. GABRtEl tt. and cy..tl ttl. e"_...... 3. Anonymous Jacobite collecllon, Ihe name giv· en by Riedel (1900. p. 136). It contain. almost the _ elements as thal of Macarius. with some modlfi<:ations. II is diefly ~rftented by the manu· ..,ripts A....be: 2J8-J9 at "'" National Library. Paris (Tm"pea". pp. 200-201). The matltu<:tipts aN: daled by R..(;.. (oquin 10 lhe foune-.n'h-lihecnth centuries, but ,."...., pam of ,he firsl m.anusc:ript were rosl T1te first systemaliC' collo<:OOn that has survived is lhat of Abil SU~ (or ~i~. accordinglo lhe YOCa!,r.at10ll of lhe name). He .ppelJ'i to have been con· ccrned about 1.......I..,nl Ihe C<.>ptic dl>CUmenlalion at his dlsJXlsal into A....bl<: In 'u<:h a way'" to fonn a legal compendium for hi. chur<:h, It is nOl known when he lived. but hi. work is dated to the lenth or eleventh century. Gabriel [] ibn Tu ....yk. twelhh·cenlury palri;u-ch of Alexandria. is well kno...n for hi. work of renoV3' tion and reform. He produced three Important series of "",nOve'l"'5Y wilh M.rk ibn Oanbar on the subject of auricular confes.ion. He WI! still alive whcn Mark died in 120g. Among OIher works. hc com· piled a voluminous nomocanon. probably after 1188. ac<:ording to Ihe preface of the Arab. 4728 manus<:ript at the Nalional Ubrary. Paris. The Ser· lin manuscript Arabi~ 101$0 i. a """ond ~cen.ion. perh.ps by Mlch..,1 hitmtelf, Riedel (1%8. p. 89) CANONS, APOSTOUC has gi,en an analY'i' of this manU$Cripl. The tut of each canon i. pro'ided with a siglum that serves to designate it within the nomocanon. A!.SM'! ibn al·'Assl!, One of the three writers of the family of ibn al 'Assai (probably al-Saf\ Abu al·Fa4!'il), compiled a nomocanon that has be<:ome almost the official manual of Coptic Egypt, This nomocanon has survived in two different reeen· sions, The autho, w... Ihe counselo, and chief of protocol of Patriard Cyril III ibn Laqlaq. It i. be· lieved that he had completed his work on the orde", of the patriarch. who was not salisfied with it. He .et to w(".k again, and produced the second recension. II was proclaimed by the patriarch and appro,ed at the synod of 1238. This book was also translated. inlO Ge'ez and became the official book of the civil and r.,]igious law of Ethiopia. It w 0' 451 Phji(ithAwus 'Aw""'. AI.Ma;mli' al-~alawf. Cairo, 1908. _ _. AI·Khuld~Qh a/·Qdn"niyyah If al-Ai}woll al· Shakh~lyyah II·Kanr<ar al·AqM{ al·Urthud· hubi)'Jrn, 2nd ed. Cairo, 1913, Riedel, W. Die Klrchenrecht.quellen de< Parr/· archat' Alexandri.n. Leipzig, 1900; repro ""len, 1968, Schiller, A. "Prolegomena to the Study of Coptic Law." Archives d·hi.>toir~ du droit oriemal 2 (1938):341-65. Ste;nwenter, A. Dos Recht der kopmchen Urk....den. Handbuch der Altenumswis.enschaft 10. Munich, 1955. Troupeau, G. Call1.log,,. de' man",crit. arab••, Vol. l. Paris, 1972, RENt-GEORGES COOlllN CANONS, APOSTOLIC, a series of eighty·four or eighty·five canon. that in Greek form the con· cluding chapter (47) of Book 8 of the Apostolic Constitutions (Funk, 1905, Vol. I, pp, 564-94). The Sahidic Coptic "ersion counts seventy-one canons, the Arabic series (Book 2 of the 127 Canons of the Apostles) fift}'·six only, the same as the E1hiopic version. The Greek texi has often been published (e.g., by Funk, 1905; Lagarde, 1856). We ha~e two Coptic "ersions, in Saltidic and Bohairic, and se~en>-I in Arabic. Sahidlc Text This is preserved in two complete manuscripts, one in the British Ubrary (Or. 1320, d. Crum, 1905, no, 162), dating from ~.M, 722 (~.D 10051006), and an unnumbered manuscript in the Coptic Patriarchate in Cairo, dating from the eighteenth or nineteenth century. The,.., are two editions, by P. de Lagarde (1883, PI'. 209-37, upper half of the pages: British Ubrary Or. 1320) and by U. Bounant (1885), BIBLJOGR~PHY • AbO al·BarakAt ibn Kahlr, M"lShQi} al ~,,/mQh. Cairo, 1971. Coquin, R.--G, "I.e Corpus canonum copte. Un nOUveau complement: Le manuscrit IFAO, COple 6." Orimtalia 50, 110, 1 (1981):40-S6. Crum, W. E. PQpym$codu saec. VI-V/{ dor Phil· /ippsbibliolhek In Chdrenham. Schriften de' wi.. senschaftlichen Gesellschaft ;n Strassbul"lJ 18. Stmsbou'i,1915. Guidi, I., trans. 11 "Fetha nagast" " legl,lati"ne dei re, 2 vol., Rome, 1897-1899, Mlkhi'i1 Jirji•. KiMb a/·qaw~nin. Cairo, 1922. Bohalrlc Text According to the colophon, this translation was made from the Sahidic: il is not divided into ca.nons but appears as the seventh book of Clement, "that is to say the completion of the eight books," as Ihe title adds. [ts text, however, is lillie different from that of the Sahidic. Thre" manuscript. are known: Staal1iche Museen, Berlin (Or. quano 519, dated to ~,M, 1520 [~,o. 1803-1804)): Cairo (Coptic Patriar· chate, Canons 9 and 10 (Sima)'kah and 'Abd aI, Maslh, 1942, nos. 577 and 581], dating from 1803- 452 CANONS, APOSTOLIC 1804): anil a manuscript of 11.0.1854 (unpublished). There are 'wo editions. by H, Tattam (1848, pp. 173-214) and p, de Lagarde (1883. pp. 209-37, lower half of the pages lhat constitute Tattam'S text). Arabic Text At least three re<;ensions have been listed: only the one that fonns Book 2 of the 127 Canons of the Apostle, has been published. on the basis of eight manuscripts, by J. and A. Perier (1912. pp. 556-61, introdUdion, and pp, 664-93, text and French Inm,lation). Another is contained in the Clemen' tine Octateuch; J. and A, P~rier give the text of canons 45 and 47-50 (the numbering of the Greek). which are missing from the Ii"t recension (1912. pp. 555-1>0): in this Clementine Octateuch theseapostolic canons form Book 8 (Graf. 1944-1953. Vol. I. pp. 581-84). A third ,"cension appears to have been borrowed from the Mdchite!l (Riedel, 19'00, pp. 44-45,158); it is unpublishcd. The p"rallelism between the fifty·six canons of Book 2 of the 117 Canons of the Apostles and Book 8 of the Octa· teuch of Clement i1id not escape Coptic amhors, like Abu al·BaraUt (Riedel. 1900. p. 73: Sami' Kha· lil, 197L p. 198). Content The Apostolic Canons. in contrast to the ECClEStAS· lteU CANO~S, deal in no particular order with the principal mailers of e<;clesiastical discipline. ordinations. and canonical impediments (the numbers are those of the Coptic version: 1, 2, 9, 10,49,54. M. 65, 68). the Euchari't and oblations (I, 4,5), the marriage of clergy (I, 11. 12, 18), Easler (2). simony (21, 22). the ecclesiastical hierarchy (23-33). rela.ions with the heretics and the Jews (37. 38, 50. 58, 59), and the canonical booh (71). The other canons specify various-Nults and the corresponding penalties, excommunication or deposition as the ca"" may be. Some canl;>ns are duplicated. Most of the penal prescriptions 'have the clergy in view, Origin No one today defends the apostolic origin of these canons, although it was accepted in the Greel church after lhe Ouinisext Synod of 692. It is dif/i. cult to detennine at what period they were drawn up. There are two opposing opinions. On the one hand, it bas been claimed tbat tbere are allusions to tbese apo'tolic canons in various synods, such as Canon 9 of ",,,tioch (about 341) and the synodical lener of Constantinople (382) (Nau, 1932, cols, 1607-16(8), from which it has been concluded that the Apostolic Canons date from the third or even the end of the s""ond centul)'. More recent authors think thaI it was the compiler of the Apostolic Can· ons who borrowed from the Didasctl/itl and the canons of the councils of Nicaea, Antioch, Laodicea, Constantinople. and so Ionh_ Since toward 500 Dionysius E,iguus translated them into Latin, or al least the first fifty (in the Greel numbering), the"" authors think that the composition of the Apostolic Canons must have been done in the fuunh or fifth centul)'. But what disturbs the critic. is the allusion al the VCf)' end, in Ihe Greek lext. to "the statWes ediled in eight books for you, bisbops, b)' me Clem' ent, whicb ought not to be divulged to aIL" This passage is missing from the Coptic and the "'rabic. and could well be a later addition. Here as in other documents Ihe Coptic·Arabic recension might well offe' a stale of the texl prior to tbat transmitted by the Greek manuscripts at our disposal, 'ince this final remark, both of the Apostolic Constitutions and of the Clementine Octateuch. is missing from the Egyptian r""ension. The crilic. are unanimous in setting the place of origin of the Apostolic Canons in the region of Anti· och, and a good number think that the Apostolic Constitutions and the Canons are by lhe same author. This is possible, but .aonot be demonstrated; the compiler of the Apostolic Constitutions may very well have simply reworked an older document. Characteristics of the Egyptian Recension The Coptic and Arabic recensions (or at leasl that of Ihe 127 Canons of the Apostles) differ on several points from the Greek te"t (which may be called the receprus) through the divIsion inlo canons, through omissions, and through mo CANONS, ECCLESIASTICAL Canons 47 10 50, wilh lhe profession of failh, are found in ,he canonical collection of lhe CoplS, which inserts ,he Arahic wrsion made from lhe Greek; they have lJ<,en edited and translated by l. and A. P~rier (1912, pp. 557-59). Among the more nOlable modi~cations ,,'e may draw attention to lhal of Canon 67 in lhe Coptic (81 in lhe Greck. 53 in lhe Arabic), The Gre<:k recension forbade ,he bishop or lhe priesl to "engage in public affain;" bUI the Coptic "ersion says, "We have said lhat it is nol fining thaI lhe bishop should sit to receive tue.... The Coplic uses here lhe Greek word demosio>1 and the Arabic al·khar~j for "l,,-,es." The Coptic lranslation of Canon 4 of lhe Council of Laodicea had modified the Creek in lhe same way. The last canon (85 in the Greek, 71 in lhe Coptic, 56 in the Arabic) i. a li" of lhe canonical booh received in the churches. It preM'nl' a certain num· ber of ..arianlS according to lhe recension. and e,'en 1<> the manuscripts (Guidi, 1901, pp, 161-74), They all, howcvcr, dislinguish lJ<,tween lhe books to be considered "venerable and holy" and lhose that "your children must learn in addilion," lhal is, belween the prolocanonical and the deukrocanonical. Thc Sahidic ,,,,rsion places Judilh and Tobit among lhe fll"St, the Wisdom of Solomon, Esther, lhe thTee books of the Maccabees, and the Wisdom of Sirach among the second; lhe Arabic omit. Judilh and Tobit among lhe fin;t, but pUIS Judith in place of !'.sther among lhe second. In the list of the New Testamenl books, the Sahidic adds "lhe lwo epistle. of Clement"; the Arabic d<:>e« no!. We are familiar Wilh lhe list set out by ~TH~N.<SJ[ft; in his thirty·ninth Festal Letlu of 367 (Lefo", 1952, pp. 19-20; Greek lext in CSCO 151, pp, 34-35); lhis too distingui.hes prolo,:an"nical and deulerocanonical, and adds the Didascalia ApO,'/(Jlomm and lhe SlIep. h__d of Humas. In some manuscripts al least, another list follows Canon 59. of lhe Council'of lAodi. _, cea, The Apostolic Canons wcr~ handed down in Ara· bic by lhe medieval Coplic canonists, eilher in the form of the fiiiy-six canons:of Book 2 of lhc 127 Canons of lhe Apostle. or in wTSions borrowc 453 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bouriam, U. "Les Canons aposlOlique. de Clemenl de Rome, Traduction en dialecle ,'optc the\>,ain d'apr,;s un manuserit de ia bibliolhl'que du palri· arche Jacobite du Caire," Recuel/ de trava"" relarils il /0 philologi• • 1 " r"archia/ogie igyplie",,", el assyrie""es 5 (1884): 199-206, 6 (1885' 97_115. Crnm, W. E. Cora/ague ollhe Coplic Ma",,,crlpls i" the Brilish M"se"m, London, 1905, Funk, F, X., ed. Dld"sc"lia Mexandrie". Leip2ig, 1900: repr, Aalen, 1968. Samir, K" S,J., ed. Misbal) al·?ulmah. CaiTO, 1971. Tauam, H. The Ap",·to[;cal Constitutions or Co"o". of Ihe Apostl.. i" Coplic. 1.ondon, 1848, REN&GEORGES COQUIN CANONS, ECCLESIASTICAL, lhe name giv· en by P. de Lagarde (1883, p. 239, n. a) 10 distill' guish lhose canons from lhe seWllly-one APOSTOUC CAt;O"S. In lhe Arabic version of the Coptic, it is lhc first bool of lhe 127 Canons of lhe Apostles. Their supeTScripliun in Sahidic is: "These aTe lhe canons of our hoi}' fathers lhe apostles of om' Lord Jeous Christ, which they eslablished in lhe Church" (La· garde, 1883, p, 239), and in Arabic; "These are lhe canons of our falhors the apostles which they prepared for thc cstablishment of the Church th,ough lhe medium of Clement" (Perier and Petier, 1912, p. 573). This numbeT ,·aries 10 some extenl: seventy· eight in Coptic and seventy-one in Arabic, Wilh a dislribulion val)ing according to lhe manuscripls in Ethiopic. The final subscription in the Arabic $hould be noted; "Their number in lhe Greek is 81 canons" (PerieT and Perie., 1912, p, 1>63), which is not whal the Coplic ven;ion says. This indicales that there was al first a Greek colle"tion in Egypt. !l is fu"her emirely remarkable that lhis collection of se--enly-cighl (or in Arabic .eventy·one) ecclesi".li, cal canons was preser..-ed onl)' in Egypl, and indio re<:lIy in Ethiopia. 454 CANONS, ECCLESIASTICAL We have .1.1 our disposal lWO Coptic recensions (Sahidic and &halrlcl and several in Arabic. S.hldlc Tnl nu. ha$ come down In Ihr~ alm_ complete manu5(Oripu. 01 which Ihe I_ bIer ones au C9p;'" 01 the 6~. and _ I'raJmenlS. 11le manwcripts dale from Ihe m)' el"enlh cenlury (oUI. 722; A.D. 1005-10(6) (BriIWt Library. 0... 1320, Crurn. 1905. no. 162); a ninet~nlh..:enlury In.I.IlUKrip( (Brilish Ubrvy. Or. '40. Crum, no. 163); and a "","\!SCrip( from II,., eiJltl«nltt or niMt~nltt century {Coptic Patriarch....e. Cairo. unnurnbend~ For the menlS from II,., While Monastery (1M)'\" anbl. Sh~ nildalt). see L T. Lefon (19S by l...aprde (lSu. pp. 239-91. of British L.DB1)'. Or. 1320). U. SOU.....n! (1884 and 1885). and G. W. Hon>er (191M. pp. 295-363; tnnsl.l.1lon only froID l.a&arde·, lexl; and pp. 459-13. Sahidic fragrmnb edilM). For Canont 31 to 62, 1ft W. TIll and J. Leipold! (l9S rr.e- Boh.lrle T IXt This ftnion, based On a Sahidic ra:ena.ion lIS the colophon indic..es. Is lCme1imes c:aJled the Bohairic Octateuch or Hepweuch. II is 001 divided into ~ns. like lhe Sahidic iUld lite Arabic. but inw Ie'Ien boob "'iltt a ~ond numberinc COI"ftspondinC 10 a division inl .1 Arable Ven'on The manusc:riptll are numerous, alld have been revi......ed by J. and A. P,ner (1912, pp. 565-11) and by C. Grar (1944, Vol: I, pp. 576 a.nd 584), There are lwo recellsions, one deriving from the Coptic and another made from Ihe Clementine OCtateuch, on the basis of tM Syriac 01" the Greek; the Bohairic manuO'Cripls noted abo"e are provided with a paral· let Arabic 'oer,;ion (unpublished; see, Ito_"er, Ihe remarks of G. Goeseke, in TIll and Leipoldl. 195', pp. 47-63). There are editiI.~ Clamp of OarknCM~) (.... RiMel, 19OO,!'P_ 69-13). Sources These Coptic and Arabic eccl~iasrical eanoros .....y be dn->6ed into three scctiom I«OO"dinglO the three documents from which !hey derive. Cancma 1-30 (Arabic 1-20) come from a documenl called ihc Apo>lolic CI"..d OnJu beeause it was pla.eed W>der dif[erntl rtaIne$ ol ap< ..... ""' ....... iX>oJ.""""" CIi ...... a.,oa~ ('"The orden esuhlished by C1emenl and the Ecc....iaoIica..l eattOIIS of the Hoi)' A.-. ties"). 11 has been published _ra1 limn. but ref· erenee: is usually ..-Ie 10 F. x. funk (l!t7, pp. 50-131· This is a rewom"8 01 the OO..che, and like il consists of lwo paru: an ethical disc:ouQe taking up the theme of the """'y ollife" from the 00/.(:111, bul omlning the "_y of dCIlth" (Canons 1-14; Ara· bic 1-12), then a series of canonical and lilurgk:al prescriptions: the number and Klection. the rune· tions and duties of Ihe bl CANONS, ECCLESIASTICAL indudet an ord''''''on riluaI from the bishop down 10 the he.~r ICanon~ 31-39; Anbic 21-16), then a n.lendar of Ch..... ian lnitiarion (Canom 40-46; Anbie. 27-3<11. and IinaUy \I:Ilriola prncriplioN on me lilurpe.i Or dis<:iplinary observanca 01 the combstj.... the "lPP". oftmnp, and munity ou<:h pnyer (Cano 47-62; Anobic 35-47). this pIOn If, panoJld to t_ «her documcnlll prc:sen'ed.. in Ano bie. only, In the eatIOni<2l coll~ 01 the Copl$, the Teua"..,n""" Dotni>ri (01 Syrian onpn) .nd the C_ _s 01 HippDlytus (cenainly of £cn>tllln ori&in, for Ihe5e IWO ,nlS ....., n:casIlnp of the on,inal document). For 801te. mi~ section or lOt Ietit iq; _rce, lhe Apostolk Tradition of Hippolylus, "'*5 composed in Rome; for J. M. H._no (1965), il would derive from Alexandrill.. Those who hold Hippol)'ltli for ill autho. place the "omposi'lon of Ihe won. al Ihe beginning of the third cenlury. Cano.\5 63 _78 (Arabic 48 - 71) haw, bun called the Apostol· i€ Rule. This part is pa.r:alld to book 8 01 lhe Apos, rolic CO'Ulil..tions. a compilation preserved in Creek that is dated 10 the end of the fourth cenlury or Ihe belinning of the fihh and is very probably of Syrian prove.....nce (Funk. 19(5), The concordance between our CopIi. and Arabic Ecclesiastical Can' OnS anon ed.it.ed by Tattml, all in lho: Arabic ~nion of lho: Clementine Ocgteuc:h, w~ may IIOU a chan&e of order. lbe <:&Iendar of ClltI.. ria.n initiatiorl i$ placed at the ~nd. It i$ dillicuh 10 nate PftClsely ...... is the m-.-diat~ _rce 01 this third s.et:tion of !he Ecdnl:'licaJ UnOIU. Eo Lanne (1%0) has MlRllCed !he hypothesis lhal th~ Sahidic ",rsion of Lhnt canons derives from an Aleundri· an Cr«1; tnl of Ihe Apons (ed. Funk, 1905, Vol. 2. pp. 72_%). Originally IhiJ AI ...;andrian re<::eruion also included the p"')'en th;al subsequently were omilted in the Sahidi<: tnmslallon of the Ecdesiutkal u.nons be.au.., they w~re al· ready 10 be fuund in tile e..chologiQ, This series of Ecclesiastical Canons (seventy·one canons), undoer the form and title of FirSI Book of 455 /h. C"mms 01 Ihe ApoSlIu., Wall puserred in !he medie\od canonical collecllons of the Coptic clrurr.h (see Riedel. 1900, pp. 121-38, colle<:lioaft ibn aJ·'As5iJ (In 1238) (C,.1. 1944-1953, Vol 2pp. 324-27: 333-35; J9S4(3), 8oI1e, B. lA ""tlino.. "poslOliil'" J. s"if" HyppoI)·le. Essdi de reco,willl/Wrt. UIU... ie .... ssen· schafl1ich~ Ouell~n und For$Chungen 39_ Miin· .Ur, 1961. Bourianl, U. "Les Canons ap05tollql>e$ de Cl~menr de Rome. Tn in lite Brili.>h M.. seum. London, 1905. Dix. C. Th. Treari.u o~ Ih~ ,I,po.lOIic Tradilion 0/ Sr. Hippo!ylus of Rome. 2n ""ous «d.sWnd. London. 1\104. l.agardt. P. de. RtI~. jwis ".duinlici,.,....,. '" syriDce. Leipzjc. 1556. Lanne, E. ~La ordirl<ons dans Ie rite oopIe.- L·(J. rie~, Spier> 5 (1%0):'1-106. Lefort, L T. Review 01 De. *,oprische TaJ do Kirr-ht"....Um 67 (1954):"03-&05. ;:C---,- A"I)pti"cQ. G61lineen, 1lU. Macne. 1_ Trotlili<m ApostOliq... SII' la charisma ttl Dimauis .us 'Qin/s Df'6"U, PariJ, 1975. Nau, F. lA ....1Si<m J)'I'iSlolic,,1 Consril"li,,,,s or Canans of Ihe Aposlle. in Copric. London, 1848. Till, W.. and I. Leipoldl. D" *'opl;,che Tex' de. 456 CANONS OF CLEMENT Kirchenordnun, Hippo/yl.t. Textc und Unlersuch· ungen ,-ur Geschichle der ahchristlichen Utcrolur 58. Berlin. 1954. CANONS OF CLEMENT, or "Leucr of Peter 10 Clement."' Under one or Ihe olher of thc.e litle, Ihere is current among the Copts, as among Ihe Melchites, an apo befo;t BIBLIOGRA.PHY Darblade, J. B. La cbllection canoni""e arabe d<s Me/kiles (Xl/le_XV1/e siedes), Fomi .erie 2. Hari,· sa, 1946, David, Kiliib o/·H..d(l ou liv,e de /a direcliQtl, Alep· po, 1935. Khalil, S. "Kilab al·Hu<1a, Kit;lb aI-Kamal and Kitab al·Namus."' Ori.ntalia Christiano Puiodica 42 (1976):207-16, Nau, F. "Canons des ap6tres."' In Dictio"nai" de the%gie cotholique, Vol. 2, cols. 1605-1626. Par· is, 1932, Riedel, W. Die KirchUlrecht>quefl.n des Patri· archats Alexandrieu. L CANONS OF EPIPHANIUS, a sel of canons prescribing moral rules concerning Ihe clergy and the lait}", promulgated by the emperor JUSTINIAN al the instigation of the palriarch of Constanlinople. The Epiphanius under whose name th",e canon. are placed is not, as one might be tempted to Ihink, Ihe famous bishop of Salami. in Ihe fourth century but his namesake, the patriarch of Constantinople in the years 520-535. There are two sets of "canons of Epiphanius," the one containing 137 canons, and Ihe other, 45. The Melchite. poosess bolh series, whereas the Copts, who seem 10 have borrowed it from Ihem, have only the shan serie. of 45. The shon series i, sometimes anribuled 10 ATIlAtiASIUS, but this is only an error in reading, since Ihe nam", Epiphanius and Athanasius could he confused in Arabic, It is understandable that this rrowed from the Melchite.. Darblade (1946, p. 124) thinks that Ihe larger ",. Ties is earlier than the council "in Trullo," because il is not mentioned, and later Ihan 535, ~ince it is allribuled to the patriarch Epiphanius, who died in 535. As to the shaner series, which is only a "'sume of the larger one, it is not known at what period it ~aw the light or wben lhe Copts adQpted it. We can only .ay that Ihe short series i. found in the chronological colledion of ",CARIUS. a monk of W~dl al·Na!rUn, in the founeenth century and in the systemalic colleclion of Michael. bishop of Damiella, whQ died al Ihe beginning of the thir· teenth century. It is menlioneJ by IBN MBAR in hi. encyclopedia Mi5ba~ ~/.+"J.nah (1971, p, 152), These texts do not appear in lbe Greek colleetions, There is no critical edition other than the tahle in CANONS OF GREGORY OF NYSSA Ibn ""'w..... eltC}"<=k>pf:dia. A Getman lransbtion ..ill be found in Ri' Theu I!I b- COCTfi'tinl tM informalion '"' en by G. Gnf (I\l44. p. 6-21) ~lati"110 1»( manu· loCripc Cairo 442 (Coptic h-lrianha<e. Patriarchal Ubn"y. Canon 1J), which ' - been idenlifinl as brina an incompllHe manuscripl of tM N _ _ 01 1»( 1_lfttKenlu'Y patriarch GUa.tEL II ibn Turayk, whiclt g;.es "" the earli_ sc:ribnl). BIBLIOGM'"Y ,,,,+,,/... Al:Ka al·BarakAt ibn KaNr. M;shd~ ,,11. Cairo. 1971. Coq"in, R.·G. Le, Canon' d·Hipp<>I)'le. PO Jl. Paris. 1966. Darblade. J. B. La Collecrion canonjque "!"/lbe des Me/kit." Fonti $O:'rie 2. Hariua, 1946, Riedel. W, Die Kin:henruhtsque/len CANONS OF GREGORY OF NYSSA, tWO Kries oIc~ons under t»( name {;P.[OORY 01' lolTSSA. although _ ~ no argumenl' for or &pins! this allribulton. The firM ~ appears in the (hro..... Iotical collccticol 01 MM:.UIUS, in an anonymow dlronolo,ical ~lIection (now in Berlin). and in the s)'Stflnlllic coI\ec-1iocl 01 aI-$AT! 111"1 ""'A:$5h. of which 1810l UBAIl pves a summary, citing GnJOI)' of Nyssa in his M~ a/·~lm..Io (1971. p. 2O)l, The s«onese tWO series differ: in the first ar~ giv~n four quotallons, drawn, Ihe luI ....)'S. from lh. worb of Gre80ry of N)'Ilu; in lhe i"cond, one may counl only Ihree quo,atlons. We may add llull a manuscripl lhal ~annot be dllSSlfHld (Valkan Arabicus 123. fo1. 20) clles. in dealinl wilh penil.n~., • fifth canon also allributed 457 10 Gregor}' of Nyssa. The G,"k COIl«-lions eontain 6~ eUncU purpone.dJy from • Jet\eT by G~ry '0 a Bishop u.:oios 01 Mdheroe. lbeK e.>tracts. wl;ieh do no! appur in lhe wrl.inp of Gr-egory of N)'Ma. are, hewn..,r, general!)' rqanled as authentic (Ge.-rard, 1974~1937, no. 31.'), So far "'" conCenl'l the IWO ~ in \he Coptic canonical coIiKtions. there- i, .... edition 01 any kind, saw: for wtw is givt'n in the coI1«-tion of Ibn al--'A$$lI (1918. p. IOj, and only a Germa.n 'ran,.. lalion by Rieckl (1900. pp. 2S1-U), not ''''ry ade· quat. bu. al teat .ll....ina 0"" 10 fonn some idea of the conleN oflhese canons.. ('I1>ey ~ all moral prKtpIS.) By rnson of the Jack of a troe «itical edilion of the lU'. one cannot know lis origin and age. for ..ilboul such an edilion one caIln01 make lhe nec· essary eompari$Ol'\ wilh Greaory's authenlic works. In Ihe collection of Macarius and Ihal of Berlin Ih. canora a~ followed by a list of the palri.rchal ""., das.ed according 10 lhelr order of precedenc.: Ihe lisl is pU'l"'n.dly drawn from Ih. works of Gregory of Nyssa, bUI ;n re.lily ;1 appears 10 be .xtracted from Ihe eighly·four CanOn. plac.d undOT lh. name of Ihe Council ofNlCA£.o.. According 10 lh. lisl. lher••re four ancient ~. Rome, Alex.a.ndria. Ephesu. (which has been lransferred 10 Constantinople, the lull; says). and Antioch, and then lhrtt more rKenl onet', --.bllihe.d 1lI Chaknlon in 4Sl. Jemsalem. Seleuc"·Coes.iphon, and the land 01 the Ethiopians. (In b.ct, these last Ihree an: rarher mlHropolilan sees.) An appvIdi-, Jivet' the autocephalOU$ c.... rch of Cypl'\ls, ..... ich in fact haS J><"'Il'i~ over :all the od>eI' Gnek metropolitan .... es. n.e dale or this lOt Kems 10 be <:>cUy a Ilnle taler than Chalcodon, and the lisl is likely 10 have bee" bonowcd from \he Mdchites. for !he' Monophysil.Q. havin& rej«lnl .... b£oc tht d«i1ions of ChalC' Ie"" BlaUOGRM"HY Abu al·IJaraU.1 ibn Koobar. Misboll, a/,?"lm,,". Cairo. 1971. Geerard. 1.1.. ed. Chlv'J P~lru", Graeco.,,"'. 5 ,"Ols. Turnhou•. 19J4_1ge7. Joannou. P. P. Ln C"NO'" du ~ ...... ,rus (Fonti serie 9). Groltafe .....ta. 1963, Riedel. W. Kin:;,tNfechtsq"fllf" du PMria,C;,tm AlexandritN, Leip.il. 1900; repro Aalen. 1968. Saft ibn ll.'A$s;l.I, .1., Kit~b ,,/·Qaw<1:nrn (Nomocanon). ed, Murqu, Jitji$. Cairo. 1928. RENa.c:EORCl'S COQUIN 458 CANONS Of' HIPPOLYTUS CANONS OF HIPPOLYTUS, a ...1ies of!hinY' eilhl canoll$ peculiar 10 Ihe Copu and certainly only a reworiricin Of' not. It do:ws loft'tII. """'·ever. thai this is not a witness 10 thr usaca proper 10 .f.«ypt but simply ill ""Ork of perton:al lmerpn""ion. But since lhit llOll has pas.H'd panlally loto the canonical colleclions, it could ha~e ioft....ncoed f&ypfiall practice. H_·er, since Ihe NOMOCAlOON, 01 al-sAJ1 tBN AL-'ASSAt. (which had and has an e •..,n greater rogue) cil.eS the C...ons of mppo/yll's very lillIe. th";r influOIlce on CoJltlc pracllce il neglifible, It is cenain tha' ,he C""o"s of Hipp<>lyllls were composed In Creek and ,hence lranslaled in'o Cop· tic and finally 1010 Arabic. the only lanlJUage In which they ha.'e come down 10 UI; only the tltle au"d~es In Coptic. (It is possible Ihal the copyisl of this fraament placed it lhe",. al the hnd of the Gnom"i of Ihe Council of NtCAEA. belieYln, tltat tltis was the cant>r>S anribuloed to Hippolyt..,.) A lable of these canons, one that appnn very andenl, has been pTesenred for 115 by 18/<1 KAlA. in Chapter S of his brnn 20), 005en..,..,e 0( Holy Wftk (canon 22), i_ruCl>on (ca..oD 23), >isili", the lick and "",,,·iIlinl can: for thc",llhrouch the agency 01. a st.......rd (canons 24 and 25). w/'ulc onust be dooe al lhe church (~Oll$ 26-l9 and 33-]1). The plan Is no! very rigorous, and thc.'.... are toone repctllions. These canon. a .... rounded off by an Easeer SotnnOn. The C."OllS of Hippo/ylU' an: citoed by the can(W1;' cal collc<:tions, both the chronolotical ones. such as the colieClion rX MACJ.RtUS (.a monk of Wldl al. Najriln In the fourte~nlh,century) and the anony' onOllS Jacobite collection. and Ihe systematIc oncs, such as the Nomoca,,(m of the patriarch O~8RIEL n ibn Turtlyk, the Nomo","'o" of Michael of Damleua, and th~ One besl known, that of al·~fllbn al.-....ssal. ..u- ._s Thus, these C"JtO!'lJ of Hippolylus. adaploed lo Egyplian usage, ha~e 10 _ Ulenl sumvtd in Copl:lc CUSloms Ihrough tlw: medium 0( Ihe canoolnJ colleclions. ~tlUOGltAPHY Abu af·~ lba Kabar. MiJIMIJ ..t.~&n..It. Cairo, 197!. A.chdis. H. ~ abuu. .. ~lkll ~ oricnldsdoe" KircMII,ulllu. Vol. I, l);e C.llOO1CS HippoIyri. Tale ulld Untenuchunsen 6, pl. 4. Leif»:i&. 1911. Bolle, R L4 T,/}'ri .rabia e codicib... rom.. "is C..m veNW'" I"ri".., """01..· lionibus e' p,olef '''' CANONS OF PSEUDO·AmANASIUS, name used 10 dtscribe a canonlcaf COIlCClion of var10111S prescriptions 1OI.IChinl the EUthful 01" tht clergy. Tbe ....."" Saim AtltaNsius ClInnol ha~ been iu author. The absence of melUion of Christ· mas, wfticb ..... introduced into Egwt among Ihe ueat fr:st.i CANONS OF SAINT JOHN CHRYSOSTOM bishop of Allib and Mallj• ..-ho 1;"«1 in Ihe lbirleemll ceolOuy, and in !he chroool,.;cal coll«liotls of lhe founeenlh cenlUl)'. As ",itb !he uno", d ~8asil. 0 .... obstn'rS prolO.rnd diver&encQ belWCCfl 1M Coptic teIt peculiar 10 £.aypI and lhe Arabic: wen>on, ..'hen both taU are a,~illble. ~ Coplk &-agmenlS aDd the complete ABbic: ~rsion ...ere edited aDd IlanS1aled into En,Jisll by W, Eo CNrn and W. Riedd (1904). New Coptic: &-a,. menu were published by H. MWlier (1920, PI'-< 2)3- . '). 0Iher juridical compUltions, 1M plan ill IM)I wery rigorous, and one finds sntnl rq>eIilioniJ,. ~ inlerQled re-a/kr shou1d c(M\$U11 Ihe 1m of lhese 107 canons 1$ rqxoduced by ibn ""'bar and lnnslaled inlO Gennan by W. Riedel (1900, pp. 55.-58). A$ In !he BIBLIOCJU.PHY Crum, W. E., and W. Riedel, ew. The C"nom of Alh"""$;"$ 01 Aleumdri... TeXI ancl Tnntlallon Society 9. London and Oxford, 1904; repr, Am· tlerdam, 1973. Munier, H. "MHanges de lilt~r11ture cOple 3: Les Canons de gim Alhan....,... Annalu du Service des "ntiq,,;'b de l'Egyple 19 (1920):238-41. ROedel, W. Die Ki""henuohuqudlen de, P"trial'Ch. "15 Aluandri.... Leipzig, 1900; repr. .ukn. 196t. R£Nt-(;E(lll(;£S COOOll'i CANONS OF SAINT BASIL. one of the 5O\IJ"Cet of Coptic: eh"..:h la.... They appear In lWO"rieI. The fine, containing thirteen canons, is shared ...i\h the Mdcbitn; the: second, of lOS .... 106 canollll, is peculiar 10 the Copts. The line fCri"" ioclude$ disciplinuy loanCtions ..lIh reprd '0 prie$ts or ~ and the prohibldon apiltSl the burninl_of ,..,Iies .... of the Euc...· ri$t. canons appeal'lo be horTOwed from lhe worh of Saini Basil. The. 105 or 106 C&nOm are presenoed partly In Coptic. b... the complete lesl has ",,",,Iwed 0 no-. 459 We possess in Copllc an e"lracl from canon I (Drescl>er. 1951. pp. 252, 2SS, 2S6) and eanon 36 (Kahle, Vol. I. pp. oliO. 413-415, 416)_ Canons 14, n-H, 38--..40. 90. 93, inti .".. are prexn-ed in the Torin p;>pyri (:s« Orlandi, 1914, p. 125). Canon. 48-96 an in me Chester Sealry fncmenl$. ,,-tlic:h are paldunalu derMna from the White Monasiery (Dayr Anbi SlIin the E£)plian lilualion. At 'hey appear ill Anlbic (Riedel, 1900. pp. 23)11.), Ihe Canons of Basil include a lrinilarian and Chri5l<>lol:ical profession cl Wth (nnon I). 1lley lhen ~peal: of lhe r\W """}"S, cl JOOd and evil (canon 2); of marriage and its discipline (oanons 3-19); pen;I....Ce (canon~ 2027); and lhe c1eTJY (canOnf 38-95). 1lley end with rules concerninl tM lilurzy (canons 96-1(6). Alongside archaic prescriplions, 5lJch as tho.e con· cerning virgines ,ul1;ntrod~cl"c (women liwing with men ;n spiri.ual mlniage), Ihcy contain passag.. that are rtlewant to the Arab period (e_g., canon 86). They de.e .....'e a hener critical editiotl_ Bl8UQGaAPHY Cmrn. W. E. 'Th. Coptic Version of Ihe Canons of SL Basil.- Prtxeedinv of Ihe Soc;e/)' of Biblical A""heoloo 26 (19Q04):57-62. Drescher, J. "A Coptic Leclionary Fraament-" A..• ..de, Service d~ AnliquiJb d'ED,.,e 51 (1951):247-56. Kahle, P. E. &ll,,'!:..h, 2 wok. London, 19504_ Orlandi, T. ~Lcs papynts COl'I"S du Musft i:gyptien de T"rin.~ U M""'" 17 (197.):115-27. --:-:- .'Le:s manuKriU copI"" de Dublin, du Bril· ish Mus.eum el de Vlmne." I.e. M.ts.'on .9 (197&),U)-38. R.iedel W. Die KircJJt",ulttsque/Je.. d~ PfLlri· """hILl, AIU./Indrit". Ltipli" 1900; repr. Aalen, au ,.... CANONS OF SAINT JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, tw.,),·e ordered exlracts from Ihe IiCcond and, especially, the third of Ihe six boob of !he trealise 0" lhe PrieJthood. b)' ./OliN CliRYSO/ITOM. This collection is peculiar to the Copll, It ;, nol known a, what dale lhe Coptt in..,ned the canons in.o their canonical collections. TheliC may he diwilkd into two groups. the chronological Md t~ systematic. The ohronological coll«tioTlS include 460 CANDPUS the anonymous one <)f Berlin (colophons of the founeenth century; Coquin, 1966, pp. 285-86). that of the founeenth-century monk MACARIUS of WAdi al·Natnln, and the anonymous "Jacobite" collection (Riedel. 1900, p. 136). The ,ystematic collection' include that of MIKIIA:IL of Damiena. who died 101 the beginning of the thirteenth century. and that of al·~~F1 IBN ~[..'~ssJ.1.. It was also cited by IBN KABAR in Misbd~ al_Zalmah (1971, p. 182). Il is proper to corre<:t. or rather to stale precisely. what Graf says (l944, voL 1. p. 6(9). What he indicates simply by "Kairo 442" i. the manu.cript Coplic Patriarchate, Canon 13, which has been identified a< an incomplete manuscript of the NOMOCllNON of the twelfth-century patriarch GABRIEL IJ (Ibn Turayk), which gives us Ihe oldest use of this text by lhe Copts (Coquin, 1966, pp, 287-88). These canons "'ill be found in a German trans 110lion in Riedel'S work (1900. pp. 285-87), which may be compared wilh the c<)mplete lexl of John CbrysoSlom. for example. the edilions of Ihe SocieIy for Promoting Chri'tian Knowledge (1964) and of SoUI"COS ch~lienne, (1980), BIBLIOGRAPHY AbU ai_BarakAt ibn Kabar. Misbd~ al_Zalmah. Cairo. 197 I. Coquin, R.-G. LQS Canons d·Hlppolyle. PO 3 L Paris. 1966_ John Chrys""lom. lohn Chryso$!om: D~ saurdollo. ed, J. A. Nairn. Cambridge P.lriSlic Texi. 4. Cam· bridge. 1906. ___, Six boob on th. Prieslhood. London, 1964; revised version of 1906 edilion, New York and London, 1978. ___ lean Chr)'sosrome 51" Ie sacerdoce. ed, A. M. Malingrey, Source. cbrelieMes 272. Paris, 1980. Riedel, W. Die K1I"Chenrechisquelien des Pamarchal' Alexandrien. Leipzig, 1900; repro Aalen. 1968. CANTOR, le.der and director of lhe chanting of Ihe choir and lhe congregation during the limrgy and olher occasions such "" ceremonial processions. He is usually a deacon but may also be a la}TIlan. He should have a thorough knowledge of hymnolog}', psalmody, and all forms of responsory, besides church ritual and traditions. His dutie. also include the teaching of hymns 10 other deacons and members of the umgregalion, CanlOrs had a r«ognized posilion in the Old Testament. Da\'id is referred to as "Ihe sweet psalmist of Israel" (2 Sm, 23:1). The New Testament attacbes equal imponance 10 chanting: "addre-sing one another in psalms and hymns and spirilual songs. singing and making melody to Ihe Lord with all your heart" (Eph. 5:19). Likewise. "Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly, as you le.ch and admonish one another in all wisdom, and a, you sing psalms and hymns and spiritual 'ongs with lhankfulne.. in your heans 10 God" (CoL 3:16). In Re.'elation 15:2. 3, Mark 14:26. ACl< 16:25, James 5,13. and I Carinthian' 14:26. we find further reference to singing as an imponant fonn of worship throughout Ihe apostolic age, Considerable care is laken in lhe selection and lraining of canlOrs. in "iew of their "ilal role in Coplic rim.1. [See Qtso: Music, Coplic: Cantors.] ARCHBtSHOP BASIUOS CAP. Set limrgical Vestments. CAPE. See Liturgical Veslments. CAPITALS. See Architectural Elemenls of Chul"Ches: Column. CARACCIOLI, CLEMENT, scribe of fou, AraCANOPUS. See Metanoia. Monaste')' of the. CANOPY. See Al"Chitectural Elements of Churches: Baldachin. CANTICLES, BIBLICAL. See Music, Coptic: Canticles. bic manuscripts copied in Rome helween 1712 and 1715. One of lhem (Vatican library, Arabic 66) gives some autobiographical details (fol. 100) where Ihe copyisl wrote in Italian: "I Clement Caraccioli of Greal Cairo. converted from Mohammedanism to the holy Calholic faith, wrole this blessed book in the Arabic language in Rome, in tho year XII of Ihe pontificate of our Lord Pope Clement XI Albani, may God preserve him for many years, on lhe 12th September of the year 1712" (Mai, 1831. p. 129). CASSIAN, SAINT JOHN On the same page, a note wrllten in Arabic funher alate, that he had lived thiny,three years in error, exercising the function of a Muslim imam. Clement was a Muslim from Cairo, probably mig' inally from Upper Eg)pt, as is indicated by his "Isbah (place of origin) al·$a'idl. He ....·as convened at the age of thiny-three or thirly·four by the European missionaries then active in Cairo and was sent to Rome, probably around 1710, where he no doubt increased his knowledge of Christianity and copied Arabic manuscripts for the Bibliotheca Apostolica. According to Giorgio Levi della Vida, who does not give- his source, his real name was 'Abd al· Karlm al'$a'id, al·'Ada"'!. In the manuscripts he copied, Clemem always signed his name as a neophyte, transcribing it as Klimintl Kanl.jilll in 1713 (in Beirut 672) and Kliman~ Kanl.tjilH in 1715 (in Beirut 676). His given name was probably taken on account of Clement XI (1700-1721): his surname may den"e from the marquess Luigi Amonio Carac· cioti, who would thus appear to have been his pro· tector. The following are manuscripts copied by Clem' ent: l. Vatican Arabic 66 (dated 9 September 1712), containing the eighty-r~lIit$ of JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, after the Coptic recensio~d~Graf, Vol. I, p. 338). 2. Vatican Arabic 128 (dated 18 February 1713), containing the debate of the monk Georg (JlRJl AL'StM'ANI: d. Graf, Vol. 2, p. 79, 5). 3. Oriental Library, Beirut, 672 (dated 1713). 4. Oriental Library, Beirut, 676 (dated 25 April 17I5). i Cheikho, L Catalogue ral,onne de, ma"uscrits d. ta BibliOlheque Ori..,lale, X0l. 6: Contr(Jvers"l. Me· langes de l'Universite SaTnt.Joseph 14, pp. 49-51 [409-11], nos. 672 and 676. Beirut, 1929. Levi Della Vida, G. Riche,~h. sullo formation. del pi" "",ico fondo dei manosontli one"'ali delln Biblioteca Va/icana. Vol. 2, n. I. Vatican City, 1939. Mai, A. ed. CCHiices Val:ionnl Assemanianl, pp. 122~ 29, no. 66: pp. 252-53, no. 128. Rome, 1831. KHAUL SA.\UR. S. J. CARlON OF SCETIS. See Zacharias of Sectis. 461 CARPOCRATES. an Alexandrian of the middle of the second century who was said to be a succes· sor of CERli'mlUS. Carpocrates, along with his follower'S, was attacked more for immoral practices than for doctrinal error. Aside from making a gen· eral charge concerning the nalUre of Christ and the identity of the creator of the world, lRENAEUS dwelled on the licentious practices of the Carpocratian sect, especially rejecting lheir opinion·based justification for such aott-ities. In a statement di.. puted by recent commentators, ClEMENT OF ALEXAN· DRtA as.sened that Carpocrates was instructed in the monadic &"osis. In the recently discovered letter of Clement of Alexandria 10 an unknown Theodorus, Clement charged Carpocrates with having obtained illegally a copy of a secret gospel of Mark (see MARK. SECRET GOSPEl. OF), which he then corrupted and misinterpreted publicly. The lack of evidence in such statements and charges make. it impossible to evaluate them properly. BIBLIOGRAPHY Foerster, W. Gnosi" trans. R. MeL Wilson, pp. 34--40. Odor CASSIAN, SAINT JOHN, monk and author of a monastic rule. John Cassian was born around 360, no doubl in the neighborhood of the presem town of Constant"", Romania. After receiving a first-rate education, John Cassia" was initiated into the monastic life at Bethlehem. He soon undertook a pilgrimage 10 the Egyplian monastic .ite., which so impressed him that he decided to slay in Egypt. He first met a number of solitaries and celebrated hegumenol (leaders of monasteries) in the Nile Delta (at Thennesu5, Thmuis, Panephysis, and DIOLKOS) hefore going to settle at senl5- 1{ is "ery unlikely that he viSited the monasteries of Upper Egypt, which included many Pachomian establishments. The quarrels about ANTllROPOMORPHtSM in 399 led him to leave- Egypt. He was later at Constantin""le and then at Antioch, and he look part in one or two legations from these patriarchal sees to that of Rome. At some time after 414 he was in Marseille., where, at the request of Western monks, he unde .. took to put into writing the fruits of his long 50- 462 CASSIAN, SAINT JOHN joum in fcypI. Between 420 and 4lO he eoonpoud in .uc"C"",i on Ih iflstitulis COO!nobio...m (Cenobilic" InuiwlQ) and lWnIly-1our Ctmhlritmu (Confem>c«of ~ Falhen). divided ir>1O three series.. BdWe his dead> he participated in aoti-Ne5lOrian polemic" "'i!h his U'nlise 0.. 1M il'lc.-muio~ of rAe /..(>nI (Do ioocanwr.",t Do-Uoi COftrra NIUI<>rivM). Cassian th'" ....".-e5I!1lt$ " kilWl of lillk bel>Joten lbe Easlem and Western bnJ><:hes of !he dtlU"Ch N a lime "'hen !hey wen: begiIlnina: 10 draw a~n hence. the imp<>nance of lhe hmorical and apiria..aal leslilnOll)' WI he p~e ~ Wtsltm monks aboo.Jt Ec,yptiall mOJUld>is.... Patadoltically. lhe evidence from Cassian'1 ",ril' i... p Is of scarcdy any use for fUi"',lhe Ioo:alions of lhe mon.all:ic setllements in Lower EoPc. The few ilWlkaliollll he mues co,,",spond ill willi lhote Ii" en by olher co...temporary ""rilings.•nd Ihey c....· not be confirmed by presenl IOPOf;raplly (Guy, 1966. pp. 363-72). As for Ihe monks whom he vi,iled and cOllluhed, bio'n1phi......1 inform.tion i' fragmen~ry. unctruin, and sometimes nonexi,tenl. Consideration is given only 10 Ihe fourteen EcYPtian monu who .re spokll'Slflen in Ihe Co"I<>/;O"tl. The monks of Scetil include the folwwlng: Moses (C""larione. I aDd II: d. f"slir"lis eh00'''''' X 15 and, perhaps. ConI. XIX 9.1). " fo... ~r brip!>d, it -'IDS thai. he should be idenlified wilh Moses of CaIamuI i... ConI. III S.2 .00 VII 26-27. His life could n'" be described wilhoul rd· ennee 10 the panoild 5OUrc"«' especially Hislt>riIl (..uHt" (""'" J'AI.LWIUS) and -'"'"fOlI!CMA1A 'ATIlIIM (et. Guy. 196J, pp. 139-45). 'A1'\ol1obite (C"nI. XVIII 16.7), al~ _ <10 no! know in which _ e r y . be SOOn IOUghl lOliluck and P"'"·himtdt" up 10 il ...,jlh such ardor lhM M ...... pve",llhe sobriquel bo c.,.,". full of diso:ern~l (Coni. II 10-11; XVIII 11.2.-4). Perhaps he should be idelllified with Sarapion of Scetis. who ...,jlh difficully ....k... owIl!dged !he FesIaI U:ller of 1beoplillus (C01'I. X 3.1; d. Guy. 1966, lIP147-49). Sere1>aI (Coni. VII and VIII). No infonnat...... abouI him is Vo'eft. Isaa.t (Cms!. IX and Xl. No infomwion aboul him is ri¥nl. :and nodling '" 1 _ him i" rdation 10 othen known • lsNt (d. Guy. 1966. p. 102). The monks of the Nile Delta Include !he follow- "'" C hae,emon (COItI. XI, XII. and XIIl) .•1 Tbennes.... C.,ian mel him al the bqinninl of his lUI)' (c. 3&6)_ Then tr>()l'f: lnan • hundred yean okl. Chaer· emon ...... very aUSIere and refused 10 have any disciples. Neste"", (C".. I. XIV and XV), No information aboul him is given. JO$eph (C".. r. XVI and XVII). Of "oble family and a native of Thmuil, he spoke both Coptic and Greek. Perhaps he should be Identified wilh Jooeph of Panepho in Ihe A{X)ph/hef"'ala Pa/l·"m. Piamun (Co"l. XVIIl). lie li'cd in Ihe region of Diolkos, where he WOOl lhe oldest of the anchoriles and served them as priell (C""I. XVII 24.1). John (Co,,]. XIX). After Ihin)' ~an in a coenobium (mon_cry) and lwenty In solitude. he re-lurned 10 lhe COO!ncbium ...·Mn i1 became 100 diffi· cult 10 find .... ilude in lhe clewrt. He is also tailed John of Thm'" (/...1. COOl. v. n-18; C.,.,I_ XIV 4.2). He should be distinguished from another John cl>arged with the Dl.'C:Of<;lA aI Scetis (/1U1. COI!>l. V «l.1; ConI. XXI 1.2-3; d. Guy. 1966. p. 116). Pinu&.as (Co"l. XX). He is known only from Caossilul...-ho hdd him 101 speclal tsl<':em toe... IV 30-31). Priest of an immense eomohium near hnephysis.. be lied £n:>m ,wry and _nl incognito 10 Taben-. Whe" l'KOInized, he l'CIumed home buI soon lOOk IIlghl apin. He wenl 10 8e1h1ehem. wheJl, Cas.siatJ mel him. bul R"Coplized once ~, he retllmed 10 his COO!nol!i",... There Cassian met him &pIn and heard his address On pcnll~e and his celebrxed "diKOIIl"H On Wins: the habil" (re-produced or composed afresh in '''11. C (I,,". CASSIAN. SAINT JOHN Abraham (Con(. XXIV). From", wdl-iO-do family, h¢ lived in IJ"C"'l solitude fou~ ",iIes rmm UK Nik He is dift'erMI from the Ablaham who "''U called ''lht Sirnple~ (COlli. XV 4~.5), _d from u"""- "'tmOrY Is ~ in the ApoplulwJ-/. P_. Cltariy, e-ian ' - tittk CODCem for prcMdinc his ~ witJI histo~ informalion, evtfl about lhost ~ ",iIo pbyed a IarJe pan In h.. wort. h is C"inn's spiritwollt$.imony WI constiIIlIU his fundamental conllibution, lor h¢ was ltss COIlctmed wi'" rtpOl1iJ\g ,,'bat he had Sttn Of" t'Ytn Ih¢ 1 M hMI dont (notably in ,he Pachomian and E"""8riall lilenuurt) than with orpnizinl ..... wholt Into a cobertn. doctrinal cOI'pUS. D..."" ill' on his penonal t>;.ptritnCtlI in Ihe il-l vieu, • theory tabn Over from EV.uatUS). 10 the fonnlllion d ,·the inntr min," (ConL I-Xl. which is tMtnllal· Iy an tdo.K:Itlon In disuntmt1l1 and an open,nl up "",,'aI'd jiCl,,",tuaJ ~,. Only thttt can _ tllter upon the quesllons that relate 10 the ''pn'feclitl,» 01 ..... inner man (ConJ. XI~XVII and XVIII-XXIV). TheM: copctm human ~notio" with ..... &TU" 01 God. tht relation betw.,.... """"'Ct.IOUSIS and ceo nobilism, and, IIboft all. the "spirilUal scimee," or inward knowled&e of the ·bplUrCS, wnks 10 which ..... monk will be able IO adhe~ 10 God withoul "euin&." In all this, Casian ...... In 1>0 Wly orilinal. bo... rowin8 tverythinl from 1ho6t monlu wh..,., Wly of life he lhIred (chiefly from E....griusj. Yel he was uniqw in the breadlh of his purpose and the vlCOr of his personal reflection. Und~r the guile oIa sim· pl. compll~r who mighl allow himself OI'liy SOm~ ,light ada-pillions to tht West~rn CliJ'JUIle and con· lext, Casslan in realily laid th~ foundation of the 61'$t cohtrent pt H 463 new Cull....t mOl experiencft IlICtivtd from lhc monlu ol E(ypl. BIBUOCIUI'HY Cappu,ns, M. ~Cassien.~ In Oiclio..,..,in d'lti$IQirt! el de p<;q"phu: "cu.su.~ I L cds. 1319-43. Paris. 1~9. Chadwick, O. JcIm C/USY,.; A. Sl"tIy in Ptimiriw! M".....t>cism. Cambridge. 1968, Chitty. D_·). 1M Dc.m. City: An In,roJucli<m lhL St..d, of £DPlivt -'1o.. asnciJrn. 2nd ed. 1977. Codina. V. El A.sptck> e~ t .. I" tspfrihu>li. dtul de J.." .. C.-I".. o. Oritntalu. Chmliana Ana· kcur 175. Rom~, 1966. Cottlie..-, J. B., eel Apop/uhept"l. P"m.m. PG M, PJ'. 71_440. hm, I U4. CriS/ianl, L J."" Cum", 2 vol.. Slim·Wandrille, 1946. Evelyn-While, H. G. The Mo" ,-,,"'- Hcussi. K. Du Un"",,,, VolI1om...eoolreil&klr" ....d ~ Sl.u.m, non M•.ua!illnis>nJ<s. Ulol.-ain. 1938. Leroy. J. "Lcs prifxtt del krilli ",on...;q""$ doe .Ieao Cassitft." Rnu• .r.K;liq><' U dOl myuiq"e 42 (1966):1.57-10. Manou, H..I. HJean Cassien , Wancille. H Rnu. du M~ AI" U.M I (1945),5-26. "La Pltrie de: }tan CassOtn:' OriDtl ,,,"t/: CASTANETS "C·«iano" In DiVontorio dedi fJtituli iii I'etfeziolle, Vol. 2. pp. 63)-38. Rome. 1975. Rousseau. P. ARe fUId Cassi.lI. Orlonl, 19711. W.r. H. O. D~ sun..", au f. C...,.i"'..... lOU ...... JuTHCItom"'"isl:lulI J.IOI«hsttwJilion: Ei"e O..e(· /~..ltlersuch''''r. MUnster, 1961. WrwI. L "me Psychologle des JohallJ><S CaW· 6mls." Dil'.., 11Iom,,,)2 (1918);181-214. 425_56: 34 (l9lO):7fl-96: .}6 (1922):269-94; 37 (1923): 385-404; J8 (1924):8-4-91. JEAN-CUVDE GUY CASTANETS. See M.Ullwork. Coplic; Mu~ic. CopIi<:: Musiocal l""tn..lInenu. CASTRUM. Roman ftliliwy camp developed from the lO-<'a1kod maIChin, amp. "'IIid1 " .... <:on~lrucl· ed each ,..=i"l by Iroopi Oft !he march in accord· IN'ICe with a rnc>dcl in foree ~ the Roman empire. Tht unifonnily of the camps enabled the ...Id..,.. 10 find [heir _y about ar>d abo enabled wm to rcac1. witlt speed in the face or dancer. We are _II inl'onned 01'1 1M ~e or 1'•.mps by a numb.r of ancl.m descriptions (Polybi· us. 6. 27-32; H)Fnus. De mu"id_ibus e..'".... ~m; Flavius Voegelius RenalUS, Epitt)m.. rei milil..ris) and by numerotls surviving mooum."u. As a rule .•he • .mps have a square or slightly oblong shape ...ith· In ...hich (wo main Slre.lI run al righl angl•• to each other: a wide streel running across. Ihe vi.. prineip..lis joininr;lhe two lateral gat.., and [he vi.. pr..elari4 running aJonr; .he lon,er ..is. but Ime.... rupted. in the center by the camp forum ....d Ihe principia. 1lte lalter is lhe sancluary of the camp in ...itich me !IWldards of the Iqion as "..,11 u the Images or Ihc imperial family _IY: SC1 up. Behind il .... sitowed the len. of the commander in eh>cf. itself ",n-ounde.i b)o lhc the hoJpttal, and the auembly artltS of the 'YV'Klw units. The soldiers' quanen proper _rt llJ'TaIICI"d in unifonn blocb around these emllIol instalJalions. Ftnally the whole camp "'~ SUrTOUnded by a rampan with In OUTer IlY:lICh. as _11 as a ,,,,,,,Iar road runninc alonllhe inner side of .he rampar1. It.. via "',..1.... is. Th. come", of lbe cucrum were rounded off. Th. satl'S ....'. localed on. IC each end of Ihe two main .1,..,1$ and strengthened by 10We1"5 e.. re<:.ed on the inner .. mpans. The actual pennanenl camps....hich originally ful'lClioned as winler camps. differ from the march. inl a~ only by lheir molY: pennanenl ooi,n. alie....... ",.r. Instead of the rampart lhe]' haTe a high fkhonse waJI which. frolrl the second cmlury. " .... also proridoed with towcn P'o;cc:tiD:8 outward.. All lhe buildiJTgs inside M includinl the men', lM"I qua.. ~ wtrC ODRSlruc!ed of .to.... or tired bricb. The bi&he"r o9i«n had their own house$ whil", (be com· mandcr of !he legion had a larEe residence lhal scned II I'" ,...me lime ltS Ihe hcadqual1.... of lhe Iqion (pr..elOrium). In Ihe daY" of It.. empire lhe principi.. was combined with Ihe iorurn, which oril· intlly """ siluated ne~t co .he p'.. elorium. Ouuid. che c,,"trum w.re localed a variety of ...orkshops. brick worl<•• baths, and otien even an amphilheat.r. "n innovalion under Valentinian I (364-375) was the retnO\'al of lhe men', liTing qual1en to lhe imm.edia1e vicinil)' or the wall (Pelrikoviu. 19~7. p. 21). a practice allY:ad)' lnuvduced in lbc easlem empilY: at an earlier period. Presumably thia mea· aln:: was ik>e 10 lhe dcw:lopmcnl of ballistics Illal requimd beller proceelion; the area at the wall proridoed such bcotler than the area si'uaTed n9R1'" the cenler. The smaller campi (castdl«) ......... onpwly planned only for the au~i1iary 1rl>Up!I. whose mem· ben did DOl ""'"'""" Roman cilizenship. After the VDe""" confennenl of eiliuns/tip by Empcl'Ol" Can· calla lhis dislinclion into disuse. 1lte ,,,mel/.. chen became camps for sman.. contin""nt. of croops: me foot soldi.rs or Ihe cavalf)'. Each of chese consisced of appro~imaldy 500 or 1,000 men . In Iheir struclUre chese smaller camps were mod· .led (>n .he large camps of Ihe legions, only in a mOns and lUIS handed ......'n. Very few S1ruetund remains have su..ival and II.. majo)riIy of lhese come from the period after DIIlCI..I':IlJ.N Surviving examples follow the ...... plan tIw ,,-;as adopted ill the rcsI of lhe p",vinces or the empire Imnations of tlte fori a.... chitc<:tun:: of the ptwaonic period are IlOwhcn: 10 be seen. 1berc an: IoeYCnI camps consUUCled in dcsel1ed ICmple mel.....r... In pagan times the mitilary camps we,e each p""ided wilh a p.... ~ipi... in which .he SWldan;l$ or me companies and also. from II>c third centUI)'.lhe imq"" of Ih. emperor were sci up and the fund, of tho legion ....re k.pt. The cam"" laid QU' In the ChriSlian period. from about lhe fifth century, natu· rally had a church. Eumple, of such camp church· e. are preserv<:d in EcJ>tian camps in Aboflr (Ta· posiris Magna) and aJ·Tilr. non CASTRUM .4/LUndri.. 1"hl' I..p:.nary camp situated 10 Ihe east of AJeundria near ancient Nicopolis was found in sood condilion up 10 the yea. 1175. In addition to the IUlTt)UJ1dinl: ..'2lls WI were praoe~ all110SI throughow. ~ns of the ,.... ~_m and tMfJt\i1 InsLallation could bf, ~n. All the plans depict setnlci<,:ube pro;ectint: ~iom with squ.art! tC>Wa1l at the comen; no..-evu, tM pklUre taken '" T. wahlh {IIOJ, pl. ZJ) ........, round comet toen Illtd ~ 10""''''' in bt:twu:n. ",-hieh Illl' ~ a COOl$ln.>c,>on ~ from the final ""ildina phase in the bu: Rmnoon pmod. In 1175 ..'hat remained of the camp f~1I viaim to the cOnslruclion <J the En"~ barncb. .4/)Dfl•• Fo. the aection in late antiquily of the camp In the pmpletely destrnre. SitlWed on the border beI"'een Upper and Uw.'tt ~'J'l. this camp COfIIU from the period of r..lIpl'loo T Ec:t'J'l. Si&nificant demer.rs of irs miliW)' dem>ses have been praoer..td tspeCiaIly in the southwesl: area. as. for "urnp"'. IN pie facina >OUth on the land.-vd lide IltId the harl>oo- gate providtd with tWO mona circul.r towe,.. (Toy, 1937, PI'. 52-78), Both pte, mUlil "aunt among the bell p~rvN Rom.n pte installations of the second centul')'. Se".. u Ma"dros, Near th" modem villal" of Mlnat .1·Shuraft' (5Outh of I:IHwlln), this Is a caml' from late antiquity in the 5Omh"""t of • ko'" {mound) alm~t completely d;smantled by s/lbakh (manure) diU"" and lime-burners. A double ute· rior wall was found during the ,""cavations, as _II 465 as """,noi towers and the remains of house install.alions It:aninll; apinst the inner side of \h" SUlTOWldin& wall. 0'4'" Q.ltiln. "This fon '" a 5Ol).rnan unit of c....I· I')' is one: of the best-praen.. d "amps from !he pl'riod of Diodetilltl. "The fUl'1'OUnodinc wall may be ckarly ma6e out with its tOWl'I"I and e.'lp"cially the lirinl qu.arUn; and the fwum Wped like a col· umned street. ..ith .he princi"'" at t"" JOUIhem "nd. To the wa.t of the forum weft thr admiJIistDl;an boJilo:lin& and the commandanl'S liYing quar1ft"SIJmm aJ·Butdc4•. Th" duritoa '" the temple of Suchos led to Ihe discoo.·ery aionpide lbe sulTOl.lnd· inl ",~I of numerous """"" pbn. of the """'" ohapc, which most probably"'''... the liv:ing quar· Icl"l of a mHiW)' unil stalione-d. h"re in the fifth o. sixth GeI1lury. n." presen<:e of thl'S" unl" may ""ell ha~e contributed to the survi ... l of Ihe site Into the Christian period (B:. The camp probably served as the military guard of the elly of ANT''''OOt'OLtS, The sur· rounding wall had rounded comers bm no towers. Of building. on the in.ide, • number of living quarters remain on (h" north wall, as well as • osoe o.terior ...all .....if1!d and equipped ..ith a munber of nd to,"I,,,n, 1"hl' buHdinp of the melt's IMnl quarteT'S "" .....11 as a number of office ..' tesiOencef "''C'J'e obsef"ed ~ the nonh wall. This anangemern illn evidence only fro", the fin! century 00..... 10 Gallien.., and acCt.a>•• 11>e ueat camp housing 1_ legion. was fiT'Sl built in 297 unde. Ihe e"'pero. Dlodetialt, on the occasion of the defeat of lho! revolts in Uppl'r Egypt under Oomlt!anu!, and It encompassed the ...hole area of (he Ammon temple, which at that tim" was no longer in operation, although large pam of It were 5tilllitindinil (El·Sajhi., 1986, pp. 5-31), The pylon pallage was convened Into the nonhern main gateway, Other Roman building. 466 CASfRUM l l • • • •, "~'- .' "" I • , , • • • Iuove IIUtYivcd includin. the l'C'IruIins of the 5W' round;n. wall and :lbove all the once richly dec0rated priMipia with its nl~he lor I'" ~lIlt of the emperor (wrongly idenlihd :1$ a "church" in earll· er timet) ~on$trucled in fronl of tile earlier barque chamber (~ken;, 1979, • . 600-652), N"l "I'Ii";"', The camp ,of a .'iOO-man rompany discovered in the 19~, il ... a pleway rompIex decorated w;th 'ng g d ~oh.mns arad a number of prnuudi. . M'midrcuw lOWen. ~ goi", bad. 10 the time of Diockrian. A.<wcaIed here are e.lensMo rernai"lO <Jl a fonificalion wall .....1 foIlo.... ed the line of the river. with il$ IWO oquan corne. t ~ and lWO semicil' ~uho.r Intervening lowen. It ltUlYived inlo lhe nineteent" century and indicated Ihe exi$tence of the camp of a 1,00000man unil often refernd to in the papyri of the fifth and ailtth cenlu~. In lhe Middle Acn the camp fonl/iatlon W:II incorporaled into ". :'. =- • the city wall, and a maail church wu built in Front of lhe nonhwQI comer (Jaritz, 1985, PI'- 1·19). El.ph" ..ti.... The camp hulll in Ihe Roman fore· court of the Temple of Khnum was probably that of the Cohort I Felix The<>doslus, The men'$ living quarte", had .. number of atones, and most of them were accommodated in the tltlTOO.lnding columned port~ a1ataouah • few "'tt'e loc:aled within Ihe leJ>'lpie ........ 1be si CASTRUM ~< ,he cQ,lrum a' !'tan '" Lu~or. Co"rl~'Y P~IU Gron"'Q"". 467 CASTRUM f100dinc alused by 1M damming of th Nile, ..... mains 0' the day-brick "-all. which had bttn ..... pe:atedly reinforced. and tWO gales on lhe lOUthwest had s"l"'j~ed. BOlh ~tes were flanked by protrud· ing semicircular towers, It would appear that in the 'ounh century nom.ds occupied it llJld reinforced tho: wnt I-,e "ith rectangular ponkos, Aj.o.,r fOtuio 0{ This (oMlfied camp. probably of a c~"'olry ~hm""l of ~ men, is a perfect IlqUU"e ...ith semldn:ular l'roIl\1din, lo",en """ .. sinale g;atewayon lhe wcot .ode. which unlih I"'" (lI1o.er secsiom .... Comlructed of firN bricks. eurioulJy, lhe stairs are n(lI attached to the inner _II bul carved ;nlO the _n (Naumann, 1939. pp. 2-3). AM Sh"·~r. This """'II a cohort fon at the coast of the Red Sea. 7'1> miln (12 km) nonh of Hurghada. a1thouih American investigations have erroneously i K1uI,.,..",. so:KaIled main building, erecled in the middle of the- C3S1ern pan. !1M an inner eastern apw and prol>ably served. the chun:h 01 the fonress. To the south of It are workshops and ...."rehouses (SieaL Since 1953 the site has been exc....a1ed by the f.cpIian An.iqulliC'5 Orpnbllol'l. The men'l Im"l quaners -.e aited a1<Je~ Roman tombs "'ere found (unpublished). AJ.!in. On the area of the Crftk cC'rMIcry I ftw miIQ inland &om aJ.TUr. _1I·preserved remains of an nt.emi\IC fortification 5ytlle-m. "ith comer lawen and unifonn room5 laid out aklng the IUl'TOIlnd· ing ....,,11. were ""ca....ted by lhe f&yptian Ant>quilies OrganizatioD. II W'Ollld appear that it is a late Roman fon ong;nating perhaps In lhe sixth century. In the soulhwesl section. a Church of basilica de-sign with Slout square pilla" .nd .. lripa"'le SIInc· "'1 San. lUary WlII [!T[[Jt ~~iJ'" '" L L L f" f~'~"''' ~"" g"[" "~~'''~ -1-1--'--'--!- +< I'lan oltne AbU Shit'ir fon. CourtU'J Puer Gro$O"'"..... IOund. Bagnani. C. "Gil Kavi di Ttbtun..... Bo/161iltQ tl'Q'fe 27 (1933):1l9-~. I'liemacbwwnsb. J. n.c RtmlQrt ""tl EQrly-8y:>Irlrme FortifieDl'''''' of Lower A-l"""'D Qrld North.m TJ",..~e. WaT!llw, 1982. Brecda. E. "1.C'.qu;"r Jean-L'armk romaine d'Egypte. d'Auguste ! Oioclet;en," B..lleli" d. In Societe QrelMoloKiqu.e d'''Ic~Qrldrie 17 (1919'920):23'. c.o..ton. A. de. "Notes on the ee-t Road Be-tween A1o:nndri.. llJld Man Mauuh," Bu./lI!rin lie '" Socihl QrcltiolorUiue d"AIUtJ'IIdri;. 3<4 (1941):51-52. Decbl'5, J. G. RDic Wandma!erei ,m Kai>C'rkultraum yon lw«>r.- J.ul'lmch des d...tJC~ Q,ehiWlOfUcItC'.. l ...fi:u.lJ 94 (1979):600-652. El-Saghi•. Moo C'I a'. Le CQmp rom"ill de l.ouqSO'_ Cairo. 1986. F1in I I CATECHETICAL SCHOOL OF ALEXANDRIA Mokltl~r. Biblioleque d'etudes 97. 2. pp. 1-19. Johnstone, S.. L~I~ Roman Fortificalions. London, 1983. Maspero, J. Organisation rni/Uaire de I'Egypt byzan· lin~. Paris, 1912. Naumann. R. "Bauwerke der Oase Kbargeh." Mil· leilunG'" des Deutsclten Arcltiialoglsclten inS/llw•. Abreilung K~lra 8 (1939}:1-16. Petrikovil•. H. von. Die rornisclten Sirei/kriifre 1m Nlederrhe,-n, OUsseldorf. 1967. ___ Die hrnenbaulen romlsclter Legionslager wiiltrend de, PrinzlpalSl.eil. Opladen. 1975. Polybiu., Hisloriae. t"ms. fro lext of F. Hul!S<'h by E. S. Shuckburgh. lake Bluff, Ill., 1987, Schwanz. J. Oasr QarimjDlonyslas 1950. Fouilles Franco-Suisses 2. Cairo. 1969. Sidebotham. S'- e, et aL "Fieldwork on the Red Sea Coast: The 1987 Season." iaurnal of lite American Research Cellier In Egypl26 (1989):127M. Toy. S. "Babylon of Egypt," iemrnal of lite British Archaeolagkal ;bsadatian 1 (1937):52-78. Walsh, T. Journal of Ihe Lale Campaign In Egypl. London, 1803. Wa,d Perkins, J. B. "The Monaslery of Tapasiri. Magna." BuUetin de la Sadele royale d'lt,cMolo· gle d'Alextmdrie 36 (1943-1944):48_53. PETEII. GROSSMANN CATECHETICAL SCHOOL OF ALEXAN· DRIA, Ihe first and foremost in'litution of theo· logical learning in Chri.tian antiquity. Though we first hear ()f it as an eslablished school in the Hisloria eccle,iaslic" of Eusebius. around Ihe year 180. ilS TOOts must be traced much funher hack. lIS rise 10 prominence fr"m humble beginning. must Iheref"re have been a long and evolutionary pro,> ess parallel to the spread of the new religlon among the Jewish and pagan inhabitants of Alexandria. Allhough we must repudiate the nalive .Onhodo~ theory thai Saim MARK its founder, it i. nol inconceivable thai SOOn affer , hi. man)'rdom Ihe newly establi.hed hierar<;hy'became active in their mi..ionary endeavor for gaining new cOm·en•. Our· ing Ihe reign of the earl)' bi.hopes of Ihe church, il was nalumllhat they should .tan a syslem whereby the clergy could inslruct novices and catechumens in the .ubslance ,{f the Gospel and the doctrines of Ihe failh. To lhis purpose. study <:ircle. were held in multiple places oulside the durches, led by catechists who were generally. but nol necessaril)'. ordained presbyters, The humble origins of the school consisted of infOlmal circles or groups of mentors and catechumens whose assured acquaintance with "1t. 469 Iheir new religion was a necessary condilion before Iheir admission to BAPTISM. As a rule this operation comprised Iwo edificalory stages. The firsl 'lage was open to all as lisleners, later known in Ihe West as Audienl's, a teno fOlllld in the writings of Tcnullian and Cyprian. As they ad,·anced in Iheir reJigiou. knowledge, in an unspe· cified period Ihey became w"nhy of admission 10 baptism a. COmpelenles. As catechumens, how",'er. they were allowed to allend Ihe church only during the inilial pan of the lilurgy known as Liturgy of the Catechumens (miss" catechumenorum). Afterward they were expecled to leave Ihe chur<:h for the subsequent perfonoance of Ihe second phase, the Uturgy of Ihe Faithful (ml"a fidelium). intended only for Ihe baplized congregation, With Ihe progress of Chrislianity and the gradual disappearance of the calegory of the old cate<:hu· mens. Ihis primilive procedure became unneces....ry. Consequently. these religious circles were transfonned inw regular classes with a prescribed sludy program. which grew in complexity beyond .imple religious instruction. Ultimately Ihi. began 10 lake the shape of a school conducted parallel to the older, pagan institution of Ihe Ptolemaic Museion, whose famous library mu.1 ha,'e been used by Ihe students and faculty of Ihe emerging theological college under Ihe proleclion of the church. A. Ihe theological college progressed toward malurity, the Museion began 10 dwindle umil il. liquidation after the as-s;usination of Hypalia in 41S. Prior to the advent of PANTAENUS as the first. known head of the Calechetical School of Ale~an· dria in the late second century. the subject. taughl by catedists revol_"" mainly. though probably not exclusively. around religious initialion and the scrip.ure. The discussion of Ihe godbead, of Christ and of Hi. virgin biMh, lhe Cross, the burial, the Resurrenion and Ascension of the Lonl- the Holy Spirit. Ihe human body and soul. the hereafter. and the Se<:ond Coming of Jesus-all lbese subjecls constituled tbe themes 10 be clarified in 470 CATECHETlCAL SCHOOL OF ALEXANDRIA bet. in lino of th.. difficult and antiq.... flI demolio< characlers. ...-hkh ultiroalel}' led 10 the .... tablishmenl d th.. """" Coptic lancuaee as ,he lui phase of the ancient Et;yp1ian. He colllp<:a' tOf", his career aI the Cateche!ica1 Sd>OOl was Inter· rvpIed by P'alliuch III'..IU:nIUS I who el«tcd him foe- a Christian mi3si0n to IDdia. This h.. ac«pted aft« SHllittg • worthy ~ r to e:nsu.... doe cO& tintWion of the work. so auspiciously begun by him at the developing.ochool. His choic.. ff:1I upon the mOS! promi....nt of his pupill, CU/lIort" Of' AlLUNDrJA.. Probably an Atheni· an of papn binh, born about 150, Clemem had becom... zeal",," Chn.lian theolO&ian. H.. added this to hi:s former .. udy d Greek philosophy. H.. succeeded Pant;>en.,. before 190 and relainedthat office until 202 Or 203, when for expediocncy rlIther .han fear. he dO'Cided to fle~ from Alexandria during .h.. perseculion or Emperor Sept'miu. $everns, He never ....turn..d to the .ch<XlI and al'J'l'a" to ha...e spent his later yea ... moving hct ....een J..rusalem and "'mloch. bUI neither the place nor the date of his d..ath in Greater S)'lia ;s known whh precision. This Is not the place to disc.... the detailed btl>g. ..phi... and wort. of Clement or any other head of lhe schooL But it .. ne"""",,ry 10 outline their ea· ......1'1 in relationn to .he """'dopmcnt 01 the bill' &eOllilll inslinni<m of theological kno....led&.. ill th.. Stocy d uni ..·..BaI Christianity. Clemem's rol.. in this picture ia unique In OOe ..ens.e. His thougltt ..... solidly bued Ol> libe.... prill' ciplQ. As a IheoJo«ian and Gretk philotopher at Ofle and th.. same lime, he labored ......;ml d... ret· onc:l1l.don of the tenets of h.is ""nhful n:l;pon wilh. ancieN Creel< luminJ, wt.ere he found no incampMibilily berween the bibfical Plopheu and the GrHk philaoophtn. He ..... aI pains tryi"l to pro..... Ita! the G.-....h ~ Mosoea and 'h.. Old Testament. It is amarinl Mw Cletnent _-...1 the se«Is of On.ian liber:ali.m in Ihe dasses of th.. Cal..chetical School. v.:h.... the chunh curia SUI' roundll11.he impeliou. Pope Demelri", I """" to.al· Iy co...........ti...e in its outlook Oil mane.. of doc· trine. In an age whore GnOltic teachin....ere still rampant amonS Egyptian Christian5, Cl..m.. nt ...ith all his tradilional orthodoxy, displa}'ed no OUtright hostility to the Gnostic•. Thou,h technically he was nol B Gnostic. in his d""~5 he prof~_d tha! lIIu· mination in religious knowle whole, Clemen' may righlly be rq:ardf:d as 0"'" of the earlies( apo5Iles of Chris'ian l,benoli.... in that patristic age. 11 may be wfti~n, here to refer to !he titles of Clemenl" ol"standi"l worb composed durin, his l .... ure ... pTTSidmt of 1M Catechesiall School, lea¥in, all anaI)'Ikai consi of his wort. appean; to be bR, we are ......re of his notable conuibutio.... indudillf: IUs EJ<J-1.riQN IQ tlte He~ltDt, all apolo&'"lie ln~: .he PeulOflls (or lou''''''_) on Chrislian life ..nd e!hiu; and lhe S/POIfIlllll, wtu"h comprises a ... rie. of ,.,.ried discooncs hard 10 con· strue (ANM.Niune F./~T$, 1956. pp. 165~5()8). After Clement, the Ca.«hetiul School remained .empo",rily wi.hou. a head, but II kepi functioning wi.h the momentum of its ,rea. mastn. Finally in 21S Pope Demetrius I d«ided .0 appoint ... hi! succes.sor the most illllltriou.s of Clement's pupil., OIl'<;IlN. Under hi! ~&l" .he Kh<Xl1 appea... to ha,.., reached lhe peak of hi efllorucence, Oligen was oom .bout l8S either in Alexandria or wmewhcre el~ in EtYPt. and died an exile in Palcstine around 253. His paren .. were ardent Christians. Hi. mother could ha"" been of Je"i.h ~trxtion. a fact that may acc""nt for hi.< proficien· cy in Hebcew. 1'heories about his miIed origin have been ....tertained. bu. If we beli~ fpiphanius of Salamis. one of his do..e co,"emponries, Ori~n m~ be ~ as a Copt and a tNC son of Egypt. H" ,'ery name, dtri...flI from the ancient Egyptian "vn1 Honas or Orus, should haw _ _ signifi· <:lII>Ce. As a child, he had Il>'ed !hr'ouch thI- angui:.tCllt d mutilatinl himW'lf, thus b«ominB a eunuch, a bel that cODtn1luled to his N.U.... t""'bl.... with Patriarch Dnnctriw; I. His education was enriched by the knowIqe he noadily absofbed fmm his learned master a .. m...,t. H.. also Iludied pagan philosophy and lilerature under Ammonius Sac""" (175-242), thI- real rounder of Neoplatonism, whose dlrecti..·~ influenc" captivat..d Plotinu!. H........1 ha... e ..u ..nd· cd the l«ture. of Saccas ....ith P10lino.os at the Ptole· mak School of Alenndria, H.. allO ''''''e1ed widely and became acquainted wilh moot of the eminent .chol.... and prelates of his day. Hi. wandering ex· tended from Arabia and Syria to Grel'l'e and Rome, where he all~nded Knnons by Saint Hippolytu•. Origen was oolined to become One of the w<>rld's ,r..atest ~x~getic.l Kholars of.11 time; his produc· CATECHETICAL SCHOOL OF ALEXANDRIA 471 • tMty ..... el>OJ1TlOUS beyond rearon. Epiphanim of Salami> staleS that his bibl>.""aph)· reached sU lhomand books and lreatisc:s. The analytical .......'~ oi Origell'S works it: a ITemendoots wk lhal belonp elsewhere. ~heI"", a brief and panonomic ref· erence to his accompiishmenlS may help to reveal the Stature of Ihe school where Ihese v~t products were made. M a biblical scholar and philosophr, his erudi. tion was ~ and his crealivily colo.....I. There is hardly a single book in Ihc Old and Ne'" Testa· ........1$ on "'flich he did nOi wrile a lenlthy com.....ntary. His amannl critical edttiort of tk Old Teswnent, !he Heupl., ootnbin<'S in :sis par.oIlel eolwnns all ttw availahle ibIS ;n both Greek and Hd>rtw scripts. This he later produe~ in a com· pendium ullder the title of Te""pI. with four columM, ominin, the Hebrew. These were the worb used by Saint Jerome ill Caesaua. His monumental exegetical commenlaries entitled &holl. ",ere pan· ly put into lat'n by Rufinus. Only ITagmems of both have survived. Orlgen's homilies are reputed to be among the mool andent sped..... n. of Christian preaching. In lhe realm of tbeclocY, hi. most im· ponant work "'as Do Priltcipiis, in which he '}'Slltmalized the ...hook of tk Christian doo;trine in four boob-on God and d>t celesti.1 world. on man and matler. on rue "'ill and iu im,.et. and on the .scripnucs. 1bo:IuJh the original of !hat ambitious project porisheel almost completely, iu pul'Jl'OS"' has """";ved in l"ilIMr in:adequate Latin underings by Mil... and Saint Jerome. In a trealise called C....· Ir. Cel,um. Origen defended Christlanily from at· w:b by lhe second-<:entury papn philosopher Ce!· sUS. He wrote a number of ascetic "'orb, of which two have come down to us. The £shOT/mio" IQ MQ" I)·.dom "'.. eom~d in 235 during the persecu· tion of Emperor Mu;m;n,"" His more txleruiv. work On I'rQye. had a ,...,.,t """,,_I 10 the mind of lhe early Christ"ns. .. His trouble! sunecl "Pin durin, his fint .-isit to Pale>tine, ""hm he "',.. in.i1ed by the bishopo <:i Aclia and Caesara 10 pra<:1t in thek dioceses. It .... ullthinkable in A1eundrine ccdQ~ical discipline thai a b}"maD should prta<:h in the pnst:flCe of bis~ Dtmelrius .... an a"thoril...... cleric, who ",a. impereepfihly pushin, palrW-cbal prerog· ative to th. tdae of a monarchical SY$Cem unablc to accept unconlrolltd initiative, eVen if il came from SO greal a personality as Origen. Demetrius recalled him to Ale~andria around the year 218. For Iwelve years he sustained lite ,alhering storm .r>d buried himself in ",rilin, and teachin&- The ""'illds of ...·ere blowinl hard lIpinst him, and .ynoc!s sW1ed discttMinl his life and disscc1ing his thought. Finally. Ih.e hour of deli,,,,,,,nce came when he lled back 10 PalC$line in no, There he ",-as tIono.-ed and promplly ordained '0 the pOOlhood. 11 i. said that he "'u even con.idered for the episcopate. As ""peeled, this action provQkele his unbending ad,·.,nary, whom he also dismissed &om Ihe Catfl:hetkal Scllool. Oligen became an <:JIile, anti in 231 he sellle.andria. During the Oedan persecution of 2~O, however, Ihe great master .uffered tremcnugh he ..,rYiw:d die horrors of his ordeal and .-.pinn) hia I'reedom. his healoh hepn 10 decline, and he cI>ed at lhe city of T)'n! in 253 at ,h., ace <:i sixtynine_ on,;en, like tn06I unl.·ft'$lI lhinken and prolific: """,en. ..... a conlrowDiaI fi«un: hoth in his life. lime and after h.. death. The lerm Oriaeni.m "'-as frtc,ly ac<:epIed in lhe realms of lheolOC and phi. Iosopby as II formidable institution ....ilh II 5IIppoIllnl school of Origenis!s and an equally ardenl ..hool of am;·Oriaeni.1S. 11 is impossible in Ihese pages to cmbark on even Ihc briefest analysis of Origellist theories about ...ell subjccts 115 the unity of God, ilS relalion to lhe Trinity. !he doctrine of stI~~nOHISM. his audaciou$ Ihoto')' .botl! souls and \heiT prenaUlI alstenee and desliny lI.fter death, and nurneTOUS olher ph}"5it:aI and metaphysical l;on ·ersies of "'IIIOO$C unfaIhomabk depth. SuBiee it'" nlio:n thal many of the p-eIlttSt names of his day and ....,... lI.fte",,=d joined the my fOT 0.apirl51 Oricen- In his defense one may rad Saini Saini Alhanasius the Apostolic, Saint 8MIL ntE GlIEAl. saini (;II.EGORY OF NAZlA~'ZU:S, OtD\'MUS Till! IlLI~D. and other'S. ln the hostile urnI' are Saint Epiphan'''S. Bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, and both Saini Jerome and IHEOPHIUJS of 4lexandria, who lllrned against Orlgen i" lateT limes. In the fifth century. chUTCh coundl. WeTe convened 50Iely to difcU5S Origen'. views. Aftcr a .non lIJIJ. the Qri. wi<:kedness~ 'AA!""WS, 472 CATECHETICAl SCHOOL OF ALEXANDRIA gem..1 con"~1"SJ bred up ;>pin ill the shih Cl!1>IUry, and Orir;~n was repcaudly co~ned by 1_ councils, held at wuinople in SA2 and 55). wilh the cotlni'o'ance of the Emperor Ju.cinian him· ..,If. Unlil lhe di'lCord bet"''een Demetrius I and Oriaen, and lhe decision oIlhe latl~ 10 quil £.gypl for Caesarea in Pak$line, Ihe Catechetical School of Alexand.-i:l., IhOllSh e~ly associalnl ....ilh Ihe ehurch, ,ueee-eded In ""laininil a[ lellSl in lheory, and 10 a comiderable ~xl~n1 in practice, lts aca· demic freedom and independence. After Orlgen's Aighl to Palestine and hi, dismi,sal hom office al Alexandria, the OKhool came under the direct eon· lrol of ~triarchal .nd church authority. Hi. imnlediale suec"",",," wllS HEIlACl.\.5, his former pupil .nd assistanl ",,110 wer followed Demetrius in the palri· archate from 231 10 2.7. One of his Ii.... Kts "'as 10 lih his predecessor's ..,ntence of ncommu"lcal>on from ()rigtfI and to urr the great: mast", 10 mum I<> Aloandria. btU In \1lin. His ..,iDl i. of inlerat on anocher ...eOllnl, II Is saX! thaI ..·hen he in· ctea!onl the numb« cllot:al bW>op< 10 I"'~l)', Ihe p.-.:s.byters of the church decided 10 dislinrui:sh him from lhe res.l oIlhe biahops by calling him "Papa.~ If Ihis is 'roe. ,hen lhe finl pnrlale in ChrUtendom bear lhe lil~ 01 pope was Her",d.. lhe CopI in the urly pan of the Ihird C~n1ury, long hefore It w"" known 10 Roll1(!. The nexl head of Ihe school, anOlher famous pu· pil of Origen, was DIONYSHJS of Alexandria, laler ournamed Ihe Cre.t, He occupied Ihal POSI unlil he became patriarch (247-2M). His reign W3S full of lroubkos. In 250 tn" Decian persecution droYe ,he palli;trch inlO hiding. ,hou,h M was once arrested bul esc~ •n 257 .roo,ht'~ persecution .... eon· dueled by 'M Emperor Valeri.... "The COUnl!), ",as ha~ from 1m: IIOUth by barbarian ,ribet.. In AI· enndria., A~milia~ prefect of EcJ>I. dec:bM ~imwIf entpet"Ol". an.~ chil ....... that bmle oul ended in his n.p!u'" by lh~ imperia!l!P"'tral Th«>d. OIUS, who "",nl 1M rebel in chains to Iloone. ~ war.................... de\'UlIlled the city and depleted lhe populalion. Plague "'U imminent and famine was al Ihe d<>or. AI 1m: end of every peneculion. 0;0. n)"oiu. faced the probl~m of me apostates. But lie was broad·minded etlOUgh 10 readmillltem, and h~ forbade the rebaptism of returning herelies and s,.. hismalko. 11 i. a wonder lhal he had lime 10 compo.e a number of theulogical worh, where he diopbyed an independent bul mlMr com",ver$i.1 mind. He was accused of nilheism ~' his namesake • , Rome, "'31 defendnl by A!hanasius, ... d oppose eo... .". Basil. In repro 10 the Trinily. """~r, he him· ...If rejecled the herelical. ,nn(WlllI(>l\$ of Pall of Samosata. bWlop ~ Antioch and weal'hy procur.o. lOr of Queen Zenobia of Palm~T.L At a IAler due Athanasius enlrU$,ed Didym... the Blind with I.... ""'Nship of the ulechedeal School in lhe early decades of the fount. cen,u.,•• p<»ilion M held un,il his death I""'.....d 'M end of Ihal cenlUry. He livnl durml [he tempeotUQU' age of ~R'~SIS'" and the Council of NIGlU 1315). Among his pupil. were S;tint Crego!)' of Na~lanlus. SainI Jerom~, and Ihe hi'lorian Rufinu" He ,,"'as a man of .rudilion. but his worb a'" almost all IOSI. It i. said Ihat lhe tnrall.., enlitled Ag~iHst Arius ~Hd S"ulli"s, pre..,n'ed under G.egory or Nyosa's name. "'lOS dlctaled by him. It is inlerestlng 10 ,,"ow thaI h~ e.... rN fof Ihe ",~Ifare of the blind-he had bttt:t blind &inc:,. lhe ase of four-by promOling for the firs! lime in history .....)'S,em of em~ or enp1lved """;Iinl foe d>em. Afte. Oidym\.lS. ..., .nler the obscure period in 1M history 01 [he school. It had doo>e itS in shaping Christian and lheoIop:al xhobrsbip in those formal"'''' years. Tlten Ihe ual and knowltdge began 10 fade, and ...l,h !hem • veal insJiunion. shoo"" '0 oom'.... B1BUOGRAPMl' Allaner. B, P'l1rof"C, trans. H. enef. Edinburgh and u.ndon, 1960. JI"u.Niane Fathe,.. The, Vol. 2, .d. A. Roberl~ .nd J. Donaldson, Grand Rapids, Mich.. 1956, BardenM..'er, 0, Gu"hicht~ du alrkir"hU"heH [.irer· atur, J vols. Freiburg. 1902_1912. Bardy. C. Cle",enT d''''u,,~d.u. Pario, 1926. _ _ ......ux Ori,ioes de l'Ecole d' ....,ex.ndne." Recher<:~u de religiO!use 27 (1937):65-90. "Pour l1>istoi.., de I·Ecole d'A1o.ndrie.~ Vivre el "",,,ur 2 (1941):80--109. Burkitt. F. C. "Th~ Christian Cbureh In Iht' East. ~ In The Imperi~1 Crisis _d Re~ry ".D. /~J J14. cd. S. Coak et ai, Cambrid£e Ancit'nl HisI<>bridge, 1%1. Cadiow, R. JHlroJ..clioH au sym_ d'Orip..e. Paris, 1932. U> Je.."uu d'Origin.,: HWQi'e de /"&ok d·"Ie.uHdrie "u dlbut du I/Je sin/e. !':tris. 1935. Catalfamo. G. S, Cle"""u Aless~ndri"o. Brescia. 195 •. Champ'",;"r, J. "N.i.....nee de l'humanisme ch,..;lien." B"II.I;" d. /'Asoocj~t;<>" G, Bud. (1947 ):58- ,,,it,,e., " F.ye, E. d•. CI.meHI d'Ak",mdri., Etud• .." I.. raPT""'o d.. c!",'sliaH;sme .,1 d. I" philosophie grteque du II. site/e, P.ri" 1&98. _ OrigtHe-S~ .'ie, ro~ oeuvre. S I CATECHUMEN vol •. PilTiS, 1923-1928. Eng. lrans. F. Rothwell. Origcn and His Work. London. 1926. Glocker, 0 .. ed. Coni.., C genes und isehen chris/lieh." Schriftsrdler du us/en drei Jahrhundule. Leipzig, 1905-1909. Miura-Slange, A. eelsus .md Origenes; Das Ce..,';,,· same litre, Welran""lta",mg, Ciessen, 192~. MolJand, E, The Concep/ion of Ihe Gospel in the A./c ischen christliclte.. Schrlflsulltr dtr trsten drei Jahrh"nderu, 3 vols., ed. P, Koelschau. uipzig, 1905-1936, Eng. lrans. W. Wilson in The Attie· Niar," Chrisrian Library, Vols. 4, 12. Edinbu'lh, 1868-1869, See also Bibli01hek der Klrchenviilu, 2nd ser" Vols. 7 (1934), 8 (1934), 17 (1936), 20 (1938), Tollinton, R. B, Clemeftl of .A./exandrla: A Study in ChriS/ian Lihe",li$m, 2 vok;\llondon, 1914. ___. Selection fro'" Ihe C0trlme.,Mrie$ and Homi· lies of Origen, London, 1929, Volker, W. Do, Vollkommenhei/sideal des Origene$. Ttibingen,1931. . Weslcon, B. F. "Origenes," In DeB 4, pp. 961f. New York, 1974. Azll S. Ann CATECHUMEN, in the early church, a new Jewish or heathen conven undergoing a cQUrse of ba· 473 sic instruclion and lmining in Christian doclrine and riluai, prior to U~PTISM and full incorpomtion into the body of the faithfuL JUSI before His ascension, Christ had entrusted to the disciples the task of propagating Hi. leachings among all nation. and baptizing them in the name of the Father and lhe Son and the Holy Spirit (Ml, 18,19, 20). Not long afterward at Pente<;o"" a la'le group of various nalionaHtie. living in Jerusalem were destined to be lhe first cate<;humens in the history of the Christian chu",h. Among them wcre Parthians, Medes, Elamite5, inhabit-ants of Mesopo· tamia, of Judaea and Cappadocia, Pontus, Phrygia, Pamphylia, Egypt, LJbya, Rome, Crete, and Arabia. When the Holy Spirit ume down upon the lwelve discipi.. and they began to speak the languages of this international gathering, Peter gradually initiated them into the real meaning of the Crucifixion and the Resurreelion, "So those who re/C5), They were admitted into lhe church to listen to the reading. from the Epistles and lhe Gospel only, after which they were required to lea,'e, Their plaa wacs lherefore in lhe nanhex, which stretched across the weslern end of the church, 1. Those of Icmger standing, who were allowed 10 stay and attend the sermon 8i"en by the bishop or 474 CATECHUMEN priest and certain prare'" during which they knelt, were designated as prOSlrali or ge>tuf/eeu>tu., But they ......,re not pennined to allend the litur~'. Can' on 19 of the Synod of laodicea (343-381) laid dow'n the following H.'strietion; "After the sermons of the bishops, the prayer for the catechumens is to be made first by itself; and after the catechumens have gone out, the prayer for those who are under penance." 3, Thm<: who had passed the two p<evious stages and were considered to be sufficiently trained in the faith to receive the sacrament of baptism were called compeUnlu. Throughout Lent they were thoroughly instroCled in the sacraments and services of the church, with particular emphasis on the Creed, which they had to recite at baptism. The necessity for fasting. prayer, and complete conti· nence wa, enjoined on all catechumens, ntarried and unmarried alike, at this stage. Ha,ing satisfactorily completed these three stag· es, and having earned the epithet electi or perfecli'He>, they would be entered in a spedal register. This took place on the second Sunday of Lent in the church of Jerosalem, and on the fouTth in other churches, Catechumens were now entitled to bal" tism and full membership in the community of the faithful. During the initial period of the spread of Christi· anity. the apostles took upon themselves the task of teaching, later, schools and courses were systemat· iCall}' organized in Alexandria, Antioch, JerosaJem, Rome, and elsewhere. The CATECHETlCAl SCHOOL OF AlEXANDI\lA, presumably established by Saint Mark the Evangelist for the edification of catechumens, A nary punishment. Canon 5 of tbe Council Atiya, A. S. A Hi,tory i>f Easlern Christian;I.,., Lon· d CELESTINUS OF ROME CATENA, ARABIC TRADITION OF. The Monophy,ite Coptic chain of the four Gospel, has been prese,',ed in full in a series of Arabic manu· ",ripl$. F. J. Cauhet-Iturbe has edited the pan that conCerns the Gospel of Matthew from nine Arabic manuscripl.S (Vatican Library. Arabic 452 [1214J, 410 [thineenth to founeenth centuryJ, 411 [four· teenth centuryJ: GOllingen, Arabic 103 [thineenth to founeenth century]; Bodleian Library, Hunt. 262 [,i~teenth cenlury); Strasbourg. Arabic 4315 [six. teenth centuryJ; Paris, Arabic 55 [1619]; Cairo, 195 [1735]: Vatican Library, Karshuni Syriac 541 (1555]: d. Craf. 1944. p_ 482). Caul>et-Iturbe', edition comprise, two volumes {1969-l970), Liturgical references found in lhe margins of certain manuscript. have been assem· bled in Volume 2 (Pl'. 52-55). From thi, abundant Arabic tradition. the manu, script dosest to the Coptic model i, Vatican Arabic 452. In the Arabic texts cenain citations have been omined. The identification of the citatioll-S has not yet been made for the three chains of Mark, Mal' thew. and John, BIBLlOGR"PHY Caubet·hurbe, F. J. La cadena arab< del evangdio de San Moleo, 2 vols, Vatican City, 1969-1970. MICHU VM' E.5SROECK CATHOLICOS, term of Creek or'g,n signifying "general." "un;"ersal:' and used as a title gi,'en to high·ranking secular officials. and later as an honorary title for cenain ecclesiastical dignit-aries ranking below a patriarch but abon a metropolitan, On 25 June 1959, a protocol was issued in Cairo organ iring the relationship between the Coptic Or· thodox church and the Ethiopian church. Anicle 1 Slipulates that the supreme. spiritual head of the lauer church is the pope ~ Alexandria and the patriarch of the ,ee of Saint ;Mark, while anicle 4 provides for the elevation of: the spiritual head of the Ethiopian church to the rank of ~atholicos patriarch, Bishop Basilios was raised to this rank, and was officially conse<:rated at the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Cairo. on 28 June 1959, by Pope CYRJL VI (1959-1971). BIBLIOGRAPHY Neale, J. M. A His/ory of /h~ Holy EtUltrn Chwch, Vol. 1. p. 141. London, 1850. ARCHBISHOP BASILIOS CEILING. Sa 475 Architectural Elemenl.S of Church- es: Ceii;ng. CELADION, SAINT, ninth patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (157-167). He held the office during the reign, of emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. He was laid to rest on 9 Abib near the remaim of Saint Mark in the Church of Bucalis at Alexandria. BIBUOGRAPHY Atiy;>. A.S. Hislory of EaSlern ChrisriaMity. Millwood, N,Y .. 1980, AZIZ S. ATtYA CELESTINUS OF ROME, bishop of Rome (422_432) and the authority to whom NEST<)R'l}$. bishop of Constantinople. and C¥IUL '. bishop of Alexandria, appealed during their controversy Ov"r the tenn TIlE.OTOKOS (430). Celestinus ,ided with Cyrit and thus caused the condemnation of Nestor· ius at a council held in Rome. The subsequent Council of EPHESUS later deposed him, Even though the Coptic Hi,/ana ecd..ia,lica and, consequently, the Arabic History ollh~ Pato;archs make absolutely no mention of Celestinus' decision against Nestorius, in the Coptic tradition he is noted precisely for this action, hom him we possess a collection of eighteen letters in Creek or Latin concerning the Nestorian que.tion. Among the Coptic manuscripl.S are "'''0 homilies. as follows: 1. Discour$~ of Ihe HonoMd Palriar"h and Resi· d."c~ of Ih. Holy Gho5l, Apa CeleSlinus. Archbishop of Ihe Metropolis of Rome, in Honor of Ihe Messen· ger ()f Ihe Ages of Ugh/, Ihe Archangel Gabriel was meant to be read at the Feast of GABRJU. 22 Ki)'ahk. There is a .ingle manuscript. di.,jded between the British Libra!)', London (Or. 7028 and Or. 6780), and the Oriemal Institute, Chicago (ed. Worrell, 1923). The lext comprises four sections: (1) a homi· letic prologue; (2) a treatise in encomiastic form about Gabriel. who i. seen as a prefiguration ()f Christ (here is insened an invective against Nestori· us), and who as such was chosen to announce the conception by Mary; then follows an enumeration of his appearances in the Old Testament (this section may be an elaboration of a preexisting text); (3) the narration of five miracles wroughl by Cabri· el; and (4) a traditional epilogue. 476 CELIBACY 1. The only manuscript of the Eneo"'i"", 1'(0. ~ounctd by Ihe HOfl<J«d P"/J'U>H:h and True MaSl", Ap" Celulm"., ArcltbWtap of Ih~ City 01 Rome. ;" HOJIor of 11t~ Martyr ... &i"l Vic_ is in 1M Brilidl La1lnly (Or. 7022.26-59; ed. Bu• • 191_). The tut coolains a homiletic. pmIocue and a II'Iod1donal epi. Iotue. ~ which..,., iasened three paru: (I) a IIerles 01 poslmo Budse, E. A. W. Cop'ic M1>.tyrioms, PI'. 46-101. London, 1914. Trro OUA."D1 CELIBACY, unmarrie bound by a 5OI,....n ¥ow. AllhouBh nwrimony is <me of the onen holy SKBIM"nIi and il likened w the ""ioe bnwftol C!uist WId the church (Eph. 5:31. 32). ascetic celibacy Is repnled as a "'p"riDr SUte, as it relieva men from uonhly MtaChmcnts and. ~ 1M .....1 fo. the comina: of C1lrisl (I Co•. 1:2,,"37). The concept of volUntary a05lClltXm from mar· rbge i' nol lennane to Judaic IhOUlhl. New:nhclev. lIle highest honor is accorded to U-. lik<: Jeremiah and Daniel. who led celibate IIvn. Of John the Baplist, Jesus stalOO, "Among those born of wornen there has ri""" no one areater than John 1M 6aplisf' (Mt. t1:11). It il in the New TcSlament lhat celibacy has il£ real TOOts, as is indicated by Christ's leachings in Mallhew 19:9~12: 22:24-29: Mark 10:28-30: and Luke 20:27-31'>. The Apostle Paul e~pllcltly declares his preferencc for eelibacy o~er ma...-iqe, prllCtic· inl it in hi! own life and wishing lhat all men could 110 iol1ow his example (I Cor. 5:7-38). In !he book 01 RC"'lluion. Saini John speW of !he hundred and fony-four t""'-nd u,l>o k~ IMmselves chaste, and had the farher's nan>C' wri,len on their IorthadJ (Rn. 14:1_4). The early fathers (:llolled 1M ...crill and virtues of a celibate life CON«nted 10 the wonhip 01 God. Rt:pn:SCl:lWi"" eumplcs include Cyprian. b<shop 01 Cartha,:e (d. 258). IO ..-hom Yir&inity ...... an angelic atuibule. Applying the ,.mit of the wenlS 10 human fife. Saini A11IAKASIUI the Apolialit SUIts. "For then: arc two ways in life ... Ihoc one lIle more: moderate and ordinary. I mean ~c: lIle odter angdk and UTIIU'J*SCd. n_ly virgin11J:' CYlIIl Of JUIISAl.EN ICeS a IUperbuman qualily in chaslity: "lei us not be "nonnt of the gloO)' of chastity: for its crown is anlelic. and its excellence above man.... Angels walkinlllpon earth are they "..ho pJ'\llClice chastlty: the "ll'lIins lutve th<>ir portion wilh MaO)' the \llIlln," GREGORY OF NYS$A (c. 330-c. 393) admires, above all, the purity of celibacy and iLs fuedom from corruption: '"The holy look of virginity is precious indeed in lhe judgment of aU who make purity rhe test of beauty; bul it belongs '0 thox alone wholoc struggles to gain 'his object of a noble lo,-e are bW>nd and helped by the ,faCe of God:' Similar u.achinp are found in Ihe writings 01 a.DODo' OF .u.EJ[Atl1nJA. BASil nit! Gll.EAl, Ambrose. biohop of Milan. JOHN CHRYSOS'IOIoI. and Saini JcThe carty church also publkly ~ celibates ~. civin& them p'«:ulcnC1! and priority in ..,alina: and communina:. The CopIic aOld ocher Onhodo. churcM require their bishops 10 be celibates. .... to the lawn ranb al the hierarchy, ",anioId candida1es are elipble fur Ordinal inn, bUl marrial'" is noc pamiud onee a penon has been OC"dained. CelibKy ;. a prcrcquisile of the rnonastic life. Saini &\SIL TIlt! GRfAl sulJ"Sll thai Cll:plicil vows be r~uirtd of lhe po$tu\.ant for admi..oon: "We are noc cOllnizanl of any vows of men, un· less il be ahar soniC men have enrolled themsel".,. in 1M ballalion of those who have adoptd the monastic life, if they setm to accept celibacy by silent agrument. Nevenhclns. 1 deem il fining that in their case too that dlould recel'"e primary atlention. They must be asked, and from them must bc taken a perspicuou. vOw, SO Ihal if any of them should by any cli.nce relUrn to a n""'·lov;", and sensual life afterward< Ihey shall be incurring the penalty al· CELL tached to those ",ho commil lomiGalion" (second Canoni(aJ EpWle of Baoil). .""""""'" n.. C"mminp. D. R.J.din (l'uWionj. Chkago. 1957. Lta. H. C. HUiory of S<:t:~,dOl..J CeliNcy in 1M ClrrlJIi.n ChUTt:Je. 1 ~ London. 1907. Vacandard, E. a..d~ d~ criIiq.u ct d'Je~ reDrialu, pp. 69-120. Paris. 1905. AJtcHIIISHOP 8AsIUOlli CELL. The .......d cell is ''elY common in mOmMic I~~I$. bill il doe$ nOl always have the ~ given it ;n Western lan~_ lIe<:a....e monks inhabited various places. such as tomb•. caves. or co",tructed ~rmll..es. It is n«<:ssary to distingu;,h between Ihem. We ~nd in Creek Ihe words Jeen" (derived rrom Latin) and illi common diminuliv~ Jeemo~. In Coptic it is I",nslaled as fI (ri). and in Arable. as q.llay"h (pl.. q"Wfj. by _y of Syriac. It is al$O known that the ascelie. often made ute of lhe tomba oJ ancient Egj.pt. ",hieh upla;ns tile use of the Grffk worda t.pho. (tomb) or "eJerotophl"" and the Coptic ........... (mhaau. gra,.,). or of nvn t/t.at Utty filled up. For this ~n. ooe oh"n finds the words 10 describe the habitation oJ a llermil in Grffk Or lnonsc:ribcd into Coptic WracieB as ~ (~ion) and atI& (bcb). which dc$ignate .. IfOIIO or C8>'0Cm. It is rhercforc- "",,,,"r 10 specify the.sensq that the word ~ccll" ' - re«h~ In OUr IVll$, In order 10 a''hOpc, habilalion) is ;ndiff",,,,,dy applied 10 an,- plac:c wbcr'C:,pmb live.. II .. the ~ ""Ih I~ lerms oms (Grff[) or 'T'OOy (1000). which describe in 1M fil'Sl place the mountaln; Ihen. by reason of the (lCOgIOlphy of Egypt. the ~n; and. by den""tlon. since the 'monasteries ...~re eau.blisl>cd there. a mOnaslery. Th.... oros 'ou (followed by • proper name) designatC5 a monastery. It II. however. importanl to indicale Ihe lenSC5 that the ",ord "cell" .... laken on in • monil$tic contt~l. The wordJ blli(m and T' (ri) designate first of all a room in a larger whole "'here monb live, a mOn· &Stery or a prison. In thi. sense. il appears appropriale to tM Pachomian monasteries. where each 477 monk h.ad Ihe USC of a "cell." n.e luIS t/t.at ohow Ihis are oumerous: the teU". the Rule. and the pre· uP'S of Saini Pachomius pnscNed in Saiol lnomc'a Lllin IranslaliOJl often spcal of the eel}., oIlhe rachom.... Monk (e.... Koch, 19.B, p. 190 al the latin c~u.. or p. 185 al lhe Creek UrnOft). ~ archacoIoginl c:xca''''lions ha.", ",,-eaIed theJc ul!J. ailboqh. M. Grossmann (1986. J'P- 33-0t0. csp. filS- 1-2 with • plan of the nca,... io Uoforturwcly """ do not: know how Ihc5C !'ache>mian cdIs were fu,.,.,ished, for nothing has been praerved; oevaythina that was In wood has been <:arTied <>If or h.aJ di$inIC'l"'tcc " ..Ill to serve as cupboards> sometimes provided with a door. 'The famous Jemh;"""Iio". lranslated by SainI Jerome as sdl"I", ....hich Lefon rendel'S in Freneh by ..lime. small seal (1943. p. 343 .nd n. 56). il kn(>wn 10 us only from the tex.... Draguet commenlS on this k~lhi$m· "Iio". sayinj lhat It was. kind of chai.., longue (>r deck chair, .uch that Ihe monk occupied a posilion half .ioing, half lying (1944, pp. 81-90). On occasK>n lile kellion (Grc"k or tranocribod ioto CopIicl and rt .re used to descn"be a hermitage. BtU in this case iu .t.......,lure is better k""",·n. ""hcthocr it has been built oJ unbaked bricb and provided with c:upol.... as 101 liNA or KDllA.. or ",helMr the henni1/; haW! ~lIed up a lomb or a nalural ca"" (Badawi. 11)53, pp. 67-&9). What int.,..... csu ... bene is how lhe monb' quancl'S appearnIlO the >Wt0l'. II indeed that \'try early there ....... a roGm separal( front lhal rncn-cd for """"'" or for .kep.. This room & i ~ rrom 1M others because- a niche hollowed out in the east wall. We know that from the lime of OIIJGD' the Eastern ChristianJ h.ad Inc. C\$OI11 of praying IUmed towanI the east-hel'lCe, Ih .. pra)", oiche in the east "",II. which IndiCloled the dircclion that the bel""".". oughl 10 face for p....,.,r. This niche "IZI often adorned. $OI'I"ICIimcs by .. simple CI'OSll or a crnci6ed Christ (GuillalllOnt, 1%3. pp. 310-25). Thi. use of a opeciat room for prayer is alle-.t(d from Ihe fourth century (Am~lineau. lB94. p. 76, wilh r«crence to MACtRIUS TIlE EOYP'TIAN). It seems lhat at Ism\ in the sevenlh century IheTe ",ere even IWO oratories. although the reaSOn for this has nol been detennined (Sauneron el a1., 1972, Vol. I. PI>_ 15-17). At some point, probably in the .i,th c"nlluy. I"" hermitage-or ....ther the lodging of a hermil-was "..,..ds set.... 478 CELSUS .n- composed of Ihree rooms: one for prayer. one for ~eep. and one for work. The: last. when il ",-as for an elder. "'"35 equipped ",1th an .COUSlic lube In. In front of !be door of his lodein•. n .. ""U done SO th:al. if ~ "'ished. he could keep his door bolted 3nd yet convene ",1m someone ouulde. T~ sleepin. room had a .mal.1 c....... bu, the silo or JlOte,OOtlO. in which he kept 1m Pffl"i1ioll$. Add 10 lheM: roo of the do.. an equal number for each of his diJciplos. usually dioposetl 10 the SOUlh of lhose of the elder an'ery numelOUf;: one of lhe hermitages exa.\...ted at Kelli. consisled of fifty-eip.1 moms. NOl all of ~ roonu: served for the Iodp"I of Ihe hermits. ner-e w«re a certain number of Cf'tSoI: 01 lhe A...hie· o.rist;"n word .,.,/~. Sincc the bishops had to be ccl'bllc. they """,",t chosen very early. Thai KetIlS common. IIthougb not obliplory. from Ihe period of "11W<~rus... his festal Iellers testify. A {ornlcr monk or hermit who had become • bishop contin...,d 10 li...., lhe cenobilic Or t.ennh life; hence, his ...,sidence. 0.- ~piskopcw.r, was quile nat· urally c.lled q~lI~y~h, It ",-as the same fot" • palri'reh. If hi. dwelling was called kellio", the name qall~YQh came It.tu.... ny to describo! nOt only hi. place of residencc but alw the whole body of pe.... sonl ....'1->0 formed hi. entour.>g", as on .. speaks of the '"coun'" of • king. This KnSe appell'S to be ro.. IIlesled from the tenth cenlury bul only in A.... bic. not in Coptic. BIBUOGIlAPHY Ame!ineau. E. HislOin da ",OtJoiUl,ffl,' d~ 14 Basse· ED·p'e. Ann;>les du MU$ie Guimt::l 25. Paris. 1894. Badawi.. A. '"1..o::lI PTemicrs habliiscmml5 chmlens dan. leo lIl1Clcnnes lombft, d'Ecn"e_" In T"",e <:omme.-4ri( d~ millbt.in de 14 Bib~'I"e pW-Vucak d·A/ubl//";e. pp. 67_19. Publicaliom de 1'lnstilUI d'ihUracuet.. R- "tc ChipitA: de: I'Histolrr: la,siaque SUr Ie< T.~nn~iotQ dfrive-t·il d'une """rce copte? u M..xOtJ 57 (1944);54-145; 58 (1945):15-95. Grossmann. 1"_ '"Die Unterkunfubauten des Kninobilenkk>$lera '[)air lIl·Bal.)iUI· ;m Vergleich mit den Ermitagen der M&>c:hen YOr Kellia."· In u Silt: "",.,Uliq.... da K.. /IiQ. Pl'. H-40. Ge-neva. 1986. Guilla.. mont, A, '"tine Inscription COple sur la 'pritre de Jtsu•. "· OrlertMIiQ Clrri REH£.GEOltGES CoQuDl CELSUS, anti.Q.riRiln writer and Pl:uonist ph.i. losopbet ......... Abt,hn Loco< (True J>i,scQOJnel. writlen .00." 178. is tht oldest survmng litenry attack on Christianity. All that is known of its au· thor is contained in 0l1GCt1 rq>Iy. Ute eight boob of Con"Q Celsum. written in e-rea (P:alestine) Ibou. 248. Ce:lsus "'as ITIOIt proboobly a S)'rian. fur he is best. inro.med about Ch,"tianily I" Palest.ine and Syria (comp:iln Oligen. CtPr'n> C~I'iUm .1i9. ...·here Cdsus profeua .linlhand knowlMgc 01 the .....ays 01 Christ... prophets in PhoenicUo and Pa/~ line). Origen enables a "ery considc...bk amount of Ihe True Discou"e to he reconstructed, and it i. clear that Cd.... hlld made himself well infonned about Christianity befon! he launched hi. attack. He ....,.. acquainted with the Gmpel of Manhew and proba· bly the Gospel of John, as ....elt .... Genesi. and CELSUS Exodus. He also knew of the Book of Enoch and the Book of the Secrets of Enoch, and In addition a number of apocryphal Jewish writing,;, such as The Life of Adam and Eve (see Contra Cels"", vi.27; Chadwick ed., p, 342, n. 2). as well as some Gnostic and Marcionile writing,;, He was well aware of the di.ision of Christianity in the second centu')' b.. tween the "Great Church" and numerous dissident (Gnostic and Mardonite) bodies. These, while shar· ing the name "Christian'" and refusing to be known by any other name. had nothing in cOmmon with each other (Cor/tra Cels"", iiLI2)-indeed, they hated each other (Con/ra Cels"", •.63). Nonetheless, Christianity was a danger to the SQ. ciety in which Celsus lived. His principal charge against the Christians "'.... that they formed an "illegal association" (i,I). Theirs was a secret s""iety (i.3), born from revolt against Judaism (ili.l4), that persuaded stupid individuals, by means of fear·in· spiring propaganda. to deS<:rt true religion (iii.l5) and gi.'e unquestioning <:>!>edience to them (i,9). Christian prosel}1lsm disrupted .""iety and threat· ened the traditional authority of the pater familias over hi. household (iii.55). and the Christians stood aside from civic dutieS and gav'e no help 10 the empire (viii.69-75). The issue of loyal!}' therefore lay at the heart of Celsus's attack; but 10 make his accusation stick. he went deepl}' into the origins of the Christian doc· trines of God and of man. and the life and claims of Jesus, He himself belie-'ed that "there is an ancient doctrine which has e.isted from the beginning whieh has always been maintained by the wisest nations and cities and wise men'" (i,14). Judaism, though in many ways repellent. had a claim to tolerance, since il was a religion based on ancient tradition (v.41). Christianity could make no SUCh claim, With considerable acumen. CeI,us infroduced a Jew infO the debate for t~dual purpose of demon· strating thaI the Jews were,an ignorant and rascally people, deceived by Moses; leaching (1.23; compare iv.36). and that the Chri~lians were even worse. being simply a rebellious offshoot from Judaism (ii.4), eelsu.s's Jew SQught to prove that Jesus could claim neilher mi,..culous birth (i.32) nor divine call at baplism (1.41), that he had picked up a knowledge or magic in Egypt 6.38). lhat his miracles were not ..traordinary, and that in the end he had been unable to save himself from disgraceful pun· ishment (ii.35. iI.39). Even his disciples did not believe him (;i,39), 479 To Celsu•. a riatonis!. it was impossible for GOO to come into contact wilh the malerial universe, and in no way did He behave like the angry and vengeful old man of Christian belief. roasting His enemies ali,'e (h'. I I). GOO was GOO of the whole universe. not of man only-let alone of the Chri.tian. (iv.99). The lattcr beha,'ed "like frogs holding a symposIum round a .wamp ... debating which of them was the most sinful, and saying. 'God rev'eals all things 10 us beforehand. and gives us warning. He forsake. the whole universe and Ihe course of Ihe hea,'enly sphere. to dwell with us alone'" (iv.23). Christian teaching concerning God. man, and the universe was nonsensIcal. Celsu.'s True Disra""e musl have had consider· able succes•. for copies survived some sevent), years after it had been written, and Origen thought il worth a greal deal of time .nd argumcnt to renne. Though he wrote Contra Ce!s"m as an exile in Caesarea, copies of his work circulated in Egypt, and parts of books i and ii were found in the papy. ruS library discovered at Turnb, south of Cairo, in 1941 (Chadwick cd .. p, 30), Celsus's .'iews of Egypt and its religion were more liberal than lhose of many of his contcmpo· raries, such as the satiri>! Lucian of Samosata (c, A.D, 170). The Egyptians were an ancient people, the original inhabitants of their land (iv.36). They were 10 be numbered among the "wise nations" of Ihe world (1.14); and their religion, though apparently full of mystel)'. superstition, and animal worship (iii.18-19). nonethele.. "rcspected imisible ideas and not as most people think, ephemcral animals'" (iii. 19), On the other hand. trafficking in magic "for a few obol, in the markel·place'" (i,69) could be charged against them, as could providing the origin of the Jewish customs of circumcision and absti· nence from eating pigs (v.41), Celsus's knowledge of Ihe Egyplians was probably nO more than that of an educated pro.'indal of his lime, His attack was on Christianity in general. especially where he knew it at first hand, in Palesline and Syria. He has less 10 say about Egypt, and his importance in the hislory of Christianity there is less direct. It lies in his contribution loward shaping Origen's ideas at a mature period of his life, in the incidental light he throws on the relations between Gnostics and the "Greal Church" at a time when Gnosticism in Egypt was particularly strong, and in what he indicates a.. the ani tude of educated pagans toward Egypt and its religioo.< practices in the lauer half of Ihe sec· ond century. 480 CENOBITES 1I111L1OGltAPHY Andre",,,. C. Logos "nd Nomos: Die Po/emil; des Kelsos wider do, Chrisunlum, Berlin, 1955, Labriolle. p, de. Lo Reaction pai'enne, Pari,. 1934. Miura-8tange, A. eels". "nd Origenes. Beiheft zur ZeilS<:lnift fUr neute.lamentliche Wissenschaft 4_ Giessen, 1926. Wifstrand, A. "Die wahre Lehre des Kel.o.... In H"manisliskQ ventenskapOjjamfundel, Lund. Ars· beer/Weiot 1941_1942, PI'. 391-431. Lund, 1942. Win, R. E. Albin"s and Ihe History of Middle PiaTonism. Cambridge. 1937. W. H. C. FRF.ND CENOBITES. See Pachomius of Tabenn~st, Saim. CENSER (MUMARAH). See Liturgical Instru· ments; Metalwork, Coptic. CERAMICS, COPTIC, the pottery produced in Egypt from the late Roman to .he early Islamic period, There mUSt be nO illusion about the term "Coptic <:eramics," The Ie<:hniques of production were in the .radition of Hellenistic and Roman techniques. Similarly. there is no marked st)'listic dis<:ontinuity between the products of the Roman period and those of the Copto·Byzantine period in that both depended on ponery imponed from O1her regions of the Mediterranean. Nor doe. the Arab conquest in the se,'enth century .eem to have intro· duced fundamental changes in local workmanship. It is not unusual to obselO'e lhe presence of "Cop· tic" ceramic, in so-called Islamic areas until at least lhe temh century. Manufacturtng Tecb.... ques A technological 'Judy 'of ceramics alloW!l one to define group' of wares 'according to the type of day, the method of shaping, and the mcthod of firing, Il shows lhe characteristics of a workshop or manufacturing group. Such a study ,hould begin with general comments on the materials and techniques of making ceramics in Egypt. Raw Material. Clay i. fine particle. of sedimenta· ry rock. formed from argillaceous minerals (hydrat· ed aluminium silicates) and nonargillaceous miner· als Isuch as quartz and calcite). which appear in varying proportions in cla)'$ in the natural state_ The lamellar. crystalline structure of these minerals is modified by the addition 01 water. which gives .he clay pl;Ulicily. and by firing at a high tempera' lure. which make, il strong and hard. It may be .upposed that the da)'$ used by the potters of the Copto·Byzantine period were nQl basically different from those used in the more remote past or those still used today. Clays rna)' be subjected to \'ariOU5 treatmenls.uch as kneading, crushing, washing. and siftingthat vary according 1<) the properties of the clay. the type of vessel to be produced. and. pos.ibly, local cu-stom,_ In order to incre"", the strength of the ....-all of a clay object. to limit plasticity. and to control poro,ity or shrinkage on drying, non plastic organic and/or mineral panides called lempers are ohen added 10 the natural clay. For a more detailed .tudy of tempers see M. Picon (1973. pp. Ilff.). For the methods of preparation of clay in pharaonic Egypl see D. Arnold (1980, cols. 399 ff.), and J. Bouniau (1981, Pl'. 14f1), which has a tcntative classification of days. Pharaonic and Coptic Egypt had three basic t~pes of clay. although in the ab",nce of detailed systematic analyse. any attempts at classification may well appear aleatory (Tobia and Sayre, 1974. p. 124: Noll, 19S1, Pl'. 108 and 112). POllers used Ihem separately and probably also in mixtures. C~Ic~Fe' ous, OF ",~rl days are characlerized by a relath'ely high proportion of calcite, They have slight quantilies of silica and iron oxide and a few micas (brilliant J1at partides); vegetable panicles are seldom present (Arnold, 1980. col. 395ff; Bouniau. 1981, pp. 14-15; Arnold, 1981, PI'. 167-91). During the Copto·B\-7.anline period ,everal group' of v_e), seem to have been made of calcareous da)'$' The first group is that of ampborae (largc, two· handled jars), especially from such sites in lower Egypt as Abu Mina and Kellia (Egloff, 1977. type 186); they have a beige·to-yellow paste on the surface (Munsell 2, 5YR8/3. IOYR7/4). which includes many black and yellow nodules. large ....·hite pani. c1e, (perhaps calcite). and rome grains of quartz, Breaks are often redcli,h pink (Munsell 2.5YR5!7; 2,5YR5f8), The second group consists of water jugs, such as those from the fifth cenlury al Kellia (Egloff. 1977. types 198-202); pilchers with excised. vertical fluting. perhaps from Abu Mfna (Egloff. 1977, type, 227-281; and water jugs and flask, from Isna (Jacquet·Gordon, 1972. p. 13. pI. 4). Siiiceoul day_<. Or $i/I, are characterized by high levels of $ilica and iron oxide. They also contain graln, of quartz. micas. and organic particles (Ar- • CERAMICS. COPTIC nold, 1980, wis. 394-95: Bourriau, 1981, p. 14), In the Coptic period su~h days were no doubt the material of the "fine" (as dj.lin~1 from "COOl"$e") ceramic product< of whal M. Rodziewicz call. Group K (1976. pp. 50f1) and J. W. Hayes calls Eg)p1ian B. The~ cooking dishes, dwp bowls, and storage ja" (Rodziewic,_ 1976. K 35-36: Egloff, 1977, typos 258-98; Jacquel·G()Tdon, 1972. K 1-2. 4_ 1I, cla)' Ill) are of red (0 brown days (Munsell 2, 5YR4!6; SYRS/3). In the clays, visible \0 Ihe naked e)'e, are fine particles of mica. 8raio. of quartz, and frequent lraces of vegetable tempers. A group of amphorae is characterized by brown, highly mica· ceous days (Egloff, 1977, types 172-80; Spencer and Bailey. 1982. pp. 16ff). Kaolinitic c1~ys cornain kaolinite, a hyd, 1976, pp. 54/1). Shplng. Coptic polling t""bniques, Jik< th"", of Gr~c< and Rome, aHowed for both Sp;1" (water jugs). Traces of cord visible on and un· der Ihe maximum diameler of the body indicale Ihat in the drying that preceded the firing, the pol' ler wished to hold the body with a temporary SUj>pon 10 prevem undue .train on the walls. Some 481 lids with a b"'eled rim (Egloff. ln7, type. 347/l.) seem to have come from the .ame preliminary shap< as the cooking pots 10 whieh Ihey are pert«lly adapted (Egloff. 1977, types 110 and 115- 16). 111< pot was turned as a c10>e<\ shap< and is thought to have been "beheaded" obliquely with a cutting tool in Ihe upper parl, thus fonning the lid. The lower part, the remaining th",e·quane,.... formed Ihe pot (Rhodes, 1978, fig, 93. 6), During and after the fashioning of the prelimi· oar". shape. the potters smoolhed the surnces witb a blade (Rhodes. 1978. pp. 45ff.). Then Ihey resort· ed 10 fin~hing. With a CUlling instrument Ihey trimmed off the walls. rim. and base (Picon, 1973, pp. 30-31). So far as bowls and plates of Group 0 are concerned (Radziewicz, 1976. 0 23: Egloff, 1977, types 33-37). the helicoidal marks "f looling. quile visible on the exterior surface, eon.lilute a veritable trademark. On amphorae and pots. potters liked to make a network of horizontal rilling lines giving a ribbed appearance to the vessel's surface. This treatment, intended among nther things to facililate gripping Ihe vessel. was obtained by presmre from the fin· gers during throwing or wilh the help of a cutting tool, Handles, .pouts, and filte,... were luted (coated) with barboli". (liquid clay) before Ihe final drying. Throwing was lhe principal fashioning technique used in CoplO·Byzanline Egypt. Molding seems to have b<:en vel)' rarely employed and modeling was noncx;stant;ne period, il cannot be doubted Ihal Egypl possessed a ~onsiderable number. (On methods of firing, see Picon, 1973. pp. 55ff.) The ar~haeological literalure refers 10 kilns al Mary(ll (Empereur and Garlan, 1984, and Picon, 1984); at ...bii Mini. where the specialty was figurines and eulogia (praise or blessing) AMPUllllE. as well a• common ware; and at al.A$hmtlna".n (Hennopoli• Magna), where Ihe arehaeol"gical remains are complemenled by Ihe C\~dence of a papyrus, dated 517. that mentions a polter'. worbhop in the Hennopolite nome (Spencer and Baile)'. 198Z, p, 17 and n. 17). In Upper Egypt. kilns have been disco\'e",d at Medamud and Too (bibliographical references con· ceming Ihese areas are collected in Egloff, 1977. p. 191, n. 2). 482 CERAMICS. COPTIC 1'he S!ruClure and I'unetiOJling of 1M kil... b~ n~r ~n OIudio:! in detail. The kil ... M M~ud are dcscribtd Ibus: '-rim kiln consi$1$ of. lower of cruck bricks. "ich an openi"A al the bouom, on a 1t'Ve1 wil" the Iwnace chaml>tr. In the lower, .nd I'leSlricllnz the Ololi:e-hoIt, is • plalfonn, perforaled 10 makc • sort of ~nware &rill 011 whieh lhe pots 10 """ fiTe\0l"f allem"'" should be Wreded 10 !he Romanizadon of manu£ac· luri", teehniquH in Egypc and !heir poinlS of Con· \.aCt with CopIo-Bf"U'line cenunia. and CoptoByzanline innonrions ...... ld be idenli/i~. Funhoc-r llR'haeolop:al invcstigaliol1S, aiming al Ihe disco... CTy of pn:xluaion siles, and .pplicalion of IabonllGry methods ",ill undoubledly produce a bCller ~aI· ualion of Ib....., problems. ran,. BIBI.IOGR"PHY Adams, W. Y. "Poltel)' Kiln Exc...... lkm' ... K~h .. Journg/ 0{ liz. Sudgn IIntiquiliu Service 10 (1962):62-75. Arnold, D. "K"l'l1mik."' Luikon de' ;(gyp'olo,ie, Vol. 3. col. 392-409. Wicsbadcn. 1980. _ , "Agyp!ische MergehOl1e ("WlUlenlonc'") und die Herkunft einer MelllelTon"·.", dn Minle' .-en Reiches autl der Gcgend VOn Memphis."' In Sttod"", 0" II/ratypllSChc" Xe'"mik. m. D. Ar· nold. Mainz am Rhein, 1981Ballet, P., and M. Picon. Ruhc'Cltu prilimi"gins $'" II'S orirUo.s de /g dt-a",ique du XeUUt f£crple). lmpon..rioolJ U prtHlou:rions laFfie""u' Cahirn de lao cmmlque f.&yp!lomne I. Cairn, "" BlMo" de La, Roquc, F, MidtlntOtUl {19M,. F_iIl.s de rI...nl"l fr"'~"is d',,~ orienl41e, Vd. 8, p~ 1. C.. ilD, 19J1. Bowriau, J. lJ",m d·C"·,,b. Pollery from tire Nile Vgllq klan ,Ju N"b Conquat. Exhibilion lU !he F"I\a:wiJliam M.-um. Cambridle, 198L Brissaud, P. Us ./eUe,s de pOIiers de I" .;gion de IAuqwf. Bibliodl~que d'Elude, Vol. E 78. Cairo, 1982. Egloff, M. Xe/Ita. L4 PO/me COple. Q".t.. si~cks d'If,!isgn,,1 el d'ich"ngel e" &sse EVpu. Recherches suis$es d'a.cheologie cOple. Vol. J. Genc.., 1977. Em!"',..,ur, J. Y., and C.arlan, edt. "Rccherche. sur I... amphOTCl! G",cques."· "'C'el 11" colloq". intun"li(mg/d'lIl"",,,el, 10./2 I,pltmb,. /984. Suppkmenl to B"lltU" de COrTespo"dg"a IzdU"ique 13 (1984). Holthoer, R, N.", Xlngdom Phllrllo"ic Sli.... The POllery. Copenhagen and S,ockholm, 1917. Jaocquet-GonJon. H. LeI E...../IIIJ:.s c1z"lins du di...... d'Es"", Vol. J: Cbj~1<. FOltc. ""d T«h",oIoo 01 M>II1cri'f1IiMkot Kut Ii rUl<de ruJmiq.. ~ du eho.· m;q..~s Jitinie1 tie L.etmu. Ce,,/re de lUchu.Jus su' ks t.ch"ilf'UJ ,nco-romIlDoCI, no. 2. DijmT. 1973. Rhodes, Danid. L4 PoIerie; /u fomtu. Pari~ 1979. 1l0dzK0wicz. Mieay,Ja"'. Lg Clrgmiqu• ......,gin. '"" d/~e t/'Alutmdrie. ",/u,a"drie I, I....... Z. Kil&. Wa~w, 1976. Spencer, A. J., :and D, M. 91>;I,y. 8ritish M",e"m Exp.dilkm 10 Midd/. EVPI: "'Ih"'l CERAMICS, COPTIC 483 "o,'ogy 0/ Maruia/,. Vol. J. Proceedin!:" of 2nd Cairo Solid State Conference: 1973, Ed. A, Dishay, New Yo,'k, 1974, Decoralive Techniques and MOllfs [).,coration had a considerable place in Coptie ~eram;c,. 11 appeared in simplified for", eWn on anieles intended for evetyday use. Dc~orati"e technigues b"ar witness to sped.IiUllion in workshop' and adaptation of ornament to th" typ" and lech· nQJQgy Qf the "c"el. Imp",,,e" deemati"n was gen· erally assedated with wares made Qf relati,'cly fine days: painting was fQund Qn '.,'ares Qf ~Qa ...cr cia}'. It is sometimes difficult 10 distinguish betwcen ,he pro~ess of fabrication itself and Ihe decorative ef· feet that rna}' ha"e resulted fmm it ..'uch as ttaces of cords on .mphora and cooking pOlS. Coptic decoration e,c~lled more in ilS icon(~ graphic and Sly'listie exprossion than In the tech· niques of application, Impressed decOTation w""' de· pende", On late Roman ceramics. It is in lhe mNifs of painted dccoration ,hat Coptic ceramic, sum to be distinguished from an} enemal inspiralion a!ld prese", real originali,} In this recordlion fotn\ed by impressing Or sl.",pi"g a carved motif on soft clay waS directly inspired by late Roman "fioe" ceramics. espe~ial1}' the ,igilla'" of Late Roman B ("fine" "'are from North Africa) and 0, 10 use 0. F, Waage's le"minology, taken over b} M. Rodzi"wicz and M. Egloff. This technique was importc"; into and i",ilat<'J in Egypt. Fine IoscI from Alex· andri~ Ix-ars witness (Rodziewicz. 1976, p. 54). On wares al Kellia, there arc impressions of the m"no· gr~m of Christ. su,,~ with ",,'cn branches. Maltese ~rosses. and ~ "i,-petaled flower (Egloff, 1977. p. 81. pis, II, 14, 15, 1_7); and a, 1 Impressed decoration on an AS"'ao'group bowl. CO",· u" Louvre M",-e~m, I'aris. Pho!o by Ch~uvill", ser. 1983, nos. 16-17 ami 38). were seldom stamped. according 10 Radziewicz (1976, p, 50), Terra'~ol1a stamps inlended for imprin,ing de~o' J"3ti\'e mOlifs have been fooJllj at Elephanl;ne (Thllo. 1971, p, 235-42), RmJlened dceoJ"3tion, con· si. fig. IJa, e, d), Simple con~enlrie gmo,,"s dee orated the bot· l"m of ce,,.ln pieces of Croop K wares (Egloff. 1977, lype 63: !Cas,er. 1983. no. U, 36). on Ihe pattern of Late Roman B and D. Another frcquenlly found form of impressed dceoralion i, the irnpTess;on of ropes on and below thc outer rim. ThO; dcsign might also be e\'idence of the manufacturing technique (Radziewicz, types K21b. K23b, K24c), inci,ed decoration is eut into the wall of the ''''<. sci with a gouge or knife to produce a linc or groove. The .houldcl' and helly of light·colored ~Ia}' pitchers at Kellia (l;:gl<)lI. 1977, lypeS 227-28), which perhaps O1iginated ;n Abu Mimi. weI''' ;nci,ed 10 create ,"eltical fluting, ° 484 CERAMICS, COPTIC 1'11lle<;, wide 00..1., .."d deep d,...... , h abo omam""", lhe should"'" e;tf walCr jup.."d pitchers; Ihe penncabililY of ,heir ... ~";ng lhe coolness of Iht watcr, rn'i,«! lhe colors, Painliog ..... Iht p.-efelT"Cd decoralion lor cense", and pot lamps. probabl~ for Itlurpe..l ~. Rcduced to simple points and quickl" lokClehcd blinds and arr.... il adorns clXlkinl! pou II is also found on Sl<>raf!e , ..,...,k. -an., De<:ora'ion ..,.. nol UJOl'asn, In ccnain Cascl, lhe ..pplicaJion of Ih.. in'endcd '0 conceal lhe [cchnical dL..,on,;on po"en,' of Ihe "essel The .hemes and u:ehn;ques of paiming on ''aSC>' ••'olved unlil Ihe fiflb Cenlury. "';Ih lIellen;Slic and Koman ",,,,irs, such .. garlands of 1I0",crs and de· ,ign. in IrieA'S, .. 'he prcdominaling inlluence Fro'" lhe lifth II> Ihe sC"emh se,_ Watcr jug wilh slaml"'d dc~o...tion and ncd in d,c £or'" of a b.,"rded lIl3n, C,,,,rldt C"ptlc M"st""" C"lra, n...",ar;llion bv deformatio" and ~"It"'g is rese ....·cd c'dusively for lhe rim, which i. ahcreJocioc oricnglc found llOme shttds from HerYRilagC 167 al Kdh.. sh_,ng :!Uch decor-Ilion Schc_lic modckd bees ",'ere someumcs .. pphcd 10 the oul..r surface of .essds (Cle.bl, IIJO.l. p. 102, fig. 57; Mumoy. 1935, pp. 2-3, pI. II, 2, lit lorn-rt, A"'hi"io di fil"""fl3 13 Ill. Palnled DeeoraUon, Painling dearly diSlinlJUbh· C$ COJllic pollIO')" from ,he deeor.Il;.'e le~hn;qu.-s dcn\'ed from laIC Roman ~er.lmics, ..lthough Ihe two IllClhods or deco...t;'", were con[cmporaneous, Some pi«::cs, h"",'e,·e., juxtapo"" impressed l1lotifs and painled omamentalk", (lIaye., 1976, nOS, 109110), A ,,'ide rdnge of forms and warc, could ha"" painlcd d«::C>nltion, E1aborale and wmelin,,,s pre' semlng real composilions, ;1 is PJ"CS('nl on cups. .-c., Large polle,', jar palmed "'ilh birds and ,a;nt,. ('",,,. le<, Coptic Muse"m, Cdim. CERAMICS. COPTIC 485 ,reunlen, of mulirs. Tht)· adop.ed 'nc dark circle and ..mpkn'ed a rela'i~e1~ limi,...d ~1"'lc of colors.. Thrv in,roduced a ...,Ii~ iclBl'hy, • ""dt >,.M" of animals, and. Ror.al and gtontoetrical com· bina'ions adapted '0 'ht dtmands of lilt (ol'm. From 'Ilt e'ch,h cenn",' the lradilional ehancter of paJ~.ed cer;m,ia penisfed as much in Ch.... "an .,..,. as ,n zon~ of Ar.ob Jl<'I><'lntion. Psin' c.......,ed ofslip (liquid clay) colored bv lilt add"ion 01 rnet2l1ic o~ido<s. OrIC ~' It'Chnique 00 \lrlilaud poI.e.... "''U 10 coa, • fired .,......,1 ",llh • thick la• .,. or ",hue slip and lhen pain'molifs on ie, as In e..... "'p1et or th.. mini cen'ur. from AnllnO<' tAnunoopohs) (K.... ny and YO)'Ol1t. 1979.I'lOl, 19'201), TIlt cotors used ""ere brown and bbck (m3nga· nese 0" manganiferous hema,ile), red ...",n,., (iron oxide), and ",hi,e (.'ery pure kaolin) INe)','e'. 1966, 1'1'.40-41: Noll, p, 123), Th. decora'ion ",a. monuchrome (blad/bro"n), bichrom.. (black/brown and whi'e or blad/brm,m and ....d/orange), or mh'· chrome (bl~ck/bro",n, red/orange, and ",bi,e) Ac· cording to SOme npens, Ihis techniq"e preceded I"'in,ing on a ... w unfired ba.... , b", anal,",e, "I iOmc poL,herd.« of I].., Cop,ic period ha,'c con· firmed ,ha"h.. painhng had I>t-<'n lim.! ()l,'oll, 1981, p 12) Pa,med dtcOl'll.l>on on 11 wa•.,r·jug: 1"''0 hara and a .-..ge'a! mol'!. C_ ........ Coptit: Cairo_ Photo h Gi-:u- If"..,,,,... !'aint or .he- usuall. aprlltd ..."h a brush. A >k"'ch was mad<' in Il,lu och.... or ",ilite_ ,go.. . "''38 n.cn u... con'OUR ......-e qukkl> emphasized "';Ih black lines and ha'ch",.. 11"s procedu ... or shadin~ ....,ith .wift, ""r.oJleI ""as I'~I" influcnc-ed b. lhe an of Alexandria tRw",,,. 1954. p. 60). Finail" ,he colo... of Ihc hlJ!lIo,h,. "'..,..., added (I"~~' rC!, 1966, p. 41: Oesroches,'Ilobl~oun and V",n;:out· .er. 1981). Sometime., ho... ",.""r, ,he linge' was u.ed 10 prinl oin'pl .. dol•. In 'he late Koman ""nod, ,he composi,ion of painted eemmic d~"Corat;on Wa' ~ch... K"'''mik, 1978, n<>. 437). COfltie p.inl".... howewr, prda"",,, .,mI«... Palmed decora,ion on a d"",p bowl' t"'O ",ell rai.ing their 1'18ht hands; ondula'ed rinl. em",••)' 1.0"'·... Mus..",", Pan•. Pl,mo b.· eh,,~vill.. , 486 CERAM1CS, COPTIC Ia., c"ntucd rompo """'ope$ ($quarc spares in a Dorir fricr.e), Thc." "'... a cl...., link \>ct"''eCn 'M form of the ,..,..,h and thc romposition of 1M omam"nt.ation Thc bod;.". of jars ,,'''''' buds: toQInftilllC$ fuJi." aosorialcd "'ilh Iish "'-.os dl$jll..~ Ccomctrio< moIif,; "'ere arnnl"d OIl 1M "'ide rims of 'e:.sels ... nd Censl:f1 COplic palmed cen",;e" pre:<enlcd .... ,de! rani" of ic:onog..... Phr (Edolf, 1977, pp, 56-58. Mond and My"n. pI. 72-81). I'a;nlen of potle!) probabl)" drcw Ihcir ;nspi",'inn from 'he ironovaPh~' of mu· ral palming. book illuminalion, and le>tiles. C"rla,n compo" prop";al. 10 '-'"all paimin&". A cerlain parallelism I. nOlic.able In lhe Irealme", of fonns, such as an OUlline delineating a muM ,or lhe hleralic aSP~1 of a human form. Coplic painled decoration relied 10 a mod"..,c degree on the human figure. Oflen II '-'""" ,n Ihc form of a busl, apparcnlh' deri",d from F-i)l'lo, Rotnan funef"aJ"}' pen...... l,... Sometime. onl)' lhe head ......., "",re"'nIM (Ouibdl, 190$, pl. 62, 4; I..ou"l'<', no. EI0993: Bult~, 19S0, no. B8, fil. p. 2). Slun" in niches or ...lIlts on hotvback 6Jh'in, • dracon Ionncd rcallittle pictures (N""""",-. 1966; Uom",a~. !>err<' 5.r1l...."'n. 1979, pp. 187-89; Mull'll'" 1935, pp. 1-2. pl. I. 1.4-5, pl. 91. n,,, Lou,«, pooIS~",OI a rare 'epo ......rmuion of No"O men ....in' Ihei. tl&hl hand< 01'1 1M rn,.me..1 of ... cup (Lou,,",. Arrhi'in di '1060"", no. (939). The rkh ,... ri<:tv cI beasts sho".-ed. $Ironl prefe... "roc" for pulles, 110m. aMeS, and barco. (Mond and My"n. I 'NO. pl. 72; Quibell. 1912. rI S I). The .,w· nle faun "015 ",,~irbes aosoriale """t"nod Painted m"hical """,,,,I;n Ihc cenler of a largr dtSh, prob.ablj' from Ihe As"'an workshop". COll'Ie.,. COp"c' M",eu'", Cairo, by (;i'l/;$. i'lII'," no .N06S!86401). In wme casel the e"slence 'If schools or work· shops can be diSllnIUlshc'U!d be impervious to liquid Glau "' used .. ith boIh ,m. pressed and painlcd d«orahon Cbtt ......., applicd to vnsds <Jl Group" 0 and w of local line "'....,..". (Rodzi""io:, 1976. pp. ~ 61). In the eighlh cenlu ry. gbud 'peei"",n$ from Groups 0 and "" COC1is<· cd "'i'h undazed lof>"Cimcu, "hid disappcarC'd In Ihe course of lhe nln,h renlul)'. Duling Ihis """nod phase, local glazed ceramic< continued, "hlle glazod r"ramle< began 10 be imponcd from Syria. Mcwpo"ullia (Iraq). and Persia (ltan). On these local e.... "'plC$ Ihe rrd!orange ,lip coal ing of wart. (in Group 0) w"" covered w,lh • clear glaze, The while .lip COOling CERAMlCS. COPTIC brown. and bl..," colon 01 pllinl~d dfioration ben....'h 'M &bu. A pffn 0< brown 8la>.e was abo Wd down C!'VeT Ih~ m ....p.r~nt. 'ilreoui c:oatin•. The eharK1~riIoti<: Copii<: mooD ""cit as birds and prbnds ~ cont~rnpor-ary ",,;m lIoral e1~menlS market! b1 a na"rralis< I~ and probably lnflu· erwed by ,he 1ust~""''Ve from Sarnarra. M~topo...· .... BIBUOGIUoPHY Bacbwy. A. "L'An c<>p(C. Inlluenoca hdl~nlsd· Sulldin d~ n1luim, d'Eo~ l.c!; qW$ ~, 1"01tUl1l'"'"-.·· 35 (l95'l):S-63. BuU. J. "La C~ramiqu~ copte:' A...::hloloci~ lJ.8 (I980);20-2S. Clb:bll. J. LA ",o"oSl~'" d to 1Iuropole de So"..II. M~moire5 publ~. 1'''' Ies membrfl de l'(nsc;,u, fnn~ais d'archwlogie oritnlak Vol. 12, 00. 34. C.lro. 1904. D<:sroch~s·Noblecoun, C. and J. V"n;ouu~r. eds, U.. 5i~cle de fouilles fT<",~";.e$ en Egypl,. 18801980, Cairo and Paris. 1981. Egloff. M. Kelli".' ta polerie cople. QU.. I'" si'clu d·..rris"""1 el d'hho,.ges en Bos.e Efypl•. Recherches $UIsses d'ATcheologie COPI~. Vol. J. Cenf""'. 1917. Crimm, G. 51..dl ultd Tempel "".. EI"plr....li"". FiJnllU C.~/nar,sberi"'rl. Miu.ilungen da Deu· lSC~n Archiol..ischell IllStilu15-Ab,eilunll Kllroo Vol. 31. Mainz am Rhein. 1975. H.yet-. J. W. Rom.... pone" in ,Ir~ Ray.1 O"I~no .wuU'''''''' A C,,'~lotuL ToronlO. 1976. H~nM. Henri. RJrpporlSUT les fourllts h Tdl EdlOM J9lJ-4. Fouilles de 1'lftStilll1 fno~Ul d·.rchft>lo. &i. orienta.... Vol. 2, pL 3. Cairo, 1925. H""''''''fU • ,. "1(,. lf1imoiT~ d~ 5"~ s......l«>OI J927Vol. 2. BiWiotlookIu. d'nude. Vol. til. Cairo, 1979. Jxquec-Gonlon. H. Us Emtilqu elllll",,,s d. dId'ESIt". Cb"",Uj_ el oI>i~u., vol 3. Fouil1es de "lns';"'1 ~ d·ard.mlogW oriental., Vol. 29. pc. 3. Cairo. 1972. -to " -•. Il. Survey ",d.b>Jogiqu~ tI.s Kdli~ fB~sse E,:ypie). R"ppon de I" e""'J' u" 487 is. 1966. We hav~ o;lno....' n e>.,.nsi~ly on ,his otud}' in reganllo the pain'ed decora,ion. Noll, W. Ik""du K.""",iktn. Stud,Uf tut Q/liityplisehen K.,~mik. ed. D. Amold. M.inz am Rhein. 19BI. Qui!>ell. J. E. £z.,.",..l'ion. ~, s..w~ra. II. 1906J907. Cairn, 1903. ___ &c"".lion. III Sle d. Ktim d· DilhL Etudes d T.. Vol. 10. TraYllW: du c.,n.... d'al'Cbiol"lie ~ i ~ e d. I'Aca· dtmie 1"<>10""""" des Sciences. Vol. 20_ Wat$lW, ,'aUll. 1973_ _ _ "Em'Jllian Glazed Ponel'} 01 ,he Eigltlh 10 Nimh Cemuries." B~tI'lj,\ de I.. Sociill! d'"rchtc>logi~ C<>pIe 2S (1983):73-75. Ulben, T. "K.ramiUt.mpel aus EI....,antin.:· Mil1~i1..ngm du DeUl.chu ilrchlJoiogischen {".liluI5, Ableilu..g K..i,o 27 (1971):23SM42. Waage. O. F. !lelt~ni"lc ~nd Rom,,,, rob/.war. 01 North S)'ri... ilnlioch Q" th. O",mes IV. Princ.ton. N.].. t948. Types of Ceramic W•• e Th~ oernmia of CoplO"By>JIn,in~ Eflyp, .... all of temt",oIta. lhat is. filYd .annen",... re.. They <>If•• a .....lied nIlge of "'.~ .nd manutKlurint: groups adapled to very spe<:ilic funclions. The folk>v.inll discu$sion is ba.v:d larg.ly on ,he few InOllogr'aphs on archaeological siles ohal deal with pouery. The cJa.s.i~eation elven hen mull be con~. inclusive. The sites-""",h • hermlt.l&es It 1""- and IC.Uia and urban foundatio... It Alaandria .nd ~ tiQf:-ha,.., }ielded • rich <:oll~<:tion 01 (ompleting the piclure provided by muxum colk<:· ,ions- nus ..... ,~rial givn ",idenc~ of dail)' U5e of "fine" 1abilOWllIY, cool """.ria1 488 CERAMICS, COPTIC logi~al definitions seem, howe,'er, to agree on the following ~riteria: the diameter of the mouth is gen· erally more than 6 to 8 inches (15-20 cm) and the objects are shallow, with a depth seldom more than one.third of th. diameter, Plate, and dishes are well represented in the three groups of "fine" cerami~ ware diotinguished by RO.iewicz, 1983, pp. 140-42, fig. 3a). The typolngical approa~h to classification of pot· tery remains uncertain, at least for the puflXlS" of tracing th~ broad outlines. Nevenheless, there are a num~r of plate forms with a wide flat rim whose diameter often e~~eeds one f(H)1 (30 cm). Other plates, of more modest size, show a thickened rim or one formed by a lip flared outward_ The .ides z- re' ; are slightly convex, sometimes with a rectilinear flaring. The base is generally' formed by an annular f(H)l. The inneT and outer .urfaces of these types of vessels are coated with a matte or slightly shiny slip, in red (Group K), orange (Group 0), or white~ige (Group W). Their open form makes them suit. able fo< decoration: the inner surface sometimes ~arries stamped motifs, guilloches, painted decora· tions, and, on some late specimens, a coat of glaze. The outer surface is often decoraled with guilloch. es, sometime. also found on th~ rim. Among the .tamped motifs, the mQno"",m of Christ and cross· e. are Ihe most frequent (Hayes, 1976, nos. 109110). The painted decoration is applied as a circular or centered compositinn. The Ihemes al"<' often taken from the animal and vegetable killgdoms, for example, hares running, ,eparated by a plant motif (Meisl.rw.rke 1978, no. 438, pi, 15); a central motif ornaments the oottom of dishes, sometimes a fish (Hayes, No. 107-108), a bird (louvre, EI2226: Desrochcs-Noblecourt and Vercouuer, 1981, no_ 357), sometimes a m)1hical animal (Coptic Muse· urn, IKl. 3374(10271). TIte rai.ed rim of plates fre· quently has a painted decoration of interlacing, braid, and scroll patterns (Kasser, 1983, no. 13, p. 429). The glaze Ihat appea<s on certain e~amples of Groups 0 and W from AleJlandria is applied over painted decorations in the Coptic tradition, .u~h as the bird and floral themes (Rodziewic., 1978. pIs. 3-4). The appli~atinn of decoration was not a general rule: plates and dishes from Group K were generally without it, ex~ept for a few slamped impression., imprints of cnrds on the outer edge, and circular gro,»'... It i. also quile probable that Ihe lack of paint~d de~oration is due to the .ometimes medio~re qualities of the painted layer and its po<JT state of presenoation. Among some typological and functional ,'ariant. of "fille" lableware, some dishes for cooking, often carinated, with a broad, rounded base, should be noted. They are fechnologically related to wares of Group K (Egloff, 1977, types 81-97; Kasser, 1983, nns, 4Itf.; Rodziewic~, 1976, types K 34-36), TItere are alw platters with small cup-shaped depressions arranged around the rim, surrounding a central ~up, which might, from their compartmentali>.ed ~tru~ture, han held several ingredients or food~tuffs. The inspintion for them ~ould ha,'e Come from silver vessels (De.ro CERAMICS, come ) / J • '" \: ,- .. C( ,- , I, I, I .- '., "I , I • I ~ J ~ .~. Principal POtlely types and Stollps in Coplic·Byzantine Egypl:; I. Plilole. "group K.N From Kellia. Egloff, t)-pt 16. 2. Bowl. "group 0:' Kelli•. q1off. type"'. ). Deq> dish. lsou.. Jacquet·Gordon, £11 . 4. Cooking-pol. Ktllia. Ejj:lolf. I)'p<' 118. 5. Sto"'ae jar. Isna. Jaocquet-Gordon, KI. 6. Bro",,, "Middle Egyplian"(~, amphora. Kelliol. EJ;loff. type 174. 7. Egyptian 01" Palestinian (?)"Amphore-fI", type 182. 8. Water.jug. Kellia. Eflloff.lype 204. 9. Boule, "group 0" or Aswan Ware. Is"•. Jocquet·Gordon. NS. Reproduced /.,,,,,, Jacquer.(;ordon, 1972, ond Elt/off. 1'176, by P. La/eni"". Cau Yle5Y P. Bul/el. 489 490 CERAMICS, COPTIC diKl,I$Sion ul SobY<', 1985), ~ cupped plauel'll, see Ruucho.... BIBUOCRAPHY Desroches-Noblecoun, C_ ''LeI. Nouvelles foullles de Too: Ilbullal5 e. Prinlemps 19so.allomne 19S1.~ B..II,m, de I. Sociili F,...~.iH d'£opro/orie 93 (19'2):12_ ~"""·NobIttourt, C., and J. WrrouUft". eds. u~ Slede de {ouiBu fr"""Q'~ en Eo.",e, IUO1980. Cairo and Paris.. \981. Ealoft. M. 11:,11,..: /11 pol,rie cDple. Q"QI/C ~,«:IO$ d·"nil"".. , er d'iclollngu e" &su·£c'ple. Reche... clles wisws d'A.-chiokJgit copl:e, Vol. 3. Gene"",. 1917. Hayes, J. W. Rom,m 1'01",., ,n Roy", Otl/Qrio l Sylsses d'A.chwlogie Cople de l'Uni,'Cnlli d.. Genhe. louvain, 1983. Alds/,n.,uk. ..l1iigyplischer K...."'ik. 5000 J"h... KUIlSI ""d Ku"sr;,,,,,dwerl ,ms To" ""d F"y."ce, Hohr-Grenhauscn, 1978. Roc!ziewicz, M. JA Cer"..,;q.. e rom"i"e 1",d,Ye d'AI· u(mdrie, A;u"ndrie f. Warsaw, 1916, ___ JA Cer"",iq..e i",,,ifIh cOple de K6m el· Dikb.. Etudes eI Truaux. Vol. 10; T""Yau. du Cemre d'al"<:heologie medile~nne de l'Ac.o· dlmie polonaise des sciences, Vol. ZO, Wa/'Sllw, 1975. RUIKhowskap.. N.·H_ ""'at> • cupules d'epoque copte;' R,vu, d.. Loa..... 5/6 (19SS);"12-IS. I", ONp Dbha ancI Bowb- Deep dishes and bowls made 0( brown 10 red clay. onen black in the break, an: similar 10 of Group K: ~, !he .""....... is coarse-r (Eglal. 19n. t)'PtS lSI-98; Jacquec-Gordon, 1912, Ell-IS, 51-"), Deep dishoes an: ~11y birl)' big':, lenerally tlIceedinS 10 Inches (25 cm) in diam..."" They au charxleriZle of Croup K, SO far IS c1.Y~ and manufacturing technique> are concerned (Rodt.iew· in, 1976, K 35-36; Egloff, 1977, t)'pes 80-97; Winlock and C",m, 1926, tig. 42, A-E; Jacquet-Gordon, "'"as"" 1972, C 5-S). Cooki ... polS an: often carinaled (ridged) up 10 Ihe ......·cr Ihird of lheir heighl. Some an: made of Group K da,.: others are of micaceous d~'S ""ilh quaa1l Sr:ains. These pots an: .somc-time:s deco""led ..-ilh painled dolS on cu •..-ed bands (EeJoI[. 1977, l)-p<s 98-108; Winlock and Crum. 1926, ~ 42, G-K). Othn cdine pots. ...-jlb a MnyU belly, have ~rtkal or ~ese cooldliewics, 1983, p. 275, fig. 13; Egloff, 1977, types 112-13, dating rrom the end of the fourth to the fifth cemuri...; Iype> 114_54, later, matching the seneral description of pots (abo"e]; Spencer and Bailcy, 19S2, pp, 200" figs. 6-19, firsl half of rbl! fiflh to Ihc fi",r half of rhe sevenrh cenluries; WinlOCk .nd Crum, 1926, fIg. 47; Jacq"N-Cordon, 1972, M 13-16, pI. CCXXV; Cern. pel ... 1976, p, 109, fig, 9a-b). They are gen,nIlly associated with lids 0/ slmil.r techno~ (Eglolf, 1977, typn JQ.7-52). Storage Ja ..... ~~ jars ,,-ere intended for >m,.. ing pro~isions and liquids.. 1l>eir dimension> (a heigh' ul ~. 27 .0 39 Inches [70 10 100 cm]) necessilaled a spec.li!: n>Clhod of manufacture (see Ihe section M.nufacluri", Ttthniques above). These receptacles ha..e a tbt base. a body ",ilh """"""'" walk widening half,..,.,. "'P, a $lighlly maned n«k. and • flan,ged rim. n.e ouler wrbce is often omatnenled ..ith a painled desiDt (Quibell 1908, pl. 62; Quibe-!l. 1912, pl. SI; Wonlock and CnJm, 1926, fiJ. 46: JKquec-Gotdon, 1972, form K; B........ 299". 39065/9025. 3t))(lIl. Technol"lkally and morphologically lbe jars from Kellia are f.a'rly similar .0 Ib~ coolins polt (Egloff, 1977. Iyp" 158-63). Amphora... The I.rge jan called amphorae, ...hich have a rounded or polmed base and ....0 handl.., were intended essentially for Ihe t",n'por· tation of rro,'~ions and liqY;d., Thel-e arc five rype•. Brow~ omphora. ar~ of richly micaceous clay thai is brown both un the .urface and in rht break. They haye a slender fonn and poim<' w,,,. CERM-lICS, COPTIC S'o i~r orn~menled wi,h f'gure< representing faecs. C o,mesy Coptic Muse",,,, Cui"" and Rom~n periodo; (lb\cs, 1976, no_ 364)_ This group "'~s widel~' distribuled in C"p'o·Byzantin, Egypt and during thc firs, ccnturie, of the Arab occupation. The"" are thrce subl}'J'<'s of brown wine omph<>,oe. (I) Amphorae with a poimed base and an ~m'u· lar proTuber.nCe were known at Kellia from thc end of the fourth to Ihc cnd of ,he fifth cemuries (Egloff, 1977. ,~"" 172), (2) Amphorae in Ihc shape of a spinning ,op (Ha~'~", 1976, no, 365), datc ftoln ,he fifth '0 thc sixth cenlurl 491 Ob"s amphora, al'e of ligh, bn",,, mieaccous cia,' (Egloff, 1977, lypes 182-83; Kas~cr, 1983, no. '10: K.--.ufma". 1910, pis. 15,34: Bcmard et al.. 1937, pI. 38)_ ThC)' h~"e a body shaped like a cannon shdl and a barciy indica,ed ~hon n«k_ Shon round handles arc altached under thc rim, and the surface i. ,,,,,,,,,h ncept for some "e,')' fine gro",,·cs, ,,..... tCO wi,h ~ comb, haifway up th~ body, It remains to be Jetermined ",he,he,' this group o( amphorae was local or impo'1et!, Ligh, spheroidal amphorae ",flight clay are char· aCleriz~d by a round ba>e "nd a spheroidal or baggy body "i,h a short. narcow, cylind";eal neck, Small '"\lund handles are hued on to the should~r, The surfac<' carries line ribbings, Th~se amphorae, gen· erally daling from th~ s"v~n,h ccn'u')' onward, ~re principally fount! in the si'e, of the Nile De-ha Som~ of ,hem might har-e been manufaclUred at Abu Jl,lin! (Egloff, 1'177, 1)'J'<' 186; Kassel', 1983, no, 78-85; Jacquet-C.-ordon. 1972, p. 11). R pre-scn.-e th~ coolness of lhe SIOI"Cd wa,er hy p<:rmi1ling eonstanl e'..aporation, One group is of e.lcareo\ls c1av, wi,h· OUI eXlCrnal coalillg (Egloff, 1977, types 198-200, end or fourth 10 fifth eemudes: Winlock and Crum, 1926, p. 91; JacqUel-Got-don, 1972, day 4, N26ff.), AnOlher g1'OUp ;s of reddish, micac~ous day. wilh lhe extemal surface coated with a slip and decorated wi,h pain'e.J molifs (Eglon, 1976, type 204/f" from ,~e fifth to the eighth cemuri",; Winlock and Crom, 1926, p. 91). Water jugs ha\'e I'ounded or pear·shaped bodies "';lh varied neck fonns, on the bas-c of which a filter is IUled. The foot i. annula,- or in pedeSlal fO"m: sometime, water jugs ~re pro"id cd Wilh one or Iwo handles and a spout, f'itehers are often T"Ound·bellied. Th,' mouth. for' pouring. mav b<- lrefoil, pinched, oj' drawn oUl Among the mo>! easily re('(lgni,....hle seri~, are 492 CERAMICS, COPTIC mum diame''''' of ,he bod\' erea,er lhan lhe heigh, (Ha}-"s. 1976. nos 124 ·27, wnh parallds from 1hmi5;,-a!> and Ballanal· DIM. T)"»CS of WalU Vel~ls.. u·o..... J:"t~. m-al4xlltrd I,mh a OOrizonlai axis) and short-r~ded, ""(Crt' probably uoed for dl1l"inll and hokIin, "'rd in Coplo-B>.... nl"•., ~ S"oh ""35 found n.,ar ,he he"",,· ages. ,hey are lhoudtt 10 ha,·e Mn .....,d as ""0"'8" jan (Jac'lue,-Goroon, 1972. p, 7. kl-2). Waru pipes pla~etl ci'Mr end-,o--cnd or in· terlocking (Winlock anti Crum. 1926. p. 92. fig. 48C-D; Balle'. 1983. PI) 2 4, hg. pl. w.,.., Wa,r. jIl, omasnrntrd ,,,,h ero'ESr$. birds, and fish. C_rt"'~j CopJI<' 'uu small pnehrrs. 00"'" ""th a ,riltlblllr oprnin, and dr<;oralrd ",lh goucc:d lina;. ,hal "'r,.., no doub, pnxl\lud a, Aho:a MImi and d"uibulrd ;n dif· pbcrs (......fmann. 1910. pis. 8l-86: "'loll. 1977. "1""1 2n-28: tb,-"s. 1976. no 275 ....ilieh ind.calrs an rump)., found 101 ....... DIs). Oricina,ins aho from AbU Mini is a coIlrction of juas branD, 01"1 Ihr lhouldrr Ihr imcnption ",,,lop' ("pr2isr or blruin,'"). im"",drd '0 hrlld I"" miraculous ".",.". of the: Anclua", (Kaufman, pls.. 85-87: for 01"'" lVpQ of p,tehrrs and jugs, ... e JacqueH';.. I'don, 1972. N~I-1). Bollies (0' ft:ub) m..... no doub< lit rreocniud as lhe suo:eeMors of lhe Roman ""8'"",,,/,,,,,, (oin" men, flasks). A cenain number are related 10 "'ares of Group 0 in the mailer of clays and shp. Amons lhe shaP'l'~ with an o,"oid or !"'a.....haped body Wilh a hole by "'..y of filter. somc e.amples .ee'" to have conlained an oily produc, (Jacquet·Gordon. 1972. N 1-5; of eomparable shape bu' w;thoul ""aCe of an" kind of ,esidue i. a flask found in thc Kom 167 at Kelliaj. Olher bold.,. are more squat "ilh the "'alli· ,,.,rticaI reffn' Water keg painted w;lh I,.hes. Co"rte•.y Coptic 'uI<"'mo, Coiro. f CERAMICS, COPTIC 493 Table of Concordances of Nomenclature of Egypri<m Ceramics RODZIEWICZ AND EcLOI'f, 1977 RO['lIEWlCZ. t 983 H~YES, Group K Egyptian B Group 2 (pp. 397 -99) ("sigille. egyptienne") Egyptian A Group I A.wan Group A Il (Coptic red ("sigille. ,lip warc) eg)'Ptienne") (pp.387ff,) C 1912 BIBliOGRAPHY Adams, W. Y., Cuam;, ["duslrie. of Mediew!1 N,,· bia. Vols. 1-2. Lexington. Kentucky, 1986. Ballet, P. "Kellil. Korns 88 01 166." Bullelin de liaison dl< Groupe iMiernM;Onale d'elude de 10 cirarnique egyprierme 8 (1983):2-4. _ _. "Ceramique tardi>'e de. Kellia el p.e.ence islamique en Egypt•. " In ~ Siu mona,lique cople des Kellio. Sources histori<jues eI uploralions archiologiques. ,(cle. . periode d'abandon des Kellia." In ACles du Colloque de G.n~ve, 13-15 August 1984, Bruyere. B.. et al. Tell Edfou 1937. Fouilles franco· polonaises. rappolls. Vol. l. Cairo, 1937. Egloff, M. Kellia. La PO/erie caple: QUalre sltdes d'(Jrtisanat et d·tchanges ~ 8asse·Egypte. Recher. che. sui....,. d'archenlngio: cnpte, Vol. 3. Geneva. 1977. Gempder. R. Stadt und Timpe! von Elephanrine. Sechsler Grabunfisbericht. Mineilungen des Deut· schen Archaol"llischen In.tituts-Abteilung Kai· roo Vol. 32. Main~ am Rhein, 1976. Haye., ), W. Romt'" POl/ery in the Royal Ontario Muse"m. A Cmalog«e. Toronlo, 1976. Hope. C. A. "Dakhleh Oasis Project. Repnrt on the Study of the Potlery and Kilns. Third Season, 1980." Journal of tht Society for /he Study ()f the Egyp/itm Antiquities, 11. 4 (1981):233-41. Jacq"tt·Gmdon. H. Le.s Ermltages chretiens du dc· sen d·Esna. C';'(Jmlque eI obielJ. Vol. 3. Fouilles AD"'-"'S, 1970 All.o.MS. 1986 Byuntine 4swan wares, Group A II, R4 (pp. 54311,) de I'lnstitut fran~ais d'archeologie orientale. Vol. 29, pt. 3. Cairo. 1972. Kasser. R, Smwy archiologi.:jue des Kdli<> (B(Jsse· Ei.Ypte), Rapport de la campagne 1981, Miss;"n. Suisse. d'Archeologie Copte de l'Univer!lit~ de Geneve. Louvain, 1983. Kaufmann, C. M. Die Menas"adt und das Natlonalheiligtum dec altcltristlich." Agypter In der Westal· exandr;s€he" Wustt, VoL l. Leiprig, 1910. Myiliwi~. K, Kuamik and Klei~f"nde aus der Grabung im T£mpel Sethos' I. in Gurna. Archaol· ogische VeTijffentlichungen, Vol. 57, Mainz am Rhein, 1987. Quibell. J. E, Excavations at Saqqara. 1l. i9()61'J07. CaiTO. 1908. ___ Excavation. at Saqqara. IV, 1908_9, /9lJ910: The Monastery of Apa Jeremias. Cairo. 1912. Rodziewic~. M. La Ciramlque romaine tardive d·AI· exa~drie, A.iuondrie I. Warsaw. 1976. ___ Dauch, Rapport priliminoire de 10 €ompagne de fouill .. de 198/. Annale, du Se..... ice de. Ami· quite. de l'Egypte. VoL 69. Cai.o, 1983. ___. L.. Habitations rom"ille< t",dives d'AlexoMdrie ilia lumlere des louille. polonaise. " K6m Middle Egypt, AshmuneiM (1981), British Museum. Occasional Paper 41. London. 1982. Ashmunein (/982). Occasional Paper 46. London, 1983. Ashmunein (/983), Occ,,"ional Pa· per 53. London, 19&4. AslImunein (/984), Occasional Paper 61, London. 1985. Ashmu~ein (i985), Expedition 10 Occasional Paper 67, London, 1986, Waage, O. F. Helltn'Slie and Roman Tabltwore of North Syria, Antioch 0" Ihe Dronles IV. Princeton, N.J., 1948. Winlock. H. E., aJld W, E. Crum. The Monostery of Epiphonius at Thtbes. Vol. l. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Egyptian Expedition, New York. 1926. 494 CERAMICS, COPTIC Lamps. Most of the lamps in CoptcrByzamine Egypt .....ere made of terra·cotta. They come from the areas of habitation such as lhnbiyah. Antin· nopolis, Armant. Medamud. and Madlnat Hibu. and from religious cemers that atlracted pilgrims such as Abo Mln~. The hermitages at Kellia and ISM have furnished relatively fe"". The various oils used to reed lamps in Egypt. such as castor oil, palm oil. and olive oil. are mentioned by the clasoical au· thors and in the Greek papyri (Lucas, 1962, p, 329; Shier, 1978, p. 7), Vegetable fibers or strands of wool formed.he wicks (Schier, 1978, p. 7), CoptcrByuntine lamps were influenced b)' the technical tradition, of Hellenistic and Roman lamp making. From the third century B, c, onward. sau· cer lamps. handmade or turned on a ""heel, ""ere provessively replaced by bivalve molded lamps. The \""0 valves fona a re.ervoir with a CO''''"" pro· file; in lamps of the Rom:;on period the reservoir has the shape of a c:a55erole with a cover. The upper pal1, sligMy bulged, includes a disk or medallion, often concave, pierced by the apel1ure for pouring in oil, and the disk rna}' be adomed with a decora· tion in relief, The lower part rests On a jlenerally flat base, on which a maker's mark is sometimes shown, The nozzle, from which the end of the wick emerges, fana. an appendage, more or Ie.. ~ of the rese,...·oir, On the opposite side, a modeled handle is luted with a liquid cia}'. Sometimes it is molded in one piece ""itb the upper val.'e. The majority of the lamps from Copto·B)'laftline Egypt derived from this type of manufacture (example. of molds in Kaufmann, 1910, pI. 82, bottom of plate; Badawy, 1978, p. 345, fig. 5.50, I and n. 61, with earlier bibliOjlraphy). Just as with ceramic vessels, the description of lamps a. "Coptic" must he viewed wilh caution. Certainly the iconographic scheme and the in.crip· tions rna)' be used in identifying an object as Chris· tian. Howe.'er, it seen$prejudicial to the study of these lamps to consider;, this documentation within unduly strict mO'l'hological. de<:o"'tive, and chro· nological limits, Systematic differentiation bet"",,,en late Roman and Christian material, or Christian and Islamic, is the result of a procedure that neglects the reality of the technological traditions and the history of the workshops, Fo, e~ample, we may nOle the pres<:nce of and fifth and sixth centuries (Hblsche" 1954, vol. 5, p. 68, C nical and decorative characteristics as contemporary "Christian" lamps (Kubiak, 1970, pp. 3-5). In addition, the study of lamps suffers from an alm","t total absence of reliable elements for dating. Either because of method or because the context did not lend itself to CERAMICS, COPTIC Group B, p. 12, pI. 67), Often the conventional term "frog lamp" is retained, whatever the theme repreS<mted. At Madlnat Habu, some examples are dated 10 the fourth and fifth centuri"" (Hlllscher, Vol. 5, p. 69, Group 5), A lhird group of molded lamps is characterized by an oval body, an often carinated profile, a ribbed vertkal handle, and a thick, glo,,"y red slip. One series of these lamps are nOl quite oval, with a relatively large disk, often decorated with a roselle. Another series includes more elongated forms with a noule·channel and a small disk. Recent e.cava· tions at al·Ammfinayn (Hermopolis Magna) ha\'e yielded an important number of these lamps. The archaeological context dates them from lhe fifth century to the Arab conquest. They are comparable to lamps found at Antinoopolis, which were proba· bly manufactured in this region of Middle Egypt (Guerrini, 1974, pp. 96-98, pI. 38, 4-12 and pp. 103tf" pis. 42-43: Hayes, 1976, pp. 120-23, no. 476-91. "Middle Egyptian [questIonable]. These lamps are also called red·burnished ware"; Spencer and Bailey, 1982, pp. 34-35. A fourth group of molded lamps, generally round but sometimes oval, with larger funnels, is made of light-<:olored pink Or orange, relatively fine clay with very small mineral elements, including micas. The clay seems identical to that of Gr<>lJP 0 (or' angel ware. The slip is described as red, with rose or orange variations, The medallion, of average diameler, is often dec· orated witb a croSS or a rooe. A Greek or Coptic inscription appears on the circumference (mention of a saint or the Holy Trinity, On a lamp from MeJamud in the Louvre, nO. EI2950 (Bisson de la Roque, 1928, no. 2024, pp. 80-81. lig. 48J). Some' times the decoration is a noral one: rosenes, pal· mettes, or vine branches surround the disk. The relief of the inscriptions and motifs is very strongly marked, the molds being deeply incised, These lamps come chiefly ITom Upper Egypt and Nubia and they are dated fro~ the fift" cemury On (Bisson de la Roque, 1918, nOs. IS50, 1913,2024, 2025, pp. 80-81. fig. 48; Holscher, 1954, p. 69, Group VII e and fl. Hayes calls thi, series Early Christian Aswan Ware class, including a series de-riving from Armant (Hayes, 1976, nos, 495-51S, pp. 124-29). Some molds found al Elephantine indicate that this group was partly produced in this area (Ballet and Mahmoud, 1987, pp. 56-57, 64-67), A fifth group of mold· made lamps has an oval body with a hook·like handle and is covered with Ilgbt yellow slip. The decoration around the disk 495 frequently COnSiSIS of concentric semicircle. in a panern of multiple arcs, either stamped or incised", These lamps appear to have been widespre,.,f in Upper Egypt and are called "Upper Egypt yeliowslipped ware" by Hayes (1976, pp. 131-33, no. 53039; see also Hlllscher, 1954, VoL 5, p. 69, Group 6a). A sixth group comprises a set of ovallamp:s charaCleri~ed by the lengthening of the reservoir, which is accentualed by a groo,'e underlining the disk and marking off the feed·channel as far as the end of the noule. The decoration is varied and includes Aoral and geometrical designs. Inscriptions sometimes appear around the central disk. Such lamps are generally considered to be a late product from the sixth and seventh cemuries and are known throughout EIDpt (Petrie, 1905, p. 9, pis. 61-62, "sroove lamps"). H1!Ischer mentions "beak-shaped lamps with grom'es or without groo,'cs" (Hilischer, 1954, pp. 69-70, Groups V1l1-1X). some of which are daled by the archaeological conle'l from lhe sixth to eighth centuries~ some pieces of thi, series belong to what Hayes calls the "late buff-ware class" (Hayes, 1976, nos. 526-29, pp. 130-31). l1tere are two t)P"' of wheel·m"dc lamps. u.mp:s in the .hape of a teapot or juglct have pot-bellied bodies often topped by a neck. The noule and handle, flat or ribbed, were added after the reservoir was formed. These lamps bear nO decoration (Petrie, 1905, p. 13, pI. 69, group neck; Shier, 1978, p. 49, nos. 496-'l9 and no. 500). They come chiefly from the upper le""l. of occupatiOn of a site (Holscher, 1954, pp. 70-71. Group 10, one example of which is dated to the founh century, another to the fifth), The second type is smali cups or oowls- Their use for lighting is shown by the traces of the burning of the wick On the rim. These were found mainly in monasteries and hennitages (Winlock and Crnm, 1926, p. 8S, fig. 38; Jacquet-Gordon, 1972, pp. 7-S, pI. 228: Egloff, 1977, lYpeS 308-15, pp. 162-63, pI. 85). Finally there are miscellaneous lamps such as those with multiple nozzles (polyk"ndilon), which had the holes for the wick. arranged On a rectangu· lar or circular stand. This variety, well known in the Roman period, was more rare in Christian E&\-p! (Badawy, 1954, p. 345, fig, 5.5l). Lamps ","'ith seven nozzles may have had a liturgical function, like the modern q""dil (VOli"e lamp), the seven wick. of which are lighted in succ=ion during the ceremony of extreme unction (Badawy, 1978, p. 345 and n. 65~ Viaud, 1978, pp. 44-45). -' 496 CERAMICS, COPTIC • ... Types of ("ITa·cOIla Coptk lamps fwnd in MadIn"t mba: I. "Frog and corn" type lamp. 2. Lamp deri~ed from frog t~. 3. "Upp<:r Egypt y.I1Q....... li~ Wau," p.-ob;w.bly from the workshops. 4. "Christian As"';).n Wac.... probably from the Aswan workshops. 5. "G~" lamp. 6. Wh.el.m:>d. lamp. Reproduced from HlJl.chu, 1954, by P. UJf.rri~,.". Cow,us, P. BI1.11el. ""wan CERAMICS, COPTIC A POi ~ry common lighlinC de-ice. atl<'Sled at !':.clila. Wi:es ~ form of a la,¥e .«qucle wi.h handJes.. UIIdoeT the inner rim. rillp are fi:xed in ~ form of a funnel and sene as hol ha,.., BIBllOGltAPHY Badlowy. A. COp1ic An and ..t",Iui.oloe;v. Th. AU 0/ Ih. Ch,i3t;"n Et,YpliGn fromlh. wit A"lIqu, 10 I},. Middl. Arn. Cambridge, Mass., 1978. Ballet. P.. and F. Mahmoud. "Maul... en lerre euite d'E~nline (M...e.: Copte). Nouvclles donnen SUr lea Melicrs de la region d'A$souan." I',poque byu.rulne t1 aUl' po-em"'" lemps de l'ocCUflillion ....,.. !hJh1i" th rhutilul fra"f"i3 d'.n:h#oIotk o';.nl.k 11 (1987):.53-72. Bisson Muu..m. f : Creu ..nd Romolf Clay LAmp•. A C,lolo,..•. Toronlo, 1980. Holscher, U. 'The £ia:. 1910. Kubiak. W. B, Medieval Ceromic Oil l.amps from rust.. ,. AI'S Orientall.: The Am of I~am and the E.qt. Vol. 8. Ann Arbor, 1970. 497 Kupzc. M. "[);c Tonlampen im A&YJlCischen M..-urn." f'or:«:Jumplf .. nd B.richre 14 (1972):97- '00. Ledanl, J. lJI en_ill. d·i'.....iti de> pm1 £ryptian M.I4""ls and fniU-Striu. London. 1962. MIynar=,-k. J. ErJ.pfian T>1"-s of TandcI et Tn......,; Vol. 7. W...,..w. 1973. Petrie. f. W. M. R""".." 'Y'" (He,allUJp01i:s AIJ>,....J 19OC. London. 1905. Shier, L A. Terr..COlI.. lJImps /rum K.,,",,i3, £DPIE.u:.V a".. Pohland.. Pot..lands. wiclesprcad dllrinS Ihe pharaonic period. appear relatively uldom among Coptic cuamic.. AlthO\l.sh mllJlY ve<&els with "rounded or poinled base, pankularly amplronoe. needed 10 resl on a .land 10 be "ba.lanced, they were either smck Inlo 1hc If'OUnd, leaned agairw a ....a1I, or WtI 011 tht earth. Mon....ery ki.chens and $lOre....uses at lsnI SOlnClimoes IwI berw:hes Or platfunn5 tha held jan (Swncron lllId JKQUt1. 1911. P. 19. 3). Also at Isna. a poi Set in 1hc ,...,.,rod migIu served as .. suppon !or a larger receplade. perhaps a ......... er iuc (Sauneron and JKq""'-, 1972. p. 19). In this case.lhc lack 0( I sand is e:.pbined. S co",· cave side5 wideni"ll OUI w...",rd the moulh. 1lte relationship <Jl Ihe dim..Mions rica according 10 the Iype of rec"J!taele pIaoed the , There are low, wide shapes (Kasscr. IqU, p. 456, nos. 147-48). thooe whose height is equal 10 tM diameter (Alliot. 1933. fig_ 55: Winlock and Crum, 1926, fig:, 488), and tall forms (Winlock Ind CnJm. 1926, fig. 48A). Sometimes they arc deconoted, like two specimens from Tild ornamented with a wide, open-work desiB" 'C- ha,.., 498 CERAMICS, COPTIC lbl. c1os<:d loa... 14 10 20 inella (36 w SO em) high ""d U '0 39 inches (60 10 100 em) lonl' Three orince. art ~ d ill tM UJlllCl" pan. ""' mlddlt one Mi"l ~r !ban !hose on ,..;thee .il" _nds a,.., dr:conol~ wilh zipags, crossba", !l"lltts, and OIhe< mulif. (SmygO'WSki. 1904, pp. 240-41, 6gs. 287-89; Bisson dt La ROCjuc and Cloert, 1928. no, 23541er, p. 59. iiI. 41). They cenainly conslitute a simplified venion of stone slands, in the shape of a table (Strzygo,,"ski, 1904. pp. 88-94; Ouibell, 1912, pi. 43. fig. 1-2). 818UOGlUI'HY j,,, AllioI.. M. RoPf'O" Iu fouil1~ de Tell Edl_ (l9Jl). FouillQ o:k l1nstilvl fnnocais d'lIrCheolOl' ;,., ...-if:nlak. Vol. 9, pl. 2. Cairo, 1933. Bisson de b Roque, F" and ,. Clm. R"ppcm ..., Iu !-i!Lu de MJJ~ fI917}. F""iIles de l'IMlillll fnu><;ai$ d'archf.olocie ocientale. Vo'- 5. I'JI. I. Cairo. 1928. Dc:sroches-NobIe<':oon. C.......... Nouvelles fouilles de Tod ResultalS de!. qual'" premieres ....Isons derttherche. rnnlcmps 198G-aulornnc 1981." B..IIe. 1m de I" &xu,e Fr"Tlf"~ d'Egyprolcrie 93 (1982):12, ec,mpt'ler. R. Stad/ .. nd Tompd von Elep~an/ine, Sec~Slu Grab~nllsboricht. Milleilungen des o.::Ul· schen Arch§Qloglsch.n Instilul5-Abt.i\ung Kal· roo Vol. 32, Mainz am Rhein, 1976, Kasscr, R. S"rvey "rchtoIOfiq... d.s Kellio (Bone· Egyp/e). Rapporl de I" c""'poC"e 198/. MilSioos Suisses d'ArcMolotic COple de l'Unl~cnile deGenevc. Lou""ln. 1983. Leclerq. H_ "JC'Ull fl jolJf1$." [)jclio~".lTC .r.n:hio• chrJlitnM#: ~f de Iimf'lle. Vol- 7. pl. 2. !'aris. 1926P'alanllue, C. "NOles "J" qudques joueu cOpIes en Ictre cuilt." B.. a~'" d~ il..t frfUtl;.is d'~,· elllDlogic ",;em,,1e ~ {I9()3);97 - 103. Peirie, F. W. M. R_.. Ellruny. (HCTdl~"polil M..,...) /904. london. 19()5. ()ui~ll, J. E. £ It",,"iJ... Cairo. 1912. S;ountron. S.• and 1. Jacque!. L.. £""i,oges dvil'· ~~$ d .. diMrt d'Esno, '0',,/. I: A.chiologif 01 in· scripti".... F""I!les de l'lnstilul fra~ais d·arch~l· ogie "rienlale, Vol. 29, pt, I. Cairo. 1972. Scanlon, G, T, "Ancillary Daling Malerials from Fu~t." Ar$ Or/tntalis. Tilt Arts of Isla'" 'md the £ost. Vol. 7. Ann Arbor, Michigan. 1%8. Sl~owsl n.... des KcJ/ia rBa~~ Eeple). R4Pf1'O't de I. n",fH'PU 1981. "'tisslon SlIisIe d'~~ cOfIt. doc l'Unh'CT'Site de GeM.~ u.uvam, 1983. Winloc:k, H. E., and W. f. erum. T10e .W0Tl6l~TJ 0{ Epiplu", ...~ ~I noNs.. v.... L Nt"" Yorll. 1926. S"T>'eJ arcW.norflJ'~ Slampa. Stamps, or seals. ;n lerno-COna WCTC chief!)' intended W imp...s mariti on lc..vC$ of b,..,ad ustd In lhe lilurgy, the 5101'P"n of ampho ...., and cerami<: vessels (fur 1I gen.ral sUI".y. ""e Bada"')'. 1978, pp. 345-46. fill'. 5.52. 5,55. and 5,57). Tlte Eastern church.. had the cu.,om of impress· ing on lilurgical loa.... motifs or insc:riplions ",lat· inil '0 the rile belnC «lebmed. II is oflen difficull 10 di.,inl"ish stamps for bread used in ,he Eucha· rist thooc e..1acia ("blessed") bread, which "'as dislribulal 10 the faithful at the end oi the oenice. on a wnl'S festn'&!. on a pillrimallC, or aI a funeral. The im~ions wen: made by ....,00 or ICrra-r eulop: bread oft.n elIrTJ the moIif of • cross. with tM en rmrn =- rOt" CERM.IICS, COPTIC SC>mC of the ~tamp" 499 c-ould haw ... ned for se"erlll """,.,.., Stamps "'ere also used '0 impresll deconlion on tile illSlde bouom of an opnI ,halX' su<:h as a wp or pIa,e before ,Ile piece ".,.. fired. Hfine" IonJ ""'" of ,he Copto-~"JaJ\line perlod bear stamped "'Ot,fs such .. ,he Chris'ownm. c- ...... or d....e all .... the 1NlIl....... ol.he fine imponcd ..:aces. Aj; pm tOUS· Iy d&:uSllCd Temo·...,ua 5lamp" ha,~ \,0,..... found 't Elephant",", (U1ben. 1971. pp. 13S~41). They .re ",.her m ~ m ~ or conkal The ,hin end a1Jo,.-s lhe .amp 10 be grasped. The OtMr end, presenllnl • plane ,urba:, bear-s a d Badawy, A, Cop ric Mt ."d Ard",w/oty: Tlpe Arr 01 Ihe Christi." IJtypli.". Irom Ih. Lait ilJPli4"e 10 Iht Middle Agu. Camhridg~. Mass., 1978. Co.lavarl., George. Bread a"J Ih" LII'H'V': Ih. S,·,.,· bolism uf F... r-Iy Christla" and B,.:/.<"'III'. Bre..d Stamp., Madison. W;'" 1970. Ulben, T K.."mihlem".,1 au. EI.pha,1/j,rc, Millei· lungen des DculS<:hcn Archaologischen InSlllut. -Aboellung Kalro, Vol. 27. Wicsbaden. 1971 SlOp""'.... Amphorae "'....., dosed "llh stoppcn made ~nerally oJ pbsl.r.,.- da~ Before the actual stopper "015 i"",-,"ed, a preliminary stopper ""'" pushed Inside the neck; il ""as either. recul pot. oherd or. more ge-nenlly. a pad 01 straw (E&lo6. 1977. P. ISO), 1ben .he "",,,,a1 Stoppe-t ..... sa in place, dos;ng ,Itt optnl,. of lhe neck A plaster SIOJ'peT, relaIi,~r~ l\at. slicht1~· con,e. in ,\$ upper plln it; round and extends bel"",· the outer nm. ItS In....... bee pre$tnu the ,mpnnl oIlhe rim. formin, • c-lrtUl.r depre::o:oi Stopper of brown amphora, bearinl .he imprlm of a $tal. Mud day, Cm"'os] Lo" ...e .\1"5'''''', Pari,. Photo by Ch"u~ille. The imprinls on pl.....er and cla~ stoppers are ,.,.ried: Grttk or Coptic ,..,.,riptions, oheo abridged, menlioning 'SOme 1I''''lical formula or a name, monogram'. eTl)$$eS. ro&eJ. animal", sometimu n~n sa'nu. su<:h .. Saint Menu (CWodat, 1904, fip. 6_7, 21-23. and 40-41 SlrnlO"'sli, 1904, pp. 23340...... 8m-9OO3 and 9004-9033. Quibdl. 1912. pis. 66-67: H6Isc-her. 195<', fil. 63; Eclnll. 1977. pp. 181-83. pl. 10). The>e i"'pOllU probably indic&le Ibe plac-e ....here the amp~ ... ere- filled and lhen SlOpptred .,.. the n....... oIlhe sender. BIBUOCRAPHY ,., Clbbl. J. u ManaSle,. ., /a nU"'f'01e de Bao..il. Mem<>i"", publ;e" pIlr les memb.-es de nnSlI"'1 fran ...... d'arrhksk>g", o';"nl.Ie, Vol. 12 Cairo. S,orpers of unf,red cia,' mised "nh !>lrll" a~ conical and la'llel~ encase the upper pan of lhe neck, somellmes even ... far as the .houlder. The>' bear Ihe Imprin. of .uunp< ('''0 or mort), aenenolly round, more rarely r«ulngular, "..hich Seem small· ~r .han lhe Imprlms on plasler SlOppel!. l'l1cy m.. SOmet;mC'. red or ",hl'e, indicating that the Siamps had inillally bttn filled ",ilh eolore Egloff. M. K./Ii". IA POI""~ COplt. Q"",r-e sUe/ex d'"r-tisa,UlI" d'ich,,,,g.. ~" Ba.u·Egypt•. Recher· ches suisses d'a",hwl"lie cople, Vol. 3. G"ne,-a. 1971, Hol,d,,,r, U. The E.xea,'alio", 01 Meli",,,, Hamm, Vol 5: Post Ramc..idc Rcm.ins, Chicago, 1954. Oulbcll. J. E EJcc,,~ali''''$ "I S"""",,,, Vol. 4: 1908-9, 1909~ 10. C.lro, 1912, SIr2)'go"",kl, J. Kopli$clre K"nJl. Cala/og". G~nh,,1 du Caire. Vienna, 19l)4 ,,.. 500 CERAMICS, COPTIC FlJurlnn ~tI telTl.Uch manubclurins mahoc!lI. The principltl IeChniqU'" useed arc joined with clay, leavin, a hollow inlerior. Since the bKk is Ral or slightly con''U, 0II1y tbe fronl is de1aikd with the general form of !he body and a simplified mod,"~ng d the face. EIoerneolu d a1Iire and c:aiIfure are ....ident on repta<:ntations of WOIll<'n- A comparable Khema,I· zatlon is adopted for equo:-5Irian and animal figures. Somelimes a h details were incisU into the inte· rior of Ihe mold. The Coptic Museum ' - I"'" front molds of orants, or praying ligur.. (nos. 10125 and 10080). and one of an equestrian group (no. 1(130), Modeled figurin"", tire mule from coils of cl'y. crudely worked and then pul logelher. Somelimes a piece is ca",ed on a plaque of clay with nO attempl II rnodding.... in an ,ononl ill the CopIit: M....c-um (no. 418.46/10147). and a femalo:- ne.d (110. 39232/ 102111). Both proceduru. moIdiog and modelinc.. ....y ha,'e been used in the manub<::ture of a sin.gle fi,· ure. Some Slalueltel in Alexandria have a molded head and body with modeled ann! and legs that have been joined to the body (Mo.ne'". 1975. p. 53; cf. also ~iUrines at Abo. MIni, Kaufmann. 19'10. pis.. n. 1-6 and 9~20: 74. lII-l6; 75. 6 and 9-11). The kwequanen of some ~rines of ho..... owre shaped on the lathe (Mawms. 1975. p. 5]). "I1>e _ueUes an: c,"e,ed with white ~ip. Painl· ed detail applied O\"C"r lhe ~ip miligates the in.:ode'1uacies of the primlliw workmanship. Slrolcn of black or brown paint ,h'e the bee an expre..ion defined by the encircled eyes and attire the body in a long tunic if it is human, In a harness and saddle if il is a horse. I~pftk TJPft- Among lbe icOl'lOflraphic types. reprucntalions of kmales an: the ..-. nu· JDC"TOU5. ~ an: gmenlly sundinL lheir lep joined. wilh '"IriaUoIl$ in the position of the anns and in ,he coiflUr"C". Then: arc- ahe 3OmI!: k_ _ phoi (.... rf'S carryin, children) (for Abo Min:l.. Kaufmann, 1910, pl. 73: II and Ill: for Bawll. Palanque, 1903. p. 99, pi .. I, 4~5: for Anlinol!. An· linoi!, 1974. pI. 44'2). These female .tatu.ne. are often clothed in a long lunic, woven in a single pie<:e and ornamented with ....nical bands over the ch.... and back. 11>o:-y an: adorned with nedJaces and bnceletl. "I1>eir pn>tubennt• ......-lik. noses an: modeled; their eya. eyebroows. and .-tho an: indicated by strokes d paint. T_ main g:roups of fmlale ~suns cart be ll'<:Oiniud. TIle fint coRSi... of figures made by miAed methods. lhe bositioned on .... below 11M: breast or 01> Ihe hips. boIdin. an ob;ecl such .. a discus, a erown, or a child. 1My an: rela1hf fecundity in pharaonic EoP and dosel, connecled with the Hello:-ni'lk and Roman Isis-Aphrodite and her fo1- CERAMICS, COPTIC 501 _rnphical a ....as. lndud, the orants are not men· lioned in lhe publications on Aba ~nnli 01" Alexan· dria... here Ih.. 1i.,;1 group of Icmo-coua obj<'cts is pr.-dominant. bu.lhcy abound in Middle and Upper Erl"- This diffenon.i:lIti(ln a1i_ pernap,. from ..... eializalion in !he ~1ine WOl'"l<shop!; and u.nr:>Ra of <Wfu:OOR. A l'NefI( "1'<'« Mould 0( onnl. Tena Copnc "'....,....... ......"ffJ,. n... ItIt' pxldns. C ••TO. 1'11040 '" Gi..... nccklac~ «!he onnls recaJb liw of called ~";.mml!". C~nainlv thtsc Ii.. uriMS .. eu 0101 ern-led u "ihilo; Ihct present .. exi,1 in the same archacological ConIC.• IS. The qucshon ari~ whelher Ihey are two separa'" pr... duclions from differenl pcrioJ.'l f"r diflcrctll func· tion~ or two se""r.lle produclion!; Irom different ,....'ct". Or~n1. Te'''' c<>l'a. Edfou CrmrreJ} PQrU. PhOlO l>.v Ch">JI>'iJI~, Ltmvr. Mu,."m. S02 CERAMICS, COPTIC &1ass and comelu.n, as _II as a tunic whose .".na· mentation mt5 01 the hone........ ...., scarcely indicat~ In modeIcd fiC"rines. the oeme of detail is ..-e Itig:IlIy de,.,\oped. as seen. Fat- eumple. in the poinled bl folded down in fronl "nd shield on Ihe ann_ Amonl anim,,1 fil"rines. h~ and camell IU'e the most common. Molded pieces an more oIten found than modeled: the profile, mane, h,,~, and saddle are indicated by molding and are under. lined by stTokes of paint. There is e,'idenc. of the production of horses On most of the sites thaI have yielded lelTa·cotla obje<:tS, Statuenes or carnell, which are Ie.. common, are often of ""ry good "",hnicaJ qualily. Some <:ome from Medamoud {6il.son de la Roque. 1930. no. 44(11. p. S6, fig. 52: Louvre. nos- EI2111 aOO E141Sl11_ Sometimes ,hey IU'e modeled (Kaulin:lnn, 1910. pI. 17: 4 and 1). Abil Mini also offel$ a sampling of animals and "~nsed cre:atwa, lll1>On~ lions, 00.. ~Iks. monkey5, and cockerels (Kaufmartn, 1908. pis. 1778). Tbac are often modeled ~'UeS. which arc differenl from fi«urine$ bea,*, thq- b,.., .. narrow neck and a handk ~ner.uly aU2Ched at tlte back. Ebewttere. o.ampln of such varied buna are sel· dam round. and il ca"nOl be ...id ,,·hether tltll rael is due to Ihe lack of publications or to an archacoIoilieal reality, A moo key from Mt: lraee the lechnical and ieonographle ~clution of terra-a>llll figurines. Hov."CWl", their oricin and theiT ......,.,luaJ (onch.osion can be detenni"ed: on the: one hand. late Roman figurir>e::t. tl>ose from Ihnlisi)-.h for namplc (Petrie. 1905. pis. 41-51). re6ec1 the modifications or traditional manufaclure such ... the meclIallical nceuUoll of folds in pr' men15 and in the hm and ,he tendency to lreal figurines a$ relie&. lbese features illustrate Ihe transition to the sketchy type of manufaclure cha",clen.lic of Coptic figunn~. On th~ other hand, Ihe exi"",,(e of SOme teTn>-~Oll.a sped mens. modeled and looking unpoli.hed, comparable to some examples of prescnHby telTa·cotta, is anested al tlte olde:o.l le,..,ls of al·F~~t from the middle of the eightlt to t~ beginning of the ninth centuries, but then: is no fu"her~dence in bIer arc~log· ieaJ renuins M the aite (Scanlon. 1961. pp. 2-5, pl. I: la-c). Among other nore (hronolopeal beneh· marh. the 1....,,1 of Elephantine from "'hieh OI'W>1S, hor.;es. and camels come seem< to dale lhem from the mth ccntur)' {~mpelCT". 1916. pp. 111-12, and ... 1911. A.. for the iconop'aphic reminiscences suUCS'ed by thee reprc:oenlllions. the idea mUll no doubt be abandoned lhal the mediocre kourotrop/ooi _'" Ill' fluenced by Ihe theme of lsi. laeta"•. Ukewise. Ho.... the honeman is probably noI !he anCe$lor of t~ e"uulnan ~guru. In gencral, one notes lhe abandonment of a syncTetiot iconography. such :u lhal shown by the !hlrd· and fourth·eentury ~gur· ines at Ihnlisiyah. Kaufmann se<:s the. )~urvlval of pagan beliefs, howe,er. in Ihe cynocepllali (dog· headed figuresl producCn de b Roque. 1931. p. 112. Iia;. 651. lIS _II as on the .... tuclle of a boar (Krimer. I~J. pp. 93-\01). Datina; from the faunh tellUiry. Ir misJtl be a blasp~mous i"",&c of Chri'il- Colleclively. these 'i"J"ines ....,re nol. ho... ever. wilhoul ",Iilious imention. I'urpose. n.e purpDle of lhee figurines is un· clear, and several interprelali01>5 have been pro~d_ The 'gurlnes. including th""", from AbI:l Mln1. and in plll'1icular the ho..emen and animals. mighl be toys broughl back to their children b)' pilgrims (I.ec1erq, 1926. "Jeux," cols. 375-76), The hoo w."..,. CERAMICS. COPTIC ca't8""'I~b""ns. 1975. p. 71). FolIO"ing C. Palanque (l'al3-l1'l"" 1903. p. 93). H_ Lederq Sll" in ,hcsc 10:1' ·'impe"<:<:' trine,. ,,'hkh lhe pi<1~ of the suni· placed """. Ihe small child I:tk"" '(10 soon &om thetr Io~,,,g cane," an 3.<xu"""'" .Ita res... on no Knous an.:ha<-oIogical ide"ce U.«le~q. •"~." 19~6. col. 1517).. wtt ,he lil'mnes are _ialed ... "h • place of ..... Mip. Ihe- are no dooubt 'ot"" oIfennp p,'..n bv ..,.. f",.hful "'"h :0 " ...... 10 obtaining some b<'ndilS. 1h<'1iul.. nn...ls of AbU \tInt ..ouId .-.....all onc oflht- miracles of S~"nt Mellti. ,be curinl of a ~,uile .he-<:amct 1nd ........ld SC'n-e I<) obtain ror .he donor a ben..lil of lhe loIImc kind (Kaufmann, 1910. p, ll4 and n. 2) The female: filunnes m'l;hl b<' ''OIi, .. oftcrings (or curt:!l and for f."ilo,y (Mll11"ns. 1975. p. is). It appel". hn"".,, ...r. ''Of' 503 .hlll most of .h.. figurines come from rnidcmi:ol distric.... ",hich limi... ,heir ~ible role in fune-r.,,'l' tion "'Ilh a speci6c ...... furnishings and Ihei. con ligious C""1.I"., Wllns lhe-. ere brought back from a pilgrimag.-. SU..... Aln1 \11M Kaufm:onn. C. .\I. lA D«OU>-~"t dtJ $4I'...."'a;,..5 d .. \/..""'s dans k tI.. ~" tie "areot... AI""ndri:o. .. , ___ D,.. .11<''''''''1atll u"tI tlas .''''tam1lheilig'.. m tk, ah../,ns1Iicloe" ifltYP,.... '" tier " . ...,al=Ql'h~". "01. .,. Be,'lin, 1909. A-le:r:u",ldu ~1a"en" M. "figurinc6 en ,erre cuile copt.., decou""r1~'" ~ K0m d [),n" (Atc.andric}."' BIllleli'l d,· la SIX"r' M,'h~,'1'" dAI<MlndY,e 43 (1975):53-17. Ar",,,,,, Mond. R.. and 0 H M,c!"S. rtmpM. ,,, Am,a.". A Py~I,,,,,,,nn' S"n'.,', Thc Ejj"pll"n E..ploralion Soci"'y. Vol. 43. London. 1940 ......" Pabonque. C. ~NOI"" Jur quelques jouct> coplcs en I........ cui,,,."' 8,,11,,1'" de frall,ais d'aT c/'iologie 0'-;.."1",,, 3 {1903):9i 103. EJrpht""i,,.. Gempcl R. 'Stadt uncJrc" J"J1l1"". A&.ei!ury; Kairo n"'1llW 31 (1976):106 //'rrlUiyaJr Petrie, F. W .\\ K_ bhqb... Rom." Elma"·,,. lond<X1, 1905 S'lZ}'ZO,,""i. J. Kopt;sc/'e K"">J. C.'alogo'" &""c-.u des anlUp",II.., tic /"1"'111'" d'archrol~,e (",e"lul~, Vol. 5. pl. l. f"''',''is C",,"O. Ho~ma". "crr~ AIl'J""'''. cnlla. Abu Mini, Cemrl<s, COluk Ca'n.>, I'holl) by Girgis. 1928. _ _. Rapporr s", Ie, fo"iIIes d< MtlJu"'Ot,d (1929.) F<>",lIe. de 1'/'1>111"1 f.a",a;, d'Mche<>l<>g,e l)ri..llale. V,,1. 7. pi, 1 Cairo. 1930. _ _. Rapp"YI SliT Ie. fOil/lie.' '" Medm,w,ul (11130). F<>llllleJ dcl'/'tJliwl/"m,a;, d'archcoloE,e o,iemule, Vol 8. pl. I Cairo. 1931 504 CERAMICS OF THE UTE COPTIC PERIOD -c= R4ppon $Ur 1"5 fowilJu fh Mill"wwlld (J9Jl. 1932). F_ilI"5 de l'l,ulilut fr"",,,is 1I'4re"iolDgi~ Vol. 9, pi.. J. Cairo, 19)), Tdlld/f; AlIio1, M. R"ppon uor lu l_ill"5 de T~" EJlow (/932). FaoUlk~ de l'J"~liu,, J"~.is 1I'"re~ Vo!. 9, pl. Z. Cairo. 19lJ. BIl.fJ'l:n:. B. " aI. T~U EJjt)<. /931, F4..111u Fr"roc... po&,..4lULf. bppons, Vol. 1. Cairo, 1937. Henne, H. R4ppon ..U' ks t=i!Ju d~ T~U Edfou (/92 11921). fouilles de 1'1n5litul fran~.is d'alChfo~ ori~nlale. Vol. 1. pi.. 2. Cairo, In4. _ _ R4pporl ~..r ks f_i1I~~ d~ TeU EJ/<JII (/92314). i11« a~ 1'11lSlitu, f""'f"is d'tlrcJrlo(4p ar· i,nt"/". Vol. 2, pl. 3. Cairo. 1925. Mic....lowski. K., eI aI. Tell Ufo" 1938. fouillcs Franc...poIonaises, RapportS, Vol. 2. Cairo, 19]8. _ T"II &Ifen< (/9J9). Foullles francopolonaises, Rapports, Vol. 3. Cairo. 19SO. om",,,", one",,,'" 'o.. BIBLIOGRAPHY . . "Ii,,"" Missione Archrologica in Ei' ino d~Il'Univel"Sira di Roma•• er. 21, Rome. 1974. Ballet, P.. and F. Mahmoud. "Moulco ~n terre cuite d'EI~nti"" (Mu~e Copte). Nouvell~, donnees lur leo atelie.., d·ASIOU>JI. i.1'epoque byzantin~ et au premi~.., temps doe l'occupatlon al'l~:' Bul· lelin d~ I'"...litlll fr4n(.i~ ontnt41e 87 (1987):53-72. Bisson de la Roque, F. R"pf'O't ~u, Itl ""'illu de MedTTTlfOT4 (/9JO). Fouilles de l'lntitllut ~.is d'a,dw:oklgie orirnuok. Vol. 8, p'. I. c.iro, 1931. Casriglione. L "Side eines KupkrKhmiedi. Zur Owllln. dcr rt\IDcrttillicben ig)'plisdlen Crab(l9IS5~J968). a·"rcniol"". seri....... Mi'ttih",gen de. 1I~"'$C"e.. .rehiolf>. p.../se" Il1SlitufJ, Abuilu"K Ktliro 24 (1969):110-112. Du Bourwun, P. LOAn copt~. Ca~ olthc uNbilion ;" ~ PMn Pa.lais. Paris, 1964. Cempdcr, R. SwiI wuJ T_1"'1 __ El~pIwI."liJU. Sedum G...b~rieJu. J,(iueiJunaen des dcul· Kh~n aro,hlolo~i.d~n 1l>Sliluts-Abt~UuPI y. ro, Vol. 31. I.blru: :am Rhein. 1976. Kalrfrna.nn, C. M. £4Dkouver'" du ,.......tu.i~u de Me"u a4JtS Ie diun d.. AI.riOlis. A1eundrioo, _ '''''. Die ~,~ ..asst.at und das N.t.....I".. ,u,'um Ar1Pft~ '" a~~ .....st· au "ltchTisllklUn "Iu.ndri"isch.... Wii$l~, Vol. I. Leipl:ig. 1910. "~imer, L "u, Chrism<: sur une $Ullutllt de pore," Bull.t;n d~ I~ Soci.ti d',,~ch.oIol" cop'c. 9 (1943):93-103. u,cl~rcq, H. "Jeux cr jolI.t.... D'c,io"""'t. d'",· ch."I",i. chronen"• • 1 a. lilu',;" Vol. 7. pt. 2, eols. ]75-76_ Paris. 1926. "Poupe...." Dielio"".. i,~ d·otoMologi. okdlie"". ~t d~ Ilm,g'" Vol. 7, pt. 2. coL 2517. Paris, 1926. Martens, M. "F'i"rin~ ~ I.rn: cuile COP'~ decounna. i K6m tl·D1kb (AleJ"d~. 4J (1975):53_n. Mond. R.. and O. H. Myers. Temp/os 01 ........."" " Prrlim;"uy Survey 63. London, 194(l. Palonque. C. "Notes sur qudqun joucts copies .n tnYC cuite:' Bulkli" d~ flnsli1tlt f>'.~ "ruI E".,JIili<>" of th" Or""t Sr.nun., AK""'" " B.dcgroTDUI 01 lH, Jopi". Coptic "n. E.udes ft Tra,'aWl. Vol. II: Tra, w; du C~nlre d'archi ""'ill•• CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPTIC PER· 100. h i< unrt_a.bl~ 10 posil any major chang· n, ei.....r in _I~ or tKhniq_. immtdialely followinl the Wamie COnquesl fcp. W~ may _um<: tim dun,. tht bl~ se>~nth and early eighth ce-nu.r· ics, then: "''all a shift of ~ better atdicn from Alo:xan.dria 10 lhe IleW ctlpital at al-F~ (aairn) and a ,.,.,....,.1w less prtc:lSC 1TICI'<'l'm.cn1 away from the patronace ....d 1-ti.~ of lhe n,ligjs tse:abtiJb. menu, whft.hu Coplic or 0nb0d0J: (Mckhite), '0 those of the Arabie ..,.-emi ..., cao:Ircs. Nowhere i~ this mort arikingly ~"'l Iiton in the employmen' of Arabic inscripllons on poneT)', $Ometimes alone bul mart often lICCOmpanyinl an older med· ley of molih. best seen i" the bowl fragment "",Ih ducb and gn>pc~ in the Brilish Mw.eum (Lane, 1958, pI. 5·A). llldt~d, lh Icn,lhened life of $Ome of Ihes~ moIi£, (Grube. 1962) againSI com"",ing influences from China .nd Syria and Pe.--sia gocs far toward pro~inll lhe ime8rlty anrl distinction o( Egyptian waus in the broad category or [.Iamic cerami.,. Notwithstanding [hi. conlinuity. il can hardly be gainsaid lhat the d~ds!,~ proce,., Ont by which ...'c « CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPTIC PERIOD can musure Ihe popularilyof "old" agallUl "new" cer.unics, Vo'alI lbe ..,inlroduclion of glazin& inlo Egypt. """ich $InoliuaPhicaI lesl.l al a1·F~! place 'I the lum oflhe' ~ m cenlury. soon alier'AbeI a1oMa1i.', refonn of the coinale in 695-6906. II bas been ~r>enJ.1y accq>led thai me.., had been lead Blazinc III !be f.a§tern Medilemmean J"'O"inces of thi: Roman fropire 100 •.Co. 10 AO 100) cenen!· Iy on eups. ,nd chalices. often wilh barbo!ine de<:o,,"lion. and. further. on, INe cb, l>od,. as diSiincl from 1M ~ fril body emplo,-ed by the ,ndel'll Egyptians lOr th.eir "gIazed" ceramics. H...-eYtr. "'heros lhe I...,hn;quoe appartnll}' dioed QUI in Ei31>1 ,nd Syria. iI seems to h;a'<e been pr'lK1iced al~1 <:onlinuowly in MesopoIamia and parts of Ptrsia, certainly during the Sassanid ~riod and through the ad"enl of I$lam in !he area.. When glazing does .ppear In Syria tnd "ID'J'l-. it was probably imponed from Pel'Si. ~ made locally in imill1tion of these importS. An:haeoloK}'. both al Alexandria erwioe ktloooIn as hiply polilhed "poeudo--Samian" redvo~. lhat "'ffe covered by' P"ttn lead a:lau. Or. lhe roulel' led desI.ns (e.•.• in Rodzitwic%. 197/0. IYJI'! ()'2S. and in Scanlon. 1961.6,;.:tt) "'-ere lranshrred 10' bull·brown c'-Y vessel and i\aud ... can be seen in fiJUre I. a fngmtOI found in an ri&hlh 10 ninth oetIlury conle>.t in a1-FUS!A!; Thou.gb not the ":y 10 mOlival C<>ld of the eleventh century, New shaptS. unlikt any ourveyed by Il.yes or Rodzlewict. Wtre introductd, .wch all that in Figure 2. which is from Ihe wall of l vuelike ves.el wilh applied nodules and a rudimentary leaf .nd branch decor;otion ;n black .lip. It can be securel}' dated to the ninlh cenlury, The man: usual Coptic 505 rca. Fillln: I. FJagmenI of cnen lead-glazed bowl; brown·hull da,. EicJ'nh-nlmh ce",uritS- Location: Kelsey M~m. I,lni"ef$il, of Michipn. D,."...,;"g tourruy Georre T. Sc.nkm. ..c.",..-o...., ..• daian (black and white slip on a psa>do-Samian Standard shape) io obviotlS on the veosel fragm<,>nt in Figure 3. II io from an eighthcentury find-spol. Nor must il be forgOllen lhat the u.""l rouleUed••tamped, and gouged mOlifs contino ued «) be employed On the poli.lw:d red"...re wilh· OUI additional slip deconuion or glazing. A third rupon$C wu simply to continue slippainling ,·es.oels in Ihe old·whioned red-on..,,,,am Ii,.., figure 2. Fragmenl of pseudo·Samian ""...,1: applied nodular roseues and black·slip deeoration. Ninth century. Localion: American University. Cairo. Dr~wi"g c<>urre~y OeO/'ll" T. Sc~"lo,,_ 506 CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPTIC PERIOD Figure 3, Fragment of pseudo-Samian bowl; slip decoration in black and white. Eighth cemury. Loca· tion: American University, Cairo, Dr~wi"g courtesy Georgt T, Sca"lo". slip styles of geamttrics, guilloches. and plaits (fig· ure 4. which was found in the undi.turbed pit that contained Ihe famous lu.ter goblel and can thue· fore be dated to 750-800. and Figure 5, whose de· •ign i. in black and red on an orange-while wash overall slip and whose find·spol allows a dating of the ninth 10 tenth century). A major variant within this survival mode was the continuing utility of the Apa Jeremiah ambit of decoration. Figures 6 and 7 exhibit. albeit on a reduced scale, the interest In zoomorphic motifs, The former can be daled to the eighth to ninth cenlury. And. though the latter i' a surface find. II can be related motivally to the lasl period "f the monastery "f Apa Jeremiah. aboUl 900. The more abstract pauerns (random Hnes, cir· figure 4. Shallow bowl; red-on·cream slip design external. 750-800. Localion' Islamic Museum, Cairo, Drowi"g courtesy George T. Scolllo". Figure 5. Food bowl; red and black design on orange-whIle slip external. Ninth 10 lenth eenturi"", Localion: A.hmolean Museum, Oxford. Draw;'lg cou"e,}" Coorg, T. Sca"lo". de., dot•. and ovoid halehing) can be seen on lhe earliesl slip-painted filter bottle. (Scanlon, 1986, figs. 179, 188). However imere.ting these efforts were toward establishing a sen,e of ongoingness in Ihe realm of deeornted pottery. the major response mU$t be seen in the realm of lead_glazed wares of the eighth and ninlh centuries. A wealth of motifs from the Christian period were renewed and/or modified so as to Integrate both wIth the demands of the new te<:hnique and to satisfy a newly <>'olved tllSle. Here the key factor i$ Ihe tonality of the day. irrespective of the "'ode of applying the decorntion. II i. always of the bulf·white 10 the buff·brown rnnge and rather tigluly polled. (Very few of the early lead-gl"'ed pieces found at al-Fus!,! were of the red daJlS that Rodziewiez would like to see as the link, though Ihe piecn .....hich do survive can be $een as experiment$.) One group carried stamped and molded desIgns, but did not have much of a market after 900. The other. based on underglau painting, can be found in dated contexts throughout the tenth centu')". which means it competed however filfully again.t both Samarra IU$ler and local imitalioM of Chinese impc"u. The decoration "''''' applied in one of two waJ'S. The design was painted in .lip directly On the bisque·fired ve$sel and then covered with a transparent glaze. After the second firing. Ihe surface was bolh smooth to the touch and gritty. The designs were relatively simple and slapda.o;h. though a eenain vigor was altained through It$ing two "r CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPT1C PERIOD 507 F'll"rc: 7. FBgmotnl of wall of roua:h redware v.,...,l: black ""dbuff desicn on ..ilile slip ....lemaJ. Ca. 900. L>cMion: ~ U ........ rn. Unive~ty of Michigan_ Dr"wing wurtt<5y C~ T. s.:."Ion. loomelrics and ~tfl- of figure II remjnd us of the pollery ~utnces from boIh AI'" Jtremiah and U1PHANllJS. Finally. Ihe'" are t"'o cerami<: deV<'lopmenu evident from lhe finds al al·FusI_' bul absent from Alexandria, which compkte Ihe general outline of "carry-<>vers." From the same. undlslurbed pil lhal pnKluced Figure '1 there carm: fonh a small v"",, ..'tn a simple eXlemal linelr decoration in black slip (F~", Ill. BUllhe clay w~ ",hite with a slight huffish ovenone and "'ilhoul ally co,~nng: slip OIher thllll the de<:oral;ve lines In black; lhe ... rtaee ..... griUy 10 IN 1000h. Bolh lhe shape and deco.... lion prompt one to think of p..... l... amic models. This ..... conlirmed by lhe more naturalislic deco- f'irure 6.. S - of n"bbed ,~I; bbclr. and reddish· brown 011 cram slip ... temal. Eipllh to ninlh "enlUI' ;e$. Locallon: An Museum~.I.f'rinceton Uni'enil)'. courruy C~e T. S&nIoJl. Dr""';,,, Ihl"« color~ $lips. Once~;i, then: was a 7.OOmo..phic ,rwp (F"ogure II) and another based on ro$Clla and abslracl leaf pauems (Fii"re 9). In the 5OtT>tWhat later mell>od and on lalller ~el$, tbe Inner surfxt "'-lI$ co,-ere Figure 8, Fragmem of bowl: zoomorphic mOlif: yd10"'. brown. and green slips under t ....nsp;lrent lead glaze. A.bout 800. Loeallon: hlamlc Mu"""m, Cairo. V,,,w;ng COUl1cry George T, SC 508 CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPTIC PERIOD Figure 9. MatcMng frngmenu of shallow bowl; II>striCt leaf design in gr..:en,yellow, and pu..,lish,black dips under dear lead gla>:e. Eighth_nin'h Unlunes. l.ocadon: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Dr4 ....inS co~rt.sy GW'le T. SC4"/"". "ulon 10 be ""en on Figure 13, made oflhe same ....hlte day with black motifs of a palm'iT« and an elliptica) medallion containing leaf fotTlls sugges· tive of the lUi (bean) pJanL From tbe I14lne find·spol .nother fraament of the exact same wa.-.: carried a womorphic motif, one .imil.... to thal .....n in Fig. un 6, which again bespeaks a "cany-ove-r" from tM pre-Islamic Cop'ic range of slip-painled poller,. We know from a .uudy of IiIte", ,h... an atelier in Gila produced • distinct liDC of ,uscli OOled for ha'i,.. :slip decnration; ,,'" miJho- auribute Ihili d... tinct ",hne-.....re ~ge to the ...."'" '-cnue. On ... dueoiOCicoJ uounck "'" may ~ I life Sfl'UI Figun 10. Fragments of rim and shoulder of deep bowl: design in yellow and black on wllire under clear green lead glaze, Ninth century. WClrion: Kelsey MUSC'\lm. University of Michigan. Dr4W/"1l cOI"luy G,orr" T. $c""lo". FiguIl' 1L Fragments of buwl with flange rim: de· sign in }'dlow ..nd black on white under clear green glaze. Ninth century. location: Kdsey Mu""um. Uni· vers-it)' of Michigan. Dr"w/ns rowrl.. y Geolse T. Sc""I"" . from about 800 to 1000 for these killl5, and imagine them as producing no,hinl but slip-painted utiliI)' wares thai, if decon'ed, "'''''''' .... min""...,. of prtI.... mic: nomos and modtos of decont"",_ A' a ... cond ""move. a numb...- of lale classical and Chri5lian mOliB Wfll: nllilable In Eg)JlI on _ I s imporled from the kingdoms of Nubia and mosl p""icularly from Fa.... Thasoe that halle appeared in -aI·F~ are from both ~ of w. Y. Adams', "Classi.c Christian" period, ""hich runs from aOOuo ISO to 1000 (Adams, 19621. In a bier snady, Ao:bnu has relared mos, of the rel"'"",,t motih 10 Ihose p~"""nt in Copcic a" ift the si> CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPTIC PERIOD 509 F~..., 13. Ponion of body of internally ribbed.....,.. sci; decontion in black slip on grilly ,..hite cl.o.y. E;ghth~ninth cenlUries. Loc:ation: Islamic Museum. Cairo. Drawi"g cou'tesy George T. Sca"I"". must place it abo before 900. From Ihe nther large number of fTagmen15 with zoomorphic motifs. mat in Figure 16 is somewhat different in detail from lh<>Se analyud by Adams in t"-t the collar i. veni· cally rathet- than horiwntally ~riped. It is from Fans lUld can be dated from the j;r>d-'$pOl 10 the early tenth century. Thus it ,.;ould seem t"-t the themes ar>d decOl"llen.., mot.i£s of p.....-Isbmic pottery continued to eUTcUe $OInt hold on the imaginalion or the cnftsmen and C1.>S10~ throueh the tenth ctntury. There is linle doubt tha•• e>:cepl for the Giu. faetorin, the penonnel of tt.e.e in the Goute, Cairo ....... had become Muslim 1»' tlU5 dale. The m.art.et lor obp- figure 12. Vase; deCOl"ll.lion in black sllp$ on grhty while clay. Eighth to nimh cemurirs. Location: Kelsey Museum. UniveT1!ity 01 Michigan. Drawing cQurllTy George T. &a~l<m. Figu,"" 14. Ponion oJ Nubian slip·paimed bowL Fara•• Classic Chriltian I. before 900. Localion: An Museum. Princeton University. Drawing counesy Georee T. !kunlo>!. 510 CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPTIC PERJOD Figure 15, MalChina fraamenl. of deep bowl: imernal decoration of .. range and reddi~·brown on an cream slip. P"",ibly As"",n. ClllUic Christian I, before 900. Localion' Islamic Muoeum. Cairo. Drll_ in, rOllrtuy George T. Sc.... lo... 0""'''' du.h, lead-tlazed ",..res ........ practically wiped out by lh a~nonce and p1ethomo of ntWCf" types of pouety. for aamplt, luster .....-c:< and undeflla1e sgraffilO ...-.res, imiWiotu of Chinese tebdons and splash wares, and particularly by the ra>lJe 01 SO" called Fayyi'tml .....-a. By tht middle of the d ..... etllh CWlUl"y, !he importinc of Nubian Christian POllIO!')' had ceasord Htn<:e the lUll.... pb'e ...ith an interior decon!ion of a priesl with a censer (Lane. 1951, pl. 2&-") m....1 be cODSitian ~. A '"eIY ftw piKes of slip-painled. unglazed ponery have bft" noIed rrom lhe fifitenth and su.ttenm ctn'unea, bUI ihnt are proof noo: of a ...,...;.,.1 or of an incredible sumval bu. simply of a at..re a~d melier in lhe grip of economic and art"lic poverty. BIBUOGIlAPHY The Prellmina!)' Reports of the Fu.tat Expeditkllf of lhe Amerlcan Research Center in Ee>'Pt, whi~h pro· vide the background for lhis diocussion. are pub· I"hed In lhe Jou"",1 of/he Ameri,"n Rueorclr Cen· Itr in Egypt (JARC£). or in collabomion with W, B. t.:ubiak. Filure 16. Fralllltnt of body of large -=sel; zooIIlOl1'hic decoration in I>ro........ black. and lighl red on cream slip. Faru. Clusl<: Christian I. .,my .enth «n.ury. l.ocalion: IsJamic Mu.eum. Cairo. Drowin, COCU'ffiJI G«wt.e T.5<:,,,,IO". Adams. W. Y. "An In.roductor)o a-ificalion of Chri!.tian Nubian Pol,e!')':· KIdII 10 (1%2):245- ... _ _ MMedie;,ll! Nubian DQi&n E1e>oenu.. •. In Studies in A""....' Ec1N. 'he MIt_ tulJ the s.uJ1iUf, eel. W. K. Simpson and M. 0....... Bmton. 19~1. Bianquis, T.; A. WaJ.SOIf; and G. T. Scanlon. NNum"· maria and lite Daling of Early Islamic P0I1.-ry in Eg}-pI.N In Nee' ECJlern NilmUrruuU:s ..• SlUdo.e.s in HonD JARCE I (1962):75-97. Kubia•. W. B" and G. T, Scanlon. "FU51a1 F..llpeu 1973): Ug-48, _ _ "FuMat Expedillon: Preliminary Rc]>(>rt 1968. Pan I:' JARCE 1\ (\974):81-91. _ _ "FU&lal Expedilion: Preliminary Repon 1971. Pan 2:' JARCE 17 (1980):77-%. r CHAiNE, MARIUS JEAN JOSEPH Lane. Anhur. Early Islamic POllery. London. 1958. Rod: (1967):83-112. ___ "Excavations at Kasr a1·Wizz, A Preliminary Repon 1." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 66 (1970):19-57. ~__. "Fusta! Ex]><'dilion: Preliminary Repon 1963. Pan I." JARCE II (1974):81-9L ___. "Fu$lal Expedition: Prdiminary Repon 1972. Pan I." JARCE 18 (1981):57-80. _ _. "Moulded Early Lead Glazed Wares from Fus!,\!' Imported or Indigenous." In Studies in Honour of Prof. Muhammad al-Nuwayhi. ed. AT· nold Green, Cairo, 1984. GEORGE T. SCANLON CERDON, SAINT, fourth patriarch (98-109) of th" See of Saint MAItK. (98- 1(9). H" held th" offic" for t"n y Atiya, A. S. His/cry "" EQSlun Christia"ily. Mill. wood, N.Y., 1980. ..ull S. ATtYA CERINTHUS. So little is known of Cerinthus that th"re is nothing to place him in Egypt other Than a reference to him in the Episrula aposrol",rum (leI' ler of the Apostles. whiCh some helie.'e 'originated in Egypt) and a slat"ment" Hippolytus that CerinIhus was educaTed in lhe Wisdom of the Egyptians, The Epislula apasta/",rum ,peal:.s of Cerinthus as a false apostle. and Irenaeus wrote of a confrontation betwun Cerinthus and the Apostie John in a public bath at Ephesus, but there is little eise presen'ed af his life. Irenaeus stated that Cerinthus taught that the creation came abouT through a pow"r far reo moved from God and that Jesus was born of Joseph and Mary. According to Irenaeus, Cerinthus taught that after Je.us' baplism, Chri.t descended in the form of a dove and remained with Jesu. until ju.t hero'" the Crucifixion. This description of Cerin· thian DOCETISM cannot be proved or "'futed, since 511 no Cerinthian documents or source. are known to exist, BIBLIOGRAPHY Duensing, H. Epistula apos/olorum. In New Tes/a· rnell/ Apocrypha, "d. E. Henneck.. and W. Schneelmelcher, Vol. I. pp. 189-Z27. trans. R. McL Wilson. Philadelphia, 1963. Griggs, C. W. Early Egyp/wn Christianity, p, 47. Lei· den. 1990. C. WtLFRED GRIGGS CERNY, JAROSLAV (1898-19701, Czech Egypt· ologist, He was born in Pilsen and smdied al Charles University in Prague under Franti/ie" Len and at Berlin under Adolf " ..... AN. He obtained his doctorale at P....gue in 1922 with a thesi' on the workmen of DAYI'. AL-MADINMl, n"ar Th"be•. whom he fitmly identified as the builders of th" royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. From 1925 to 1946 he was associated as epigraphist with the exca· vations of the Cairo French Institute at Dayr 121Mamnah. From 1929 to i946 he was a lecturer in Egyptology at Charle' University. He published coumless OSlraca, graffiti, and papyri connected with the workmen's community. From i925 he also collaborated with Sir Alan Gardiner on the publica· tion of hieralic tests, After World War n, he held various professorships in England and lhe United States, His interest in Late EIDptian grammar led him into a detailed study of Coptic etymology. His bibliography in Egyptology is "st"nsive, and his rna· jor contribution to CopTic smdies is his Coptk Ety· mological Dictionary (Cambridge. 1976). His papers are nOw in the Griffith Institute. Oxford. while his library was left to Charies University. He died in Oxford. BIBLI()(;RAPHY Bulleti'l de I.. SociiU Ira"fai$e d'egyplologie 58 (1970):4. James, T. G. H. "Jaroslav C"rn)'."" Journal of Egyp· lia" Archaeology 57 (1971): I85-89 (with ponraiT). Spaull, C. H. S. "Bibliography of Jaroslav Cerny."' Journal 01 Egyptian Archaeology 54 (1968):3-8, M. L. B. BIERBRIER CHAINE, MARIUS JEAN JOSEPH (18731960), Fconch Coptologist. He was born at Tarascon. Bouches- 512 CHAlREMON OF ALEXANDRIA priesthood and wu became an abb<x. He S1udied under Joseph Ha1ky a, me Ecole prallque des HaulQ EtIJdes. Among his numeroua; Coplic pu!Mi· ealiofts are C.....pendlum morpho/Ofille coptie., (]lome. 1910) and Elbnmu d, ......"",ite dill/ttude CClf'u (Paris. 1933), whiclI pvc a 5i...... IWle0u:5 ac· CCc LII C"ronofOCie des u ...ps cll'elicltS de rEgyple el tk fE'''iopit (hI' k. 192.5). L.es DillleclM capus .sJio"'ii"u (l'aris. 1934). Le VerlN: tOpU (1'aJis. 19-45). and Le M.....· Kril de I. vo-sion copu r>l diDlulr J.ltldlq..r drs 'l.paplt,IIrU"tll" P"lTU"" (Cairo. 1960). He died al Ihe ClSlerdan A~ of Sainte·Marie·du·~K".Bel. legarde·Sainle·Marir, Haule·Garonne. Uut,_ BIBLIOGRAPHY l4wson. w. R,. and E. r. Uphill. Wlto WII$ Wlto In EDPloloD. pp. 51-58. London. 1972, Gulllaumont, A. B,,/lttl" de /'/".111'" ('."f.. is d·..... rlt'%r" orie.. r"lr 61 (I962),11-13. Kammerer, W.• compo I. Capt,e BibUarmplty. Ann Arbor. Mich.; 1950; rq>r. New Yolt. 1%9, Az1z. S. ATTU CHAIREMON OF ALEXANDRIA, II Stoie phllOlOphc-r. Em>tian priest. and wriIeT 01 ~ first Cftlt...,. ILl). ~ aact .we. of his life au I'OIX known, bu, he ....-as acl;'", in a litenry _y lTom abouI A.D. J() 10 A.D. 65. Only fraaments ofllh IlIO<'b on the hierocJyphJ. Egyptian 1tistot1. and the tom· eu have sw",h'Cd in later authors (eollec,ed and t'diled by .... der lion!);; Accordin, W Ihe he "-as head of ,he school tI gnmmarians in Aleaan· dlia and perhaps cur.itlor of the famous museum before he wenl 10 Rom... as "OIor of the fulure rm· peror Nero. His book on !he hier-oal)-pM influenced laltf IIUlhors from (:UN£NJ or .ouxA.~DRJ" and HOII· MOU.OH down to John Tseczes in the lwelflh centu· ry. His works betray a syncretisric milt'ure of E@yp" Ilan reli&iou. idelLl and Sloie philosophy all well all mlilieal and I-Strological eoncepti s..".. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adle" A. Sudae lu;to", 5 ""Is. leipzig, 1928-1938; repro Siullgan, 1967-1971. HOrsl, P. W. van det'. C""i,emon: Emlilm Priest taIes dans l·em· pin: mmain 101. \..eiden. 1984. CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF, founh ecumt:Il• ical couno:iJ, held ac Cha1«don. on the Asiatic side of me 805p0rus. oppoeite CO""**,,linople. Con· ouked by Emperor ~ian (450-451) W dea1 with lhe silla,ion eaused by the acquinal of WTTOIES and the Second (judicial) Council of ErKESIIS in 449, il met in sUteen sesslom from S October '0 I Novem~r 451. hs dedlions, in particular ~d ins promulgaliOll of I"" Christolo,ieal definition of failh and ito condemnalion of htriarch DIOOCORUS J of Alexandria R$ ..... ell as of EUlychn. alienated the greal majorily of Coptic Chrlstlans and mark a cru· cial rurning polnr in lhe early hislOry of rhe Coplk church and its relalions with Ihe rnt of Christendom. PrelimInary: 449_451 Though the bishopf al Ephesus II IlaStanlinople and Domnus of Anlioch. ensured thai Ihe.... decisions would nOi remain unchallenged. In the EasI. TheocIorel of CyrThus llIrO'e in ~"'Iion 10 Pope UD I 1101 a jumdicrional appea1 bu, a Ietlu 10 th.. one man pdo6Ius II himself. TheodOfius. howeYer. \lIaS well pleased with tht proceedinCS al Eplle· JuS;lnd re:fuKd 10 eon'lOke a IKIlI council. Pr<>b '0 r CHALCEDQN, COUNCIL OF by the Egyptian, Palestinian. and Thracian biohoJl:5' but nol by th""" in Syria. Asia, and POll!US (Libera· IUS, 1936. xiii.76). AI cm>n, Empress PuJcheria, Theodosius' sister, informed Pope Leo that she her. self disapproved the "Manichaean error" of the council (Leo, Lmer. 60). Alexandria, however, remained "the city of the orthodox," and Dioscorus the most powerful «desiaslical pusonage in Christendom, untH 28 July 450, when The<>dosius died suddenly after a fall from his horse. 'hi, event resulted in a complete change in the situalion. Legates from Leo. On their way to Constantinople (0 plead their cause with the eml"'ror, were confronted by a court revolution in progress. Pulcheria became emp.-ess. chose a Thn· cian general named Marcian as her corlson (25 August), and removed by exile or execution The<>dosius' ministe,.. who supported Ephesus [J. Among those e.uculed """" Grand Chamberlain Chrysaphi· u<, The Meeting of the Cou~ll, 8 October_l November 451 The firsl ..".io n tool< plac •.'in tile Cllurch of SainI Euphemia. The conduct of the proceedings r~ted wilh imperial commi."ioners when the emperor was not pre,ent. There were nineteen of these lay· men, headed by the patrician Anatolius. They sym· bolized the ultimate lay conlrol of the conduct of ecclesiastical affairs in all 'queslions except doctri· nal ones, which prevailed in the Eastern Empire. The papal legates had Ihe right of speaking first "" senior delegates, but otherwise the commissioners were in control. The legates sat in a place of honor. 513 Next to them, to the left of the commissioners, were Anatolius, patriarch of Constantinople; Maxi· mus of Antioch; Thalassius of Caesarea in Cappadocia; and Stephen of Ephesus. On the other side of the church sat Dioscorus, luvenal of Jerusalem, and bisbop. of Egypt, Palestine, and lIlyricum. The balance, however, was very SOOn tipptd ;n favor of the papal legates (P;tS(;hasinus, bishop of lilybaeum, and the presbyter Boniface) and their allies. Dioscorus had arrived early in the capital and promptly exc, as "an enemy of God" (Mansi. 1901-1927, Vol. 6, p. 592). The imperial lener of summons, however, was followed by the reading of the minutes of Ephesus 11 and those of Flavian's Horne Synod of 22 Novem· ber 448, which had deposed Eutyehe., and the mood changed. The senior bishops who had panici· pated in Ephesus 11 tried to excuse themselves. lu· venal of Jerusalem rose and mm'ed to the left side of the church, followed by most of the llIyrian bish· ops and four Eg)-p1ians. The move of Ihese last foreshadowed a pennanem schism in the church in Egypt and placed Dioscorus in an impossible posi· tion. He stood firm, howe.'er. He believed Flavian had been justly deposed because he had spoken of "two natures after the union." This w"" against the repeated statements of "the Fathers": '" accept out of the two natures one. But two natures 1 do not accept." By the end of th. session, howe.'er, the commissioners recommended his deposition along with his principal allies: Ju>'enal, Thalassiu. of Caesarea, Ba5il of Seleucia, and Eu""bius of Ancy.... The second session, on 10 O<:tober, fonnally rehabilitated Flavian and Eusebius, bishop of Dorylae· urn. The bishop. then began to discu"" the new definition of faith. The ground had already been prepared by the acclamation of the Formula of Re· union as pan of the minutes of the Home Synod and the abjecI explanations and apologies of those bishops who had taken pan in Flavian's condcmna· tion. The commissioners reminded the council that the emperor upheld the decree. of Nicsea and Con' stantinople together with Ihe writings of ,he holy lathers Grego!)', BasiL and Hilary. Ambrose'. writ· ings against the Arians and the two lellers of Cyril (Cyril's second and third leners to NESTORIUS) had 514 CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF lwen apprtWfd. by Ephesus I. The bishops .1... had bfto'e !hem Leo·~ lell...- 10 f1.....n condemnin, the leaching of Eu~hes. Tbt- Tome n.e up5hot ..... that Leo'~ Tame, with its outspo. bnl, ~na!u'" ChrisroIot:J. "'&$ accq"fd. 15 00tbodoa. ·'This is the faith of the fatheB and Ape:. des. This is ",hal ...., all bclicft," the bishops cried.. "l'etn lou spoken lhrougft Leo; dllU C)'ril taUJhI. ~ and Cyril t~h the 1I&Jl>l". Anal~ma 10 him wlto tnches otherwise" (Mansi. Vol. 6. p. 972). This _ quite unl.-. bul JI indicated lhal liw bishops inlended Cyrir~ leaching 10 he reprded as lhe touchSlOnvincN lhat Leo 5UccMded in beinll onhoOOlt when measured by Cyril', leachinliS. At Ihe Ihird session, 13 October. 0105<:0"" was confronled with complaints againSI btl Iyrannieal cOnducl by Aleu.ndrian cle'8)l .nd lally. This clinched lite case again.. him, for il .... as not nee.,.· W)' for Ihe bishop. to condemn hi. dOClrine. They could cile his offenses against .,.,clC$ia51.ul dls/:j. pHne, The comm~ners ....,..., absent from Ihis session, and Pas<:hasinus presided. He had ob"lous pleasure in semencing DioKorus. in the name of "Peter ... who is the rodr. 01 Ihe ehu~h and lhe foundation of the onhocIm. failh," 10 deposillon and "depri... tIon 01 all sacerdotal aUlhority" (~sJ. vol. 6 p. 10411). Onl, 185 m.hopo (001 01 • lOla! _lIIbIy 01 520) ~ tIte sentC'n(:e. The vehemence of the oppoo.ilion to the T e imprcw:d the commissloDC'rs. Patriarch Anatoli ... of Constantinople bepn a ....nts of consult.tlons aimed XC bridcinl the de.,'*&C$ of opinion O¥er ChrislOlosical doctrine, a.nd On II Oclober he produced a dnoh SIalcmcn" Unfonu",,~ly, Ih.. ~i· lreme/y important _ement has noc Sl.tni.'fll. 11 is clear, ho.. e.er, thai il inIOluded • seoo of Sll1lleo men.. empha$i>in, the uni\y of Christ', penon, lhe ddinillon INI He was "001 oil..... "",IU'''':' snd lhe I4temenl thaI the Virgin _ n.~oIoJcoJ (MOlher of God), These ;w.enions pro\'Cd 100 much for the leplU and lhe commissioners, bul Ihey were ac· copl.ble 10 lhe greal majorily of Ihe bishops. The le..les Ih"'alened 10 rolum 10 Romo and CO:>llVene a new synod. The menace was greeled wllh defl· ance. "LeI Ihe foonul. stand or we depan," Ihe bishops shouled. "These men .,'" N"'lOri.n•. let Ihem be off 10 Rome" (Mansi. Vol. 7, p. 1058: Schwam. ..leI" cmteiliONm oee..m."ic.....m (1914_ 1940),1. 1.2, P. 125). In bel. had the foonula "001 of two naturr:t" he.,., acCepled, the doctrinal dille... ellees Constantinople and Aleundria ->tolius' commillee relired. 10:> relurn for the sixth ......ion on 25 Ocaober ",'lIh a definllion Ihal Emperor Marcian, accompanied by Pulcheria, promulgated amid enthusiasm. The lexl i. given below, bet......,.... Ia.'. Our Lord Jesus Christ: is to ut One and the same Son. the Self-t;tme Perfecl In Godhead, the Self· _ Perfecl in Manhood: Indy Cod and t",ly Man; the ScIh.mc of. rational $(lUI and body; eonsubswllial with Ihe F.lher according 10 the ~ ...... Self_me coosubstantial with us ac· cording to the Manhood: Itke US in all thillgs, sin apart; before .he "flU \>etOtten of the Falher as 10 the Godhead. bul in the lut days.. the Self_, lor us and OW' sa/.,.llon [born) of Mary the Virgin T'Molok>J as 10 the Manhood: One and the Same Christ. Son. Lord. On!y.bqotten: ackno-oiedgfd. in Two N3JUf'tlI unconfu.sed/y, uncltanl'"aI:>Iy, indimib/y, inseparably: the dlfl'erencc of the Nao IUTfl beiD' in no "'. .y ~mo~'ed ~ of lhe Union, hut radler lhe property of each Na... ~ bei"ll preserved. and [boch) concurring into One: P1'o5opon and One Hyposlasis: nOl as though He ",-en paned Qr divided imo TwD Prosopa, bu1 One aDd the Sell.,.me Son and Only-begotlen God. Word, Lord, Jesus Chris!. We can see thaI lhe domlnanl idea ....as inspired by CYIUI. of Alnand';•. Cyril's influence may be deIce led in the emphasis on Ih~ unily of Ille Son "Self·s.me Perfecl in Godhead. Ihe Sell"""me Pcrreel in Manhood" (Mansi, 1798). Bul there i. also lhe language of Ihe Formula of Reunion. and acknowle CHALCEDON. COUNCIL OF "lily. unchanaeably. indivisibly. inseparably'" Wfle aim~ al ~"cluding EulyChiaDiorn and Neitorianism. II was about as cood a <:<)mpromiM' as .....man Ian· ~ 01 the day could achioevc. II provided just .-noup. common ground for Rome. eonslanl;nople, and Anlioch '0 1IPn: anops I;I~ lhe canOn, III tile months fo.Ilowing the CQUndl, every ~fFort "'as made 10 gain Leo's acc.ptance of canOn 28 1$ ...~Il as of lhe d.finl!ion. The,e foundered on lhc popc', uncompromising refusal e"en to eonlider accordin. Constanlinopi~ «iu"lily of llalllll with Rome (Leo, /.ell su"" 515 ary 452. however, Marcian addre-.:l an impcrial edkt 10 the people of Cotlsunlinople: "All therefore shall he bound 10 bold 10 the decision of Itte sacred council of ChaI«don and indll1g~ no funhcr doubu. .. DisctlSliolt 01 matte.... of ""li&ion _ probibil"'" (U:I! in Schwaru.. Act. CQOlcilionutt O«U.......i.......... 2. ii.). pp. 21-22; see also tes.1S of ~br cian's edieu of 13 March and 6 July 452 ilt Mansi. Vol. 7. pp. 477-30. 497-SOO). To corIlemporaries !he Council of Chalccdon was a vindication oi .... posiIion of ..... see d eons...... linople ........ Ala.andria and. 10 .. lesser CSlent, Rom~. Canon 28 "'.... hcncefonh 10 provide the Inle deeds for Consu.nlinopl~·s stalUS in w East. The Chmrological definition, IhooaJ! makinl Itte Monopb)'Sile schism ine\'i""'le, pnn'idcd Christendom with a ...... l~mcnl of bclid to ...... ich bolh Easl and We$l couid subocnbc. In addition. the council cOnSOlidaled lhe role of lhe emperor and his lay r~presenlat!ves in lhe guidance of the church. and II upheld lhe authonl)' of lhe hishop againsl lhe Irowini ri"al charismatic ,ulhority of the monks. Not only the greal " ..em· blage of bishop. thai particlpaled, bUl also the ",tempted equity of the dedsions lhroughout ,h~ lonl """,wa.. jUSlifi"'" ita claim 10 be • "!aiT counciL" for the Copts. bowever, lhe deposition of DiOSCOTUS and /lCcq>tancc of Ihe Temt: oi Leo would entail Iheir cradtW alienation from dw religion of Rome and ComtallliDople alike. BIBUOCIlAI'MY Altaner-. B.. and A. Slt.Iib-cr. "atro~'a, 7th ed.. p. 249. Freiburg. Basel. and V-oenna, 1966. Chatf>.,id. H. "The bile and Death of f1aYio,n of Corosun.irJ.opk; ,. ~ 10 lhe Council of OtakMon." Iournal at TMoIocical 51wiiu n.s. 6 . no. 1 (1955):11-34. F~ W_ H_ C. nu RUt: oftltt: Monoploysile MO'"I:' menl, 2nd ed.• chap. 1. Cambridct. 1979. Crillmeicr, ,..• and H. BachL DIU ';'",,61 vo.. Cltal1cedo". 3 vols. Wiinburg. 1951-1954; FranlJim am Main, 1973-1979. Honilmann, E. "Ju"cnaI of J~sal~m:' Dumburtm Oalc< Papt:.. 5 (1950)'211·79. Kid 516 CHALDAEAN ORACLES CHALDAEAN ORACLES, • ~''elalory poem. Gmdt ~Dme1er ''eOW. l:OnIpoted or editfll by • «ruin ma,:ician named }uliJIous, who li\'ed during mc rri&n of Marcus Aumiw.. h.s i".. ponanee is 1...'OfoId: it is the lui major sacred book 01 papn ."tiquiry. and it had rnajo<" jnll~llCc 0<1 the dt-'tIopmtnt of Nt:oplacon..... from POI'~I)"ry 10 PKllus. Only fraJrntnl< at.!, a1thouch quoc.t...... are scanered in the writinp of Produs. ()a.,m.scius. !'$ellus, and «her NcopIawniou. IobCkti riles we.., based on the ptteepl.s of this purported dnine revelation. The ,",poen". bcSl Sludied hy Hans 1Awy. cOIl' gin much bon "Cd Pb'oni$m. somoe ll'\lIlltrial common to gnostic and an aceount of Ihe eTCation and Ih. descent of the cosmic $O;lU1. Hypoit. lies. gods. and dacmons of G~... ()rienlal cults • .., fused into a 51",n~ mass in the "Cllaldaun Ihwlg. gr." Some ritUltIs Or sacramen.. have lH:cn idcnti· fied. lnduding a symbolic burial. an inilia.lion, and a purification of the souL Although Christlan writ· ert quoled Ihe text in collections and anthologie•. Ihere is no cenain influence of the "Chaldaean Ora· des" on Christian magic. ","lien m BIBLIOCIUPIIY Dodds, E. R. '7hcuIKY and I~ Relalion,hlp to 1'0_ p1atonbm:' }Ol'mal of Rom411 Siudies 37 (l947),SS~69. "New Ught on lhe 'CJu,ldacan Oracles:" H"....rtJ Tlu:oIo(ic,,' Review 54 (1961):263-73. "",-,. H. ClullJiu"" Omcks ."i ~u,ty: MySl;' cUm••\1• •1Id PiiUOnism in Ihe U.IU Rom"" Empire. Cairo. 1966. .. SCone (now in the Brilish Museum). a revolution· ary di..o.....,. I .... t illauCUraled the '''enee of Eg)l'" Jology. He was appointed curaJor of the Egyptian CoI\.ectioJ1 aI ,he Lou\Te Museum", 1&24. Bt8l..lOGlUPHY DaWSOG. W. R.., and E. P. Uphill. WAoc> W... Who ;" Ez:fTNoloct. 1'1'. 58-60. London, 1972. A.nz S. AnY,+, CHANCEL Sec ChuTch.", Cancelli. Archilcclural Elements of CHANDELIERS. See Melalwork. CHARISIOS. The name of Ihis archimandrite is preserved only by some fragments of the Iypica pTesen-cd at Leide" (lnslnger. 3&., Pleyle and BoeseT, 1897.1" 182). Vienna (K ~736). and Rome (Vatican, ik><"I;a 231: Leipoldt, 1913. p. 11). Chari,ios has lcfl no trace in the Copto>-A",bi<: SYNAXAIUON: "''e know oi his exist"nce only from the: t!'Pica of the While Monastery (Da)"T AlIbi Shiniid· all). These me~ly indicate his posilion as archimandrite and Ihe rc """ertloin if he: _ abbot oi Fa... or oi AJrIb. CHALICE. Coptic. BIBUOCaAPHY CliALICE VEIL SU Eueharislic Veils. CHAMPOLLlON, JEAN FRAN~OIS (I790~ 1832). F..,nch Egyptoloa:iSl and stud'''1 of Oriental languages, induding Coptic. He .....as educaled In Grenoble. (n 1806 h. sa,'e a paper althe Ae ••Umle d. Grenoble in which h. main ..ined that Coplic Wall the ancient language of Egypt. Ten yul"$ lalt< hc publishcd a book entitled L'EIJiPle so"s I.. Pharao"J, a de.. ription of E;ypr drawn from dt.SSi· cal and Coptic ......rces. His main aehic\'emenl ..... alI the dedpllennent of hieroglypM through the RoSet· Leipoldl. J. Si"ulhii Arclt"""ndrd.e Vita el Opus Omlli•• Pt. 4. CSCO H, Paris and Leipzig. 1~1J. PI..,... W.• and P. A. A. 8ot5er. edt. MIUt«$CriI. cop,". d.. M..sle d'.'t/illu;li. du P41S-B4. ~ uide. 1897. TuT1O!v. II. A. "Koptskll. oslraob kollcktsii V. S. Golenhseva:' Bulleli" ie /'Ac4ilm;, imphi41, de~ .d~nc.. ie SI. Pele,sbou'f 10 (1899):439-49. REHItCEORGES COQUIN CHASSINAT, EMILE GASTON (1868-1943), French Egyptologist and Ccptologist. H~ was born in !',uti and studied under Gaston Maspcro at lhe: • CHENOBOSKION SHENESET Ecole des Hautes Etudes and under Eugene Re\'il· lout and Paul Pierret at the Louvre. He was appointed to the Egyptian department of the Louvre in 1894 and joined the Institu! fran,a;. d'Archwllr gic orientale in Cairo in 1895. He was director of the io.{;lllle from 1898 to 1911, during which lime the institute's activities we..., expanding. Its press was inaugurated in 189S, the Bullelin in 1900, and the Bibliotheque d'elude in 1908. Under his djr<~c' tion large·scale excavations were also undertaken, including that of the Coptic monastery of BaWl!. His eonlribulioM 10 Coptic studie< included "Fragment. de rnanuscri\$ copies en dialecte fayoumi. que" (Bulletin de I'lmlilul fra",;a;. d'Archeologie ontmta!e 2, 1902, pp. 171-206); Fouilles il 8"0,,;1, Vol. I (Cairo, 1911); Le Quat,i.me Livre de< enl"· lie~, e/ tpiM' de She~o",i (Cai,..,. 1911); V~ Papy. rus ",Ulcal copl< (Cairo, 1921); and Le Manu,crit mogique copte (Cairo, 1955). He died in Saintc"rmain·en-Laye. BIBLIOGRAPHY Dawson. W. R.. and E. P. Uphill. WJw Was Who i" Egyplo[OIf)'. pp. 61-62. london, 1972. Kammerer. W.• compo A Coptic Bibliog'aphy. Ann Arhor, Mich., 1950; repro New Yorl, 1969. AlIl S. AT/YA CHEIROTONIA, the practice of simony. The biblical passage cited by lhe Coptic jurists con· demning the praclice of the chdrotonla or simony is recorded by Saint Luke in the Acts of the Apostles $;14-25. A. Ihe early church moved from ils sectarian stroclure 10 an all-indusive national cult, members of lhe hie",rchy faced new problems con· cerning lhe power structure. The temptation 10 .ell and buy ecelesiaslical privileges was a constant threat. especially . 517 increase their personal gains and prestige or practiced simony for the sheer survival of the church that was enlrusted to them. in some casescenainly not in all-the cheirolOnia as pl1l<:liced by the Coptic patriarchs, bishops, and archons was a necessary evil, comparable with such necessary evils as Ihe "white lie" or stealing on account of need or paveny. In the.. cases. Ihe end justifies an otherv'ise prohibited acl of conduct. This principle was acknowledg.ed by the canonical jurists of the medie,,,,l Coptic chu Bunnesler, 0, H. E. "Th. Canons of Gabriel ibn Turaik, LXX Patriarch of Ale.andria." Ori.ma/ia Christio"a Perlodictl 1 (1935)'5-45. _ _~, '111e Canons of Cyril n." L. M"",,on 49 (1936):279, Croffi, W. E. 'The Coptic Version of the Canons of Saint Basil." Proceedings of Ihe Society of Biblical Archae"/ogy 26 (1904):57-62. Meinardus, O. "The Cheirotonia among lhe Copts-A Necessary E"il?" EUr.. iaslikQs Pharos 59 (1977):437-49. Reidel, W. Die Kirch~nrechlsquellen des Patriarchals .-IIe"andrien, pp. 231-33, 260_ u:ipzig, 1900. 011:0 F. A, MEINARDUS CHENOBOSKION SHENESET. See Padtomius of Tabennese, Sainl_ 518 CHERUBIM AND SERAPHIM CHERUBIM AND SERAPHIM, celeslial crea· tures occupyin~ Ihe highesl order of an~els, wim me seraphim ranking a'oo.-e Ihe cherubim. According to Genesis 3,24, when man wa5 e,,· pelled from the Garden of Eden, God placed the cherubim at me entrance 10 Paradise. wim a sword whirling and !lashing 10 guard Ihe way to me Iru of life. likewise God cQmmanded Moses 10 make an ark for the tabernacle. wilh lWO gold cherubim of beaten work al me end of the coun. whQse wings were outspread and poinling upward (Ex. 25:1822). They were full of eyes "like burning coals of fire" (E<. 28:14-16). and were also described as a leu..d of living creatures. each cherub having four faces, four wings, the hands of a human being, but the hooves of a calf (E.:z. 1:5-S). The seraphim are mentiQned in Isaiah 6:2, where he ""w in a vision sevenl senphim slanding before the throne of God and ceaselessly praising Him. Each seraph had sbl wings, Iwc co.-erins his face, two his feet. and two for flying. In allusion to Isaiah 6:2-3. the Cherubic Hymn forms an inlegral part of Ihe prayer 01 reconcilia· tion in all liturgies. ""here Ihe celebrant priesl says. "Thou art He, round whom .land the Cherubim full of eyes and the six-winged S<.raphim, praising continuously, with unfailing voice., saying: [Here the congregation sings] The Cherubim worship Thee. and the Seraphim glorify Thee, proclaiming: Holy. Holy, Holy, Lord of hosts; heaven and eanh are full of Thy holy glory."' A similar hymn also features in me Euchologion of S<.rpion (d. c. 360), bishop of Tmuis. Etymologically. Ihe cherubim are 50 called be· cause they represent prt>found knowte.:Ige, and the seraphim the fervor of love. BIBLIOGRAPHY Leclercq. H. "Ang.,.."· III Dklionna;re d·archiologi. ch"J;enne ." de lilu,iitk. Vol. I, cols. 2080-2161. Paris, 1907. ~ Marriou. W_ B. "Angels and Archangels in Christian An."' In DictiJ;mary of Chr'i$lian AFI. vol. I. pp. 83-89. London, 1876. Strachan. j, "Seraphim." In J. Hasting, Dklionary of the Bible, Vol. 4, pp. 458-59. London, 1902. Vincent, L H. "I.es Chel\lbin<:' In Revue Bibliqu. 35 (l926):32g-58, 481-95. AIlCHBISHOP BAsILlOS CHESTER BEATTY BIBLICAL PAPYRI, Alfred Chester Bealty, an industrialist and financier born in New York City in 1975, became one of the world's great collectors of Oriental manuscripls, spedalizing particularly in manuscripts of artistic merit from the point of view of miniatures and calligraphy. The collections were boused at his home in London until 1953, when, having moved to Dublin. h. built a sP"Cial library and exhibition gallery for his collection of Oriental and Western printed booh and manuscripl5. Among the hundreds of Greek papyri in the Bealty collection, by far me most famous are the bibli· cal texts. The acquisition in 1930 of this group of papyrus codices from [!1i1) (Aphmdilopolis), ",ng_ ing in date from the second 10 the fourth century. was justly described ... the grealest event in Ihe history of the Greek Bible since TIschendorf's discovery of the CODEX SI"AlTlCOS a century before. Portions of several of the.e codices were purchll5ed separalely by the University of Michigan. The Ihree New Te.tament manuscripts comprise the Gospels and Acts in one code". daling from lhe third century (about one·seventh of the toul text being preserved); nine of the Pauline epistles. dating from about 200: and the central ponion of the hook of Revelation. from the third century. The Old Te5tament is represented by two separate fragmentary copies of Gen.,.is (especially valuable, ~ince thai book i~ missing from both the Vatican ... and Ihe Sinaitic,," copies): substantial portiQns of Numbers and Deutert>nomy IOgether in one cod.., dating from the first half of the se<;ond cenlury; and portions of Isaiah, Jeremiah. Ezekiel, Esther, Daniel. and Ecclesiaste$. The twelfth and last codex "f the collection (daling from Ihe fourth century) CQnuin. me dosing chapters of the book Enoch and a homily on the Passion by the second-century Christian writer Melilo of Sardis. Apart from their textual importance (for which see Kenyon, 1915)_ the Beatty papyri are of greal significance codicologically. indicating a.. Ihey do the Christian preference for the codex fonn of book, as opposed 10 me roll. which remained the favorite fonnat in the Jewish synagogue as well as in pagan circles. The biblical papyri (along with the Michigan por_ tions) were edited, with complete facsimiles. by Frederick G. Kenyon (1933-). The Beatty and Michigan ponion< of Enoch and Melito were edited by Campbell Bonner in the series Studies and Documents, Volumes t and 12 (1931, 194(1). The two Beatty texIS of Genesi. were reedited in 1977 by Albert Pielersma (American Studies in PapJ'Tol"ID' 16), who also edited two additional (fragmentary) "r CHIFfICHI, YUJ:lANNA Beatty papyri of the Greek Psalter, dating from the fourlh "entuI)' (Analecta Biblica 77 [1978), [See als<>: Che.ter Beany Coptic Papyri,] BIBLIOGRAPHY Kenyon, F. G, The Text of the Greek Bibk london, t975. Piete,..ma, A" ed. Che'1er BeQ/1)' Biblical pQpyri IV Qnd V: A New Edition with Text·Critical Analysis, American Studies in Papyrology 16. Toronto, 1977. ___ Two Manuscripts of the Greek Psalter: In tire Che,ter Beatly Library, Dubli". Rome, 1975. BRUCE M, METZGER CHESTER BEATTY COPTIC PAPYRI. Second in importance only to the Beatty Greek biblical papyri (st'<' CHESTER BEATTY BIBU(:AL P~I'YR!) is the large group of Coptic papyri acquired by A. Chester Beatty, .ome of which "onta;n Ihe text of lost books of the Manichaean religion (see MAN!· CHAEJSM). Llrge sections of these have be<:n pub· lished, including the homilies, by H. J. PolalSky (1934), and the P$alter, part 2, by C. R. C. AUberry (1938). Olher Manichaean codices were acquired by the Berlin Papyrus Collection. Anomer important codex comprises portions of a fourth..,enlury copy af the book of Joshua in $ahidic; pall of the >arne codex was separately acquired by the Bodmer Libnny of Geneva. The Beatty portion was edited and translated by A. F. Shore (1963), A papyrus copy of the Apocalypse of Elijah in $ahidic (Beauy Papyrus 2018), dating from the end ollhe fourth Or beginning of the fifth centul)', was edited and mln.lated by Albert Piete"'IDa in 1981. 519 eighteenth century; died in Fr:ance sometime after 1825. One hindrance 10 discovering his identity is due to Ihe illegible .pellings of his name by biog· raph~rs of Champollion, to whom Chiftichi taugln Coptic pronunciation. H. Hartleben (l906, Vol. l, p. 81) ",'rile. hi. name "Jeacha Sceptidschy," and L de La Briere transcribes it differently as "leaha Scheptichi" in publishing the following letter by Champollion wrill~n in Paris to his broth~r, a letter of prime inter""t in the genesis of Champollion'. disco,ery. I am going to visit a Coptic prieSI at Saint-Rnch, rue Saint·Honor.;, who celebrates Mass ... and who will ,nstrucl me in Coptic names, and Ihe pronunciation of Coptic letters.... I am devoting myoelf entirely 10 the Coptic language, for I want 10 know the Egyptian language as well as my own native French. My great worl on Ihe Egyptian papyri ",ill be based on this [ancient] tongue. [1897; p 69J Chiftichi also figure. in government correspon· denc~ regarding the encyclopedic Descn"plion de l'Egyptt under the name of Youhanna only, in a leuer wrinen by the minister of Ihe interior un 17 Flor.;al 10 (1802): Citilen, a COplic (Cophte) priest named Youhan· na, who is reputed to be very learned in Oriental language., has been referred 10 me a.s capable of cooperating u",-,fully in Ihe great work upon which all the scholars re.:ently returned from Egypt are labouring at present, I am wondering if you think he might be in a position to help with this work, and would you kindly let me know your opinion about lhis as .oon as possible. Citi· zen Langles believes that this foreigner might be pul to good use. [Nouvelles Acquisitions, official leners of the Bibliotheque NaTionale, Paris, De· partment of Manu.cript.s, 21937, fol. 84] BIBLlOGIlAPHY AUberry, C. R. C.. ed. A Ma~chaea" P...lm·book, pt, 2, Stuttgart, 1938. Piete",ma, A., ed, The Apoc CHIFTICHI, YUI:fANNA, Coptic pri~sl and scholar bom in Cairo in the lost quarter of the The reply is missing, but the missive of Langles describe. him as "a Coptic (Oobthe) priest named Youhanna (lohn)," whom he recommends for adding to Ihe great work Ihe "principal passage. from Anbic write,.. regarding the antiquiti... and ge<>gnl' phy of Egypt." There is no funher infonnation as to Tbe nature and extent of Chiftichi's scientific collahoralion save thi! note: "Apart from the four OrientalislS included in Ihe main body of the Commission of whom only one is salaried, Mini.ter Chaplal has added to the Commission from the very beginning of the enlerprise the name of the Egyptian Yuhanna Chiftichy. a refugee from Cairo.... He enjoys but a 520 CHOIR modest salary." On the payroll until June 1814, his name, always last on the list, and always written in Arabic as al..shiftishi, is somelimes preceded by the word AMn~ (Father) Yuhanna, or al-Qi""," (Priest) Yul)anna. In other pap<;>rs from Ihe Archive, du Service historique de l'armee, at Vincennes, altera· tions of his name appear under diverse spellings: Anna, Kassi" Anna Kassis, and Anacharsis. In those archives that faceless name to be translated as "John the Transparent" assumes all the known characteristics of a minority Copt. In the dossier of Chiftichi in the Archives, a document daleom in C<eater CaiTO." He served under the French administration as interpreter lor Ihe province of Gi..... adjudicator for tax collections, main recorder at the Tribunal of Commerce, interpreter for General Destaing. and then for Citizcn Dallon' ville, di.-ector of rights on corporations. Later, according to Ihe Archives, upon Fourier's recommendation, he became interpreter lor the "Commission, created by General Kleber, to assemble materials lor the hi'tol)' of the ConqueSI of Egypt:' Finally, according to an attestation of the chief ore a scar from a serious wound as described in a repon, signed by Benhollet, Jomard, Jolliot, Duvillier, Girard, Fourier, and Delile, and addressed to the miniSler of the interior, 5 April 1816, in suppan of Chiftichi's request for Fren~h citizenship. n.e Ar~hives re~ord: "He lost his fomme and some of his do..,;t relatives be, cause of the events that l.!J"spired in Cairo after the depanur~ of the French Army; and in spite of these painful losses, he has been the main suppon of the rest of hi. family since th~t time," In truth, he gave up half his pension 10 the widows and six ~hi1dren of his two brothers who were assassinated for being members of the Coptic Legion, In Paris he lived in the Rue Saint-Roch when Champollion ~ame to consult him-aher lodging at the Rue de la Conco<de and the Rue Royale while still ~ontinuing his ministry in the Rue Saint-Roeh. He decided in 1825 to go to Ma....illes in order to end his days among the Egyptian refugees there, The exact dates of his birth and death remain un· known, The destiny of Chihichi is .ym!>olic of the survival of Egypt through the tonnents of that era, BIBLIOGRAPHY Archives du Service histurique d~ I'annee, Vin~ennes, Orienta",,, Auman,ers ,r inurprlues, 1 canon. Briere, L de La. Champollion incormu, lellres i,,~Ji_ re., Paris, 1897. Hartleben, H, ChampolIion, sei>! Le~" und ..i" Werk, Vol. I, p, 81. Berlin, 1906, Louca, A, "Champollion entre Banholdi et Chiftichi." M~l""ges Jacque. Berqu', Paris, 1989. Sa,'ant, J, Los Mame/oub de NapoUo>l. Paris, 1949. ANOUAR LOucA CHOIR. See Architectural Elements of Churches: Choir; Khurus, CHOREPISCOPUS, assistant to a bishop. The rapid dilfusion of Christianity in the early ~enturies and the consequent increase in the number of ohurehe, and the duties of the diocesan bishops necessi"'ted the appointment of a.. .. istants to these bishops, holding the title , CHRISM of Neocaesarea, "The chorepi.copi, however, are in Asad Rustum. K~n1sal M~d1flt1l AIIJh An!Jkiy~h ai_ 'U;mJ, VoL I, p. 164, Beirut, .1958I:Iabib Jirjis. AsrJr al·Kanlsa}, al.$ab'ah, 2nd ed.. p. 219. Cairo, 1950. ARCHBtSHO~ BASJUOS CHRISM, also known as boly myron, the sacred oil used in anointing and in dremonies of Consecration, The tn 521 the Old Testament (Ex. 30) where God ordered Mo.es to prep;tre an anointing oil compounded from myrrh, cinnamon, cassia, and sweet calamus mixed wilh pure olive oil. It was used in anointing kings, priests, the tent of the rab<:rnacle, the ark, the ahar, and the altar ,""ssel •. In his encyclopedic worl< M;#JJ,iJ al-~ulrnah Ii 140-iJ al-Khidrnah (The Luminary of Cburcb Services), Abu aI-Barakat IllN·KAa~R (d. 1234) d",'otes the whole of section nine to the subject of the holy chrism. According to this work, in the earl}' church the apostles continued the Old Testament practice of using the above-mentioned sacre 522 CHRISM. CONSECRATION OF THE which the above·mentioned ingredients are m;~ed together and left to filter o'"ernighl. Ion Kallar lells us lhat he had consulted various manuscripts. each giving different quantities and methods. To resolve the maUer. he preferred to give a description of the S}.,;lem used in his days oy Pope THEOOOSIUS n (12941300) al Ihe Church of Saint Mercurius in Cairo during Holy Week 1299. lJ\auOG~"PflY Bunnester. 0, H. E. "A Coptic Tradilion Concern· ing the Holy Myron (Chrism)," In Publications de I'lrwitut d'hudes oriwlo/es de lu Bib/iolh~que po· trioYeole d·AIe.r:a"drie 3 (1954):52-58, Lanl$ChOOl. A. van, "Le MS Vatican Copte 44 el Ie Livre du Chreme (ms. Paris aral>e 100)." Le Mu· seo" 4S (1932):181-234. William Sulaym~n Qeladah. ed. AI·Dosqiiliyyoh. To'Jllm a/·Rusul. Cairo, 1979. FlJ~o MEG~UY CHRISM, CONSECRATION OF THE, The infrequenl <xc....ions on which the preparation and consecration of the chrism is petfOlTlled a,.., events of considerable .pirilual ;oy. After con<:<xting the prerequisite ingredients of the chrism and alw of the kaIIie/ai'm (oil of the CATECHU!,n,>oIs) that is usu· ally consecrated "n the same da}' out in a separate service. Ihey are placed in special vessels, Two wooden altars, covered with silk veils. are set up in the sanctuary to the right and I" Ihe len of the main altar, "n which the vessels conlaining the chrism and the kallie/aion are placed, the chrism on the right (soulhern) altar, and Ihe kallieloion "n the lefl (nonhern) altar. The con5ecralkm of the chrism and the kQllie· laio" is e~clusively re5erved 10 the palriarch of the church of Ale~andria. The service is usually per· fonned on Maundy Th~y, or. a1ternativelyIhough rarely-on any S,unday durin& the fast of Lent. and is allended by many bish<>ps and clergy. Following Ihe prayers of,lhe morning service. the lilurgy of Ihe consecration proceeds as follows: After the 11l1SAG1ON. the Lord's Prayer, Ihe prayer of thanksgiving, and the offering of incense. the patriarch prays that God may granl him grace, blessing, and power to accomplish this sacred servo ice. Readings are talen from Isaiah 61. Exodus 30. and Exodus 40. all <>f ..... hich deal wilh the prepara· lion of Ihe holy oimmem as commanded by God to Moses, The Pauline Epistle is from Hebrews I:S~14. the Catholic Epistle from 1 John 2:21-29. and Ihe ACIS from 8:14~40. all passage. being rele"am 10 Ihe purpose. The Ihree agios are follo.....ed by the intercession of the Gospel, the Psalm-versicle (88:19). and the Gospel (Mk. 14:3_9) ;n Coptic and Arabic. Here lhe archdeacon calls upon Ihe catechumens 10 depan. The clergy fonn a procession canying censers, crosses, fans, and candles in fronl of the palriarch, while the chrism and the kallielaio" are carried by Ihe patriarch and the bishops. all singing psalmo· di.... The chrism and ""lIie/aion are then placed on Iheir respecI"'e altars, The patriarch performs the service of the blessing of the water and the fOOl_washing On Maundy Thursday, Then he eme,.. Ihe sanctua!)' and l>egin. the prayer of lhe consecralion of the chrism, The archdeacon says. "Lei uS stand weil." and lhe palriarch prays that God may sanctify the chrism. and render il fit foT the holy uncI;on. The archdeacon says, "Bow your he.ds to Ihe Lord," and Ihe patriarch prays for Ihe chrism to l>e invesled with the Holy Spiril. Psalm 44:6-8 is read, followed hy the Ihree greal petitinns, the Creed. and two further prayers. The words of the latter pra}'er are accompanied with the sign of the cross .....hile the congregalion ans"'ers "Amen" each lime. call· ing upon God to render it a phylaclery of life. an indeslructible seal, a breastplate of strength_ against all the evil workings of lhe devil. The archdeacon says. "Let us stand we~':' and Ihe patriarch prays, 'The love of God lhe Father, the grace of His holy·begotlen Son. our Lord, God, and Savior Jesus Christ. and the communion and the gin nf His Holy Spirit l>e with you," to which the congregalion answers, "And with your spiril," The palriarch says, "Lift up yonr heans." The congregalion says, "They are wilh Ihe Lord:' The palriarch say'S. "Let us give thanks 10 lhe Lord." The congre· gation says. "'11 is meet and right." The patriarch cominues wilh the prayers of the holy chrism until he reaches the invocation of Ihe Holy Spirit, which he says inaudibly. and Ihen signs the oil "ariOllS times with the sign of Ihe cross, saying, "Holy chrism; an oil of gladness; a royal grace: a vesture of light; a garment of salvation; a phylactery "f life; a spiritual grace; a purification of soul and body: a joy of grace; an eternal gladness; an indeslructible seal; a repo.. of the faith; a breastplale of strength against every diabolic deed." the deacons followin& each clause with "Amen." The archdeacon prays for Ihe peace of Ihe world, CHRIST, NATURE OF from tribu.talion. fw forgi~enns of "I sins. for ,"" priestS of the churdt. for the JOInet!6callo" of the holy chrism, the congrepllon .... S\... evay cI......., ...ith "K)'rio: elrisoD." 1M p*lrian;h ~ Iloe prayer foe- the consKratioD of 1M holy chrism. 10 ..... ich the cot'1gnpion .... .",,"n.. ~""'-'l...,. pardon. and forg;Y'e US. 0 God." Then the I""lri.an:h I:h'a thank. 10 1hc U;wd. beseechinl 1hc Almighty lo.wnd tht I""e.. of thO' Holy Spirit Upoll hol,. cltri>rn. and the congreption follows "';!h the Lord's Pnyer. The archdeacon 5a)'S. "Bow )'OUr beado 10 lhe Lord." 1l>t p'lriarch uJll the final p....~ of saneli· !Wallon. The pilu;arch. accompanied by ,he clergy. ,he deacons••nd Ihe c:ongrcplion. proceeds 10 1.... ou...r altar 10 consecrale lhe kaUiel,,;o.,. The _-nsels are Ihen lus churches which require It. for dtH~n.nee ....ms u... IIIUOGRAPHY a..llll'!". A, J. The A>tci<"m Copric Churchu oj £DPI. Vol. I. p. 337. 0J0n.t. 1S8~. V;ltlSleb. P. J. t.l. HiSlOiTe de l'irlile d·Ak.t;a>tdn.. pp. 91, 23lf. hris, 16n. made of pass. eanhm""*'1:. or mcQo], used as a rcceptad.. foo- 1M holy CH~ It .. u......rl,. kepe inside a locked wood· en lim. and placed in the sancruary or clae 10 \he CHRlSMATORY, a small Cn>e'. '* baptitmal font. A. J. Bulkr describes .such chrilmalOt)' he ...... In the Church of Anbi ShinUdah in Cairo: ". curious. round wooden """ with. revolvinllid. The bc>tc is 00I1d throughoul, bul ha.o; three holes oc:ooped OIlt imide. In each of ",hich is dcpositd • small phl.1 of oil" (1884. Vol. 2, p. 56). These Ihl"« phials conlalne Butler. A. J. The Ancient C"ptic Churches 01 Egypl. Vol. 2, p. 56, Oxford. 1884. AltCHB151tOf' 84SIUOS 523 CHRIST, DIVINITY OF. See Ch....t. Nalure of_ CHRIST, NATURE Of. Christian churches arc split t\OO pvuJll rcprdinl the union of the dioine and hUmlln nature in Jews Christ. The nonChalccdonian. includinl th.. Copt;,;, Syrian. Armenian, Elhiopian, and Indian Orthodoc:o churches, reject 1I1oc decit>ons of the Council 01 0<.4l.Cf.D0!< (A.Do 4S I); the Chalccdonlan churc...... inc:ludinl: 1"" Ro.....n Caiholk, Greek•• nd ProIestaIIl churches. aecepe the council', decisions. The lirm posilion ol ,he Coptic "hurch, with other non-ehakO'donlan dturches. is that ChriSl is perfect in His di';Dily and in His humanity......ich is different from sa);n, lhal He is both God and maD. as Ihis statem..nl implies. sepanulon bdween His divinity .nd His humanlly, H .. is Ihe inc.rnale God, and in Hirn dh'lnity .00 hum.nil)" a"" full}' and perfe<:lly united In essenc... hYJlO!'ll5is, and na· hire, E.'er since lhe LogOli (lh.. Word of God) dwelt In.ide the blessed Vll"jin Mary, Ihe second hYJlO!'la.is of the Holy Trinity, that is. the Son, acquired hurnan flesh wilh a human soul. and was united with the humanlly taken from the Vi'llin Mary, Thus He Who was born o(lh.. Vi"iin Mary is the incarnate God. OIIC eucnc... one penon. one h)'JI05" tasis.OIIe nalUre.. The union ol dh;nil)" and humanity in Chriot is not • form of combinalion. co",min· glin.. 00- joininlJ. bul • union In ,he full,,$1 tense of the ,-",_ It would lhen be .. non....... 10 uy that in Chmlhere were lwo .... ures. which is not compat· ible widt rcaI 00- acnui"" union. In Ihis one nalUrc of CIttW., as' result of this union, then: arc human a&, confusion. Or chi . There is nothin, in"", i,,, in the Coptic clttm:h·. S1and rqardinl this fundamental poinl. noo- is there AnJ dCJ"l'tuT.. from the ,c.ac:ltinp of \he fathers• .such as ATltANASIIl5 t cnll I. lUtd ILAStl mE CREAT. "-00 had formubted lheir Vi.,.... long before the subjecl ....as discussed In Chalcedon. Until.1 lca5I the middle of the founh ceDIUry. the church of Rllme held the same v>ew as the chu""h of Alexandri., as is C'Videnl from lhe ICilen; of Pope JlIlim (341-352) to BisOOp Dlonytoilli of Cn>rus_ Relying on various teillmonies. from Ihe Gospel and the Episilei. he confirrnll th.t He Who .,..... born of the Virgin Mary. and cane ""0 524 CHRIST. NATURE OF ,he Issue of the one nalJJ.,," of Chri$t. nov.·here can "'C joe' I 8"nuine clue '0 the duali!)' of His natu,,", n... Go$pd of Saint John speab of die Word b«oming tlesh (In. 1:14). The >..,rb ·"\>ea.>me" is ,he m051 unambiCU"""5 term. deROling ~a1 union be''''CI:n ,he dninity and humanity of Chris!, Henc:e He Who _ born of !he V"upn Miry hal. OI'M: na,u~. that d inearnal.e God The ..wds of Je5US Christ. "No one tw asc..nded inlO helwen bul be "'M ~ndtod from he..... n. the Son of Man, ""'" is in twa.....•• (Jn. l:U). do no! ha~e the .1i&htC'l1 him of duality. ..lido.... Abraham was. 1 am (In. 6:5-8). n... pu ... port of ,hc5e words. spoken ",. the human Chrisl, indicates di>ine e'emi,y. "I am" is evidence of the unity of nature in the incarnat.. L.op. Spotlking to ,he e1de~ of the church who me' him in Ephesus, Saim Paul says, '-rake heed to yo>Jl'$Cl""" and to all the flock, in which the Haly Spirit has made you guardian5. to feed the church of God which He obtained with his own blood" (Act. 20:28). If there is any sense af duality in lhc nalure of Jesu. Christ, how lhen Can Saint Paul relcr here 10 the blood ..-hich redeemed lhe church lU God', b1ood~ To lhe Corinlhians, Saint Paul writes. "None of the rolers of this age ..nderslo>od Ihis; lor if they had, lhey wo.. ld 000: ha>'C eruci6ed the Lord of &loryH (I Cor. 2:8)...ftich is funher con6rm.,ion IMI Christ. had one nalll1"e, that of the inc.amate God. The Epi.tl .. to the Htbre>o... stales, "J"*,. Chri~ it; the same J"'S'erday and ,oda.y and for t\'e-r" (Heb. 13:8), The: name Jesus was riven 10 the l..ogos after the lnc.amation. yet the dn-me q...U,yof lmmonali· ty i5 a preroptn.-e of the incarnat.. I.ot<>IIn Rt\'t'!.ation (1:17.18) ..... t"Cad. "I am the fint aOO the ~S1. and the living OM; 1 died, and bel>ald. I am ali...., fo~ ~nnore. and I ha,.., the keys of Dealh and of Hades. The pronoun used he'tt ClnOOO: rek~ to any dualily. bullO ,ea1 oneness, the one nal..," of the incarnal.. Son of God. If ..,... .....re 10 separat.. ehriY's divinity from Hi, humanity. ,he ...hol.. basi' of o.ristiltnily, Ihat is. ,he Idea of npiation and rtdemplion. would surely ..oIllpse, Christ's redemption is di.-ine, not h ..man. H~n<:1t Saint ""..I'. words, "who tho.. &h h.. will in the form of Cod. did nOl count equality with Cod a thing to be grasped, but empti..d himself, taking th~ form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men, And being found in human form he humbled himiltlf and becam.. obedient untO deillt. e,'''n death on a cross" (Phil. 2:6~8). H H H'" II cannOl be denied lhal "divinity" cannot die or l;/ted blood. but "hum.nily'· can and did. BUl be· c..- of tht union of di";nity "ith humanily, such a death .."" divin....00 such blood """ ine. So ""a!I Chri:u'. redemption. Acconlin« to the doxtrine of the Coptic church. and ooher traditionalist c""reh..... the Vi'lin Mary is the Mothe< of God. IS defined by the hol)' falhe,.. ill the third Council of D'>IESllS (431). This appellation ..an only hold good on the buG of no", Chalcrdonian 'eachin,: rh.. pe~1 union of Jesus CIlri$t', dirini,y and humanity. M the Vi'lin Mary ...ould not: be consldered to have &iven binh only to Christ', h ..martity. to lhe d ..slon of bis divinity. "The Virgin Mary is rightly med MOIh.. ~ of God. IS EI~beth said, "And why is this Bl";lnt..d me. that Ihe mothe. of my Lord should COme to me?" (U, 1:43). Som.. church historians believed that the doc· trines held by Po!", otOSCOMUS I (444-438) and w TYCHES Ih.. h..re.iarch were analogo.... Th.. confu· sion aro.., from the fact that Dioscnrns presided over the second Council of Ephesu. (449), which acquitted Eutych~ after his admi..ion in ...riling thaI he concurred wilh the views of the tradilional fathers of the church. It is possible that Eutyches renqed aft..r his acquittal and """'~ his .tand. ~olUS had consented to the acquiu.al only after all the ot:heT members of the council. including the bishop of Jenrsalem. had ...qtlJued him. Funher nidenc.. of the posilion of DioscONS on Ihi. matter is la'tt &iw:n by h .. sta'ement in the Council of Cbakedon Uoa' if Eu')'C-bes, ",ho bad renounced the 0tth0cI0... teaehinl II ir.eotpon,led in lhe docume-nt he submitted to the second Council of Ephesus. was now propaguil\& 50trlt n .....· iOtas conc..rning the divinil)· and humanity of Jt'SIU$ CIlriol. he destn,ed not merely to be punished. but to be buntt a!h-t. Wberr:u Eutyches maintained thaI Christ'5 rna", hood ·'ftnishNl'" into His di'fin.. nacure and thai the 1>00 became 0""" llft.. r th.. union in the i",::..rnar~ Christ. OioKorus belie~ed in lhe union of Hi!; divino ity and INm.nily throughoul, "ithout mjnglinlconfusion. or alt..ration. Eutych... evaded livinB a d ..ar admission that Christ was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and of Ih.. Virgin Mary-a belief lhat DiOst:OTuS virorously d..fended. Eutyches deni..d that the h..manity of Chris, was con.ubstanlial ...ith OUR. Dias.coTu' nol only firmly acknowledBed His incarnalion of lhe Holy Spirit and of lhe Vi'llin Mary bUI also reit..rated his vie.., in a lclt..r senl from his .....ile. CHRIST, TRIUMPH OF In lhe Council cl ChaJcedon. which ended by dq>osins him. DioscolU'l spoke oi his tm$.... bble belid in the doctri of the holy lIlpo»lOlic cho'u"ch. oi his Ihou.hlS bel all focused on his Creator. and of his bnn, concerned with one Ihi"l only: safquardin, tile uprichl Wth of the church. The deposlUon oi Dioscor'U$. ~r. occurred not beC&U5e 01 direct ~ea1 dilf~.-encn.. but beci>use he had tacommWlicated Pope LEO ntE CUAf 01 Rome. In his work HislOire da C.... ciles (1907. p. 53). lhe hi$lorian K. J. ""fek OWI!::I tIw lhe arcl>bishop oi Constantinople $aid thai t>ioscOf"U$ had not been deposed bec-..se of his faith but beca.he had e.communicaled Ihe pope. Ne\·mhelellll. the Copt:ic church hdd fasl 10 ilS deposed palri.an;h who 50 adamanlly defended i", flllh, IlOt choosinll a SU«es50r for DiOKOrus unlil after hil dealh. TIU()THY II (458-480), the new pope. fou.hI equally ""Iianlly. and mel wilh a similar file. He was exiled by Marcian again 10 lhe Island of Cangra where·he remained umil he wal reito.-ed 10 his see by Ihe new emp"ror. BasiJiscus (475-477). He lraveled to ConSl.antinople to 04fer his thanks 10 the emp"ror, and there he held a cOl.lndl. convened by imperial SUmmo"" and anended by SOO bishops. II repudialed Ihe Council of Chalcedon and the Eu· tychian heray, and reallirmed the failh as elUIl>lished by lhe pre'Iiom Councik oi NICAEA, c;oN$TA.. .. TlNOl'U. and Efl.ltsUJ. The Coptic church has lh.... remained rallhful 10 the principles lhM ",-en: established by lhe tarly bthers. unwilling to relinquish any of their leach· inp. and in doe words of G. Krti&n (1926. p. '14) uyina; ~to keep to the line. _rlted oul in the l!leol· 013' of Cyril. This ....... the C30C, e.l-. with ThllOlhelA Aelun>l. and. above aJ.J. ",;th Seve..... oi Anlioch. (Se, 4lso.' Monophysltism.] R ~OUOG~ GtfJ0rios. Bp. T1te CItriSl<;'~.l T'lIChm. of 1M No".clullceDott"m Churches. Cairo. 1963. Grqorios. P.: W. H. La>areth; and N. A. Nissiolis. Docs Cllilkedoot Divide or V"i,,? To_i1s COotw,," ~"ce j" CHRIST, TRIUMPH OF. The lhemc oI1he lri· umph of Christ is wnnecled 10 th. theme of Ill, four crealures. On 8 HAlilr the Coptic 5YNAXARION commemo..tes the Fou< BodileM Beasts that bear 525 the lhrone of God. It Includes rderences 10 the fuu< m.·wtnged crealu"," of ReveIMion • (a lion, a calf. a man. and • Oyin. taSIe), to the su·winged seraphim of I5aJah 6. and 10 die four liot.tNIe.ado:d cherubim. each with four ",incs, of Ezekiel I. The Sfnu· arion concludo$ ,..;t!l Ii>tI nmar\ thai thcTc ...... also cltur<:he5 &odicated 10 them. Frotn the juJ.lapOolition of these thU't scripturlll IQU. it ~ lhM the distinction amolJ& the four OUWrf5. oi Itewlatioon. the ~im. and the cherubim is ntnmely vague, atthougIt _ know 01 ~rexn"'I;on$ oi six·winged st.-phi", at lsJ4 and 01 btr~nded. and fourwing.... cherubim at Abu Maqlr. these ",-en: quite delinitely reprded as belol\Cin, 10 the clais of anreh. die bodiless beIngs. In maalc each of them has a name, which is al.., found i" a related lonn in Nuhian iconollraphy (see below). Becaust lhe fuur creatuns are the bearers of God'$ throne (or Ihrone-chariOl. shown with whed•. which was called In .nclentt.... lh. "chMiot of the cherubim"), lhey figure in composilions ponraying Christ in majesty, in ap~like niche. of cell. in BlI.wl! and ~qara (c. ~.t>. 700) and in apses in medieval churches. Above l,ft Is lh. man, below \eft the lion. below rilhl lhe calf. and ahoYe right lhe eagle-in Ihe order liven in f.,;ekiel. The four crealures abo OCCUr in composiliorG known from med;.....1 Nubia. where the, .urround the half. figure of ChriSl. somoetimes ""en in combi....Iion with lhe cmu (van Moonel, 1966, pp. N1~ JI6). II is in tIUs last fonn, 100, th:lu the Nubian vr~ of the maaic nameI of the btr crcamres has come 526 CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN EGYPTIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS England) provides further infonnation. When God condemned Lucifer, one of the four cast him down to earth, one divested him of his panoply, the third bound him, and the fourth cast him into the lake of fire. They then clothed Michael in Lucifer's panoply. The question as to whether in the Nile Valley the four living creatures aloo had an allegorical mean· ing connecting them-for e~ample, with Ihe Evan· gelists-has not yet heen resolved, although such an allegorical meaning has not been proved (de Grooth and van Moorsel. 1977-1978. pp. 233-41). Further research into the pmition of the four crea· tures in Coptic religious helief is desirable. 1:ll8l,.1OGtuPHY Donadin;' S. "Les Fouilles a I'~glise de Sonqi Tino." pp, 209-216. tn K.unsl und Co.chichle Nuble", In christlicher Zeit, ed. E. Dinkier, Recklinghausen, 1970. Grooth. M. de, and P. van Mool"$<:'l. "The lJon, the Calf. the Man and the Eagle in Early Christian and Coptic Art." Bullnin Anlieke Be",having 5253 (1977_1976):233_41. Helm, M. llan der. "Some Iconographical Remarks on St. Michael in Sonqi Tino," Nubia" Leuers 4 (February 1985)'26-27. Leroy, J. us Peinmres des couvenls du d'sen d'E,na. Cairo, 1975. Meer, F. van der. Malesta, Domini. Vatican City, 1938. Moo,,",,!. P. van. "Une Th~ophanie nubienne:" Re· v...," di ArcheoJogie Cnslion" 42 (1966):297-316. Muller, C. Detlev G. Die Engel1ehre der /coprisdten Kirch•. Wiesbaden, 1959. Nilgen, U, "'£v"-"gelisl.,,.yml>oie." In Reallexiko" zur deulschen KI<"stgeschichle, ed. Otto Schmitt. Stuugan, 1937. ___. "Evangelisten:' In Lexi/con der chri./Iich.n Jkonographie, Vol. 1. Vienna, 1961-. PAUl. VA.N MooRS",- CHRISTIAN RELIGIQUS INSTRUCTION IN EGYPTIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Christian religious instruction in public schools was begun during the reign of the khedive Ismail (18031879) as pan of the larger fight against illitency. Since the passage of a 1968 national law it has been a compulsory subject for Coptic students in all public schools, elementary and secondary. Each school district either employs a staff person in charg. of ChriSlian education or engages SOmeone from out· side the 'ystem for thi. pul'J'me. All school libraries have copies of the Bible. The cuniculum acquaints the students with the salient fealUr~ cftheir Coptic heritage. YOSUf KHALIL YOsUF SUUy"AN NAsI" CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART [This .ntry consisls of a shorl in/roduction o"d the lollowing arlidu: Adoration of the Magi Annunciation Apostles and Evangelists Baptism of Jesus Bath of the Infant Jesus Galactotrophousa Jeremiah, Saint Massacre of the Innocents Menas, Saint Nali,ity Orant Parthian Horseman Shenut., Saint Tetramorph Thecla, Saint Twenty·Four Flders Virgin Enthroned f"r other ico"ographic subjects, see BIBLI<:AL SUII· JOCTS IN com<: AIlT: "YTHOLOOKA!. SuBJECTS IN COPTI(; i Whatever its materials and techniques-stone or wood relief sculpture, painted walls or manuscripts, textiles, metalwork, ceramks, or glass-Coptic Christian iconography retained a few rare element. of pharaonic origin and many Greco-Roman elements from A1e>:andrian tradition. From the fifth century on, these pagan subjects mingled with Christian motif5. The Christian subjects natumlly constiruted the figurative or symbolic decoration of churches and monasteries. They were readily accompanied by animal, vegetal, or geometric motif5, which themseh-es had a sacred symbolism. The pagan subjects _re used to decorate everyday obje<:ts ,uch as clothes, furniture, and household utensils. Their retention was not a pelJ>Cluation of paganism, for the subjects could tale on a Christian meaning, as did figures of Orpheus, Cupid and Psyche, and Ihe Good Shepherd in the Roman catacombs. The Copts .".tended this ,yncretism further to C)'c1es surrounding Dionysis and Aphrodite or even to ~in· ART,] CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Adoration of the Magi .... ficuta ...-no e.'lIUd • C)'Cle. such as p.nti (cu· In the acCOttl· pids), danun, N ~ or &fadiato.... modation. of Christiatl and P'l'P" motifs. CoptiC' an .... distinct from ocher an of the lime: aDd alfinned its ~rtalil)'. I"Jt.u.t tlU 8ouJl:GuEJ. SJ. Adonllon of Ihe Magi In the early Christian world, the lheme of the adonrlon of rhe Magi was generally associated with rhe Nativity of Jesus. 80th subje~1S were rarely found in Egypr. Apparently, the adoration of the MagI was never ponra~ In le~liles. Ahhouch D. Renner suueoted thar Ihe Ihne Magi cOllld M rec· O&"iad in thne $landin, figures pi~tured upon • tunic &om the C....n;h of al·A0 is seated on a high·hooooked chair holding .he Child on her lap. This ..me ..,bje<:1 also .ppea.n on ......,alled Syrian censers. poo.ibly made In Syria. and on a .ih~r bracelel and a plaque of ailt ,ilver both dallng from the sl~lh ~entu'Y (Ledcrcq, 1931. ~ol. 1047, fia, 7490, and ~ol. 1051. fi,. 7495). During the Middle Ag.s, rhe mOlif of the M"'I1 • ppeared chiefly in p.inllng aDd wood sculpture. In a pallllill8 al DAYJO. AL.SI!JO.YolN (Monastery of the SyrialU) in widl al·Na!rUn, the three MaP (an adoles~enl. an aduh. and an old ....n)....'eari"ll Oriental robta and Pboyaian ~.' approach the Virpn. preterltin8 her with caskets containlnc thrif- pfu. P'laeed symmetril:ally on the other side of lhe VI ... fin are the Jhepbo:rd:a (Letoir. 1982. p. 68). HoweY. cr, • eopo., .Uribulion lor Ibis pkce is debAtabloe. Not """"h remains from Ihe seeno:' decoratinl the sanctuary of the ChlU'Ch of SainI Mark at DATa "",'8.l. lOAI).IR (Monastery of SainI Macarius) in WtdI .1· Na4rOn. Hen: the uistence 01 embroidered clothes • nd lifts of the mne M'li can only M deduced. Duri"ll this same period, Nalivily and adoration Kene< were sculpted on on. of the wooden doors of the Church of Saint Sergil1$ in Old Cairo (la· los~er, 1974. p. 50). On lh. lower pan of Ihe J'llnel. 'I the left. Ihe.e are Ihree shepherds ,""companied by I""" kid goats. and al lhe righi, lb.ee Magi. The 527 eldest. ~ by a lonl board. ia kn«linJ. His a1mpaniolU-an ad\lk and an adoIeKmI ....;dl frizzy hair-follow l\i.m. nch oae bnrin&. Pfl: for the Christ Child. A papel cominl from !he ""l>Oden door 01 lhe Chun:h of Sin "taryam (Chun:h of aI-Mu'allaqall in Cairo, aurihUled 10 !he thintt.ub <:entu.I)', now in !he British MUSC\Im, london). differs slichdy (Bee.· with. 1963. no. I~~: Coquln, 197-4, p. M). The adoration of !be Magi lNijoin. the Nativil)', Iakina Ihe place usually oc~upi«l by J<;deph. The eldest king it kneeling and offen hIs gift to Mary. After the twelfth century. the adontion and the Nalhily are ponrayed in iIlumina.ed manusc:ripu (~ IUllNtN.mONS) (Lucy, 1974, p. 2OS). E~n It-tgh examples are few. lwo icOllogmphiea ollhis lbcme can be clislinp.ishcd. 111.0: fiQl eompcailion RSoCmble$ nrty Christian "'pl'QC'lltaUons as • ",'hole. HffC, !be NatIvity and adontion of Ihe MafP constitute two dislinct SoOCIleS; in the adora.ion, the Maii approach and bow before !be Vi,pn. who is C1lthroned ...itb u.e Child on her lap. It mUSl be naled that Utis is how the see:ne .... portno)'Cd on "~rian" eensen, The HCond COIIlp<>silion in.imateIy mi1el the I""" motifs. ""mnll around Mary both the 10bgi lUld the shephcods. This tepresoentation. the one lIlO5I ",idapread in E«;)'PI, was aka found in Christian Nubia. at F...... for rumple. .,SLlOCItAPHY Be~kwith. J. CopHc SCulplu'e, jOO-I300. London, 1%3. Coquln. C. lAs EdifinJ ~~r,;riens d" Vie .....c"ire, Vol. I: Bibliogr4phie el 100000"phi4 hiSloriquu Cairo. 1974. Lttlercq, H. "Maact.." In Dictionno.1re d·.,~ chdtU"- el de NlUlilul fr.~"i.I trArcltiotorie oriDtl.le 76 (1976):381-90. _ _ lAs I'e,"'ureJ lin /ro"". cou\~n/$ ib. Oll"d; N,,· Cairo, 1982. Renne.-, D. Die kopn'sehe.. Stoffe ;", oW."i" _ W",nu Mus~u", de> U"i""'Jilm Wiirthu". Wit$" baden. 1974. VC1.in, G. L'Adonltion er I. cycle d.s m"llS d~ns rllrl clt,hien primilif. Elude du i"f/uencu orien/"Iu ., grecques SU' !'"rI c~,ttiu, Paris, 1950. 528 CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Annunciation laloscer, H V,e K..,ur ;", clrrntlidull Xgypun Vi· enna alld Munich, 1974. MARGl.-aJT'f. RAss.lIlT·OEB£.RG.H Annundatlon Tk ardlansel Gabriel', .... il to announce die mi· raculous binh d lhc Inbnl Jesus 10 the V'trJin tnnslatell into piclorial lenm the belief in the In· aomation d God and the Immactllale Conc~1UfI tksplle the Monopbysi'" ~ia1 d the dual nau..". of Christ (Sf<: ,. . ONOPHYSffiSM). E&rPt1an anim fre· quently pkNred cpi50dell ill the life of Ihe Virgin and Child, appealinB 10 the docma that Mary is the THEOTOKOIS (Mother of God) ckrincd al ,he Council d Ephesus in 4)1 The oldest kno"..n occurrence of lhe .... nnuncia· lion in Egypt is a fnlgmenl of a (,fth,,:cntut)' wood· en relief in the Louvu, Paris. Mary is ..,alcd On ,he left on a high 01001 and is spinning wool. She looks at ,he viewcr wi,h an astonished expression, :u ,he announcemen, is made by Ihe angel, of whom only a leg .nd foor remain. The same COmposilion ,,'as used on a lold medallion pn".e",·w in Ih. Sta,e MUJeUm of Berlin and on a prinled rabric or lhe fifth or siuh cen,ury from Akhmlrn in lhe Vieloria and Alben \!us.... m. London. As rcprnemed on the fabric, Mary is spinning and oo.·iously OourishinS her ,pindle, "'hile Gabriel e:<eculeo; a a..:eful back· .....rd mo,..c mWt. The name Maria is lIucribed be· ""'ffn the """ c","noeten. On the j>aJn'ed ~ of the Chapc-I oi P""ce in lhc 0Md of Khalph d ,he fifth or sUth cenlul'V thc Viratn Mar) is oundinll: bcina lhe .;e-o.'h" Her bee IS framed by her long bir hair, and the palms of her hands arc open on her b«au 10 siJrtify ~cr Tk arcllancet Globriel has lottn re~ed bv a <10>..,• ..'bleh is lfIO>....1l in the dirtt.ion of Abty's face The dow nokcs ..'bich app""'" on an inscnptoon het.."CCn the ,..... fill:"""'. A """,.. scrip< dal,nt from 91. in enl of61ures, addiltl an inscription abo\'e thaI men,ions lhe names of Mal) and c.brid. A ,~k"""",ruidered medallion from the 5e'"CfI1h or eighlh cenN')' in the Victoria and A1hen MUS<'· .m.." aIonpode lhe ....nnunc..l..... abh Byuntine. Mary is sealed in &onl of a suuclure crowned by a conch shell. His ,,·inp arranged ..)mmeuically. the angel mO"'5 fo.........-d as he ratSeo; a hand to indicate lhal he is the speaker. An idenlical composilion is reproducedskl)' on the O"erhang of a scoinron arch, while urn Annunciation (fragmen,), Wood. FIfth centuty, Height: 18.5 em; "idtlt 14,5 cm; lhickne.., 2 em . Cou"rsy LOlli re Mustu ... , Pam. Photo /ty.llf. Seidd. CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Baplism of Jesus Ihe Virgin. _1M on a background 1ICru<:1I"". indio cales her ,urprisl: by a mm'tmenl of her hand.. In a mural of !he eln~..h 0.- _ellth ~ftllWY ac Dayr al.surytn. Ihe same ""ene. in the apse oIlhe ~hoir of the Chull'h ollhr V"trzin. OJ nexl to lhe Nativil)'. ~ Vi"";'n. On me left. has assumed an uprighl pl)Iition. Between the angel and the VirPn a dua.l inocripUofl in Coptic and ~ rK&1ls the angd 'J ,l"fttin, in the 8«kwi!h. J. Coplk Sc.,/PI..rfI, p. 31 and's. 141. London. 1963. Bou~. P. duo L'An cople. p. l&. I"aris. 1%4. Cabral. F., and H. uderq. Dictio,,_ite d'a.cllloloJ· it t;~rftWl",e et de lin Nil. KDpfi$dle KJ"JUL c.al0fl'C of Edtibition in the Villa HUgel. P. 10. &len. CIuiR.......... _ t1>e 1963. CranlCT. M. Koptische B..elundel"" p. 65. fip. 69. 10. R«klinghaascn. 196fo, Evd}...·While. H. C. 11Ie "~asleries af 1M W.di'" Nam.... 3 vols. New Yarl<. 1926~ 1933. fill.,., A. T1Ie Nct:mpolis af El B~",,' 1" KM"4 DIUIa. fi,. 10. Cairo. 1951. ~ndrick. A. F. C4t41ot;1U 01 TUliles Buryi", Gn>.mds i" ECPI. Vols. 1-3. JIP. 64, pl. 19. a~d p. 57. pl. 17. London. 1920-1922. "0'" MARlE·HUb<E RtlTSCHClI'/SCAVA 529 distinction must be made betWfl:n those picturing the Twelve Apoatles and Ittos.. picturing only the principal ones, Saini Peter anod SainI PIntl. The group 01 Twd.... .\pclI.I;les is found many limn in Day.- ~ Apollo at lU....ff in lhe \olty and Coplie a ..istian malilS. In the ch-pel the monn had co,;... ed subjet:lS lhal had been engrs-«l in relief on the temple wallo aI the time of Ram5CS II in the Ihirteenth ~enlury B.c. with J layer of plaster or mud reinforced with 1l11lS!Q. O.er Ihe plaster, which assured Ihe ....liefs of remarkable preservation, they scalte....d their own ChriSlian paintings. One pharaonic "'ene. however, they modified. This scene dominated by Peler originally showed Ram· se. offering flowers to the gods of the Temple. The menks •.."LKed Ihese gods with the figure of Saint Peter. ~re5C11ted as bowing 10 the pftaraoh. p$);ng an h<:>mal!:e that had COme down throu,h millennia nf pagan lradilion. Saini Paul. alOl'l$ with Saint Theda, whom he is .eaoobinc. is.s«n in the Byzantine dc<:oralkm of !he Chapel 01 Peaooe at al·IMGA....U (Fakhry. 1951, p. 18). SainI Mark is Iikdy the subjeel of a bust upon wlticil is ins<:ribed his Nome followed by the title. Evan,ma (..... POItDAI1URI!). BIBUOGllAPH1" Bou...,.el. P. duo Le.s COPIa. Colleaion Que saJo.1e! Paris. 1938. C1Cdal, J. MN"".... lles recherches .i BaoulL" CamplCS ~dues de rAt;4dimie da 1"St;riplions ~I Belles Wires. pp. 511-526. Cairo. 1904_ _~_ k Mo"oIU/Ue el /a Nlt;ropol~ dt &ouil. 2 vok. M~moires f E/·B",,...)~t i.. Kllorgo Oam. yin>. 1951. PIEIlRlllllJ BotJRC;UET. S.J, Apostles and Evangelists Baptism of Ie.u. In theIr art the Copts depicted the apostles In lVou~ or individually. In group representations. a The elements of the iconogl'phy of the baptism of Jesus by Saint JOlIN ntB 8AI'TlST in the Jordan an: SJ(l CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Bath or the Infant Jesus seen early in the Roman calacombs, nOlably tilat of SainI> Pe,er and Marcellino., The f,gure. are generallv reduced to ~ two earthly panicipan..-Jcsus, ,.,ho appears bean:lll$S, and 1<>IIn .~ B;apti<.L Soll1e' limes hea.",nI)- 5\'IIlbob-the di"ine hand and tbe d<:we of !he Holy Spirit-:lI"l' the lop of the $Cent_ Th" haptlSm is found ill ...... 0 .....a ll paintinp, in Chapel 30 and Chapel 17, of Da}r AI"'- Apollo at B1,,1!. They originally sho..... ed both eanhly and hea"enly .ymbol., ahhwgh in Chapel 17 the hand and do.", ha.", bten (ks'royed, I..a,·ina only Inc" oflheir fonner prtStnCe. The bulc fiJU""':lI"l' auCme","'" by ~ls COtnmof\ in Chrislian iconocra"'" in the Medileeall ",vrid in lhe 61th and s.K.h cen.uries-in Chapel JO a $landin. angd holding a doch. ~ Jordan repl'e5Cnted a. a .mall ... a'~.J f,gure, and th'..e fish; in Chapel 17 a dud. In Chapel 30 ,he child Jesus stands nakcd in an aUilude of praye'_ From Ihe COnll'l\St of lh.. forms aml folds of ,he pnnenlS, the pairlling in Chapel JO can be dated 10 !he "Ktll century. lhlIt of Chapel 17 10 lht eighth Ahhc.>&h only these •...., eompkte moJral$ a, ~"'i! remain, .races of ~petilions of lhe same theme, lIS in Chapel 27. "'here lhe Jordan is represer>1cArabic Galpel in !he Na.ional Ubrary, Paris. It ..,.. .ain. J""us and Jolln bot h... 1""0 angels flying O"e' the water of lhe Jordan, The river is covered Wilh aqua'ic planls and conceal•• standing, beard~.J Christ. The olh ..r IW<;I illuminaliom "on><' from • thin....nth·cfn.ury CoptO'Arabic Gospel in ,..., Cath· oli<: Insu'll1f. Paris (lIIror. 19i4, p. 159),.nd from a Sf\-enlefnth..:entuty Cop.O'Arabk Gospel in the Bri'ish Museum. They indude Jesw, John, amll"" ',,"'0 angelo but rai... the If·..d or .he Jordan an)lJnd Je~"s and I..ave John and Ihe angds on dry ground, Th.. <1)"1 .. is A....bic rather ,han Coplic. a. l.erD)·, J_ LeJ Mall",c,iIJ roplc, fl copus-ara/"u iituslrh. Paris. 1974. Bllh of the Infant Jesus .hat lh" bath of.he tnfant Jesu., a detail in 'he Nali,l.y SCene' thaI is frequent in 8ytan.inc al1, passed inlO Coplic an (Crome" 1959, pp 234-37), Ah",,",ch n"m.. row: paintings ha.,'.. d""ppeaT<'Mh doo<'s ToOl aPJ"'S""_ A scWpluri in the Coptic M........m in Cairo. hovoe'"eT. raises a quo'i"n aboul ",ttCther lhe bath Wa5 ever pon",y.d. The 1""". i. not allied any CopIIC 'CUlplUte in ~t<>nc or ,,·ood, It is a slab uf limeSlone ca,,'ed in rdief, ",1.. lng the righl border and the top, which preoen.. th.. gTeater pan of ,he bath of an infant. 'The .... m:aininC framework COTI5ists of a wri"" of ...eandeB in "hieh _;ost,k» and """'·ercts alterna.e. The infanl app«an haJf·knath in I"" CC1\'er of a IOo """i,·ro. .0 Ii"'. BtBUOGltAl"IlY 1l<:tour'gU<'I, P duo UJ Pf'Hlun ,../;o-<:.,,,tinrnf. Paris, 1%5. _ "Ootalion raisonnee de I. peimure n,u ...le copte," In AdfS d" ColI'-"l"e ""hia/ogi,!"f de 197J <\ Va's,,,,;e, pp, 40-43. W"........ 1976, CI~" J. U Mo".. sl~~ e/ la Nkropole de 8<1Oui/ M&noirn oks m.. rnbres de l'IMli'u' fraroo;-ai~ d'Archeolop: nri<'ntale 12. Vol. I in 2 pIS. Cairo, 1904. 1906; Vol. 2. Cairo. 1916, B;a,h of the lnfan, J<sos Pl- Coptic M........m, Cairo_ C... ,wS! EIUu u/U CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Galaclotrophousa l"Obe and a he.addre>os. The l"",""ut robe on one figure hM a wide neck marked by double lines. A li&hl ~DtiDe line 5lattinll: from IJM, ned: orl\a. ",mlS • darI< bedcround. The headdress WOrn by lhe ptnon OCI Ibe 1dI is Phrygian in and is adorned by a c.... simiI2r to tllooe of the object placed abo¥e t~ child. It is p"hablc that the "".... oot! on tM OJIPOSite oidc: wean the same ha.ddress. ...i1ich il cut 011" at • quarter 01. ill hei&ht, and may haooe a hood under the "-XIress.....i1ich falls 10 ll1e shouklen and hides the hair. The child and tlw penon on tlw left haooe hair curlm,: on each side of the face. The two adults are banfooL ..., froID lhe c~, which ",me (for nampJe. laJoscer. 1974, p. 119) Ibink may have been added looter. there II noIh;n,1O indicate thai the sculpture ponrays the balh of the lnbnt .Jesus. Althou&h the &Cene is treated f.... itself without any connection with the Nativity, it is an integral part in lhe whole of Christllon iconography. The CroMeS could be of lhe "me period .... the rest of the subject. without any dlrecl connection 10 the life of Christ. The gar· menU Ire nOt in any way decotolted in the Coptic fashion. The tight waist of the person on tbe risht would be achieved only by a girdle in Coplie doth· "''' b\lt there Is 1>0 girdle here. Finally the Pht)'llan cap polltU 10 an origin to the ea5t of Egypc. 1. Beckwith does roo' mention Ibis piece in his book COplic Sc"lp'.. ,e JOO-IJOO. It lIUIy be limply :a &ClOne drawi"3 auention to the pusan honored or ~ to som~"" drcea.vd. ror.n BIIIUOGRAPHT Bed...ilh.1. Coptic SaUplun, JOO-IJOO. London, 1%3. Crwncr, M. "tinc koptiacbe ~I;erd:antrilunl und ihn byJantlniaehen Par.lIlelen.~ In Abe" tIes 24. Iruenuoli&ru>ltPl Orie"taJisd.Dl Koro~ ed. H. Franke. W}nbadm, 1959. Zatloseff. H. Die K.."M 1m c"'Yrlich~" AtyplCl'l. Vj. enna and Munich. 1974. PiERRE Dtl Bot;It(;I)I!I". SJ. Calactotrophousa '1M tendrr rTI(ltif of the Holy Virain ,iving her brelll to her Son al .....y$ has be<=n .00 popular In Christian E.iYPt that SOme write... liked to conJider il simply /l!i a Christianized form of Isis nourishing Horus. And indeed. at leasl according to K. WtSKl (1954-1955. p. 199) lhere tum to \)t, oorne sculptured ellmples of both lsi. and the Virain in the Slate Museum of Berlin that could be inlerpreted as 531 such. N~IS. there a~-beaides Ibe oar.... bbnces-also ",me dilffl'nOCa between the two typel that nuoke it dillicult to _me a rdationship (Tran Tam TlOh, 1973; 1973). Both In- resemble each other in showi"3 1M same kind of eyes of the mother gazing beyond ht.- ton, ....'bile the dilld. loob III her. They normally wears • pru>Wt that lea","" bach her bIusu 11ft, aM bet- \"iCIt hand o/Fen her left b1ftOll. Horus. The Roly Virpn, oc.c:aai<maIl)' painted ";Ih her head incliM:d toward JUU$. always has one breasl covered. oII"erina: the other (be it the left or 1M richl ont) with her cornsponding hand 10 JQUl.. In rq>resenlations from medic,'a! Nubia she is .ootlKlimes weari"1 a crown and a veil. Often sht \$ accompanied by anaels. saints, or bolh. In the Nile Valley the motif il hardly e\lel" tun lIS a I'!nre ptece but is more often depicted with di,nilY' in the small niches in the easlern walls of monastery cells, prnbabl}' eighth cenmry. such as Cell 42 at Dayr Apa Apollo at RAwll (Cledat. 1904-19(6) and Cell 30 (Maspero. 1932). Cell. A. 1725, snd 1807 at Da}'T Apa Jeremi· ah. at Saqqara; on the walls of the cathedral of FatolS (four times); and in some miniatures. Since 1%5 th~n: has been SO'lmc di'lCussion as to how the GalactOirophousa should be reprded. Did it originate on EcYJ>1ian !Oil, but " ... il aimed, because 01 its t}'f>iaolly human ftalures. :Ill convincing the MorJophjlSites of lhe human nature 01. Christ (W~I, 196&. p. 234; MkhalowsJ.:i. 1967, pp. 91. 92. 109 :and 1504; Michalowski. 1974, pp. J3 and 229)1 Or did it originate lIS a poI!Iic motif in ancienl liter:alU.., too old to han come into beilll after the Council of Chakedon (451), and. ~"ft", . . . it lOStN Ibe humanity 01. Chriat) and !'latOriana (who refused 10 say God .... born of a \irFn), lKIl apinS! the Monopbyailes (Knust. 1970; I97A; '"IlO Moond. 1970)? A marble knter (Iar) from lht east· em .... of Ihe Roman empin, datinC fmm 364l7A :and bearing a ..,presentation 01 this motif-in lhe conl""t 01 tht adcmotion by the ,ullr"- -shows. ho_VU". that the G«1",kloffOpMuu need nOi necessarily be Egyptian in otigin and al"" that ;t cannot lot the fruit of theolor;ica! disc'usaions aboul Chaleedon (Severin, 1970). The sculpture in Berlin p"""';. ously dted seems. according 10 Weuel. abo 10 date to before 451 (Wessel, 1918, p. 199). '0 BIBUOCItAI'HY Clfdat. 1. U MO~Ilr$lhe tl la "tcropoJe de &0«11. 2 vol.. Cairo. 19t14-I'lOtl. 1916. 532 CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART; Jeremiah, Saint Knwe. M. "Zur Kir<:hnt· uOO Theolociegeschlchl~ N.. bioens." In Kurul und Guclr.id"e "'"ble"$ i.. ehrisllicluT Uit. pp. 71-116. RecklinchauKn, 1970. "Biochol Johannes III Y<)Il FaTII$ "00 seine boeidoen NachfoIJer. noch rinmal mm Probkm lOin"" Konfessio~meh in Fans." In Boulos Nubier<..es. pp. 153-65. Cairo, 1978. tobspero, J. F_ilIa ukwies" a-ir. Cairo. 1932Michal.o\oski. K. '"ru. die K '% Weffel. K. "fine GraboIe1e au, Medinet e1 Fljoum: lUm Problem der Maria Lactan$.'· WIuUJch"f'· liclt~ leirscltri" d.. H«mboldt.vniveTJitIU to< Bulin IV. 1954·1955. _ _ "z."r lkonognphie doer- koptiachnt K"nfl.·· In CltrijlUIIU", "'" Nil, ed. K. W~I. Proc~· lnes Colloq"i"m Essen 1963, pp. 2J3-2J9. ked,· linp.,ldCn. 1964. _ "Ole ~e Darsttllunl du Maria EJeouoa." Ani d" VI. C(Ift~ f"I~""'dt>luI~ tJi A,e~ p CN'...... 1962, pp. 207-213. V..ioc.., City. I96S. -:;:;: "Die $lil!tllde Gotteun"JIC1".- In SlN4101;:ur .J/iir)'pIiJcIIDt lCMltur (Fesl$Chrift H. W. Muller). P!'. 185-200. Munich. 1918. Jeremlah, Saini The name Jeremiah in Coptic lnolition can refer ellh.e. 10 !he Old Testamenl prophet or 10 Ihe founder of a mo(t;lSlery of thaI name al SaQ toe..tion of his _ _fl)'. Or on the doctrine ful· l.o\o-.:d by his monb. ;1 ia aYUmed here 11"", die monao't:I)' nrim at Sa~. discovr:n:d by J. E. Quibdl .... the ."......,id of Owuos ~r 1\lO4. are indeed !hose of Da)T Ape Jeremiah. ~ Iion5 of both Jeremiah and Enocb appear there and at Oayr Apt Apollo al BilWlI. AI Soqqara numeroos inKripcions. CS$Cntially collllDen>onoli•..,. lollow an >doemical formula. Met" the Trinil)·. the Virpn (and 5Omoetima the arcban!Cis). Apa Jeremiah, Apa Eno<;h . ..,d Apa Silr,i.La are inYOked I, is &Cnwo11y comidct-.:d lhat diis Jet"emiab is the monk who founded the monlt$ICy. that Enocb is the Old Testamoent p,ophcl. and tN. Sib)'Ua is the Sibyl of Alexandria (Ouibcll, 1912, p. 48). Eadl of tbl!:5C nllmfS could be a conllalion of pcr.Mmag<s Jeremiah. could be al OnCe the p..-o.>pboe. and d~ monk who inherlled lbe loame name; lhe same could be ...id of Enoch; Sibylla could equally well be tbe Chrislianized Sibyl of Alnandna or a $imple mortal, Ihe mOlher s\!perior of a convem of nuns. which al bolh Saqqara and BAwll adjoined lhe mon""tery of .he monks (Ra!san·Doebergh. 1981. pp. 201-203). For A. Grabar, "AI Saqqara ... the local Saints Jeremiah and Enoch _re in$JIircd from cenain iconOSraphicai Iypes. almoft certainly ..,produced from original p<mraou" (GraN-r. 1944. p. 119). For J. L.c:roy. howoevoer. 11'Ie Iconognophy of ononb hllS nner been lOO ..,a1istic" 05C of the other monb, a lollll..nic: often knotled at the ...-';5t and a manlle coverilll the "-'lden. It should be noo:ed thaI £.noeh a.Ionoe bas his feet covered by half·boots. i....1ead of the mOllMlic Joandals. AI. Saqq.... boots are a pri,ilq;~ rCSoe1'VCd fur tbe an:han· leI!!. while al Ill.....!. archangel$. tho. aposlles, and fOll'IC1ime. mililar:Y Alints w~"r boolS. Both figures hold ~ work in Ihelr hands.........Ily a doaed ..... rae"" , The of Jeremiah and £.noeh are indiridual· iud, as arc Ihose of Peler anel Paul in early Chrt.lian an. ThaI of Jeremiah Is emacialed; the hollow cheeks are ill conculed by a round~d beard. In mO$t ..,presenlalions he wears a round halo. In Cell. D and 1727, he weal'5 a $Quare one. characler. i.lie of a saint ""'M is slill alive. In comrasl. CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Massacre of the Innocents Enoch', face and round halo are framed by the cud. of hi. abundant hair and by a tufted beard ending in a point. At ~wl!, Jeremiah appears both as prophet and as monk. As prophet (Chapel 12), he wears halfbooto. As monk (Cells 20, 28), he wt'a", sandals and a lon8 dark tunic cm'e,..,d by a paler mantle. His face is as emaciated as at Saqqara. The inscriptions after Jeremiah the founder include Jeremia. the mason, Jeremias archimandrite, and Brother Jere· mias. Where Jeremiah hao a double role at BAwl!. Enoch alway,; appears as a monk clothed in a tunic and long mantle and carrying a calamu. (quill pen) and scroll. He Is alway,; called Apa Enoch. His face is similar to representations at Saqqara, blll his beard is shoner as if he were younger (Grabar. 1946, PI'. 300-301). BIBUOGRAPHY Grabar. A. Marlyr;u",. Ruherche, ,." Ie culle de, ,e· Uque, el raM chrhlen anliq"e, Vol. 2: JeonGg'apkle, Paris, 1946. Photographic reprint, Lon· don, 1972. Leroy, J. La PeinlUre ",,,r,,le cnet les Coptes, Vol. I: Le, Pelnt,,'es des eo"vents d'E.na. Memoires de l'lnstitut fran....is d'Archeologie orientale 94. Published with the collaboration of B. Psiroukis and B. Lentheric. Cairo. 1975. Quibell, J. E. Eu:avations at Saqqa,a (1908-9, 1909-/(J). The Monastery of ApaJe,e",ias. The Cop· tic Inscriptions, ed. H. Thompson. Cairo, 1912. M. "Remarques iconograRas"",n-Debergh, phiques." Aew ad Archae%gia", et ArJi"m Hlstor· lam Pertlnem;a 9 (1980):201-203. MAIl.GUERITE RAssART·DEBERGH Massacre or the Innocents King Herod's massacre of~)oung male children in an dfon to kill the infant Jesus, an episode from the cycle of the infancy of Christ, is known in Coptic an from two examples, one at DAYtl ABO IttNNIS al Mallawl, lhe other at DAYR APA APOllO at Bawl!. At Dayr Abu Hinnis lhe theme is found in a painted sequence in a rod,cut church. The whole se· quence, which probably began with the Nativity and included the appearance of the archangel Gabriel to Joseph and the flight into Egypt, is a frieze contained between two hOrUontal borders. The lower One is a line of interlacing surmounting a 533 series of variously colored rectangles. The upper one is composed of the same series of rectangles and ...nnounted by varied planls and flowers, rounded or pointed. The massacre scene itself begins with King Herod, identified by hi. name ahove him. He sits on a cushioned stool, his left leg forward, his right bent back. His left ann leans on a lance, and his right hand rises toward his face (shown slightly three·quarter). He is protected by twO Roman legionaries, who turn their backs behind their almond-shaped shields. The group is in a kind of tribunal with Ionic columns. In the undulating country that extends in fronl of th,m, two executione", in Iranian tunics are about their work. One is whirling a child in the air, the other laY" a child on the ground. Two children lie betw",n lhem, alreacly slain, their blood !lowing in streams. A tbird soldier threatens Saint Eli....beth. who holds her son, the young John the Baptist, on her knees. An_ other soldier lhreau.ns the prophet Zechariah, who. without a halo, kneels down and turns his back to the gate of the Temple, perhaps to defend it. Abo.e the undulations rise three sanctuaries, each in the form of a tower sunnounted by a kind of cupola. Betwe,n lhem are tree. that look like umbrella pines. The respect for the realistic proportions of the bodies, the naturalness of the movements in their diversity. the ...pple pose of Herod contemplating his deadly work, and the picturesque character of the backgrounds '"' well as of the upper decoration on the frieze indicate an Alex.andrian influence thai suggests a date in the founh centu')·. That calls into question the attribution by the excavator J. Cl"dat to a date later than the £fth century (Cl~dat. 1902. p. 47). A con£nnation of the earlier date is the Christian tomb near Antinoopolis toward DAYR Id.. DIK. whose style, like that of the linle bed of flowers in this scene, is close to that of the Roman catacombs of this period. The $C,ne of the massacre at Baw!! is in Chapel 30. Cledat's d,scription of it indicates a style ap· proaching realism in the gestures and notes the introduction of new ligures such as a ilrouP of delipairing mothers. BIBUOGRAPHY Bock, V. de. Ma/biaw: 1"-'''' S€FVI, d. l'Egypt. chretlenne, pis. 33, 44-50. Saint Petersburg, 1901. 534 CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Menas the Miracle Maker, Saint CIMa,. J. ··No',"" IlI"Chtologiqun IH philolol1quet.. ~ 8 .. 1/~lin tl~ fj,ulilUl !r lhal of AbU Mini (du Bo\l<JUet. 1951. p. 43: PiankolJ. 19048), BIBUOClUPHY Bou~. Men... tbe Mirade Maker, S.lnt Ea:fpo.... camel drivtr who w&< martynd in the third or founh cenlury. H~ ",,;os 1M oOj«l of I noll IoSSOC'DI' ~ ";Ih miBeulous life.p'inl\ walea from I sanclu· ary in lhe Wt$lcm Desat or the Ub}"&n d~ (5ft .-80 MI!'IA). SaInI Menu appears in Coptic 10 in lWO iconO' lraphic Iypa. In the older he is a Jo,mg rNln stand· 111I in lh~ orant (p<3)ing) posilion, flanked by tWO camels. His name is fltnerally written ~.rby, bUI lhere it rarely I C tm: MUIAS tHE N11U1CU M.O.1EJl ..... In 1'. du. L.es Mo~re:s de Saint AnlOine IH de Saini Paul ..... b mer RDuee- ~ Bu~ '''''. DrescheT. J ...St. MInas' Camel, On« 104011:." Bune· Ii" de It> SociLll d'''''''''loIoVe cop« 7 (1941):.19- ., Kasler. G. "Mena< von Xol"-~ (von ColyaCUm in Pbr'ytien):' In Luieo.. d~r drUi/iehe.. Jkon~ V.P"it:, Vol. 8, <::oIs. ,)-7, Freibu"l. 1976. PiankolJ. A. "Peintures au Monasl"'"" de Saint An· loine:' B"rrerin d, I" Socilll d'.,'ChlolorU cople I. (19411):IS9, 163. Reau. L Ico..ogr.phie d, I'.,., chrbietl. Vol. 3, pp, 948_50. P.ri., 1958, Wilber, D, N. "The Coptic Frescoes of Saini Menas al Medinet Habu:' Art 8"11,,1,, 22 (1940):J6-IOl. PIERI.E ou BouRGUET, SJ. NaU"lty The birth of J....... geroerally """Dled wRh die aclo. .ion of the Map, was not SO popular a theme in Ec1>t as elKwbe"" in lhe e ...ly Chrislian world. It gave Iinle in""i.-lion lO lhe artists ... he deo:orat>ed lhe necropolises and 1llOM.j.lenes. II ""'y hi..., a~ ])tared in tM earlitsc churc:he:s. but presenl documentatioo- is too sketchy 10 altinn Ibis. At DaJT Abu Hinnis. which houses the most ar>cient ChrisIoiopeaJ cycle. k appears retalions have righlly been Tefuled by H. u",lercq (1907 . cols. 2326-59). However. upon considering die originality 01 this Annuncia.tion. Ga)"eI.·s confusion ""'y be e~plained. for Ihe angel is approaching Mary, ...iJo is half reelining upon her bed in lhe position she assumel for lhe Nativily. T~ I""... Ih~mes may hav~ bfton c:onN,ed, bul since die paimings have disappea,.,d. il is intJ>O&"ible 10 know. From Ihe tenth century, however, the Nativity ""as pari of the decorali~ plan in Ihe majority of churches and ",as equally imponant in illuminaled CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Nativity manuscripts_ It was a.lways set amid other epi,ode, in ,he live, of Mar~y and Chri>!_ The fi ...t e.. mple of a Nati"ity painting might be in Chapel 51 of Dayr Apa Apollo at B~wjt. lIere, Salome, the midwife assisting the Virgin. stands beside her. G, A. Wellen is ret ice", about the identifi· cation of this ""ene (Wellen, 1960. n. \01) as are P. Tcstini (Testini, 1974, p. 314, note 99), and L. del Francia (Francia 1976. pp, 221-24, pIs. 13-16), There are two Nativity scenes al Widi al-Natrun. one in nayr Anb~ Maqir and the Olhcr (whose Cop· tic appurtenance i, doubtful) in Dayr al.su~n, Upon the southern half·dome of the choir in the church at Dayr al·SllryAn, the Annunciation and Nativity are seen side by side, The figure of Mal)' dominates; half-redining upon the bed, she turns her head loward the 'pe<;lator, paying scant heed to the infant asleep in a manger behind her, The Child -no longer a newborn babe-has His eyes wide open, Mother and Child stand out from a background of rock. aom'e which angels in f1ighl announce ,he good nl'w" !It Mary's fee' ,tands " tin)' whit..bearded man, pensive, with hi, head leaning on his right hand. The inscription idemifies him as Joseph, Below this principal group, the Magi (.ee 535 "Adoration of lhe Magi,"' abo"e) apprna~h on ,h~ right, the shepherds on the lel1. One of ,he shepherd. ratses hi. hand and points to Mary and Jews All old man follow. while a third .hepherd. playing the flute, lifts his eyes ",ward the angels (Leroy. 1982. PI'. 67-68). The artist who decorated lhe sanctuary of the Church of Saint Muk at the Dayr Abu Maq~r paint· cd the arches and \,aul.. of the o<:tagon with scenes fwm the life of Chri.t. Although the paintings are badl)' delenorated, a Nativity may still be identified_ The schema reproduces the one jllst described at Dayr al-Sul)'il1. Mal)' and the Child comprise the centntl element of the tableau. Abo..c there a,.., angels in fligh,. and below, a bi' !O the side. Joseph meditates_ Magi and shepherds draw nigh to adore the Child (Leroy. 1982, p. 35). The Nativity theme i. also ra,.., in sculpture. Onl\, t",o examples in wood are known. both being panel< belonging 10 the doors of two ~hur<'hes in Old Caim, one being from Saiot Sergius and the o,her frOnl the Church of Sitt MaD"m, The N'ativit\, occupies three-quarte... of the eeili1lg of Saint Sergius. Th""e is a disk abo,'e containing the moon and ,he son. from which my< "f ligh, Natil'ity, Illumination from Copto-Arahic 7"elTuvo>1gdi"", (Four Gospels). Twelfth century. COll"OSy Nori""al Library. Paris. 536 CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Oranl de$c.,nd upon 1M .r.,."ing babe ,,'rapped in 5wa<J· dlinl dQl~. " ..... lie<; bc!t,,~n ,h., donb')' and 11", OJ< T_ Inl"'ls watch ",..,~ Him. 8eside tIM: .,ndl.,. 'M \'irwin is J:ting on ha- ~. while: opposI.e Iter, JoKph mcdtw.... his htad. uno:k~ his right arm (note that hat J~ S portra,~ normal size)_ IlC'lo\..'. on "'" Irit. all' !he ~ . ,he oldeR 01 ...hom is poon.ing.o.he see"" ... "h his hand, on.he ri&hI•• he Ma~ COIt"IC' bea.ri.,. &ins (ZaloKer. 19H. pl SO), Tht ..,nw is quill" diff"'ent and much more COm· ple> on I pand ,hat 011<'0' de<:or.tIed ,he Ctw.ch of Sin Ma,,-..m bu. is now in 'he Brilish Museum (Beck..-i.h. 1963, no. 142: Coquin. 19H. p, 84). The uppet'" .hird is OCC'Up,.-d by "",ds in O'gh', singing .IM: pn.ilo<'5 of .he ~bom Child. The central pan pr""",nts ,"'" Nat;'·;.)" and ,he adora'ion or .he Magi. Mary is half·~clining with her hand oo,s'rclched toward ,he gifts of ,he .\lagi. ,,'hn. Ihe Child sleeps In ,hc manger, Saint Joseph. below 001 ,he left, ,urnS his head ,oward Mal)'. In ,he lo....er pun of ,he pa"d is Ihe Child', ba,h (0« Oath of Ihe Infant JC'!IUS, aOOw). The Na';"ity "'''" more popular in .he "'inor alt., whcre II is relali,~ly frequen, from ,he si.. h Celllu· ry, II appears on censers a~ often aUribu,ed '0 S~ria, bu, of "hieh ,wo e""mpl.... at IclSl. deri"e from ~-pL One COJT>C$ rrom (U~1t ...".u SIl1!<WAJ' (.he Whi.e MonastelY). a, Su~ (Maspero, 1908, pp, 148-49: Labib and Girgis, 1975. p. 26), and !he other from Day. Anbl An'oln'l"" (1.c'n:l)'. 1976. PI'.l31-9O). The Nali,ity is pan of ,he dlrislolO!kal nc\o,. ",h;"h unfold!; "" the bo:no.i oI,hc t:CnSCT In tell.des. th<: "'ali,w, scene is reducul 10 "'" prine;' pal penonace:s: !he Child. the clonk" and 0_. Man-. and Ja..q>h (Francia,. 1976). I",roy. J. Les Pein'uns du co«wni. d" O""d' troun. Cairo. 1982. ".(1. Maspero. G. ··Un encemoir Copt.:' A""..lu du Su. .-ice des Aftl;qu"h d'~plff 9 (1908):148-49. Testini. P ~Alle: oOPnl dell"lCO~ C.....,..... 4S (1972): 271-347. Wdlnt. G A. T4e Zalosce•. H. Die K.. "s: .... e1lriSltich.... ~"plff", \1ntrla and Munich. 1974 ,\WGlIUfTf. RAss.l.llT·DEBD:GI Oranl The oran'. or praying ligu••• i. characteriz.-d by ,....'" ann> '0 .ha, BIllUOGRAPlfY Bed...ilh. J. Co~ Sculplure. JI)()-IJ(XJ London. 196J. Coqu,n. C, u. £difices C"'llIe"$ ti" V.e....·C.. i.... Vol. I: B,bfiov..phie d I<1f1OflrDphit. hi5,onques. p, S~ Cairo. 1974. Francia. L dd. "1.£ ~Jtle de II na,i,it~ dan. ks ,issm CopIes, 11 propos d'un uemplaire iMdil." In tic" <>t lb. F;ru Iw.." ..lio""/ COllg.CJ' of Egyptology. pp 2Z1-24. Cairo, 1976. Gaye" A. t'AN copu. Paris. 1902, lllbib. P., and V. Girgis_ Th. ("optic ,11"$0",,, .. "d Ihff Fimreu uf B"byl"". al Old Coi'o. pI. 26, ClIiro, 1975. Leclcrcq. H. "An,ino;:'." In Dic';Onn"IYff <1'",..1'0010,i. th,ili.",. . .1 de lirur,ie. Val, l. Paris. 1907. S,e1e ",i'h ,,,.() pcnwnli fadng front in orant 1'0"" benca,h an inscription Sel"cn,h centu')', CO",,,,",, Lou"r~ ,IIu,~""" Po"". CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Qranl 537 signihing lhe eooneClion of Impon"". Chlislian personages ...ilh God. The JCS'u"" ...-. lradiliooal from lhe founh ceol" .... on in lhe gn>up of SainI Mcruos with the camels (sec AM""UA). It "-as adopIcd in sl;..h-<:"",u"· chapel pamllnp a, Dan Apa Apollo a, W"ll fur Christ • Ihs baptism bv John .he Sapl"" (sec BapltSm of Jesus. abo\cl. and in the """enlh and eighth =nl"rtoCI ro.- "bn in Ih" Triumph of CbrisL The p1u..., bcaomc I}-pi""" in the ninlh C"nIU..... ;1$ is sJ>ov,....0 a VOUp of deceased Christians on a boud~ lapcslO In In., Abqg Foun- fU"~l1Iry SI~J~ I~JY dcp;Clinl! an omn, LimcSloO~. Co"r· Coptic M"u"',"" C from ,lMon no doubt inlo papn Roman and Chrbnan an. It finallv rttumcd 10 ~1'1 '0 enrich .he iconosraph, of Copt;" an, wheth....- pqan or Chril.' lian. ahhouch il ...;os nol ~ 5)o"Otcmalicallv us<:d ;1$ e-bewlwre on the periphery of lhe Medilerranean. h sprud IlMor~cr ...ilhin the still papn Coptic Mream. in ''''-0 rom.. in part;"...1aT: lhe funenol'!' M~1x rJ p8pr> ~ ""d ""lids pr.,..,nm. a di"n'lv. ..."h as Dapftnc (~ "YTH(lUIGM;Al,. Sl.-'llI1;CT$ l~ C'Ol'TK AlIT). The..., IS a IclKkncy 10 confuse Ihi. posture "'l,h .hal of ,he :,iJes. confusing Oion'i$i:ln svmbolism.long pl'e':l?" peared in lhe resl of ,lte Christian world, it ""'5 lIill honored in Coplic Egypl under Mu.lim dominatioo. D.nccr ....il0 crol.I •. a figu'''' easily m;Slak"o for ao Or'llOL Bl'oo"" Sixlh·sc,enth ccnw ...., CQ"rtew 1.0,,,n .\j"u""" Pari.<. 538 CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Parthian Horseman Bourguet, p, du L'An copte, Paris, 1967. ___, L"A.rI cop"'. Mu.ee du lom'r". Petits guides des grnnds musees 19, Paris. 1964. Grab.., A. "Dellx monumenls chretiens d'Egyp'e," In SymMrmwn, p. 3. Paris, 1968, Pl~RRE \l\I !kJI;RCUET. S,J. Parthian Horseman The Parthian, ruled a huge empire Ihal stretched from lhe Caspian Sea 10 lh. Indus River from 250 Be 10 ~,D, 225. For them, rocpl'e .. nlalions of " [nounled figu,"" diSlinguish"d by • raise Panhian ho",eman ill an ornamented :squarc. Tapes· try. Third·founh cemury, Height: 19 CIl!: width: 18 cm. ("(Jurle,) Lo",'" Paris, ,11",,,,,,,,, ar. ra,her distorted but still showing the elevaled orm and hand. HlHLlOGIIAPHV Bourguct, P. duo M"sie Nalional d" Lo",·re. Cata· log". des hoffe., eOl'te•. Vol. I. Paris, 1964, Picard. C. "Une Cimaise lhasienne archa'lque." M"""meMiS Pim 38 (I941):551f. PIERRE [tV BOVI(GVET, S.l Shenute, Saint Saim SlIE..'UTE was lhe great abhot of lhe Dayr Anb5 Shintid.h (lhe White Mon.Slc!')') al Suhaj in the late founh and early M,h ,·"ntocie'S, His i""nog",phy appears 10 b~ limited 10 lwo repre...,n",ion, in different lffhniques and of unequal "alue. ,hough the aUribulions are cenain. Two olhers, ae· cording 10 J. U'roy (1974, pp, 73, 111). are much 100 conjeelllral to be acceptcd. The first represem.alion i. an illumin.,inn of a sennon by lhe "holy prophel and archimandrile" CHR1STIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTiC ART: TClrnmorph recommendin, lha[ w rni[hful u"" the church Ire. quemly_ II appears in a maJlwcnp[ from Hamuli ""'" In ehe Pierpon.-.\Iorpn Ubral) (M. 604). The "! In QPruaI Iellen.. Shomute sUl~lehes eM lim cwo lingc-n of his righe hand ICWo'lll'd Christ. wh[1e .. ieh his left he bold< !he Ion. rod lopped wilh a cro>s. [he man. of hIS off",,,. acmu hl!!l bod) TIl<: 1..'0 fiJurCll face the '''''''·er. """h SIllndinc un· der an arch_ Tht') a .... ,·isu.a.ll)' linked co each OIlier by Ihe posl[lon of [h" righl arms and eM din:cllon of Iheir sandaled fe;:e. v'hieh arc eurned luward Ihe opp.-.me fillU"', The dilfenmce between G n....fCCCInd repoeseula-tion of Shen,ne occupo.. a h",aoone SI,,1a from DaY" AnbJ, SltiaUdllh lIO'o\ In eM Suue MUSC'UfT\ of Berlin. The figure is SCI in an arcade .. ho&e "Glum... arc t<>ppM b,· caop,laI. bn.-. ml acIlnd.... Ie-we; his name. Apa. Shtnul.,. in capital ldlen ellt"",," acn>sll lhe I.,..,..,T bIu>d of the 51eb .$Mnut" .. aads lUIJ.face. his .lippercd leeo IUmeeood • sl'ghtl~· dOnpled oval. He is dTeS5ed in a long plealed 'u nie. dose-filling al eh" .....isl and "."."red On ,he shoulders and 5ide5 by a cloak of Ih., ..me lenglh lIis I"fl arm i~ raised loward the ned. Ihs folded niht arm rests on a long staff with a "IVM at II. lOp. Th. ab~nc" of a halo. t~" u~ of 'he "ommon monasl;c li,le "P~. and lhe L~CI I~al hi. 51aft rna,' confer on him no more '~an lhe dlgl\ily of anOlIi"r monasl;" superior of [he same name In lhc region app".r 10 be the rca50nS thaI impelled J. Ileckwilh '0 espress dollb15 about the id"ntlfication of ,he SMnut" Co"ne•• St.,. M"~,,," 539 0/ Ihrli"_ ponrait ..ilh chc: ho!>' arch"n.I'd"'''., (1963. p. :n. no. 115). The doubt is nOi unjuiu6ed. 'housh it is perhaps a liule 100 , n.c "cnen,ion ind>c:a.ed by.he a~. and bY of am indication of rur>enlry use. seeTIIS 10 "..,....,.1 placing thif. n .... .". Slriking pte« in 1M iconosraPh) of the celebrat- abfe,,,,,,, ed ahboI. of Da)r ""'" Shinudah. 1:I11:11.1OCR,\PHV Beclt... nh. J. COpltC Sc..lprure. JOO-IJ(J(). umdon. 1963_ I1roy. J. LeJ Ma""st:J il· I.."rh,. Pari•. 1974, PI~~MR DU Bou~(;I.l.'T. S_J_ TClnllllorph Th" lelram<>rphs arc .he fouY ;ncO'1'Or"o.l crc-alures m"nlion.,d In lh" Bjble that a", Ibe hear",," of 540 CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Theda, Saint the throne of God. Revelation 4 speaks of four six· winged creatures, a lion, a calf, a man, and a Aying eagle: Isaiah 6 mentions six-winged seraphim, and Ezekiel 1 speaks of four four·headed cherubim, each with four wings. From the ju: A homily of Pseudo-ChrysosTom in an elevemh· cemury manuscripT in the Piell"'nl Morgan lihrary, New York. prO\'ides further informaTion on the role of The four Creatures in Coptic angelology. When God condemned Lucifer, one of the four cast him down to earth, one divesToo him of his panoply, the third bound him, and the ll:>urth cast him into the lake of fire. They then cloThed Michael in Lucifer'S panoply. The question as To whether in the Nile Valley the tetram0ll'hs also had an allegorical meaning connecting them wiTh the Evangelists, M was common in oTher Chri.tian orcas, has not yet been settled (de GrooTh and van Moorsel. 19771978, pp. 233-41). 818U(l(;RAPHY Donadini, S. "Les Fouilles a l'eglise de Sonqi Tino." In KwlSI und Ceschlch/e Nubie", in Chn,lIiJ:her Zeil. ed. E. Dinkier. Recklinghausen, 1970, Grooth, M. de, and P. ,,,n Moorse!. '"Jbe Lion, Ihe Calf. the Man and the Eagle in Early Christian and Coptic Art." Bullelin Amich Bc,chaving 5253 (1977-1978):233-41. Helm, M. ,,,n der, "Some Iconographical Remarks on St. Michael in Sonqi Tino," Nubian uucrs 4 (February 1985):26-27. Leroy, J. Les Peinlures de. couwnts du desert d'Es"a. Cairo, 1975, Meer, F. yan deL Molestas Dam'nl. Vatican City, 1935. Moorsel, P. van. "Une Theophanie nubienne." ReviSla di Archeologie ens/ia"" 42 (1966):297-316. Milller, C. Detlev G, Die Engdlchre der kopliseh"T Kirche. Wiesbaden, 1959. Nilgen, U. "E,·angelisten." In wikon du ChnSI· lie/un /konographie. Vol. I, ed. Verlag Bruder Hol1inek. Vi.nna, 1967-. PAUL VAN MOORSEl Theda, Saint Theda is the name of Ihree saints in the early church. According to The apt>Cl)phal ACls of Sainls Paul and Thecla, when th. Aj>05tle Paul was in Iconium he convened the maiden Thecla, wbo followed in his footsteps. She ",-as condemned to be burnT alive for refusing To maTT)' her betroThed but was saved by • miracle, She suffered many vicissitudes before her death in Seleucia, in Syria. Theda of lconium was venerated in Egypt, especially at a sanctuary in the libyan desert near that of Saint Menas (see above). This Theda does not seem 10 haye passed into the Coptic liturgy, which mentions CHRISTIAN' SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: The Twenty.four Elders 541 Q mav be. double of the marnT Saini Mxmbius of aJ· AshmClnavn (de Fe","!,l. 1960. pp. 91. 130), Her l"twt dav is I ~h:lL Saint Thecla oIlconlull1 is ~nr«l. in. paim· ina in tM fu""rarv Chapel of Peace at lhe .... is of &l. aAGAW~T in m"" Wnt.".., a10npide Saim Paul. th<' ~n. \~rgin, Sht appea,., and c>lMr bibtical fi&ure but is in lhe ~"Zanline style of thoe sluh eentury, which ...... appropliate at that time in an oas.i$ to whICh Constantinople CJliled undesirables. The pIIinlinl d>ould Ant. therdo,"", be considertd CopIlc. Clearh' Coptic are her rep<esenUlt;onl In low· ",lief, alons ... ith tho"" of Saint Memos. on ampulbe for minlculoUl waler from his .... nctu.ry nl Abu Mtn:'. One saim occupies each side. Thek nssocia· tion WlIS probably due to the pro~lmi'y of ,heir IWO sanctuaries (lelbbnmd. 1976, col. 432). Uke Menal, Theda stands in the .,I Or ....-.is' St. Thecla. C"">tcs, Brooklvn f\e...· York. .II"...,,,m, Brook",.., HI Hl.lOCIlM'tU' Bourgue'. P. du, L'An cop", pp. SO. 179. Paris, 1967. Fenoyl. M, de. Le sa"eloral copt... Beirut, 1%0, L.cibbrand, J. "Theckla \"On Ikonium," In Lexicon du d,risllicnrn Iklm<>f'opnie, Vol. 8, col.. 43236. R"me. 1976. M.t~er. C. A,,,po,,lcJ " ulotic, ,\JuJie Ju Louvre. "Oles et documenlli des trlU~' dc Fntnce 3. Par· ". 19S1. The Twenty-four Elders According '0 the. book of R...·clabon (4;10. 5:8, 7:11). I... en'y-four elden,", sealed on '''''''''l)'-lour thrones;, eWed in hite. holdina harps.. and w"arina <."TO"''DS of gold hieh they take off ...-hen ~ £all dov..., to .....o .v.ip God. n.e.. m.. ha,e dcri>-ed from an ~ i c poIJS;lll'" in Isaiah (24:3]1, or 11'..,. min· rq>n5Cnl the t"'eh~ lrim of Israd cornbined ..."ith the T...·elvt Apolt1cs, 1lIe Copts ....~ ,..,..,ef1lled th..m since lhe """enth Or eighth centurY and commemorate lhem in Ihe CopIO'AIlTl'· spand to the lettera of Ihe Greek alphabet, were ""i,"" ror proteclion "PtnS! the e~ll one One IJf the earli.... reprt$CnlatiQnS of Ihe twent~·· foI,r elden in Coptic an II a " ....11 P"'inling of the lIinth or I.nth centl.lry in the apse of the chorch in DAn ANBA IIADAA in "'swan. Each eldet is identified with a letter of the Gre.k .Iphah<:t Today only small fragments of the upper part of ,he f,gurc. on the non hem ...,Il of the 'pse arc ,'isible. The cider> a1JO appear In a tenth·century painting on the cast· 542 CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Virgin Enthroned ern ",,,II oIllle san"'",,')' of Saint TatJ" Haymanol in .he CIoun:h of Sill Maryam (al·M,,·allaqah) in Old Cairo. but it is much damaged. OIher kooocnPhi· cal <e'p,","nlJltioru; include a !hirteenuH:oe.Ilury mural In the Chun:h of Sain. Antony in Da)r Anbl AnplniyUl. an eia!'Jleeru1'H:enll.uy m\lnl in the $011>lernnean et.Jn:h of Saint Paul me Theban In DA..... ""aJ. IlOl.l. (Io&onaslery of Saint Paul). I AlneteeA<J>. cemu.,. mural in the Church of !he Holy Virtin irl the l:llrit a1·ItUm. Cairo. and Iwenliet1'H:etIt\l1)' mu· raI$;n !he Upper Chun:h of !he Holy V.rein a. Rod "'FI~. Caim, and the Upper Church of tlte C,thedral 01 SAini George, Gn. Icons (panels) of .he twenly-four elde.. are rare. An ei&!ueen.h<enrury ioon in .he Coptic Museum. c.;ro, hu tile ...mes of tlte .",..,nly-foul elde.. wrillen in Ar1lblc. A 9)un· tine icon of Ihe t"""nty·four elders belongs 10 lhe Church of Saini Mercuriu. in 0.)'1" Abo Sayfayn. Old C.iro. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ancoly. A. Z, "Le\ Noms masiquC$ dans les 9po<:ry· phes ch""tiens de> E1hiop~ns:' Joum~1 ~.iMiq"e 220 (1932}:87-137. Cnom. W. E. C~,~lolue ot Ihe Co",ic MQn .. scripls in Ihe Brin." M.......m, 505, no. 1223; ~Il. no. 1007. London. 1905. Ennlln. A. AOpfische Url"nJrn ..... Jrn 1C"liil'ichr" Mwsun t" Berli... KopIiscbe Urla' lypK. prtIfIO$ d'une Ii$l:e plloO$e.~ A".lu'.. 801· l"nJ...... 72 (1954):192-212. Halkin. F. ~lJne line &recqu~ des XXIV vieilbrds de l'Apoca1ypse.~ - ,A",JUI. &l1."JI..".. Sd (1966):58. -, '"nker, H. Koplisc"~ ,.auir ~ u/t",en JI." i" d., Apocalyp.e drs M. Joh"""c•. Munich, 1938. Orro F. A. MEINARDUS Virgin Enthroned Repi'eKnlatioM 01 !he Virgin Mary br o.nnum· her all other ChrillliaJl themes in Coptic art.. They o<:c-ur in "i".... lIy noery medium _paint""'- in ......rah ar>d manuscripts: toCUlpcured in Hone. wood. and iyocy; and '",,"'et1 in woof and linen. Tht domi· nanl role ci. the Virgin In the art ci. Coptic ~'Jll is " direct .... f1ection ci. lhe wry sp«ol char:loottt of Eg,ptian lheooIogy all fonnuwed 1»' Saim CYRIL I and confirmed by the Council ci. Epbesuo in 43l. Eg,p1ian theoIoeians held fi,noly 10 the dogma of the triune God. They .... intained I"'" Chris. had ""Iy on~ nalure and ,hat he "''as di.ine from !he moment of binh "nd that •• he.... fore. Mary was .he Mother of God-.he Theo.okos. Althoua!'J the cult "f Mary surns 10 n",,,, be<>n establish.d in EtYPt "'1'11 befo"" 431. it flourished with the me of mOllaliticism in the la'. fiJih and sixth centuri~•. The Coptic monks wrre particularly de''Otrd to h.r cult. and from Ih. rubble of th.ir long·abandoned monaslerles ha"e come Ihe most important monumenU of Ihe art produced in her >erv;ce, Palntlng and Tll~t1ry 1l>e major works supponin.a .Iudy of Ihr Vil'Jlin Enlhroned in Copllc an are Ihe apse frescoes from the Da)'r Apa Apolkl 1M ~! ....d Dayr Apa Jeremi· ah at Saqqa..... AI.hou'" none .. precis,.(y da.. b1e. the majority probably belonl to .he si~th cetllury. Coullrmatir'" 01 this daI~ is pnwided by compariwn with the ueat tapeStry. leon of VicVn. n""" in the ae....,bnd Museum 01 An. which has been finn· Iy dated within ,hat .:en!ury (SMpbttd. 1969). In !he majorily of !he aple fTftc....... "" in the 1:IoP"'JUY. !he Enthroned Vi..... participales in an dabon.Ie ~tieTed icooOCr'l'Phic propvn. ",hieh A. GrabaT (I94€>. pp. :Mll- no) has in.C'l"".ed "" "'P' es"".ing " theopluonic vision. In .he "f'Ptt" D~r. ChriM. in a """,dorla ci. IJ&hI. repreoenu " ,ilion of !he Second Coming. Bel"",. ,he Virgin with the Chrisl Child in her lap is a "ision ci. the Incanulion. The earliestloUCh representation 10 lu"'" su....-i,'ed in Eg}'Jll i. on OIle of ,he lea'·.... of a paiT of late fifth-<:enlury doors from lhe church of Sill Batba.... in Old Cairo (Beckw1!h. 1%3. fi~. 91-9S). AI· though lhe delllil. are badly elfa.:ed by Ii"",. in the lo.....r panel ;t Is still po1sible to recognize lhc En· throned Virgin and Child and Ih~ Aanking groups of apostle•. On a panel near the top oflh. door. a busl of Christ i. displayed In a dip~ ..s (large round "'10 CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Virgin Enthroned $hi~ld) bom~ by angels. H~re a", al...,ady the basic ~1~menlS of the lheophanic vision that will dominate th~ iconography of the apse pain lings al BAWl! ~nd Saqqara in the n~xt cemu')·. Th~ most usual represemation of th~ Virgin in this c"ntext is in lhe slightly informal pose of lhe HQdeg~lria (Byzantine type of Madonna), in which she is seated frontally, ...,laxe! in a dipeu,. Several fragments of frescoes preserving all or pan of the figure of an Enthroned Virgin, apparently also autonomous rep· 543 resenl.'ion., were found in Chapels 1,7,8, and 40 al Dayr Apa Apollo (Cleclal, 1916, pp. 3, 51-52: Maspero and [)riolOn, 1931, p. 14) and in Cells 1724 and 1740 at Dayr Apa Jeremiah (Quibell, 1912, 1'1'.21.23), An illustration from a manuscript dated 895 or 898 in the Pie'l"'nt Morgan Library, New York, provides lestimon)' to the survival. albeil crudely, of the tradilional iconography of the theophany of the [ncarnalion. There an enthroned Virgin lactMIS is accompanied by a pair of adoring archangeb SCUlplUre Among the numerous sculptures representing the Enlhroned Virgin, vel)' few show any similarily to Ihe theophanic iconography of the frescoes. The Iwo finesl and most de"eloped examples are in the Coptic Museum, Cairo. In one (Bec~with, 1963, fig. 112) the Enlhroned Virgin and Child arc flan~evincial ve",ion of Ihe Virgin lac!<J.ns, in which the nan~ing archangels have been replaceof that Ihey were made for Christian grave•. In 544 CHRISTMAS, FEAST OF these inslances, however, the iconognlphy of the 'Th€OIokos h", apparently taken on a purely symbolic chal Beckwith. J. Coptic Sculplure, 3OO-t3oo. London, 1963. aourgue!. P. dOl. The An of lhe COpIS. New Yon, 1971. Brooklyn Museum. Pogon ~nJ Christian Egypt. Egyptian Arl ('Om Ihe Fj'SllO the Temh Century A. D. Exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum of An, January I3-March 9, 1941. Brooklyn, N.Y., 1941. Cledat. J. "Recherches Sur Ie kom de Baoui!." Coonptts.rendw; de fAcade",i. des lnscriplu.ms. seance du 17 orloblt 1902. Paris, 1904. ___. L. Mona'le'e ella "ecropole d. Booufl. 2 vols. Memoires de l'lnstitut fran~ais d'Archeolog· ie orientale dOl Caire 12. Cairo, 1904-1916. Crum. W. E. Coplic Monuments. nos. 3001-3741. Catalogue general des antiquites egyptiennes dOl Musee dOl Caire. Cairo, 1902, Grabar. A. Marlyrium. Vol. 2. Paris. 1946, ___. Bytanli"m Imm Ihe Dealh 01 Therxiosius /Q Ihe Rise 01 ]sl~m. London, 1966. Maspero. J .. and E. OriOiOn. Foailles e","cute .. i1 Baouit po, INn Masp,"o. Nores mises en ord", el MilJ.s p~r Elienn. Driolon. Memoires de 1·lnsti· lUI frnn~3is d'archJologie orientale du Caire 59. c..ir(>.1931. Ouibell, 1. E. &c~valions al Saqqa'a (/906-f907). uiro. 1903; (1908-1909, 1909-1910). Cairo, 1912. Shepherd, D. G. "An J4pn of the Villin." Tht 8ulle· lin of the Cleveland Muse"m of Art 56 (1969),90t20. W""""l. K. Coptic Art. ,New York. 1965. OOl CHRISTMAS, FEAST OF. Soe Feast•. Major. CHRISTODOROS OF COPTOS, a Christian poe! in the time of Anastasius I (491-513) who was inOuenced by NON NOS OF 'ANOP()US (Cameron. p. 475), Between 491 and 518 he wrote a poem "On the Pupils of the Great Procl""." an epic on the lsaurian expedition (497-498) of Emperor Anasta· sius, poem. on the history and antiquities of Con· stantinople and olher places. an exposition on sUIl· ue. in the thermae of Zeuxippo. in Constantinople, and epigrams, BIBLIOGRAPHY Cameron. "'. "Wandering PeelS, A Literary Movement in Byuntine Egypt." Hisloria 14 (1965): 470-509, Stupperich. R "D... Statuenprogramm in den Zellxippos.Thennen," "Iambuler Mitteilungen 32 (l982):210-35. MAIl.TtN KJ(AUSE CHRISTODOULOS I. S'" Jerus;>.lem, Coptic s.., of. CHRISTODOULOS II. See Jerusalem, Coptic See of. CHRISTODOULOS III. See Jerusalem. Coptic See of. CHRISTODOULUS, sixty-,ixlh palriarch of the See of Saint Mark (1047-1077). Christodoulus, whose original name as a monk of the !'.NATON. we..t of Alex.andrn., was Theodore. Wl'IS a native of the village of Biil _ _ _-------..;;1 CHRISTODOULUS dnans to make the ~hoi~e_ Their fim prcferen~e was a HeClJMF.NOS of Alexandria, a saintly cleri~ by the name of Yu!)anna ibn Tims, But when it was leamed that he was the godfather of 'AI wan ibn Zabriyy;'o, an influential Copt in the Muslim admin· istration with close ties to 'Ali ibn A!)mad al·Jurjanl, the vizier of the Falimid caliph al·Mustan~ir, his name was eliminated from consideration. Then lhe name of Theodore the eunuch was pro· mOled by Abu al·Mali!) Man~ur, known as Ibn al· 'Alam!. a secretaI)' of the diwa" in Alexandria, 10· gether with a presbyter of Saint Mark's CathOOral named Simon, who later became bishop of Tanis. The secretary, accompanied by a delegation of ar· chons from Ale""ndria, wenl 10 Theodore's hermit· age to prevail upon him 10 accept the nomination. At firsl he refused, but with the persuasive influence of a relative of his named Zikrl ibn Marquriyus, he accepMd, though he was a J>OOr man who pos5C. .ed only 2'1. dirhams. Thus, the delegation look him to Ale""ndria, where he was initially consecrated under the name Christodoulus. laler, according to established tradi. tion, he was 10 t>.. laken for another formal ~onse· cralion in the ancient Church of Abo Sarjah (Saint Sergius) in Old uiro, but he decided that this sh<> 545 6. The faithful should listen attentively throughout the liturgy. 7. There should be no mi~ing of sexes in church_ S. The faithful should, in all humiJit}'. keep the fasts; and the .. should be no marital ceremonies during fasl days. 9. No baplism or funeral rites sh<>sen'ed in silence, without the kiss or handshak· ing. II, No baptism nor ordination should be per· formed during tbe fift}, days' fast. [2, There should be no weeping or lamentations or speeches for Ihe dead on Sundays, only prayer for their souls, 13, The fast of the Apostles, which is after Pentecost, should be required of the faithful, lasting unlil the fifth of Abib, which i. lhe feast day. [f it falls On a Wednesday, Ihey sh<>'er, thank.s to the in· tercession of Sha}'kh Abu Zikrl Ya!)ya ibn Maqarah, the Coptic ","cretary and chief scribe of the caliphal 546 CHRISTODOULUS office, this tempestuous movement witMn the church subsided. Aner this, a local problem emerged when Abu Zikr!'s nephew commined a felony, for whid the patriarch was asked to absolve him. Despite Abu Zikrl's fonnet support for the patriarch and his high position in the administration of the country, Christodoulus rejected the demand. With the return to peace within the church, Christodoulus embarked on a pastoral visitation to Oamanhur, DM'RU, and the OUR ANlIA MAQAR in th" wildemess of wadi HabIb, where he had a dispute with its monks over their habit of preset"\ing the holy bread from the Sunday of Olives to the Wednesday of Holy Week, which he forbade afler producing an ancient m;mQr (homily) supporting his theory. Anothu problem of ecclesiastical significance be· tween the sister churches ()f Alexandria and Anti· ()ch arose over the Antiochan use of oil and salt in baking sacramental bread. Christodoulu. stood fast .g.in.t this, even though the Antiochene custom was supported by so mighty a Syriac personality a. Abu Bishr, the private phy,ician of the caliphal court. An instance of the papal fearlessness occurred in the case of a y()ung Copt named Baghiirn. who, after apostati,ing to 1,lam, recanted to his old Christian faith, an action that the Islamic ,tate pun· ished by death. Bagham was decapitated, and his body wa' left outside the church of Saint Michael. The pope courageously dedared the victim a holy martyr and permitted his body to he honorably bul' ied within the sanctuary of the church, irrespecti,'e of the position of the state, Another problem, conceming the head of Saint Mark, was solved outside the patriarchal dont;>in. The vizier Mi'~ad al·Da",iah of the Fatimid admini.. tration "'as informed .that the Byzantines were offer' ing to pay 10,000 diQrprs for procuring the head, ",hich seems to have heen hidden in the house of a Copt by the name of:Abu al.Fat!: ibn Mufarrij in Alexandria. Mi'<;lad al·Dawlah arrested Abu al.Fat!:' until he could be persuaded to cede the head. In the meantime, the head was moved, and Abu 011· Fat!:' denied that he possessed it, Instead, he offered the vizier 600 dinars to seeure his liberty. and the 'ituation was hlJ$hed up afterward. A serious situation developed at D;lmrii, where Christodoulus was residing, invol"ing a highly placed judge named Abu al·J:lasan ibn 'Abd 011· Wahhab ibn 'Ali al·~irafi, who hated the Christians. The judge ",ported to the .izier al-Yilzur! that the paniarch had been building new churches without permission and that in Oamnl. alone he had """"n· t""n churches. Consequentl)', al-'1ilzur1 issued an order for the closure of churches in Mi~r, .n order that seems to have been attenuated by the arrival of a rich Christian donation from Byzantium, including gold and silver, precious textiles, and fJfty mules. This was the period of the eme'llence from the east of the Saljuq menace to the Byzantine em· pire and the Fatimid caliphate, whose united from was their only way of saving their territories, The position of the church under Chri"odoulus was nOt altogether precariou., howe"er. In Alexan· dria, the Fatimid caliph had appoimed a Berner governor from Ihe North African nibe of KUlAmah, He was sympathetic to the Copts, and the caliph gaw him the keys to the closed church of Saim George eSlabli.hed by Saint Anianus, who had sue· ceeded Saint Mark in the first centul)'. He e.'en allowed the Copts, under the protection of his guards, to hold a Penteco'tal procession from the Church of Saint Sergius to the Church of the Sa,,ior, a proces,ion that had been suspended for fif· teen yeal'$. Chri"odoulu, had to face other dilficultie., which arose from within the church itself. A monk called Colluthus (Filo.tu,), who solicited the episcopate and was refu'ed by Christodoulus, who found him unlit for the dignity, 'tarted a wave of calumnious repons to the caliph about the pope. In .pite of the efforts of tbe archon, Abo. al·Yumn ibn Makriwah and Abu al'Tanib al·Raziiwi, as well as Abu al·Sur· ur '1ul:tannii ibn '1usuf al·Abal:tl:t, to dissuade him, the caliph sent hi. soldiers to the patriarchal resi· dence in Oamrti, where they sei,e<:J Christodoulus' fonune of 6,000 dinars and arrested him. Later, he gained hi' freedom through the intercession of in· Auential Coptic archons, but his money was confis· Cate The situation was some""hat improved by the murder of the virler Na~ir al'Dawlah, a hater of Christians, followed by the arrival of Badr al·Jamali, an Islamiled Christian of Armenian extraction, Though this seemed to offer the Copts a breathing space, the confusion within the state of Egypt, torn between the hostile annie, of North Africa, the Armenians, the Turks, and the Sudanese, was WOT:Y ened by the failure of the Nile to flood and the resulting famine. This situation is eloquently de· scribed b}' the Muslim hismrian of the Copts, Taqly al-Oln al-MAOkIZI. In these calantitous circumstanc· cs, the Copts ",ere generally victimized, and the Islamic go'·ernment intensified its imposts from the CHRISTOLOGY church, which ChristodollIllS had to fac~ with his bishops. Oth~r sources indicat~ that the Copts were nu· merouS in the desert oases, and Christodoulus was requ~sted to s~nd th~m a special bishop. Christo· doulus was aid~d in his relations with tM Islamic administration by the Christian lingdom of Nubia, who.. so\'ereign paid th~ tIAOT, Qr monetary le"Y. to Egypt fQr wm~ y~ars. On the int~rnational ,c~n~. Christodoulus was a contemporary of the important ballie of Manzi Ken (Malia Jard) in 1071 in the upper Euphrates. which open~d th~ road to th~ w~st for th~ SaljOqs, Thus, he witne",~d th~ 1{lQt ~,'~nts that l~d to lh~ QU!' br~ak of th~ Crusades from W~st~rn Eum]><'. After a reign lasting thirty tempestuous years, Christodoulus died on 14 Kiyahk. He was buried in the Church of al.Mu'allaqah in Old Cairo. lItBI.IQGRAPHV Lan~·Pool~, S, The Mohammadatt Dy~asries. Lon· don, 1894. ___ History of Egypt in th. Middle Age<. London, 190 I. Sl!8HJ Y. UB18 CHRISTOLOGY. the study of the person of Christ with special reference to the uniQn of the divine and human natures in th~ one person. From the New Testament w~ lnow that th~ early Chris' tian. r~gard~d Christ a. both God and man, but it was th~ task of later Christology to e~press this coherently in precise theologica.l terms. The contro· versies of the early Christian c~nturies refleet diver· g~1l1 apP1{lach~s to this problem, Those who started from His humanity included EBIONITES and C~rimhi ans, who regarded Jesus as. a man es]><'dally endowed by God for His mi"'n; Adoption;sts ~nd Dynamic Monarchians, who held that Jesus "'as es· pecially ~ndowed by the Holy:Spirit at His baptism: and I~ter N~storians (although' ]><'rhaps nOl NESTORI· lIS himself) who believed in a prosopic rather than a real union of th~ two natures in th~ one person, which ,"nded to keep the two natur~, separate. All of these failed to do justice to , Jesus as God. On the other side were those who started from th~ godhead. Among thes~ were tM Docetists. who r~garded J~sus' coming in the flesh as a mere phantom ap]><'aranc~; Modalist Monarchians, who saw Christ as a mode of appearance of the Father; and th~ Apollinarians, who held that in J~sus th~re was 547 a human body and soul (p. human spirit (m)"s), the latter being replaced by the divin~ Log<>s. All of these failed to do justice to th~ manhood of Christ, Another controversy, which had imponant ramili· cations, was begun by the AI~xandrian presbyt~r ARIUS (256-336) who, in a desire to guard the unily of the godh~ad, denied that th~ Son was truly God. Although Arius did not exclude soteriology (the doctrine of sah-ation), his view'S tended to mak~ the Son into a demigod-neitMr fully God nor fully man. 1be Council of NICAE.>. (32~) repli~d by ass~rt ing that J~"US was "of one substanc~ with the Father," which e~c1uded Ariani'm proper. Christologi. cal s]><'culation, however, continued unabated and cOll1inued to be dominated by the division betw~en those who .pproach~d Christ's ]><'rson f!'Om His manhood and from flis godh~ad, Theologian. in Antioch (e.g" TIlEOOORUS OF MOPSUESTIA. and Nestor· ius' followers) almost separated Christ into two ]><'T· sons, so concerned were they to preserve Jesus' hurtlan e~perience, while the AI~xandrians (~,g., CY· "IE. OF ALEXANDRIA) were concern~d to emphasile His divinity. The Coundl of EPHESUS (431) asserted that the on~ born from Mary was God. The ortho· doxy of th~ t~rm ThUJ10kos was accepted, but fifo leen years later EuTYCHES maintained that although there were Iwo n.tures in Christ before th~ lncarnalion, Iher~ was only one nalUr~ after. Against these views th~ Coundl of CHAL.CEOON (451) staled in its definition that Christ was "tml)' God and truly Man.. , , One and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only· b~gouen, acknowledged in tWQ nalUres without confusion, ,,'ithout change, witham division, without separation," Howe,'er, this statement W$ unac· c~ptable to many Christians, who continued to hold that in the person of the incarnate Christ there was one single divine nature (see MOSOPIlYSITISM). Many variant forms of monoph)'sitism soon developedfor instanc~, that of th~ follow~rs of JUUA~ of Hali· carnassus, who laugh, the incOTTl.lptibility and im· mortality of the body of Jesus from th~ first mQment of the Incarnation. During the fifth and sixth centuries many e/forts were made, without avail. to reconcile the Monoph· )'Sites to the main body of Christians. Howe,'er, by th~ sixth century monophysitism had consolidated itself into thrce gTeat churches: (I) Ihe Coptic (the ancient church of Egypt) and the Ethiopian branch· "" (the latter strongly influenced by Judaism); (2) the Syrian Jacobites; and (3) the Arm~nians. All of these churches accept the doctrine of the church fathers prior to the Council of Chalcedon while 548 CHRONICLES rej«ting the dellnition of that council. Today, with a 1= pronounced monophlsitism. they a"" closer to the Dnhodox churches. 1665). This translation was revised by J. ASSEMANI and published with four added dissertations in Cor· pus Scrip/orum HlslOriae Byzanllnae (VoL 17. Ven· ice, 1729). BIBUOGRAPHY Bethune·Baker. J. F. Ne'/Qrius and Hi, Tta"hinr. Cambridge, I'KI8, Chadwick. H. "Eucharist and Christology in the NeSlOrian Controversy," Journal of Theological Stud,e, n.5. 2 (1951):145-64. Frend, W, H. C, The Riu ol/he Monophysi/e Movement. Cambridge. 1972: rev. ed" 1979, Gregg, R. C. and D. E. Groh. Early Ariani,m: A View 01 Sa/varian. Philaddphia, 1981, Grillmeier, A. Chrisl in Chrisllan Tradill,m: From the Apo. CHRONICLES. See Old Testament, Arabic Versions of the, CHRONICON ORIENTALE, chronicle of world history compo.sed by an unknown thirtcenthcentury author who put events he thought importanl imo a table of Je<:ular and ecclesiastical rulers. are the Old Testament for Its chronological the pre-ehristian era, the Roman emperors for the period from the time Christ to Mu~ammad, and thereafter the A",b regimes in Syria and Egypt, along wilh a history of the caliphs to his own time (1260). It includes a ilection that gi.'es an outline history of the Alexandrian p4ltriarchs from Saint MARK (43-68) to ATHANAStUS III (1250-1261). The dates are in good order but untrustwonhy as to actual calendar years. The Copt ABO SHAKIR ibn Bu\rus al·RAhib has been taken to be the author .ince the Cllron;con's first translation into latin was done by a Maronite. ....braham Ecchelensis (Cllronicon orien/ole. nUnC prlmurn latini/ate dona/urn .. .. Paris, 1651; Paris. basef of BIBLIOGRAPHY Cheikho, L. Petrus ibn RJhif/s Chronlcon Orientale. In CseD 45-46, ScriplOres Aroblel, ser. 3. 1-2, louvain, 1955, VINCENT FREDERICK CHRYSOSTOM. JOHN. See John Chry!lostom. Saint. CHURCH, CONSECRATION OF. After a new church has been equipped with the necessary vessels, curtai"s, books, and icons. it has to be con· ilecrated, that is. set apart for divine service and dedicated to a saint, The conse t CHURCH OF ABO SAYFAYN th~ Gospel, and Psalm' 64:1 and 149: I, fol1o",'ed by John 10:12-42, Th~n th~ d~acons sing a few h}'mns, A priest prays the lh...,~ ,mall~r int~rc~",ions of peac~, for th~ church, for the fathers, and for lhe cong,..,galion, Th~n th~ cong...,gation recites the Creed. Th~n the aishop offers incense and says lh~ pray~r of the inc~n"" followed by lwo petitions. Sev~n pelitions ...,ad by Ih~ archdeacon are followed by several pra}"'rs by th~ bishop. The bishop lh~lI prays inaudibly to the Lord aft~r which h~ recite' Ihe formula for consecl"1uion of th~ church and a prayer of benediction. The dergy and deacons, carrying the jars, crosses, candles, cens~rs, c~nser'polS, and the gospelbook, fonn a proc~ ..ion in from of th~ bishop, chanting appropriate hymns, unlil lhey reach lhe opening in the middle of lhe east~rn wall of lh~ sanctuary, which lhe bi'hop sprinkles with wal~r. They go around lhe four wall. of the church, which lh~ bishop sprinkJ~s with waler, saying: "For a holy consecration of lhe house of God." Th~n he starts again al lh~ easl~rn wall, lhis tim~ ,igning with th~ holy oil of chrism, sa}1ng: "We consecrate thi' plac~ as the church of {name of saim] in lhe name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spiril." H~ cominu.. signing all windo~, corners, and pillars, saying: "alessed i' th~ Lord God, now and to the ages of ages, Amen." BIBLIOGRA.PHY Bunnester, 0, H. E, The Egyplia~ or Coplic Ch"rch, 1'1'.236-45, Cairo, 1967. Horner, G. W. The Service for the Conucralion of a Church and Allar, A.ccording 10 the Coplic Rite. London, 1902. ARCHBISHor B~S!llQ.'5 -\ CHURCH, LAYING THE CORNER_ STONE OF. Al lhe ceremony held,lo celebrate lhe founding of a church, lho' following ilem. are placed in a ,..,ceplade: a Bible, a cross, coins in current circulation, newspape.... of lhe day, and a document with the name of lhe patron saint to whom the cburch is dedicated, the name of the head of stale, lbe name of lhe palriarch, and lhe name, of Ihe clergy and lhe nOlables a!lending lhe ceremony. The head priest places Ihe receplad~ in the spol designed for the purpose benealh lhe lhreshold of the middle sanctuary, saying, "We lay lhe blessed foundation slOne of this holy church dedicaled 10 [name of the dedicatee] in the name of 549 lbe Falher, the Son, and Ihe Holy Spirit, one God, Amen. Blessed be God the Father almighly, Amen. Blessed by Hi' only-beg<:>lten Son, Jesus Chrisl, our Lord, Amen. Blesset then commence, prayers saying, "Have mercy upon us, 0 God Falher almighlY. All· holy Trinity have mercy upon us. Lord God of powers, be Wilh us, for we have no help in our tribulations and affliction" save Thee." This is followed by the Lord's PTa}"'r, the prayer of lhanksgiving, lhe raising of Incense for the ,,'ening, Psalm 50, and Genesis 28,10-31. A priest says the intercession for lhe sick, and lbe deacons ,ing lhe litany, "The censer of gold is lhe Virgin, and her sweet aroma is our Sa\1or, She has given birth 10 Him; He has saved us and remitted our sins. We worship Thee, 0 Christ, with Tby good Falher and the Holy Spiril, for Thou didsl com~ and save us." The episde is laken from Heb...,ws 9:1_11: thi! is followed by lh~ Trisagi<Jn, and the imercession of Ihe Gospel, the psalm·ve"ic1e being Psalm 122: 1-2: "I was glad when they said 10 me, leI us go into lhe house of lhe Lord. Our feet sball stand wilhin thy gales, 0 Jerusalem," The Gospel is from Luke 9;28-36, Tbe deacons sing the appropriate response, and a priesl says the lh...,e s...,ater interce,.ion. (for the peace of the church, lh~ falhers, and lhe congregalion). The Creed is followed by K},rje Eleison said forty·one lime•. Here lhe head priesl say. a pra}'er incorporating an earneSl requesl 10 God 10 eSlablish the new church on sure foundalions, imparting purily to it' sanctuary where the faithful may worship His sacred name, receive lhe holy sacraments, and enjoy God's divine grace,. The lhree absolulion' are then said by the head prie Bi,hop Alhanasius, metropolilan of BanI Suef and Bahn..!. KiMb Tarlib Waif Ffaiar a/·A.'Js li·al· Ka,,~';s a/.ladidah, Pl'. 3-32. Cairo, 1959. ARCHElSHOP BAS1UOS CHURCH OF ABU SARJAH. SU Babylon. CHURCH OF ABU SAYFAYN (Old Cairo). In lhe Arabic manuscripts lhis church i' called "church of Abu Marqurah," and in a Garshunl man· uscript (Arabic written 10 Syriac characlers) 550 "~huTCh CHURCH OF ABO SAYFAYN of Mar Quryus" (Mercurius), Two lale Coplic manuscripts deseribe il lhus: "Mercurius al lhe telrapylon of lhe ri,'er." Weslern •ravele", of Ihe sewnteenth 10 nineteenth centuries ~alled it "~hurch of Mari Mon~ure" or "~hurch of Saini Macarius" (probably 3 confusion belween Marqurah and Maqirah; Coquin. 1974, pp. 15-17), The church helongs 10 lhe group of buildIngs induded in the Chrislian enclosure of PHil. ABU MYfAYN, which is Siluated 10 lhe nonh of the QA;;1l. Al.-SH...M·, near Ihe Hilwan railway line and lhe mosque of 'Amr ibn al 'As in Old Cairo. Down 10 Ihe late Middle Ages. when lhe NIle Aowed more 10 .he east than loday, the river bank was in front of .he ~huTCh (Coquin, 1974, pp. 27-30; see also Casa· nova, 1919, pp. 192-98 ood pI. 3), The Church of Abu Sayfayn includes Ihe church proper, said 10 be dedicated to $aint MEJlCURH!S OF CIlESARI'.A, and Iwo groups of secondary chapels annued to the church; .he fi,.,1 to lhe northeast of the principal dlllTCh containing lhree oratories on bolh Ihe ground Aoor and Ihe first slory, and the second 10 Ihe nonhwesl aboye the north yestibule and the mandaTah (reception hall). According to some authors lhe ~hurch was r"On· stmCled under Ihe palm-rd ABRoIHAM (975-978) af. "" having been destroyed and ~onYened into a warehouse For sugarcane. ]1 was burned down and pillaged by a Muslim mob under lhe patriarch MARK III (1167-1189), The chapels dedicated 10 Saint John the Baplist and Saint George, probably situat· cd in the south na,'e of the chur~b and ilS ~orre· sponding uiforium (ou ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS), were spared from the fire. An immediale reconstruction was undertaken al Ihe e~pense of the snaykh Abu al·Barakat ibn Abu Sa'[d Habl'n, and .he ~hun;h was reopened in 1175. It was closed in March 1301, al Ihe same lime as all the olher churches in Egypl, and.reopened in 1312-1313. It underwent restorations ;, the COurse of the nine· teen!h and twentieth cenluries carried out by lhe CommiUee for the Conse'rvalion of Monuments of Arab An (Coquin, 1974, pp. 18-20), In lhis ~hurch were ~onsecraled Mar Basiliym, palriarch of Antioch, in 1421-1422, as well as GABRI· EL VIII (1586-1601), PETER VI (1718-1826) and !OHN WlI (1726-t745), palriarchs of the Coplic Church. It has been the residen~e of the Coptk palriar~hs from CHRISTOOOULUS (1047-1077) and lh. place of lhe death and burial of subsequent patriarchs (Coquin, pp, 21-24). An as..embly of Ihe bishops took place thcre to protest against the palriaTCh sHENUTE H (1032- 1046), who praelked simony_ The conc<Xtion of the CHRISM under the patriar~h TIJEOOOSIUS II (1294-1300) took place in the ~hurch (Coquin, pp . 24-25). AnbA B...ItSUM, called Ihe Naked, lived For a long lime in a ~rypt on the north side of the chur~h and died during lhe reign of patriarch JOHN VIII (13001320). The church of Saint Mercurius, Ihe secondary chapel., and Olher nearby places contain numerous artistic obje~lS, On the ground floor of the ~hur<:h i!Self is a .CFeo" iT! wood that separale5 the nanhe~ from lhe central dapel; ac~ording 10 RaouF Habib, it dales from Ihe eighleenth cenltlry (1967, p, 65), A ,~reen of lhe ~entral sanctuary is made of pine wood and composed of panels inlaid with ebony and ivory and decoratcd with floral molifs. The screen of the south and north san~tuaries and allar of the se~ond is made of wood and ~omposed of panels inlaid with ivory and ebony and representing Aoral designs. The first dates from 1753, white Ihe second dales from lhe Falimid period (909-1171) according 10 modem aUlhors; Raouf Habib (p. 70) menlions the altar surmounted by a iow ciborium (sce ~RCHIT£.CTURoIL UEM>'.NTS)_ An ambo in marble, resting on fifteen small ~ol· umns, is situated in Ihe nonheasl comer of lhe central nave; il bears an inscriplion in Coptk, The extanl remains of the wall painting on lhe soulheast column of Ihe cenlral nave depi~t a~cord· ing 10 Meinardus (1969-1970, p. 140, pL II, B) a horseman, probably Saint Theodorus, The wall painting in Ihe soulh naye is mentioned by RaouF Habib (p, 67) as the remains of mural painting_ Wall paintings on the two ~olumns ,itualed on each ,ide of the door of lhe screen of lhe central sancltl· ary are, according to Meinardus, lhe sUI~;iving remnants of painlings represenling on lhe north column Christ holding lhe Gospel and blessing and on the soulh column the Holy Virgin holding the in· Fant Jesus (pp. 140-41. pI. 12 A-B). In lhe central sanctuary, Ihe ahar i. sunnounted by a dborium in wood, supported by four marble columns. The lower pan of the dborium represents Chrisl surrounded by lhe symbols of the four evangelists, The sanctuary ends in the east with an apse. Ihe upper part of whi~h is painted with Christ in a mandorla, supported by lwo angels. ln lbe middle of Ihe lower pan and behind lhe episcopal ~hair is a nkhe in whkh Christ is painted enthroned, holding lhe Gospel and blcssing. Thc twelye apostles are represented On each side_ Abo,'e the ar~h of the ni~he are painted in the middle a seraph and on • CHURCH OF ABU SAYFAYN either side of him the angel Gabriel and the Virgin of the Annunciation. 1n the time of Butler the baptismal fonts occu· pied the eastern part of the south nave, surmounted by a ciborium. T<Xlay they are in the south sanctu· ary itself. dedica~d to the an;hangel Raphael (1884, pp. I i 5- i 6), Butler also speaks of ha"ing found in a chapel outside the principal church a chalice cas· ket, which the priesl of the church ",,"used to be placed in the north sanctuary (l8S4, pp. 109-10, 117). It is a box in the fona of a cube with an opening in the upper part; it is dated to 1563. The four sides of this box are co\'ered with paintings representing Christ, the Virgin carrying the infant Jesu', the Annunciation, and Ihe priest Zosimus giv· ing communion to Saini Mary the Egyptian. On the walls and the beams above the wooden S<;reen' icon. are suspended. In the Chapel of Saint George on the ceiling of the south lriforium and on the side of the choir one may see Ihe remains of a sculpture in wood, des<;ribed by Buder (p, 123) and dating from Ihe Ihirteenlh century, On the north side and a linle far· ther forward, one see. the remains of an ambo in wood, lined into the wall and accessible by a lad· der. Raouf Habib (p, 73) date. it to the twelfth or thirt""nth century. The niche Iitted up in the east wall of Ihe sanctuary contains the paiming of Christ seated, holding the Gospel and blessing; He is surrounded by a mandorla, On each side are two medallion. containing what may be two human buSlS (Meinardus, p. 139, pI. 10, A). Mural painting. of the north triforium include a bollow in Ihe north wall, in which a fresco repre· senlS an angel, probabl)' the archangel Suriel ac· cording to the Coptic inscription underneath, which recall. the name of the donor. On the oUIside north wall one may .till distinguish remain. of painting (Meinardus, p. 125,1'1. 7 A). In the northeast group of "",ondary chapels on the ground floor the nonh sanctuary is consecrated to Saint Jame. Interdsus and contains a screen ;n wood. A\>ove il and on the eastern wall is an in$(:riplion in Cufic characters, dated '0 the tcnth untury. Remains 01 wall painting are preserved to the right of this inscription (Meinardus, pp. 139- 40, pis. 10 B; il A), Butler (I'. 118) speaks of having seen in this sanctuary Ihe altar covered with a mar· ble plaque in the form of a horseshoe. The cemral and south sanctuaries, consecrate 551 Church of SainI Mercurius, According to modern authors, they date from between the tenth 10 Ihe twelfth centuries. To the 'Duth of the na.'e. i. the baptistery, closed by a s<;reen in wood of the Fal;' mid period, which, according to Butler (PI'. 12324), belongs '0 the same chapel mentioned abo.'e. Th. bapti.mai fonts are constructed of masonry. In the na"es of the li~ .tory one can distinguish the remains of wall painting, a saint bleS5ing aad holding Ihe keys, and an inscription (Meinardus, pp, 134-35, pis. ~ A-B). The north sancmary, closed by a screen, contains a ciborium already in ruins. In the niche in the east wall, the Holy Virgin is represented with the infant Jesus. The central sanctuary, according 10 Butler (I'. 120), contains a remarkable s<;reen. lls dOOrium is abandoned in a corner. The south ""nctuary has a s<;rcen, and the ciOOrium is in situ, In the northweSl group is Ihe chapel dedicated to the Virgin, containing three sancmaries that are separated from the naves by a screen in wood, above which i. suspeaded a range of icons representing the twelve apostles. The ahar i. sunnounted by a painted dOOrium. The apse of the east wall i. painted with the Ascension, deliberalely damaged. In the upper register is Christ emhroned, holding the Gospel and ble..ing; be is surrounded by a mandorla supported by the four animals of Ihe Apocalypse; and on .ach side are two angel. in adoration. In the lower register Ihe Virgin is repre· "'''ted in Ihe middle, in an oram po.ition, surrounded by twelve apostles (Meinardus, Pl'. lJ6-39, pis. 7 B; 8 A-B; 9 A). According to Butler (I'. 121) the niche of the south ""nctuar;, i. de<;orat· ed with the BaptisnJ of Christ, a painting that, ac· cordins 10 Mcinardus (I'. 139, pI. 9 BJ, nlml be dated to the eighteenth Or nineteenth century. The Coptic Museum pas.esses .'arious pieces of woodwork deriving from this church (see Coquin, 1971, p. 35); a door of wood, composed of panel. inlaid wilh ebony, probably from Ihe twelfth centu· ry; a .cr""n of wood composed of two lea"es; a panel in wood repre.enting Ihe £gure of a holy personage, sculpted in relief. dating from the twelfth cemury; a frame in wood compo...d of panels sculpted in relief, bearing an inscription in Cu£c, dating from Ihe twelfth century; and an altar plaque in pine wood, dating from the foun.emh or fifteenth centUIJ'. BIBUOGRAPHY Butler, A. J. The Andul/ Copiic Churches of Egypt, 2 vok Oxford, 1884. 552 CHURCH OF AL· Casanova, P. Es..al de reconsril,,/ion /opographiq"e de la vl/l. d'"l Fo"../al 0" Misr. Memoires publih par les membres de l'!nstitut fran~ais d'Arch60Jo.gie orientale du Caire 35. Cairo, 1919. Coquin. C. Le.. Edifice.. chrbiens du Vieux·Caire. Vol. I, Bibliographie el topographie histor/ques. Bibliotheque d'emdes coptes II. Cairo, 1974. Meinardus. O. '''The MediaevaJ Wall·paintings in the Coptic Churches of Old Cairo." Bulletin d, la Svdhi d'archiologi" copte 20 (1969-1970);119-41. Raouf Habib. The Andent Copric Churches of Cairo: ;I Short ;lecount, CairQ. 1967. Sima}'kah, M. H. Guide to the Coptic Muuum and Ih. Prindpal ;Indent Churches and Com'ems I (in Arabic). Cairo, 1930. CID.RlAMBt~ COQIJIN CHURCH OF AL- CHURCH ARCHITECTURE IN EGYPT. Only chur~h buildings can be considered as a ~on· fessionaltype Qf structure-like the cultic buiJdings of pagans, Jews. and Muslims. Churches are a spe· cifically Christian type of architecture. All olher kinds of building-including funerary strucluresha,'e no confessional ties and take the same fOnT> among Christians as among people of other faith. in the same period, Corresponding to the requirements of Christian worship. church buildings have two fundamentally different areas: (1) the sanctuary, often several rooms with the ahar as the central point and the place of the actual ceremonial. placed in all extant monuments from Egypt in the east; and (2) the nave, as a ",Ie ,'ery spacious and generally with several aisles. as the piace in which the lailyattend the preparatory pan of the liturgy as onlookers. Generally the .anc1U~ consists of a centraJ apse with side chambers di~posed on either side. In simple buildings there is ;instead of the apse a simple rectangular eulti~ ni~!>e. In addition. more ample types of room like the uiconch are als<> found. Whatever their outward fonn, these cultic niches are open to the weSl. toward the nave, for almost their entire width. In ordinary parish churches the altar stands in froni of the opening, l{ is $U signed to the laity, is considerably larger than the sanctuary. and accordingly is usually constructed with several aisles. Some of the large churches. like the cathedral church of al·Ashm1lnayn and lhe great basilica of ABO MINA. have a transept. The several aisles are separated by rows of columns, or pillars connected by arcades; in rare cases. they are also separated by architraves. Very often the pillars were walled up with stones and bricks. West of the area fQr the laity-at least in the early buildings-there is a narthex and in some eases aJso an atrium. Early Christian Period No churrge monumental buildings were to be found In the fourth century perhaps only in the capitaJ. Alexandria. The Qldest churches so far di.co>'ered are a few .mall buildings of the early fifth century from the region of the KELLtA on the western edge of the Delta. These are modest houses of prayer designed IQ mut th. needs of monks vowed to the principle of poverty', Thus they are not representatiye of the ar CHURCH ARCHITECTURE IN EGYPT Magna), All lhe buildings ha~ a .....,clUlllY wilh oeveral chamben. llIe main chambet- consistin, of a cullie niche de.-eloped as an apse. In the church of DAYR .... LI. $Ht"lOtwt in Suhaj the eultie niche hal the fOrm of a lri«lnch. I" addition. the- chur<:hes mcndonN-apan ~rhapo; m:.m the- monascery churches in Faw al.Qibll. Kill not definitiftly 1">"eStipud-ach had .. pIJay usually rcacb6d by .. l i p of S1q1$. The two superimposed churches OIl f_ ai-Qib!1 were cen:ainly constn.>cU'd with five aisles. which ebewheu .....,. the casc only in the basilial of Annant and some smaller buildlnp in MadInM Mi4i and Makhiirah.. The C'IOthedraJ of aI· Ashmllnayn, nlOl~. is fumished with a thrff· aisle m.RSept, the aides of which unusually end in a semicircle. This desi,n ohould nOf. however, be conf\Qed with a lriconch. In the last quarter oflhe Mth alld the uriy sixth anturitf; n tnn.sept of this kind appears again in the church of Hawwiriyyah and In Ille g",al basilic-a of Abu Mint. Ihe largest church bulldlng in £8YPIian lenitory, bul here Ille side win,s ha.'c a straight tennination. While Ihne large buildings of Ihe fifth cenlury ha~e in tile saroctuary a relati~cly extensive and complicated voundplnn. perhap! rnulling from !he size of Ihe space available. by the fifth cenlUry Ihere was In Ihe _nCT buildings a canonical l'"oup ofthr« chambcl'$...... a nile, this group con' sisu of a M'micircular ar- and lWO ~nl"lar sid.. rooms. of ",h;"h at I.... one could be dl~dy emued f1'OITI the ..-:lS. £>.cq>lions in whleh Ihe side rooms arc Inl"'n, occur so far only In the area of Maryl)I. In the bulldinp that have: a cultic niche devdopcd as a triconch, the ~ dlam~ ~ bn:Jusht round ,he aide conches in the shape of • pmma. In addition, it ...... common. po.niallarly In tIppeT £aypc and rndmdy as carty ... lhc bte fifth unlury, 10 place bcfor'e the cullic nich.. an add;60naI lriumpbal arch suppon"" by Iwo fr_saandins columm (..... IWIDUAH). ~th the u«plion of the churches in the p-e;u laUla of Ih.. KeUia. t.he altar now alWIIY" su.ntk in front of lhe cuhie nic.... and i$ IlUfTOundcd by .. low s<;recn. In the area of t.he naos, thc: church"" of thc fifth centul}' almost aI .....Y" ha~ nufTltrow; niches, which arc symrne\";' cally disuibut.d on tM W3.1I~. with or without a deconulve framework. and provide Ihe reason for lhe ofien eno""",,> Mrength of Ihe walls In mos.l EgypIian church.... Thi. cuslOm hold, for Upper and Lower EIYPI. ilTC.peet;"e of whelher the build· inp are of brick or stone. It i. only in the buildings "r the MaryOt r..gicn. ",hich were l.'Videnlly more strongly Influenced by Ihe gen .. ra1 archhectu", of Ih.... mplre, lhat these wall nicl>cs are nOi found. 553 In lhe ililh c..nlUf}'. the form of lhc basilica reo mained roughly th.. same. The buildinp, howe....,r, b«ame more unifunn. and no furtbtr Iargt buildinp ......., cncted. hwead. espedaIly in lhe c ~ region, dtcrc ~ some c .... rches ..ith a centralized shape. Ulbich bear a dose rc:wlnblance 10 the four. (:()ClCft buildinp of Syria and Asia Mil>(ll". and were prot.bly influenced by these (Grossmann. 19n. pp. 13f.). So far. two cumples ha.... become known from the region 01 Abo. Minto. In lIppn" Et!:YP' in tbr .......e period Or a littk later then' appear a few four..pllar churches ..ith an ambulalOi)' «OR)5$mann. 1979, pp. 86/f.) thM .lIikin.aJy ",,'ended their inllucncc to the architcaure of Nub;" in particular and lite... round numcrow 1llC«SSOI'$ (see "'IIBIA."" CHRlST1All AKHrTECT1JU). Early Middle Agu The early Middle Ages In £aypI be,an roughly wilh Ihe Arab conquest of Ihe counlry (A,D, 639641) (.u ARAB CONQUI'.ST OF EC~FT). During Ihis period church buildin, showed only a conlinuation of lhe nonnal b""ilka .tnlCtu"" which dewn to th.. I'alimid period belonged to Ihe Iype of church m""t frequ.. mly built, allhOUjh dimensions becam.. .mall.. r. With thc pauin, of Iale antiquity, Ihere ...... an increasina: tendenC)' 10 enhance lhe dirision be'wffr> the """raJ area and thai of the laity. proba· bly because of an intell$ifi.... 1IK",Iir:ation of the Iilurgical cercmooy. In front of the $3lnetuary a special room (kIll,"") ,""AN for lhc clcrs:Y""" sq»rMtd from lhc n_. and from aboul lhe ei&J'rth Cent"'Y. it was dhidcd from tile rut of the na"" by a hiah panition ..-..II. In the middle of the ..-:all .._ lICIe wi.d.. opcnina thaI could be c~ by. curtain. n.c room thus fonnl!'d containccl the altar, when all Cf:t'tmony lool< place out of the sight of the laity. In o\del- churches lIOf )'Cl equipped wilh • thiirus of Ibis kind. it was subKquemly buill in, although it required strange archilccltulIl compromises. By irs ~ery nalUrt a ",ido: room. the kftiituS opened in thc middle of irs east wail into lhe apse, usually coy~red over by • scmicupola, Ir lhe .Ide winp Weft Ci""n a similar romt of vault inS, they could be «1m· bin"" wilh the apse Into the form of a triconch, which INa'l frequently th .. case. One of the earliest examples is the "I-'Adhn' Church of DAn AlosunAN in Ihe Widr ai.Na!rUn, which dal.. from perhaps as urly as Ihe eighth cenCury. The HI8h Middle AS.... (F8tlmld Period) Th .. period of lhe high Middle Ages. roughl)' can· lempor,o.ry with th.. Falimld rule. rll...st rank as th.. 554 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE IN EGYPT golden age of church building in Egypt. 11 was in Ihis peri<>d that the most imponam buildings were construcled. In general. the arrangement of the ",nctuary in these buildings corresponds to that of the preceding period. but the disposition of the rooms became tighter and more harmonious. All the chambers~inc1uding the cullic niche~were now rectangular. Mon~o,'er. since in this period all new buildings were provided wilh a kh;m" fr(Jm Ihe outset. there was no need for the kind of impro>'isation frequently found in older buildings. In the area of the nave. however. the development of church building took a fundamentaliy new direction. As in Byzantine and Islamic architecture, th"re was a change in Eg)'P1 from the wooden roof to >"ultinil' It was regarded as more economical and Ie" flammable. That the construction of vaults was possible only in the case of smaller buildings was of no consequence. since people had already grown accustomed to smaller church buildings in the preceding period. In addition. the galleries were largely abandoned in this period. The adoption of vaulting applied in the first place to the area of the nave. Here. strangely, Lower and Upper Egypt followed different paths. Lower Egypt preferred barrel-vaulting. It had the advantage that the directional thrust proper to Ihe basilica remained unaffected, Upper Egypt preferred domes. Since, howe>'er. as in Lo....·er Egypt. the ground plan of the basilica was at first retained, this led~in connection with the roofing of the central aisle~to the use 01 two domed areas linked for internal communication by a great arch. Funher arched entries opened into the side aisles. which were themselves constructed as barrel-vaulted areas running along the domed central areas On either side. In this way a new type (Jf building came into being~ the elongated church with a domed main aisle. Examples include. amon8 others, the monastery churches of the DAYR ~'ll" ""oRA at As'-'IAn, Dayr al-ShuhadA' (Isn~). and DAYR MAR HUQTUR (Oamulah). A building 'in Cairo is found in the p~,,,kklesi(m "f the Men... church. while (Jtber examples can be seen even in Nubia (Tarnit. Faras). In the following period the el"ngated. domed church went through a singular development presumably conditioned by lhe structural la",.. of domed '·auhing. The two domed areas. at first regarded as "f equal status, eventually became rivals, arK! in the course of further development this led to a stunting of the rearmost area, In the final phase, toward the end "f the twelfth een,ury. it became a small transversally oriented side room. or it entirely disappeared. with the result that this building became a central structure with a single dome. Alongside these structures, which still stand in clear relation to Ihe preceding basilica form. a second type of building was developed in the ea.ly Fatimid period. which was elMe to the Greek type of octailon--domed churches. and whose origin is pmbably also to be lraced to Byzantine influence. This was a central building roofed o>'er hy a dome of unusually wide span (hI' comparison with other buildings of the period). the dome being canied by eight supports partly set into the sIde walk This type is found in its p.esent form in the cburch of the DAYR Al.-sHAYKHAH at Aswan. Here it was de· velope'elopment and greater height. This type is Ihe resuh of a funher develop· ment from the elongaled, domed church, but it is also based upon influences from the By7,antine world, Apart from the uniform inner arrangement of Ihe church. which is probably to be traced to Islamic influence. it shows many similarities to the Byzantine cross·in·square churt;hes. The program of the chambers. which in the older examples still employ a khums (sa DAYR AL-SHAHl0 TADRUS AL-MUHARIB), reslS unmistakably On Egyptian tradition. In funher development. the khiims graduall}' fell out of use, while the altar was moved had into the cultic niche, whe,.., it had already stood at one time in some monastery churches of the early period, The reason for this development was un· doubtedl}' the frequency of masses from the Mam· luk period on. Since according In the Coptic rite, it is forbidden to celebrate the mass at the same ahar more than once in a day (Nomocanotl of Michael of Darnietla), there was need for a larger number of altar pl.ces, the rea.' CHURCH ART bot-rs of lhe lancluary inlo addi,io....1smalle. unCIU· aM, With such .n ."e""'ion of the m.ditional .... rangement of the oanrnw.ry. an)' undcmandlnl of lIIe aianificance of the i:Iumu was abo Ioal. The dcdine in the nlOmhtr of the faithful from lhe /Ibm. Iuk period had the same efte<:l. T1Ie XHMIima pady Jft~1ed conare!~ions fell lhe lraditional diwibulion 01. the church buildina lOnneft$$arily utra,..,.l. So it was Lh21 """-an;! the end of the MaInluk period the lJIiinu ....... e1imilWed. In place or lIIe former dividinc wall of d-.e U"ros _. appears the ~'JItb (iconosIasis). 10 be ocl up al the enlrance 10 the a1lar chamber, • rorm of .... ruellOre that persialJ loday. (See ..Iso.' A~hile<:lural E1emenl$ of ChuldleS.! • '8l.IOGRAPHY BoU'1luel. P. duo T~e Art of the Copts, lrans. Caryll Hay Shaw. New York. 1971Clarh. S. Christi"n ,(miq"ities in the Nile Vall,y, Oxford. 1912. Crossmann. P. "'Abu Mena Ailik vorlliufige BeriChlC Kampasnen 1975 and 1976:' Mitteilungen des De"t>cnu Archiiologischen J"stit"lS Ab"ilomg I(airo H (1977): 35-45_ _ _ "Zu, cbrnllichen Bau.lr.unsl in AJ)-pl.. n." En. dWria 9 (1978):135-146. _ Elephantin.. 11. Mainz. 1'119. _ Milld"/t",liehe u",:hl..u.O'p~lkircne.. " ..d wI'Yo'... dt, T,pen in Oberigwle". Gliktutadl, 1982. _ "Neu.e FriIblll..n:' ,(cle5 dO' XI' co~ mlcrnatitm.1 .rl1fClololo,ie clrrtliDf..... L,- 1I-Z6 sepumm 1986. Voi. 1. pp. I&lJ-ISlfM. P.ris. /989. Noonft"Cl de Villard. (I. Dqr c!.JJrJwmt.q.oh. Milan, 1921. _ "t.e N.ailica e....iano in EgilIO." In Alii tkJ di .rcJ",~ "'rUCilia d,' V.Iic""" (19.38). Vol. I, pp. 191319. Rome, I~. .It Walten.. c. C. M"".stiI: .4rclraldov in Eop'. War' mlOSleT. 1914. IV """f"~s.J(> inlCm.:itm.I~ Ii.". CHURCH ARCHITECTURE IN NUBIA, SU Nubian Chrisli"n A~hilecIU"'. CHURCH ART. In Coptic "hurches, the apse rounds tbe ~oykol (sancluary) off ~I Ihe east, lhe: di ....clion the ChriSlian faces to pray. I'or Ibis rea· son Ihe apse ......s one of Ibe fim pans of Ihe church 555 bulletinS 10 be .ra.. ....,hich an! abo found in apses of chu~l>es, 'oOa5 uUtmO'ly popular. In lbe UA'C" pan Christ is cVpicled _ed on Ms throne or throne· chariot. surrounded by a mandorta. by lhe Four Rodiles5 BeasI~. and by other anlri>, by oun. moon. ,."d sun; the composilion _ iR$pired by Isaiah 6. Ezekiel I. and Re\..,lulon 4. In lhe Io"..,r mne is Hi. mother. lIankM by .po6Iln and ,."gek. Of' by ,."gel. and olIter sainI$. The Illnks of th.. "p<>5t1e'1 are somelimes e.luended '0 indude local saints . Mary may be ponrayed &II oranl, ... an enthronerd of lhe Chu~h (Klauser, 1961). 1'. , ... n der Meer (1938, pp. 2S5lf.) <:alb the upper zone a "Ibe-ophany of the itWIqion." b.n ,his litle has mn ",ith lillie rnpotI$<'. partl, becawc il Ic:a~e! lIte Io\oItt zone out of :accounl. To inlerpret .be double theme .. an ascemion has .he disathantaae of ..sumina the innuence of OM ~"icuJar f..... -and a companotivd)' n:cen' (WIe-to hr.'·e occupitd a place of honor in !he liturJ'cal scheme. This can b<: rrgarded u an arpmenl apin.. an escltal~aJ up\analion as ",-,,11. A .,,,,,historical ;nletJ>l"l!latlon, on lhe other hand, is more likely 10 rece..e ... ppon. especially ben...., itt lighl of earl, Christian lilerature ;1 appears IC$$ forced. Withou. specific rererence 10 any panicular Iilurgical r...... boch S)Tiant (Ephraim .nd Jacob or Santg) and Copt! (Cyril and lhe l!te"loki" [Iirurgical leK\$ addrested to MaryJ) celebnted ,be paradoK or God's Son, who lies .1 Mary', bre~ and 31 I"" same time rule! over urth and heaven. lbe One ",ho in lhe hea.'en, i. borne by."" chariOt of Ihe cherubim and here on eanh by Hi. earthly m<Jlher. Mary ("an Moorsel. 1970, pp, 284-86). It has riSb'ly be.... obsetved lhat Ibis oo"bl~ Iheme appear. 10 ha.'e been erealed at a cort$c;QU!I deplelion of ,ht: ortbo>c doclrine of the perKIn of Cbrist. Bul for 556 CHURCH ART the same writer to exp,"e", ama7-cmcnt tha' thi~ theme should be found in a monophy,ite .elting Te>'eab inadequate ~nowledge of Coptic Christology (Wellen, 1960, p, 164). Where ther. w,," insuffi~;ent .pa~~ in ,he apse of the church or in Ihe niche of the ~ell, Ihe double theme eould be depicted in a reduced f"rm. It al· ready <xcurs in small apses at an early stage, at Saqqara, fOT in.tance; but we tll.'n still find tile combination of Cllrist (somelime. shown as a halffIgure) in th" upper zone, and Mary, alway. Oankcd by angel, and .·er. " tri 260) or the open· (Monnel"t de Vii· fTom th~ liturll-v, than to a chur~h IlIllLlOGRAI'H\' lIMa !>'"uerung if! der cllI-;>!' liche>l KUlHl des erjUm Jahrm!<,'wdj. Studien Lur Geschichte des Weilgerichtsbildes, Vienna. 19&6 DinkIer, E.. cd. Ku~" "lid Geschichu ,\'"biens i>l cI,nla." Jahrlmch fi;' A.~like ,,~d ChnSlellfUlM 17 (1974);21-46, Grabar. A. Marl)''''''''. 2 vol,. London. 1972. Ihm, C, Die I'rogr"'m'u du "hr;jtlid,e" Apsi'maRrenk, B. rraairio~ Paiming of the Virgin Mal)' holding Ihe Chri'l child on her lap and "anhd by rhe Twelve Apo"le•. Abow Mary and Ihe 'fwcl,'" Apostles is ,he i",,,,r pal1 c>r a sccne c>f Christ in Glory. Bawl!. Chapel XLII. C(mrresy Photog,aphic Library 01 BVUlIIl;lIe Arr. Schod of Applied Ad"allced Sr"dios. Pans. CHURCH OF AL·,l,-tu'ALLAQAH 557 Inti, ...... •·itrrt" }"h,h.."dnr I>n ~ .. r MdU dt~ Kllltn )"Il,hu"dtrfs, Wiesbaden. 1960 KbU$ot•. T Re-.·iew d C. Ihm. Di" PrOfl'"",mt. )"hr· b..ch /«. ">nih- .. nd Chrislnl'''''' 4 (1%1):174-19. AI......, f. '-at! de•. AJ.. iuI,ubi.. ,.,.,d~lt, \01 . • Cairo. 1957. Moclr'KI. P. '..... D~ SI,llt"dt Gou.......WI........d d~ \IQ<1oC1P1tVstl"", In Kunst ....d Gad""h,,, 'iub..,"S i" "lIm/lidr.... le;,. cd. E. DinU.,.,-. pp 281-90, RecUinaNl.ISt'n. 1970, Wdk-n. G, A Tlw:ok>l:os.. litrecht and Antwerp. ... , CHVRCH OF THE ASCENSION. SU Jcro solem. Coptic See of. CHURCH OF THE HOLY VIRGIN IN GETHSEMANE. SU J~rusalc'm, COp1!C See of. CHURCH OF AL-KHANDAQ. Se.. I);m ~I· Khandaq. Church of al-Mu·allaqah. [merlor. COlint"" A. Hdd. This chureh i•• ilUaled 10 lhe sou,h of t.... nlOdem city of Cairo. al O,*M ~L.slv..\l· (Old CaIro), occup~ing lhe sou,h and SOuth"'eSl baSlions of lhe anciem Roman fO'1r~'SS oflcn c~lIed fMHVI.o~ (Coqu;n. pp, 65, 76-77: Simaykah. 1930, p. 20). According to "orne Mab hi"orians of lhe founeenlh century a mosque "':loS ereCled uoder the church of ..I. Mu'allaqah (Coqu;n. p, 17). CHURCH OF MAR l\lINA. 8u &b)lon. CHURCH OF MICHAEL THE ARCHAN· GEL. Stc J~em. Coptic See of. CHURCH AND MONASTERY OF SAINT ANTONY (JAFFA). &c Holy IMId, Coptic CInorcMs in ,he, CHURCH AND MONASTERY OF SAINT ANTONY (JERICHO). 8u HoI) IMId. ChurcMs in the. CHVRCH OF AL·l\tU·ALLAQAH (Old Cairo), This church is callw in Coptic manuscripts "11Ie church or S.inl Mary. MOlher of Cod. al l3abylon in Egypl" (Am~linuu. \893, pp. 577-79), TexIS in Ara· bic describ-c ;, as Ihe "church of ou,' Lad}' M.1')'. •urnamed lhe hanging," European I"'~\"clcrs b~,'c caned il "Ihe churdt of lh~ column" 0. "lh" church of II,,: lIaire....,·· (see Coquin. 1974. pp, 65, 74-75.77_79), Church of al-Mu'all;>qah (Old Cairo). Interior. Co"'/,, SV A. Jlcld. 558 CHURCH OF AL-MU'ALlAQAH The differenl Conslruc.i(Mu; w ....'ivin, may be divided inlo t ru: that of the iOUIheasl. which io prob-bly primilive cl• .lI'Ch, 5ilua~d above Inc IoO\.IIb b.liom of Ihe fortress and DOW con""nin. a chapel and a Nplislay, and that 10 Ihe nonh of it. ...i1ich is the princip&l church, of basilica plan. The primitive church ill the lime of Buller ..... dMded inIG three chapds and a baptilUry (18M. Jl!l, %24-28). The first chapel ad)oinin, the soulb na~ ci Ihe principal chuJcl, 's dedicaled to lhe Ethiopian lainl Takla Ha}manot.. AcwrdinllO modem authon.. the ori,;nal pall of lhe church of al-M..'allaqah ...... built be'I~n Inc Ihird and lC~th cenl..ries (Coquin. p. 66), aIthouih we tu.. e DO hi$torical source anesting the andquity of this adaptation of ..... Roman bastion. Modern aUlho.. date Ihe con>lruction of lhe prin· ciJ>a.1 chun:h to lhe fifth or seventh cenlury (Coq\lin, p. 66/. while an A....b legend allributcs it to Belu (Balth;osar). son of Nebuchadne>2ar and a Coptic WOman, A finl deslruclion and immediale resto....lion of the church is anested under lhe palriarch YUs.l8 I (UO-849). A occond resloralion look place under lhe patriarch ABRAHAM (97~-978) and tn.. caliph aI· Mu'lu Ii·Din Ai1~ (952-975). Under lhe p;l1riarch UCHARIAH {1()()4-IOnl the caliph a/·!1At;I.. (9%. 10%1) kad Ille al·Mu·allaqah church surrounded by a ....all to prohibit access.. Shonly afterward the chur<:h ... sacked, and ilS ciminI ....... ordered by Ibe Sull.1I/l aJ·MAIik a1-KamiJ. Some modem ~ memion Ihe plunderinl; 01. the church. as ell as a ~Ious ehaJice buried W> Synods "",rc hcld in Ihis churth as ...... 11 115 ordina· lions; !be pwiarc.hs from CYM. II (10711-1092) lO JOHS VlU (lJOO-HW) Consecraled the chrism ,b= The Holy Family is said 10 have duo'ClI in lIti. church aI the lime 01. lts passage 10 Babylon i:n EcPt- The relia 01 Saini Manin and Saint Bubant an: found there. AntonI: the .igIi6c'2n1 ob;«ta thai bdona. or bclongd, 10 the aHlu'al1aqah church are the following: The scrcens In wood dw SCparalC the thIff oancluanes from lhe naves of the priDCipal church are inlaid ",ith ivory and compo5Cd of cross"";.., dc5igrn.. According 10 modem :l1Jlho.. Ihey date from Ihe elevenlh 10 the lhineenlh CC loa,.., CHURCH OF AL-MU'ALLAOAII was pierced. H~ also ""ys that ,h~ ahar of the central sanctuary was of "the ordinal)' type." According to the infonnatioo from the priest, the andent altars must ha"e been replaced by slabs uphdd b}' small column •. Tbc aulbor also afflnns ba''ing seen two ancient ci\>oria, whicb formcrly sunnoumed lbc ahars, but time and neglee! had damaged lhe condition of lhe prenily painted figurc., Onc of these altar ciboria in "ood, dated", thc t~n,hl eJ..'emh cemury, i< in ,he Coptic Museum in Old Cairo. Dt:scribing th~ altars and their ciboria, moden, autbors muSt refer to tho.>e that replaced the ancient ones at the end of tlte nineteentb <'cnlury. Against thc r,,,t <'olumn on the nonh s;d~ of the central na"e of the principal churcn is placed an ambo supponed by 11,'e columns. It is decorated ",jd, mosaics and cros"". in relief, Modern autho" attribute it to lhe ,enlh <'emury, Describing ,he altar and cilx,rium of lh~ chapel of Takla HaymanOl, Grevilk CheSter (1872, p_ 129) speab of an ahar covered wiln " circular slab, in e' Door from tlte Church of al-,\\u'allaqah_ C",mcsy Areh Rep"b1,c Egypt. 559 hory inlaid ,erC"" of lbc ""netuary dediealed 10 Sain1 George, Church of al-Mu'allaqah (Old Cairo). Caucu.y Aceh Rep"hhc of Egyp'. ,he middle "I wbith i. can'ed a CrOSS. Butler (1884. Vol. I, p_ 225) mentions lbe <'i\wriurn lhat had just replaced the old one. The bap'ismal foms in granile are loca1ed in a hollow in ,he sou,b wall 01 ,he primitive church and surrnounkd by a niche adol"t1ed Wilh mo",ies, Beginning fmm Ih" nar1he~, on Ihe fourtb "01umn of the row Ibat 5<'parale. Ihe eenlral naye from the somh na,'e, a n>ural deCOralion depicts a.n angel 'landing, full-face, beardless, and bearing the nimhu. and lhc diade",; bi. name is panially effaced. The soulh s.~nCloary ends in an apse, Ibe lower pan of which is decoraled Wilb desigM, inlaid wilb marble of Jifferenl colors. while lhe upper pan is decoraled w;lb designs in pla.~lCr" The niche in ,he middle of Ihe ap,e represent_. a ems", inlaid wilh marbl~" Russell, 1962, p_ 88, dat", this nicbe 10 the Iwelf1h cemllry. In lh. Chapel of Takla Ilaymanol, Ihe fia.1 ap,e in lhe eaSt wall con",ins in Iwo registers separated by a b<Jrimnlal inSCriplion in Coplic (P•. 121-1-1) lhe foll<Jwing represemations: in the middle of the opper register lhe Holy Virgin is painted in disteml"'r, Slanding on a pedeslaL holding Chris1 in her anns_ On the lwo sides remnams survi-'e of 1....·0 figures, probably angel. in adoration, In the lower regiSle,. Stand Ibe l",enly-foor ciders of the Apocalypse, seen full-face and clothed in the' sacerdolal habi!. Their heads are haIO<.> 560 CHURCH OF THE NATIVITY The library of the al·Mu'aJlaqah church appears to have posses,ed manuscript< of a lheological, liturgical. and hagiographicaJ order. These are now deposited in the Coptic Museum in Old Cairo and in the Coplic Patriarchate. CHURCH OF SAINT ANTONY (JAFFA). See Holy und, Coptic Churches in the. CHURCH OF SAINT ANTONY (JERICHO). See Holy land, Coptic Churches in the. BIBUOGRAPH'i E. La Geographie de I'Sgyple it /'ipoque copu. Paris. 1893. Buller, A. J, The Allciellt Coptic Churches of Egypt, 2 vols. Oxford. 1884. Coqu;n. C. Les Edifice, ehr'tiem du Vie",,·Caire. Vol. I, BibUographie .1 topographic historique$. BibliOlheque d'.lUdes copIes 11, Cairo, 1974. Dalton. D, M. Calalogue of Early Christiall Anriqui· ties alld Object> from Ihe Chri,tiall Ea.llS I (in Arabic). Cairo. 1930. ___. Guide somm"ire du Musee Copte el des prill' cipalts iglises du Caire. Cairo. 1937. CllARAlAMBIA CoQUIN Am~lineau. CHURCH OF SAINT GEORGE. See Je""sa·· lem. Coplic See of. CIASCA, AGOSTINO (1835-1902). halian Cop' tologisl and OrientaH.t. Cia""" was born at Polig· nano a Mare, near Bali. He became prefect of tbe Vatican Archives and was named a cardinal in 1899. He lraveled to EID-pt in 1879 and acquired manuscripts for the Borgia Museum, He edited in two volume. Sahidic biblical fragments under the tilie Sacro",m nib/jarnm fragmenta copro.,ahidira Musei Borgiani (Rome. 1885-1889; wI. 3 published by p, J. Bale.tri 1"lO4. including facsimiles and at· las). Apan from lhis major work, he publi.hed lhe papyrus fragments of the same mu.eum under the tide I papiri copti del Museo BorgiaM .. , trado/ti e commmtati (Rome. 1881). He died in Rome. SIBUOG~APHY Guidi, 1. "Ciasca, Agostino." Elldclopedia ltalialla. Vol. 10. p. 193. Rome. 1935-1939. Kammerer, W .• compo A Coptic 8inliography. Ann Arbor. Mich" 1950; repro New York, 1%9. MIZ S. ATlVA CIBORIUM. See CHURCH OF THE NATIVITY. See Holy Architectural Elemenls of Churches, Land, Coptic Churches in the. CIRCUMCISION, FEAST OF THE. CHURCH OF QAS1.IYAT AL-RIHAN. See Feasl$, Minor. Babylon. CLARKE, SOMERS (1841-1926). English archiCHURCH OF QUEEN. HILANA. See Je""sa· lem, Coptic See of. CHURCH OF SAINT ANDREW. Su Holy land. CoptiC Churches in lhe. CHURCH OF SAINT ANTONY. See Jerusa· lem. Coptic See of. lect and archae<:>logisl. He was born in Brighton and received his training in church restoration in the office of Sir Gilbert ScOlt. In 1922 he retired to Egypt. where he lived until his dealh. There he worked wilh J, E. QUIBEll. and Frederick W. Green in the excavalions at Hierakonpolis, and laler he was involved in Ihe restoralion of many tempi .... His main contribulion in the field of Coptic slUdies i' Chrislioll Itnliquities ill lite Nile Valley (Oxford, 1912). ClEMENT I, SAINT BIBLIOGRAPHY Dawson, W. P. and E. P. Uphill. Who Was Who in Egyplology. p. 65. London. 1972. Kamm~rer, W., compo A Coptic Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mich.. 1950; repro New York, 1969. ..utI S. ATIn CLAUDIUS, SAINT. Tltis anchorite saim (feast day, 19 Am.hir) is known from .arious documents, (l) lhe typica of Dayr Anba Shinudah, known as the While Monastery (Insinger. 3Bc-d, Pleyte and Boeser, 1897, p. 199; Oxford, Bodldan Hunt, 3); (1) a colophon (Nationall..ibrnry, Paris, Coptic 129/19. fol, 55v, published by Van LanlS<;hool. In9. no. 81), wlti<:h indicates that a church was dedicated 10 him conjointly with Seth, abbot of the monastery situated 10 the south of lhe White Monastery; and (3) the life of Thomas of Jinjif (National Library, Paris, Arabic 263, rol. 113). This saint is absent from the SYNAXARlON of the Copts. but his name i. mentioned in Ihe cal~ndar of th~ Whil~ MonMt~ry. W~ kno..... only thai he was a coutl1 (Oxford, Bodldan Hunt. 3) and a COnTempo' rary of Sh~nute. His mention indicate> thai ancho.... ites were venerated equally with c~nobil~' by th~ monk/; of Ih~ Whil~ Monast~ry and that COrlS<'qu~ntly Ih~ anchorit~ lif~ was recognized e"en in Pachomian c~nobitism (see M(lNASTtCrs.'I. 'ACHoWAN), BIBLIOGRAPHY lamschool, A. van. Rect'eil des coloph(ms dts man· U$cnu chr~liens d'Egyple. Bibliolh"qu~ du Museon I. l..ouvain. 1929. Pley!e, W., and P. A. A. Boe'er. Monuscria COple. du Mus~e d'Am;qu;tlis des P"ys-Bos a Leide. l.<:iden, 1897. ~EORGES COQUIN • • • CLAUDIUS LAB lB. See Iql~s lablb. CLEDAT, JEAN (Perigueux, France, 7 May 1872Bouch [Dordogne]. France. 29 July 1943), French Egyptologist and Coptologisl, He acquired a ",lid grounding in Paris (including Ihe Ecole des Beam Arts] and, in 1898 and 1899. published hi, first studies in Eg}"ptology and Coplology that deah .....ith boIh the texts and the archawlogy. Cledal arrived in Egypt in 1900 and worked I~re umil 1914, .....hcn 561 he .....as recalled to France for military .ervice. Mis· sions for the Egyptian Amiquities Service, Ihe Suez Canal Company, the Imtitut fran~ai. d'Archeologie orientale, and the Coroile de l'Art Arabe took him from Middle Egypt to Elephantine blalld (As"",n) and to the Delta, as well as to the Eastern D...,n. They led him to ahernale exca.'ation. "ilh wriling reports on pharaollic. Coplic, or Romall sites. The exposition of Ihe results Ihat Cled.at obtained on one sector of the monastery at BAwl! in 1902 and 1916 revealed its ridlll~'. and remain. an indis· pensable reference, In 1911 he was lite first curalor of the museum at lsmailia. The consequences of a serious illness contracted during World War I put an end to a career already rich in accomplisltment but still full of promise. The state of hi' heahh permitted Clt'dat to produce a few publication, un· til 1922. Some of CleMt', important works are: L~ Mon· osten ~t 10 "hropol~ de Booui/. Vol, 1 issued in Iwo pan. (Cairo, 1904-1906); and Ni:cropole de Qo"'arah (jouW.. de m"i /914) (Pari., 1916). He also published a number of journal anicle, rdating to tlte Copt•. PlERRE DU BOUltGUET. S.J. CLEMENT, CANONS OF. See Canons of Clement. CLEMENT I. SAINT, bishop of Rome al lite end of the first century and the second successor to Peter. A certain number of works are allributed to him in lite Greek literary tradition, works whose authenticity has been widely di.cussed in modern criticism. Of lhe,e, there is only one tltat call ~ cited as genuine, and Ihi. ascription can be made only wilh greal probability, nol certainty. This work is the First Epistle of Clement (ad Corin/hios). which is addressed in the name of the emire Roman com· munity and which CLEMENT Of ALEXANDRIA knew as beillg by Clement of Rome. lt deals wilh many theological and moral problems, and concludes with a long prayer. Howe~er. other worlts attributed to Clemellt are spurious, including the so-called Second Epi.tle of Cleme'" (ad Con'nlhios). In reality this work i' probably a homily, likdy contemporaneous with the ShephmJ of Henna., and it can thllS be dated to tlte first half of the second century_ There are two olher leuers of doubtful origin ascri~d to Clement, the Epistles on Virgin;'y, Tit..., are known in their entirely from a Syriac translation and Greek ex- 562 CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA cnpl$ compiled by Antioch... of Saint Saba (c. 6M). ~ EpiJl.. I.~. thooogh sepaDlnI. xluali)' fonn ~ "'orl< that may ~ datod 10 the lirst IuIf of the third cmuU'y. '""'" tnt ~ monaslie proble"", in cenenl and the communily life of both monb and num in particular. A fourdH:enlu, ry wriling. ake> atTribuled 10 Clemct1t 01 Rome. Is th~ Tcdaclion 01 two collcclions: the Homilks and the Rccognililms, which may be classified amonl th<: apoe,)'!'",1 IoCIS of the apostll'$. From the above·mentioned woTks. two ha\'e reached us in Coptic: an Akhmimic translation of the FirSI Epi.1Ie 01 CI~me~1 and fragmenn fTom a Sahidic translation of th<: Epi.lle Of! Virgi~il,. The Firs! E/'iSlle ""s COme 10 uS in a complele manu· script. probably from tile White Monastery (Day< Anbill Shinudalt) (Sl&ItsbibliOlhek. Berlin. Or. rol. 30(5). and in anothc1-. fracmentary manuKripl (cd. Il.ilooch. 1910). Carl Schmidt'" prepared:an nlilion of dOl translation alan, ..ith a broad study that T"CYCals its C....... imponance and antiquity. In any reconsuucrion of the Greek lexts for- this _rk-in erect. mere an: only I""" manuscripts (of ,,'hieh one is on of Funk's ',;mc$ Apo.wlici.) For the Epjjtl~ 0/1 Vir,i"iry we have only frag. menl-' of" Sahidic lran,lalion from Ihe White Mon· astery (ed. Ufort. 1952), This particular manuscript PO"'" a serious problem any crilical e""luatlon becau,e the atlriootion concerning ito lOulhO<" Is in d.QU/)(. In all ~obability (unfortunalely we cannot ~ ceoain aboul Ihis). lhe te,,1 .."3S auributed not to Clement bul 10 Athanaslus of A1e> sinv.: f", t..." ..-orb. Therefore, lhe Coplic poinl of .icw poooes th~ pos:ill>lc solulions: (I) there mighl ha"", exi$lnl a t,,"nSlalton oi ,he lirsl psorudo-Clemeotine Ef"$/k 10 ViTfi.. s• .. hieh was a"ribuled 10 him direclly; (2) Ihi. I,,"nslaticn ..... Included in a c"llttlion of ascetie lext. atl'iOOted to Athanasi.... and COnsequenlly was also allriOOled to Athanasiu. rather than Clemenl; (3) lhe manuscripl had been collect· cd with other asccllc lext. and compiled inlO one lingle work. ""'hich II One unit was allribulcd. 10 Alhanasiu5. II can readily be ~n J>o".' allY one oi Ihcs~ di· ........, so}utions milht in lum influence tbe t.oltimate solution 10 I!w; problem of the <>ricin oIlh~ P5oNd<>Clemenline Epiul~ on ViTml)' (Syria(:. 0<" perlIa.ps EcYP'ian). and further. haw such a solution "'OI.dd then affect problcms concernin, the oriCin of othtr aocttie writin.. by Athanasius. We may nner find a salisfaclOry solution In 1'- 81IU()(;RAPHY Funk. F, X. P"It" ApV$lr>/id. 2 vol•.. 2nd ed. F. Diekamp. Tlibins"n, 1901-1913. Ufort. L. T, Lu PiTts 4poSlOliq"e. e~ COple, CSCO 37-3g. Pari•• 1907. RO:s.ch. F, B",,}wilcke d~. e.. le~ C1em,,,.l>rief~" St~u... 1910, Schmidl. C. Ou "sl~ CremMshrie/ in .llkoPlisclrCT (June/VtI!J:. Tute unci Umersuc:hunllCn 32.1. Leipri,. 1908. TnOOalAsD! CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (Titus Flavius CIem.cftS). born _ ....hens about .u>- ISO and hcad oi the CATS:Nn1CAI. 5CHOOI. in Ale> ....ndcrinc in many bnds he 5e1Ilcd al Aleundria lOS a di5ciple of ~4IlTAl!l<us. AI Ihe CATU:HEIlCAL SCIfOOl. lie openl hi. lime lccluring.. studying. and writinC in defe,..., oi Ihe ChristiAn failh. In 202 persecution fon;ed him 10 Ace to Palellinc, and ,n 211 he was .till there. asslsllng in the won. 01 the ehun;h of Jerusalem. He may ha.'e been ordained presbrter some lime before hi' dealh about 21S, Clement was the lirsl great Chrillian ...riter to c!aim lhat. an lumlng. whalC"\'er ito source. wa. 5&cred_ Faith and knowledge ....'Cre nol opposed but complementary. and Chnuians who ~ afraid of philosophy ..'C.... "'like chi1d.-en ... ho a afraid of &J-ts." I"hilotophy is lhe handmaiden or God. " scbool-'er 10 bring the er=ks 10 a.1ist. The Logoo< or wont of God .. the dhinc .... Iichtencr 01 oomanity. for "'the.., is bul one ri~er of TllIlh. but many stnams fall inoo it on this side .... 'h.I." Chm· lianity is the creation. lra.ining. and brinclnc back of On. the champion of Cod's unily. and a prepara· tion for the Gospel: (3) the battle 10 reStale lhe Clln,tian posillon In Ihe language of philo,;ophy. lie tended, howe.'er. lO o.'erem?ha.ize knowledkc and claimed Ihe lille "e~ic" for ChriS/lans. He sh.arpIy distinguished bet""""'n those who ..-ere "beSin· CLERICAL COLLEGE Gnostics who h;od superlor .nowled~ 01 Io~e. n,;s IWO-<:Iass thco'Y Is not found io the Inching cl Jesus. CI.....enl ~ ,"as! biblical and .;lassical le~minc. His thou main ...-orb were !he Protrepri· .; to Con..,l"5ion", !he Pded"lOf"S (1he TutQr'1, antllbe Strom"ui< C"Mlso::ellania"). He ;. a diSkuh MUMr 10 read because hi& SIYle ;. dilfuse and his lhwght oftnt uncfu<:iplined, Vd he is VC'Y importanl, for few OIl'1slian thinkers.. apan from his gmt 5tI~ UUGF..'1. two.., done more to make Christianity an inlelligntt failb lhat is mnnt to be undentood by [he mind as ... ell as the hean. He >et lhe lone of ,he Aleundrian school of Chris,ian thought, which it reuionl throughoul its bter hi"ol'}'. This tone n.,....,r lOR 5ighl of che ml"',ical side of etlri.tbnity and the hidden work of tile L0g'" in Ihe whole uni,'trw os well as in Ihe Incama· tion, Clernenr·. a",,"'ent for a h~nnony be1...'un Ihe !>tSt of the wQ and the "1"""" BlB!.tOGRAl'HY Big. C. Tire Christ"".. York, 191). "I.."...islS of Mo."n"ri•• New Chadwick, H. Euly Cluistun 11rJ>6cisJn. Oxford. 1971. Oobom, E. F. 110e PhiJosotHry 01 CI~m~n/ <>, Alo..". drnl. Cambrid~. 1957. 0' LEsuE W. 6.\IImRD CLEM.ENT OF ROME. SU Clem~n1 I. Saint. CLERESTORY. Su Basilica. CLERICAL COLLEGE (Cairo}. The idea of lhe establishment of a schwl for teachinll Cop'i.; Iheol· 0llY '0 prepilre a new generation of educated priests to assume religious responsibililies in Coptie 563 churches goes back '0 the middle of the nineteenth centu~. Until tha, ,ime th, prieslhood in Copti<: .;hurcbcs held a monopoly as it ""3S a hereditary funnioa. A pries! in a church ."Iorrtaliallly handed his rcligKlus rnponsilrililiQ to one of hi, oftspri"ll. ille",",,"li... of how educ:a<ed his SUCcessor .......,. be)"lnd !he rftIeouion of the Coptic: lllUrtY. The tim COMM.... rrr ct:ltINOl. establ.W>ed by khcdivial decree ;n Fdlruary 11174 10 _\lend 10 the ..dbrc of the CopI$ and the ...... eiJIan« of their rei;' gious pr'O»C'>ties, concek~ . . - , i~ innw deci5ions ,he establil./tmenl of _ derical schooJ for the training of cduca,ed deric:l. Thus in October 11174, the council nominatN I'flllhnd.WU$ l_lIoI as lhe first headmas'er of the new relitiom school to be appended to the patriarchale. Thi, decision wu endolWd by CYRIL V (1874-1927). The new school was opened 13 JanWlry 11I7S in a ceremony attended by the patriarch. tnc whole membership of the CO""UNr'J'Y COONCll, and a con· siderable number of Coptic dlgnlrarles and leaders Its eoul real undenw>di"ll of the spirm..al core of !he hith, The main purpose cllbe school was an allempl lO ,.ad. ....e priesls and bishops ...-ho were capable of con· .-e,;q 10 the congreplion a rn.I understanding of lheir relipow; herita&e- Afrer Ie'fmol )'C'll'l' che school ..... suspended for bek of funds and I.paIK enrollment, lI1o<>uJb ,he idea WIll ...,...,.. defunct. In NCW<"mber 1393, thanks 10 the _taincd c/foru cl ':lanna Bakhum (Bey), a member of !he communi,)' council and supe.-.isoT of Copck schools. this ,heological scnrln~ry ....'IIS reopened and a Iimiled numbeB of caod.ida'Q ""'"' acccplcd. He dnised a viable school curriculum consisting of a balanee4 seI of sub;ttlS from Ihe humanlllC!! ..nd religious mailers, to be di9:rihuted o~er tlY'l: ye..",. Anhic and Copli<: l~ngu"llC5 eoupl,d wilh history, geography, and mathematicl were mllde compulsory, But greater concentration on celllllous material. was the backbone oi Ihe curriculum, The subjects taught were theology, church Ihul'lY. Coptic ecele· iiastical jurisprudence. and ch\lrch history and rheloric. 564 CLERICAL INSTRUCTION wi'" Tho: scbool bepn an ",nrollmeol 011","",1)'" lour candidalrs dirio;l.,d inlo lwo c~. 011"' lor I"" )'CiU"I""" scholars whoK S1~ "",I~ owr Ii.... ~ and ibl: othu class compri';.. okkr pritstJ ..... mow who could only stly for OIN: )'"'aT of im~ wort< 10 ",nrich lhoeir eoo>prt,,",nsion of mmdard Coptic rtligious lradilions. bef.:n ...,.. ...ming 10 tho:i. dio«su and m<>nasI",nes. In Seplocmboer 1918. I;bblb Jirjis was appoinlocd headmastu of the lIChool~ "" ,ucceNed Y\l.suf Man· qanii, (Bey). who inlroduc",d a numboer of ~forms and altenlions in II. program in Ihe Iighl of hi. e....mination of the Gruk. Roman. Catholic, and Prol.,.UnI cumeula of various modem S"minaries in Europ" and Amma. In tho: 19IDt, during I~ lenull' of lite new he.admasler. the school became divided into lWO Clliegories of ,ludfillS: ..... Inlenn~ diale section dnown from lhoc primary craduales. and tho: upper dmsion in poo&e55ion 01 Ihe full ....""'I.ureate, .......,. studies werr Iimiled 10 four ynn. In 1973. ,\nba Shenouda. the- bishop in c~ 01 relicioos education (lain' Pop<: Shc:1lOUdo. 110. tnen were admitted to Ihe school. It appeared thai lhe school had ddinilely come 01 age. and it assumed Ihe deK,,;ed tille ol Clerical College. In ilS new fonn. ilS studies were clasdlied inlO ....... Calqori"", an inlennedlal", divWon fo, 6voe yean. uppe' division ro.. four years. and evening classes for university padua.es to \a$I thr«- I"" ,..,. of A funhe.r ~ .... ad,d.,d tD tho: Coli. by 1M ",nroll_no 01 orthodoJ;. Syrian and Eihiopian monks. lis ~ion ..... S1renBlhened by a .-.riarchal alia to limil Ih~ priesd.,,,,d ID anoduales of tho: Cl",rical Collqle. One of "'e greal"" lIChle.'emenu of lho: CoII~ was lhe publicalion of the complete and authorized 8ohairic.(:optic lexl of the Bibl"" in addilion to othe, publicat>oni, ir><:ludlng lite limrg;e,. In Ihi~ reSP"C! we mU$l refer 10 Ihe role of toUDyQS UBIB Bnd Ihal of PoP"' nRtL tV (1854-1861), who had previously impoMed the sec· ond primin, press Into Egypt. An ofuhooc of lhe Clerical Colleg", in 190) was the establishmocnl ollhe School for Monks in A~,,· andria Ullder the sponson.hip 01. AnbI Yu·annis. rndropolil&n 01. Bdlorira. br:e, Pope JOliN JUll (1928- 19-42). This e<pansJo:n "prod 10 oc.hn' provif!cialIO'olo'nll, tuCh all Taota, Minyl, Shibl:n a1.K&a. atJdal-Balyani. Anotho:, intffeslinl by-produc. ol the Clmeal Collt:gC' was lhe a..entiDn accorded to Ihe prec",n' Ion woo "''ere ~nly blind canlors ukina an lOS' ""mial pan in lhe ulebration of the Coptic m~. Th...., were known as 'jrfa" (pl. of '..rTf) for "'hom a special S"Clion was tilabli,hed in Ihe AnhA Ruways building, II was named Ihe Didymu5 [nOlilute for the Blind. to comm",rnomte one of Ihe areale't blind Iheoloslan. who w. S"lected by Pope ATHAN... SillS t 10 prelide over 1he Calcchetical School ol A1emndria, Saint D10YMtIS THE IlUND (c. )U-)9Sj. Wilh ,"" foundation 01 !he HIGHEa tM$lTT1lT!. OF CIWTIC STlJI)IES, clO5Cr relauons with "'e Clerical Collece were nuMured. and many advanced graduatrs of...., eollqe ronl;nued their bichu theoiotical tNdies in !hal instilUioe. M,urr Bourllos Glw.l CLERICAL INSTRUCTION. Educalion olthe c1errJ ol the Copdc chun:h al a chureh college is .. mod...,., an'a1'lt"'l11ent. In anl;qlilly. eft., bishop had to provide for I))., education and il1!ullalion of tho: cle'llY of hi, dinees", (see OJ.OIH.l.TtON. CUJ.1CAL). The demands mad", of prie,ts and deacons are known from the church canon, (S"e CANONS. ECCutS1A$flCAL). and from lUIS rdating 10 Ihe ordination of c1e-fi,Y from the cornspondence of Bilhop ABIlA_ HA'Il 01 H",m>Onlhls about 600. These le~u presu]>" J>OI'"' de/inile allainmenlS lhal "'e candidate ,,-as to pursue. or in accordance ...itb which he "''IIS 10 act. H", th",rek>re hood to be ill$UU<:led aboul I""m 0' 10 acquire opecific knowledge on his own. Amona lbe 1aI1"" """"'"' kno>o.'ledp: 01 tho: (anons of the cbun:h and "pfiia 01 deacon" or ...........~ee. of dw o/fic", of _,Iy priest." The c.andidale _ can:fully inslnH:1ed in lhe aclions 01. his office thai sbnuId be carried OUt in lhc chun;h and al lhe al....r. Tho:,.., muOl also h;,''e been inslruClion about Ihe pnyers 10 hoc spoken by him. Sir><:e only a few clergy could read. Ihe candidates had 10 learn lheir prokssiomol knowledge by heart. To Ihi, mU$1 hoc added memorizalion of cenaln bib· lical lalll. the Gospdl of Mauhew, Mark. and John being named. l1ril task had a lime limil, often of lwo monl"'. An e~amination on ...., memorlzed rna· Ierial lOOk place in the p~nce of lhe bi§hop. I' is CODEX striking thai the evidence given by sources indicates that this trial did not a1WQ)'S come ~fore the ordi· na'ion, but could occur afterward. If the lext could nol be recite Bilabel. F., and A. Grohmann. Zwei Urkunden aus dem bischOpkhen Arch", von Panopoli. in Agypl. en. Heidelberg. 1935. Coquin, R..c, "A propos de. rouleaux coptes arab<: de l'ev!que Timothee:' mblfutheca Orienta/is 34 (l977):142-47. Kraus<:, M. "Apa Abraham von Hermonthi•. Ein oberagyptischer Bischof urn 600," 2 vol•. Ph.D. diss_. Berlin, 1956. Maspero, J, "Un dipl6me arabe-<:h"';tien d" XlII' •iede," Annales du Service de. anliquilis 11 (1911):177-85. Plumley, J. M. The SeroUs of Bi..hop Timolheo•. Two Documents from Medieval Nubia. London, 1975. Steinwenter, A. "Die Ordinationsbitten koptischer KJeriker." Aegyplt<s 11 (1930~1931):29-34, MARTI~ KRAUSE CLOISTER. Su An:hitectural Elements of 565 built by order of Justinian at the same time as th. monast.ries of Raithou and Mount Sinai (19061909, Vol. 2, pp. 202-203). About 570, Antoninus Placentinu. saw in the basilica of Clysma eighteen or more tomb. of hennit holy fathers (1898, p. 188). To the isle of Clysma is attache Bru)'ere, B. ['ouill.. de Clysm Churches: Atrium. CLYSMA, ancient town a few miles north of modern·day Suez and known for ilS ruins. They were excavated by B. Bruyere (1966). The site (which some texIS call the isle of Clysma) appeal" 10 have been inhabited by anchorites very early. It is not known exactly where these anchorites lived, The Mountain of Antony was often clned the Mountain of Clysma, for contempo"'ry texts always indicated the name of the nearest town. The following pro-vide references to Clysma and may indicate a site more or less distant; JOHN COtOBO:S, fleeing from the Ma2iqul'$ who had invaded Scelis in 407, went to Clysma and died there'in 409 (Evelyn·White, 1932, p, 158); Sisoes, toward the end of-his life, settled at CI}'sma, but not before 429 (ChiUy, 19M, p. 79, n. 83); the Coptic version of an apothegm relating to Sisal'S speals of the "isle" of Clysma (Chaine, 1960, no, 115). Eutychius (Sa'id ibn Batrlq) mention. that a Church of Athanasius (martyr) is said to have been COATS, Su Costume, Civil. CODEX, word originally meaning "block" and used for an assemblage of several wax tablets held together at one side by cords, The resulting arrangement was the model for the fonn of book in use today. The largest assemblage of lhi. kind so far known contained ten tablets, of which nine are still ,""tam (Berlin Papyru. COllection, Inv, no. 14(00). When two tabkts were replace 566 CODEX ALEXANDRINUS Code'( showing the beginning of the Epistle of Paul 10 the Romans. Copto-Arabic manuscript, A_D. 1250. COllrlesy Coplic Museum, Cairo. material of the codex consisted of parchment. papy· rus, or paper. C. H. Roberts and T. C. Skeat have made a fundamental contribution to our knowledge of the cady history of the codex. Although the Egyptian finds begin only wilh the second ccntUlY I\D" Christians cel"lainly adopted Ihe code.'( form even before A.D 100, In pagan lilerature, on ,he contralY, in the second cenlUI)' Ihe codex had only a modc~l:. place compared with Ihe traditional roll. Codices were used nOI only for litcrall' works but also for memoranda and documentaT)' lexlS. The parchment notebook, however, seems rather to go baek to Roman origins. Palimp' sests arc also to be found among the codices. At present it is not possible to answer the question of whether papyrus or parchment codices were de· \c1oped first. or whether we should assume simulta· neous usc of both materials for Ihe manufacture of codices. From the disco\eries. we can de-tennine that there was parily bet",een the roll and the c0dex about 300, but thereafter the codex pTC\'ailed This is explained in Ihe main b) the extensive tran· Codex sho\\ing the beginning of the Epistle of James. Copto·Arabic manuscripl, A.D. 1250. Courtesy Coptic All/sewn, Cairo, scription of literary works from rolls into codices at the beginning of the fourth cenlury_ BlDLiOGRAPHY Hunger, H. "Antikes und miuelalterlichcs Buchund Schriftwesen." Geschichu der 7'exliiberliefenmg der all/ike', mid millelalierliche" Lilerullir 1 (1961):43-71. Robel1S, C H" and T. C. Skeat, The Bir/h of /lre Codex. London, 1983: repro 1985. Turner, E. G. Greek Papyri; All Ill/rodm:/iOll. Oxford. 1968; 2d ed., 1980. !laBan trnnslation by M. Manfredi. Papin" greei. Rome. 1984. Cli:>.TER POETIfKE CODEX ALEXANDRINUS, of EK\l'lian ori· gin. one of the oldest known Greek lexts of the Bible on vellum, the others being the CODEX \ATICA· MIS. the COOEX SI~AlTlctJS. and the CODEX EPHRAE.\I1 CODEX ALEXANDRINUS ·ct-: ..... :..'~ ..,-'411" •.\ .\:.••• ~ ... .e4~1 n. 'tt-.on-· ..' '-1~ ........-c"·'1 . . . \U~ '\'l..,,·JUlh ........ t,·. u ,ttl"'''' ~-:""... "t"'",,OIC." ~c~r ..., .....'t."t'"t1.' ... ~,.lt'"" ...+ •r..uan.'.')o.lnu" ·,,- to ·•.."..•·..·ouu-.· ..,........,.,.u.. () . . . . UU-lOJ; ..u.·.·...u.,... t "''''"J;OI''"".UII (',.. nr,~:;',,,,"c''Io ••·~t! 'JU·'·' hl-t-_UC •.»"tI ................. Ul .. .ui"UIU~-' I ....., ~ ~tOO)OUU" II'ff)U • .l'''"~' .c"-,u.-Ju.....\ o.-ro.............." llnu.'n-:-Al"'t,. ..."""'..,,. ,"n."c~ '\-l'j'Jl u.....~-'u t.u.....,.... ....rn•.a.x""c; •• t"· :',,\ ~ • ..\I.. ""'.:t (,'. ·.,'.n ....... Co'· •.111'1)" .... I •• t'I....~o.- .. ~u..... u·t '1' \;,,·n·t·ol \.IoU.Wo." ( ~t'C"''''''O'''''"'''''--S'.tn ......,· ·'}Ul .. ~·. ....r7l.H) «;A:J! )€'\I •· ,. r'.u... (':."('"·· ,U.I (u 1;:.Io"...... U'I"'l"'-I~l"I"<1>uaJ ;.. 10'.......... t. . ~., " ..... I·.to\ • )"::"""1"0.. . . . . 1~ u~·.·. \':.u·.:· '\!' ...-.-':..c , I"'U' .•' CL I" s.\ u··.·" , ...In.-.. r - ....... , JI:" , ... , OA \., ..... >..,l",,,,C;· •.\I·)o:n <'>;'1-1' ..... " «.~u ;'\c~. 1-1"\" HIU.' "'un" .. nt. . . ·01'.-: ...·.'"_" ...........'.0 •• 't· u \"" 0 l"()O..... ,,.,.,,1'1 Ifl!l. ". ,'I.... l\.nlt~ u ......."" <•• ~ ~ '1-' ,.,,,:...'.. -..:;. ,,~.c:,., ""'.. ··r·c'.' .... /H.t-'.;·, q").o.- 'H-''''~'''''" ...u ,. "I.~c ~.. l fr.I'" ........ ·.l- ......... a ... ( ~ \'"....IIiUt f\..~ . I u f f _ H;n,'U "O'.Q"~""IO''''f •• c$O ,. ....., "rr ·, l'Of'-UII : ._ .t·t·.~ '0.. 0(4,.\, 'C)l~ \. n'~ fI.\.t:H •1' " .. ~ \., n.:,-,,,,,,,~... I... t"".,,--o":U," "LJ.lf 1 ( :.' ""I· ·'''''''..·:· ·~·.::'C..C.l ...fl_'-"' 1' ••, . ·1··· ....\~!.-t(·I·~u ..\ un...., v.~".,· \\ ,.,~.- ..,. .,......,. 0.. l:'.•.u ...:\,. Codex showing the life of Peter the Iberian. Courtesy The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Like them, it is written in simple but beautiful uncials; unlike them, it is slightly ornamented, with rubrications at the beginning of every book and its paragraphs indicated by larger capitals in the margin. But since its lines are continuous, without spaces between the words, often the initial capital of a new verse is placed at the beginning of the following line though the previous verse ends in the middle of the line_ The text has few breathings and no accents. Quotations from the Old Testament are marked in the New, and sacred names are abbreviated. Colophons appear at the end of each book. Apparently the manuscript is the work of three scribes or, possibly, one scribe and two correctors. It has numerous corrections of tbe same style and approximately the same date. Written a little laler than both the Vaticanus and the Sinaiticus, this codex has been reasonably dated to the early part of the fifth century. While it is evident that this text coincides to a great extent with the recension of Saint Lucian of Antioch, it is also clear that it shares features with the Hesychian recension and Origen's Hexapla. In addition to the New Testament, the codex contains two epistles of Saint Clement of Rome. An "Epistle to Marcellinus," ascribed to ATHANAStUS I, appears as a preface to Psalms along with EuseSYRI. 567 bius's summary of the Psalter. Sections of Psalms and Genesis, together with the opening folios of Matthew, are lacking and must have been lost. The Old Testament includes, besides the Maccabees of the Apocrypha, two additional Maccabee books. The manuscript contains 773 leaves, though it is estimated that it must originally have consisted of 882. The Old Testament appears on 630 leaves and the New Testament on 143; the size of each leaf is about 12.5 inches by 9 inches (31.5 em by 23 em). Each page has two columns of forty-nine to fifty-one Jines. The codex is composed of quires of eight leaves, and its pagination appears in three sets of numbers: one in Greek at the head of each folio, another in fourteenth-century Arabic at the outer lower corner of the verso side of the folios, and a third in relatively modern ink by Patrick Young, Charles I's librarian . The early history of Codex Alexandrinus is obscure. Originating in Egypt, it is said to have re· turned to Alexandria via Mount Athos. Afterward, its journey to the Royal Library in the British Museum started from the Melchite patriarchate in Alexandria when Patriarch Cyril Lucar took it with him to Constantinople after his preferment to the ecumenical Greek patriarchate in 1621. He presented it to King James I through the British ambassador to Turkey, Sir Thomas Roe, on 30 January 1625. Sir Thomas brought it to England in 1627 and placed it in the hands of Charles 1, who had succeeded James I. The king then deposited it in the Royal Library, which passed it to the British Museum in 1757. The codex is bound in four volumes bearing the arms of Charles I. The first three contain the Old Testament and the fourth, the ew Testament and Saint Clement's epistles. On the first page of Genesis, there is an inscription by a certain "Athanasius the Humble," possibly the Melchite patriarch of Alexandria at the beginning of the fourteenth century, who dedicated it to the patriarchal cell of the city of Alexandria, with a curse on anyone who might succumb to the temptation of removing it from there. His curse did not alter the course of later events. BIBLIOGRAPHY Burkitt, F. C. "Codex Alexandrinus." Journal of Theological Studies 11 (1910):603-606. Jellicoe, S. The Septuagint and Modern Study. Oxford, 1968. Kenyon, F. G. Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts, 5th ed., rev. A. W_ Adams, intra. G. R. 568 CODEX EPHRAEMI SYRI Driw1". New York. 1958. Kef1)'OD. f. Go, and H. J. M. MHne. 111~ Codu Ale..· "mJrinU$ iro Rd>u~d 1'IKH voh. London. 1909-19S7. Meuaer. B. M. &trly V~rsioros of 11o~ N,w Tt51..m~nl. o.ford, 1977. Milne, H. J. M., and T. C. Skeat TIt~ Codu S;roail~ cu• .. rod 110, Cod." AI"-"""dri",,s. London, 1938. Scri,en~r, F. H. A. A Pia;" /rllroducrkm 10 Ihe Crill. d .... 0/ 110. N~w n'lam'''1 lor lit. Use of Bihlica/ Stude"I., 2 vols.. 41h td.. E. Miller. London and New York. 1894. S.. ete. H. B. l"uod"cliDn «> rlt~ Old Tn,,"n"n' in G,~d. Cambridce. 1900. A;uZ. S. ATIT'" CODEX EPHRAEMl SYRJ.1his is one of 11M: family of anC~nl codices in Cr«k ust:d a!I a ~ for .. hat is known as th~ EsYJ>t~n tnt of the Bible -the Ol:hers are the Vatkan\.lll, the Sinairicus. and the Alnandrinus, in addition, of ~oune. to the earlier papyri. Paleographically It is ,ery ~imila' 10 rhe othen, except thai it i. written In one column .nd has neither accen15 nor hrrathinp, It.o words are continuous. withOUI spacing. It is probably a lillie Ia,er lhan the other eodic., and may be dMed lO die 1ifU, cenlury. It is probably the ..-l< of lWO hands. bul it had two c<:>onaon ill the sUth and ninth cenlulie$ ""he> acIdtloa~n of 'he founh c",t"ry. The ori~ tell ranained visible, however, though nor. ~YS I..ibl~. The Iir.st schol. ar lO decipher the New T....mv>1 ponlon, in 134111-42, ..... CoflSlantine TlSCbendorf. the disco¥enr of the Cock.. Sinaiticus. Only reandy has TlKhen· dorf's ""'OIil been brnughl un..... soerious scrutiny. The Code:>: Ephraeml Syri consists of only lO9 lea.es-.ppt'OlIi.....tely 12.5 inches by 9 inches (31.S cm by 23 cm)-from a mOfe UItn5.... orlcl· nal. Of these, 145 contain section. of the New Tt$tarnent, lackins 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The Siory of the manuscript goes hack to the Medici family; It Is known to hl..e been in the possession of Cardinal Ridolfi of FJo.....ce. Laler il was J'>a5Std to Catherine de' Medic:i. queen ~ Henry II of fntnee. Sbf tool< it to Pari •• ""here iI ....... deposiled In lite ~ional liblV)'. BIBUOGlUPHY Jellicoe. S. TIo~ SeplUQlirlt Qnd M<>dern Study. 0.ford. 1968. Kenyon. F. G, Our Bible Qlld Ihe A"de"t MQ"u, .crip/l. 5,h ed., rev. A. W. Adams, intro. G. R. Dri .... r. London, 1959. L)'Otl. R. W. "A Re-uan-olnation of Codex Ephnemi ReKriplus." New T~arMnt Slud;~ 5 (19581959):260-72. Me1>:I"r. B. M, &!.,I, v~r:s;"". of tilt New Tl!SlOUlKnl. Odord.. 1977. Scrivener. f. H. A. A "ftJin /nlrodtu:Mm 10 1M. Criti. cism of IItf Hew T~$1 CODEX JUNC, codex containinlthe greater pan of Code>. I of lhe NAG HAMMADt UBtt.....Y. Pun:hased from an antiquilies dealer in Belelum by the Junl IllSlitule of lurich on 10 ~ 1952. it contains pages 1-31. 31-41, SI-58. 91-136, and some fra&. lnenUl of the coda.. The res! ollbe maDu:s<:ript wa.s tl>e Na& Hammadl InUl acquired by the Coptio: Muo.eum In Cai.... The edifio princeps "'"35 published bel...-een 1956 and 1975, 11M: k>lios from Cai......~,.., also used for Ihis edillon. Codex I is ~omposed of Ihree qui""" conlain;ns p;tges 1-S4, 85 - 11 S, and 119 -138, respeclively. The pages are .boul 12 inches (30 cm) long and 5,S inches (14 cm) ... ide. The a,erace number of lines per pale is Ihiny_ven or thiny·eilht, wilh a rna>:1· mum of funy-two. The lwo paJfI of the fronl ftyleaf ...·....e inscn'bed when the main traclal., ..,re 6n· iohed (pio&es AlB). Neany the entire code>; wril' ten by oM .nd the same hand. e.tCepIl the tsQUse on pages 4l.2S-SO,18, which _ copied by !he SCriM of Code>. Xl, lnCWes 3 and 4. After !he completion of the editio princeps. the Codex June ....... returned 10 Cairo, and in the period 1975-1976 it ...... uniloo wilh Ihe .-est of Codex I. Alana with the oelM:r Nal Hammatli IUl5. the manus<:ript of Codex I can be daled to about lhe middle of the lOUllh century. It is written in Iht Suhakhmimk Coptic d~lect. The followingls a brief survey of Ihe contents. .->'" CODEX JUSTINIANUS The PRAYEIl OF THE ~I'OSTI.E PAUL fOT1llally resem· bles the biblical psalms. but is acTually the expres· sion of the longing of a (Valentinian) Gnostic to be united with the Preexistent One, the Pternma, from which he originated The AP<XIlHHON OF lAMES (Nag Harnmadi Codex !.1-16.30) is a modern tille ckrived from the fact !hat the apostle James is addressing hi. r"aders and designates hi. writing as an "apocryphan" (1.10). Jame' and Peter re<;";ve a special revelation from Christ after His res"r~li,m, In a Gnostic way Christ lells His -.lisciples thm they are in empliness and diminution, in sJeep and drunkenness, which means that they au ignoranl; but he promises lhal they will Ixcome "full" in the allainmenl of true knowledge. AI the end Peter and James ."peneoe" an ceMalic elevation 10 hea.'en. James is the leader of lhe disciples, whom he sends 10 differem places (lb,7-8), The GOSPEL Of TRuTH (Nag Hammadi Cadu I, 16,31-43,24) is named for the opening lines, which can be laken for an extended litle, "Error" has Iaken possession of men and, spreading as a fog, has fostered ignornna "f lhe Falher. 1.,,"us camc and underwent the Passion in order to reveal lhe Falher as true guide. The r('<:eption of g~osis also mean, thaI man redi",ove,-,; his real self (30,13). II is a mailer of discu....ion whether this tractate is idemical with tbe wriling of lhe same name men' tioned by (renaeus (Advtr.'a. OmncS huuese.<, (II. I 1.9), 0< wilh the "occull Cospel"' alluded 10 by Tenullian in De praeSCF;pt;on. hOer.,;Comm. The TREATISf ON THE RESURRECTION (43,2S-S0,18) is the title occurring at the end of the codex. The form is a leuer from a teacher of wisdom 10 h~~ "son" Rheginos. He who has come to knQwledge has already received the spiritual resurrection (45.40; 49,15-16). This p<Jim of view was already condemned as heretical in 2 Timothy 2:18. The TRIPARTITE TRACTATE (SI,I~38,27) is a mod· ern designation for a tractale ,jlihout tille that is , divided into lhree pam by a scrie~ of dipl~ partilion marks after line, 104,3 and 108,1,2. 1.5Ll-I04,3: The subject is'lhe transcendent world of lhe Pleroma, The Father is described by negati,'e predication as incomprehensible, immelL'urable, and so on. The Trinity COnSiSIS of Father, Son, and Church, as it is found with the Western Valeminian Heracleon, The fall of the awn Sophia is a characterislic Valentinian theme. In this particular lraClate, however, she is male and called Lo· gos. The aWnS do nol yet p<J~ Ihe full knowl· 569 edge of the Father, out will reeeive it through the intermediation of the Son and the Spirit. In Ihis respect, the aeons are the prototypes of tbe pneumatics. The fallen Logos prepares the creation of lhe psychowmalic world through his progeniture of the Demiurge, 11.104,4-108,12: This pall is concerned Wilh lhe creation of man, Unknown to the Dcmiurge, the Logos inllales lhe spiritual elemcnl in man, which enables him to receive knowledge. The third pall of the tractate (111,108,13-138,27) deals with the three races of men and their des-tin}', spi";tual men (the pneumatics), psychics, and material men (lhe hyl;c,), a tripartition connecled with contemp<>rary philosophic anthrOp<:>logy, which dis· tinguish"s a noetic, a psychic, and a material ele· ment in man, The psychics are called "those belonging to the righl" (for instance, the Hebrew prophels), and Ihe hylics are designaled as "IM,e belonging 10 the left" (for inslance, the Greek phi. lmophers)_ These two lower classe, Qriginate from the passions of the fanen aoon, the Logos (Sophia). All the pneumatics will necessarily be sa,'ed thr,mgh the re,'e1alion of Christ. Thc psychic. digos. If they make lhe right choice and perfonn good works, they will altain a destiny not far from the Pleroma of the Father, The hylics necessarily go to perdilion. The tractate conclud", with a liturgical doxology on lhe Father. The Tripanite Tractate can to a great extem be compared with the description of Valentinian gnoslicism oy lrenaeus (Advasus omn..$ no"",,-, 1.1-8). It is a characleristic document of gnostic interpretation of biblical data. BIBLIOGRAPHY AUridge, H. W., ed. Nag Hammadi Codex I (Tne luttg Codex): [ntrod"ctions, hxts, Translations. In· dic.s, 2 ,·ols. Nag Hammadi SlUdies 22-23. lei· den, 1985. Cross, F. L., ed. The lung Codex: II Newly Recovered G~ostjc Popyrus, Thru Studies by H. C. Puech, G. Qaispel and W. C. van U~n;k. London, 1955. JAN ZANn.... CODEX JUSTINIANUS, Shortly after JUSTJNI~N became empc...,r in 527, he began a major overhaul of the ~mpire's legal code. The first step in this process was the publication of the Codex Justinian' 570 CODEX SINAITICUS us. a rerision lUId npansion of TloeodosDn'~ I~ code. This ""u"'" was published on 7 April 529 by a comm&ion und~r ~ direclion of lu.. inia..'! legal e.~n, Tnoonian, A ~c(>nd, revi~d eJitkm of Ih~ Cod~ was publi.hed On 16 N(>"~mber 534, To· gether with the [nstitut~s (produced In 533), b;>$Cd on the lepl tex! compileliIh.-d a ,ingle code of law illCOfJ'O"'lil\& all of consll'u'ions back to the lime of the empm...- Hadrian, I ...un;".. added 10. and modif.cd, th;,; code ... nc<:cssary through more lhan ISO Novell"", The Code. Digeol, Instil utes, and Novell"" are known collectively as the Corpus lun! Civilis (1954). u.... u... BIBLIOGIlAPIIY Monro, C. H_ .rans. flu Oipsf of Justi,,;".., 2 vols. Cambrid&t,I9CM-I909. Sandars. T. C. I"Slil":u of Jusrirlilln. London, 1941. n.. CODEX SINAITICUS, an andenl Greek bibli. cal text diICovered in Sinai al lhe Monastery of Saint Catherine by C"nstallline Tischendorl, and consisting of 390 vellum. lea.'<"S, althO\>gh 1M ongi, ".1 cO\>ld have been al IeasI 730 leaves. 1hc e.ist. inl pIOns of 1M .... nuscripl include 148 lea>..... of the New Testamenl, which is complet~, and 242 I"".'Q of Ihr Old TCSUmtnL Its sm aVCf'alll"S ap pO'Oximaofty IS incha (37.5 ~m) in heianl and n.! 10 IS.u incheo (34 em 10 36 em) ill breaddl, and ""ch J>8BC hal; 4 columns of 48 lines cach. The lines ar~ wriU~1I eontinuO\>sl)' in fine uncial. withO\>t sp"ce. belw~en words. It has no accenls and nQ b...,alhings, but has. wmc puncl ....tion. Sa<:r~d n.mCll are abbreviated,.. in the OOO£!l vntc.l.Ws, """",reody it "'";15 wrinell by at Ie... th~ hands, as is.shown by the pcculiaritio of each hand, especial· Iy in lhe spdIing. The ~ TC5Wnn>1 >oras a1mos1 wholly wriuen by one 1IC'ribe. joo,'u~fOU$ <:orn'C' tionJ Iloo.~ bcc-n made in iN' lUI. 001 Of1ly b}' the onp".1 ICribe lhemselves but abo by olhen; from lhe founh 101M 1.....,ll1h century. One correclor •tatCli al the ~nd of Esdras lhat th~ book >oras revised in a<:comn<:e with a lext COlUcte<:! by Pamphilus of C.e.....,a on the basLs of Ongen', Heupla, The manu",npt has the digni~ed lImplicily of the Code. Vatican... in its calligraphy and, lik~ Vatican· .... oripnaud moR phAMbly in Ak.undna. It ha5 been Ihou"'l 10 be one of the fifly .-dlum copies of th~ Bibl~ orde...,d by Constantine in 332. allhoosh Ih" remains open 10 question. Som~ ocholan mention Caesarea (Milne and Skeal, 1938) and Rome as placeo of orlaln for this codex, bUI wilhO\>t cOllvinc· ing proof. Since Ihe S;".ilicus predal6 the ro...ndalion of the IrIIOUNT $IIlAl MON.lSJF.a.Y 0' SArNT CADlEa.tSl!. ;1 is likely : ,..jib him. It is .....,11 CSIabIishcd thai, cspcci.aJ.ly durinllbc Middle Aces. monb Rocked 10 that monastery from many counuies with Iheir ...,Ii-p:.us tl"CaSures. Even so, i1 is impossible 10 say when Codex Sinail;"uS reached the monaslery. The discovery and recovery of the code.>: helln in May 1844, when Constaminc tiochendori, One of lhe ninel.,.,nlh",,~ntul)i ocholaon who arne to lhe molUSlery'a lib....ry for Sludy, ....... auracted by a b.asW full of old parcllments. of "'hkh some moldmnl spcci"",ns had bcc-ft desu~d by fi...,. " cl_ er eD",inadoa revealed ~. considcnoble n<Jmbcr FTederico A"lu" ra",,, (1846), After an unsuccessful visil in ig53 to I""k for Ihe ""mainder of Ihe manuscripl, he \"c. lurned in i gS9 with a leiter from Emperor Aleun· der II, of R~, bul lOund no more until, as ~ "";1$ preparing for deparlurc, !he Sl""",.,.rd of lhe convent pri>-alely produoced a bulky mess of maim· aI ...npped. in red cloth. Remarbbly, it Included the rest of the parchmocnu /Tom Ihr baokEl of discardcuscriplln the hands of th~ RUSIlian czar, ....ho donated the equiva· l~nl of 56,750 10 the monks in recognition of the I-Cquisition. The codu remained al the Russian capllal unlil 1933, when it ""'" sold 10 lhe British Museum for £lOO.lXIO. II ... delivered 10 the mu"",m On 17 Dccembn-. lu Y'C'Ilum Inva "''f:R: treated. orpn. tzeIumts consisting of lhe Old Testamem and the New Testament. II is registered in the mu"""m under the jIT'a.ricd manu""rip... disco¥ere CODEX THEODOSIANUS tent of this hoard is closdy guarded by the monks and remains open to future identification. BIBLlOCJtAf'IfY Bmck. S. P.. et a!.. comps. A. Classified Bibliography of the Septuagint. leiden, 1973. Jellicoe. S. The Septuagim and Modern Study. (h. ford. 1908. Kenyon. F. G. Our BiMe and the Aneiem Manuscripts, 5th ed., l"C'V. A. W. Adams. intro. C. R. [)river, New York. 1958. Lake. H.. and K. Lake. Codex Sinai/ieus Petropo!iM. nus eJ Freduieo-Augus/anus Lipsiensis. The Old Tes/ament ... Reproduced in Facsimile lrom Pho· tog'aphs. 2 vols. O~ford. 1911 -1922. Metzger, B. M. The Ear!y Vusions 01 the New Tes/ament, Oxford, 1977. Milne. H.], M.. and T. C. Skeat. Sc,ibls. St. Petersburg. 1862. ___. Coder Sinai/ieu<. The Andem Bib/ka! Man· uscript Now in the British Museum. TischemJorf's Story Related by Himu/f. London, 1933. ,u,z S. ATtYA 571 LI.5), The work pro,'ed impossible to carry out, and on 20 Decembcr 435 a simpler scheme was decided upon. designed to codify general enactments of Constantine (taken to mean after his defeat of Ma~· entius on 28 Oclober 312). legislaticm was di~ided into shteen sections according to general subject. the first, for instance. relating to ehe emperor's de· c~. ehe se,enth 10 milital)' affairs. and the six· teemh to legislation relating to the church. The emperor', hand may be seen in the tendency. wherever possible. to....ard conciseness and brevity. The Codex Theodosianu, stands as a lasting monument to his reign and to the personal authority. sometimes underestimated. that he exercised. There are fewer laws directed to officials in E.gypt and Alexandria than might be anticipated. gi\'en the importance of the province to Ihe empire. The code. however, pro\ides some important information concerning social life in fourth-eentury E.gypt. In particular, the series of laws D. patrocinii. v;eorlum (Codex Theodosianus ~i,24.[-6) throws light on the S)'stem of landholding in force in Egypt in the fourth century. mainly eomprising small to medium landholders. and the threat to this system posed by the development of patronage, Patronage laid the client open to abuses, and it also stood to clepri.'e the state of TeVenue. Another series of laws defines the status and immunities of members of the Senate of Alexandria two years before the publication of the code ,Codex Theodosianus xiLI, 18992. June~August 436). CODEX THEODOSIANUS, Roman imperial law code, published on IS February 438 on the authority of Emperor Theodosius n, with a cm·er· ing constitution addressed to the pretorian prefect of ehe East (Novella Theodosiana I). [t had been approved by the Western emperor. Valentinian ilL during hi, stay in Constantinople in October 437 ....hen he marrie BIBLIOGRAPHY Archi. G. G. Teodosio /I • la sua cod;jica'l.ione. Na· pies, 1976. Gaudemet, J. "Theodosien (Code)."' In DiC/ionnair. de droit canon;"uo. Vol. 7.. cols. 1215-46, Paris. 1962. ___. "Aspects politiques de la codification theodooienne."· In /S/il~~ioni giuridkho e realta poliliche '''/tardo imporo. ed. G. G. Acchi. pp. 26179. Milan. 1970. ___. Lil!ormatiorl du droit seeuU", de NgUse a..r i>!' el >!' sudes. 2nd ed. Paris, 1979. Mommsen. T.. and P. M. Meyer, eds. Theodosia"i Ubri xvi, cum eonsli/U/io"ibus Sirmondia"is, 2 ,ols. Berlin. 1905; repr, 1962. PllalT. C. et at, eds. and trans.. The TheodOSian Code and Nove/s. Princeton. N. J" 1952. Seeck, O. RegiS/en der Kaiser und Paps/e. SlUlIgart. 1919: repro 1964. Thompson, E. A.. ed. and trans. De rebus bel/ieis, A Roman Reformer arid /.,vmlOr. Now York. 1979. 572 CODEX VATICANUS Zuluna. F. de. lh ptJrf'DCi"iis viCOf'W"l. Oxford S0cial and l.q:a1 Studi6 I. lhford. 1909. W. It. C. F'-E.'iD CODEX VATICANUS, one of me alMl krw:w.1l Bible texIS of likdy Aluandrian provenan«. most probably wrinen dun", the first .... If 01 Ille fourth cemury. lis daring il clear from its paleogr;opllkal llyle and the ab.ence of calligraphic ornamenta' tion. It Ii wrinen on excellem vellum. probably amelope skin. comprising 7S9 leave,. of which 142 are from the New Testamem. The 617 folios of the Old Teslamenl are baled On Ihe Sepruagim exCepl for Daniel. whose origin is l1Jeodolion'. version. The Old TeMament ,-enion lack. ~eo from Genesi5. 2 Samuel, Psalms. and Maccabees. In lhe New Testa_nt the ponion from Hebrew". 9:14 on is missin&The size 01 each leaf Is apprmimalely 11 inches x 10 inches (27 cm x 2S cm). and eu::h pagt II. l co"'m... 0140 10 42 lines 10 the CO"'l'1In. (llCepi In the poetical boob. •re the scribe reIOns to lhe OIichometlic divis'on of dH' li-. in two columns. lis simple W1C",h are comlnuous. tile .."Oms are nol spKed, and I"" sentences have no punclualion. The manuscript .... lew majestic initials and a simple scpilr1lolion at the head of each book. s..cred names are abbreviated. and qootallom from the Old Testa· mem are pre.enled in a Jp«ial angular parenthesis (>j, Apparently t....-o scribe. participared in lle leuet'S (presumably incorrect words were left ..idlO"U lTacina). :and addtd Ihe breathings and ac~~lS. This ~odr:x is b_n 10 have been in tht V.. ian Library bd"ore Ihrough a cornple1e phologoaphk facsimile 01 the entire t1tanl ....... usc.ripI. published .. Rome in 1839-1890. Today the manuscript .. ~ In the \'aiK::an Ubnry (VaL Gr. 1209). BtBUOGRAl'tIl' JellicOf:. S. 1""M S..ptuap"l and Mod..... Sludy. Ox· ford. 19b8. Kenyo<1. E G. 0 .., Bible and ,he A"d.. nl scrip... Slh ed,. rev. A. W, Adams, inlro. G. R. Dti,·er. Ne..... York. 1958. Metzger, B. M. Ea,ly Versions of the N.w TeJr"",enr, Oxford. 1971. .11""... ..ul~ CODICOLOGY. science ~oncerned S, ATIYA wilh Ih.. ex· ternal. of m:antQCriplS in codex form, mdr histol)". and the hmory of ....... llSCripI col],eetiom. to lhe o.dOZiioD 01 PAl "OC"PHT. With !he firsr ~lassificatioJl 01 the ancient pafl)T\IS and "",rehmenl codicts from EfypI. E. C. Turner reached some r>oU'WOrth)" eolllpaRd Wilh a papyrus roll. which had be cut up for rhe produelion 01 rchrnent ~odices lhe ilCquence of hair and ll.esh side. In Greek manuscripls, Ihe leaves are u_lIy ... arranged lhal in lhe open codex lwo ....ir sides OT IWO flesh side5 always tie beside one another. In the parchment lea\'e:s, punctures were rr.,que"lly made on rhe upper, ouler.•"d lower marlins a. an aid to the marking of lines. These li"es. usually engraved only on lhe hair sld •. appear on rhe fle.h lid<:: .... ridges, "'*"" .0 COINAGE IN EGYPT: Pre·Islamic Period In addition, other methods are chara<;teristk of particular scriptoria, Normally the leave. were in",ribed before binding, and the .titching of the quire. and the manufacture of the book-block were done in conjunction. Numbering (If pages or (If quire. probably came about at the same time as the development of the cod"" form. The earliest exam· pIe (If the quire numbering belong< to the years 200 to 250 (Turner, 1977, p. 77), The illustration of texts, particularly known from the Egyptian Book ollhe Doad pap)·ri. was greatly advanced with the di""emination of the codex. The book form (lffered greater ",ope for artistic embel· lisbment and for initials. ornamented Ttlles, and flourishes, The hi.tory of the book C(lver begins at the same time as the introduction of the codex. The technique for making book covers by hand has not substantially changed from the beginning to today. The Romans had used wooden protetlik"" ,md m;ugiq.1 Analysis of Nag Hammaci Codices V and VI and Papyrus BeroJinensis 8502." In Nag Hammadi Codices V, 2-5 and VI. ed. D. M. Parroll. Nag Hammad; Studies 11. Leiden, 1979. ___ The Facsimile Edi/imt af the Nag lfammad; C<>dice., pp. 71-86. !-eiden, 1984, Turner, E. G. The Typa[ag)' v( lh. Early C<>do:<. Philadelphia, 1977. GUNTER POflHKE COFFER. See Architectural Elements of Churches. COFFINS, Su Wood, 573 u..,. of, COHORT. See Army, Roman, COINAGE IN EGYPT. [This emry a" Egyptia" coi"s ca".iSl. of two ar/ide>: Pre-Islamic Period and I.lamic Period.) Pre-Islamic Period In spite of its high level of civ'i1i7"'t;on, Egypt lac led coinage until a relatively late date. The COn· "cpt of coinage was probably introduced by Greeks, who were employe 574 COINAGE IN EGYPT: Pre-Islamic Period coin any longer found in Egypt. The Ptolemaic system su .....'ived without appreciable change until the first century B,e" when it underwent rapid debase· ment, Egypt fell to Octavian (later Augu51US) aner the death of Cleopatra VII (30 B.C.), and from the begin· ning the province was treated as the private fief of the emperor. Augustus never felt compelled to produce silver, and there were several experiments with copper-basal currency, which was struck only in small quantities through the first antury, l1te regular production of the tetradracluna, a nominally .il""r denomination of about 25 percent fineneS!S and perhaps equal 10 a denarius, began in A,D, 20, A single hoard and frequent references in the papyri show that the Roman tetradrachma was regarded as the lineal descendant of the Ptolemaic. bcept for occasional interruptions, coinage was vinually an, nual until A.D, 296. From the time of Domitian there was substantial coinage in copper-large drach, mas, hemidrachmas, diobols, obols, and chalkoi (quaner obols), The mint, located at Alexandria, was the empire's mo", prolific after Rome itself. The principal elements of its coins were the imperial ponTait; a legend identifying the rul.r or member of his home, generally formulaic and ignoring current of· fices but including honorifics: the date, calculated in regnal years from 1 Tut; and a variable re\'ene type. The variety in th •.., image. is reminiscent of practice al the mint of Rom., but the repertoire of types was differ.nt. Perhaps because of remot.n.,,;. from lhe center of power, Alexandrian types seldom r.n",,"d current evento: rather the types were sim· pie and broadly conceived, embodying a mixture of Gre.k, Roman, and local influences_ The}' included Hellenized versions of Roman personifications (e_g., Elpis=Spes, Eleuch.ria=Libena.); purely Roman deities such as Roma alongside &lmpis, Isis, and Ammon; and figures of l~ origin such as the Agathodaemon serpent, canopic jar, and hemhem crown, The Antonine period (138-180) display.d the widest variety of types "".d represente there is no good evidence for any overlap in time betwe.n th. reformed coinage of Dioclelian and the traditional. Gr•• k-style coinag., which disappeared immediately from hoards. The new imperial coinage was marked by instability and frequent refOnTI, and its .'idS!Situd.s were r.flected by Ihe coin· age of Egypt. Alexandria's output consisted almost exclusively of argentiferous copper (later vin""lly pure copper) coins, with gold solidi being produced onl)' rarely and silver hardly at alL Slriking of coin in Egypt, as in olher provitK<:s, slowed considerably through the fifth century, and the absence of Alexandria from the reformed minIS of Anastasius (491-518) probably indicates that it had ceasod to coin by 491. Byzantine currency was introduad at Alexandria under Justin 1 (518-527), At first it was limited 10 copper; and ....hile the rest of the empire empl<>ye fullest the system consisted of denominations of 12, 6, and 3 noummia, and under Heraclius (610-641) a large coin of 33 "oummia_ The system ....as unique, and thes. coins were seldom found in company with Ihe standard denominations of Ihe eastern Byzantine mints, although lh.y appeared ocea· sionally in western Africa. It has heen suggested that 12 noumm;a was Ihe tariff of su .....,iving base· bullion tetra drachmas, but this is only a guess: against it is lh. lack of evidence for sun.-ival of the third·century tetrarlraehrna into the sixth, Their reversion to a formerly familiar shape may simply be a vestige of the earlier ecooomic isolation of Egypt, nOW reinstitute COINAGE IN EGYPT; Islamic Period !he tradhlon of Ihe dodecanou......ium ....d more owely ilS fracdons; .he revene con.inue'Cly of doe marl; of denomina· .Ion and, on I"'" dndecanoummium. a Cn.>loS on ..tfC. The obv<:nes linally abandoned lhe profile busl h' b,'Ol' of a !acini ~ 01'", late., one or more IUndinl 6Jures. When !he Ar.ab5 took E,:ypo lheir earliest CCIi.,.e scem!l 10 ha"" comisted of cl'Ude imiucioonf of !he btCSl dodecanownmia. The Iepq of the l"to/emo.:. was one of ind~n den. coi....e. and e> Dallari. G. MO~OIe imptril1li greche, Nu""i ""gr. AI· .... a~d.;ni. Cairo. 1901, Grierson. p, BJvmli~. Coins, pp. 68-09. 117-19. Berkeley. Los AnSeles, and London. 1982. Kraay, C. M. Ard.aic a"d Classical Gruk Coins. pp. 294-95, Berkeley, Los A"stles. and London. 1976. Mil"". J. G. Cala!olm; and C. M. ~y ..... ht.....tory "/ Crt:d C..... Haud•• PII. 225-42. New York. 197]. Wftini..,. P. D, Byurrrnne C....... N(OW York and lon- don. 197]. . islamic:: Period When Ihe Anob< CO"'lU"red Egypc in M' .he Byr· antine mint in Aleundria apparenlly conlinued to i$$ue copper doe'sl)'le coinage was replaced by COI'per 575 f"ts coins wilh Anlbic inscripllons ,"",e.ime 2ft.... lhe invention of l~amic coioage in DamiISCU> (699) and surely by lhe lione 01 'he eovemor Qurnah ibn Sbartk (709-71.)....·hen Anlbic Iiass weights for crlppCl' coi.... were in'roduced. The new Arab lals ..... nO( different &om lhe 8)Ur1tine coins in ""ishl or fabric and probably llOl In .;.hoe. bul i....cad of imperial ?Omaita. e"l 'M. and a Greek illSCripdoD it was anonymoua. wXh brief rdigious inscripliom i.n Arabic. Suninl somelime bn...-ee\ H4 and 142, all copper isIues carried the 1""..,.-. nor's name. ~ coppers wrre the only coins mimed in fcyp. unlil 787, bu. impol1ec1 Bpanline and Arab sold and sih.,.- coins <:loculated .here earlier .. ohown by numerous .-derences In lhe papyri and by the existence of Egyptian IbM _iBhlS for lhex denominations. The Arab sl- ...'eij;hlS for eoins (...hid are do..,ly rdaled 10 glaas weighl:! for OUlKes and pounds and stamped g/.a!e me;>sunng vessels) are the most inlereslin, fealure of Egypl'< eighth-cenmry monet.ry h'"tOry, Officially made A.... b glass eoin weights began during lhe adminis· lration of 'Abd AllAh ibn 'Abd a}·Malik (705-7(9) and conlinued until the end of Ihe century. They were ''Cry pTe<:ise!y made and show'll offi<:ial gold dinar standard of 4'\-;. InoPlS .lI1d • series of djlf~ ins sil'''r dirh~m standards. belllnnins wi.h a .lan· dard of ''''"t>-lhirds the ...,,;pll of .he dinar (2.g] !P"U). 1i:>111""e * 576 COINAGE IN EGYPT: Islamic Period 830, Egyptian dinars bore the name of the gover· nor, from 834 they usually had only the name of the caliph, but the Tulunid and Ikhshidid governo,", assene Fatimid silver coinage in contrast was usually small and increasingly debased in Ihe tenth and devemh centuries, stabilizing fmally al the end of the eleventh century al 30 percent silver. These linle coins served as small change in plac" of cop' per coinage. Despite the low w"igbt of th" acTual coins. the weight standard for a paymenT 01 a full dirham conTinued to be nearly three grams. The Falimids also revived official glass coin weighlS for dinars and dirhams. including fractions and multiples 01 the t.....o d"nominations. These have been calalog"d but th"ir e.·olution is still not clearly understood. ThroughoUl Ihe early Islamic centuries, as probably also before Islam. the relath'e values of gold. silver, and copper coins .....ere not fixed but f1uctuat· ed according to the market. from day to day and place to plac". The papyri and Geni"" documents often refer 10 the e,change rate (farf) between dinars and dirhams, As the early glass weights .how. the weight standard of Ihe dirham could change substantially and often, ..... ith five changes in the eighth centulli. At other periods, without Ihe e.'i· dence of the glass weighls, we can only assume that such changes were po"ible. These would naturally affecT the normal dinar-dirham exchange rate as well as prices. There is also evidence for changes in the all"y of gold and ,ii,..,r coins. The research to support preci.e statements has nol yet be"n done, but enough i. known 10 inspire caution in comparing pric"s and exchange rates from the Awad. H. A. "Seventh Century Arab Imitations of Alexandrian Dodecanoummia.'· Americ"n Numis· matic S<Jc~ry Museum Nmes 18 (1972),113-17. Bacharach. 1. L. and H. A. A...",d. "The Early Islam· Ie Bronze Coinage of Egypt: Additions." NeaT Eostern Numilmarics, lclYn<>8raplty, Epigraphy and History: Studi~l in Hm",r af Georg€ C. Miles. pp. 185-92, Beirut. 1974. ___. "Rare Early Egyptian Islamic Coins and Coin Weights: The Awad Collection:' Journal of the il.muic~n Ruearch C~nter in Egypt 18 (1981):51-56, Balog. P. "Tables de rHerences de. monnaies ikh· chidites." Revue b~lge d~ numismatique 103 (1957): 107-134. ___. "The H!imid Glass leton." Annal; dell'lnsri· tura Italian" di Numism"ticQ 18-19 (19711972):175-264; 20 (1973):121-212. Bates, M. L "The Function of Falimid and Ayyil.bid Glass Weights." 10urnal of the Ec""omic a"d 51>- COLOPHON cial Hislory of Ihe Oriertl 24 (1981):70-81. ___, "Coins and Money in the Mabie Papyri" In Proceedings of rh, Table Ronde: Docume"'s de /"Islam mediival: Nouvelles perspectives (March. 1988). ed, Youse{ Ragheb (1989). Goitdn, S. D. "Money, Banking, and Finance." In A Mediluranean Soc;ery: The Jew;sh Communil;ts QI the Amb WQrld a. Portrayed ;" Ihe Documents of Ihe Caim Gmlla, I: ECQnQmic FQundalio.u, pp. 229-66. Berkeley and los Angeles, 1%7. Grabar, 0, The Coinage QI Ihe 'fMunids. American Numismatic Society Numismatic Notes and Mon· ographs 139. New York, 1957. Miles, G. C. "The Early Islamic Bronze Coinage of Egypt." In CwMnnlal Pub/lcall'm of I"e Americ'''' Numisma/Ie Soc;e1)', es Stamps In Ihe Brillsh Mus"'m. london, 1985. Oddy, W. A. 'The Gold Contents of Fa!imid Coins Reconside<ed." In Metallurgy In Numismalies, Vol. 1, pp. 99-118. london, 1980. MrcH~El B~ns COLLUTHUS, a sc:hismalic presb~ler in Ale"an- dria during lhe episcopale of ALEXANDER (3 12- 326), nineleenth patria Salmon, G. "Collu,hus (2)." ItifCB, V,,1. I, p. 596, ,RANDALl STEWART COLONNADE. See Architectural Elements of Chur(hes. COLOPHON, name given to the statements ar rhe end of a manuscript abour the copyist, the readers, or other persons. Among Cop1ic manuscriprs from Ihe second half of the fourth century wirh colophons aro Codex II (145,20-23; Krause and labib. 106) and Codex VII (127.28-32; Krause and Labib. 3) from the NAO HAMMAOI lIBR,ARY. 577 In collecrive manUSc Budge, E. A. W. Cuplic BihUcal TeXiS ;~ rhe Dialect of Upper Egypl, london, 1912. Homer, C. The Coplic Version of the New Tes",· men! in rhe NOrlhern Dialect Otherwise Called Memphirie and Bohalric, Vol. l. Oxford, 1898. Krause, M" and P. Labib. Gnosllsche ~nd hermerisehe Schrilun au. Codex 1/ u~d VI. Ahhandlungen des DeulSchen Archaologisc:hen Instiruts Kairo, 578 COLUMN Kopo;sche Rtiht Z_ Gliicbladl, 1911. unlKhool. A. ,...... &cu"il d"s coIopn.ms du m4"· userirs cltTitiDu d"Egypse. Lou''ain. 1929. M.tRn~ COLUMN. Su An:hne<:lU~ KJ..wS£ EJcrnenIf, cI Church· ~ COMBS. Sc" Capok. Bone and. Iw'}' CarvinJ; wooct->rl<.. 01. Man~ ..f>ose union "1l$ noc due 10 a ",",on ol the Word with the iksh-rathtr. Ihe Word dwell in the 8t:sb as in • temple, much .. God indv.<elt His ~ The human nature of JIOSUS uode.....'ent rea1 growth in knowl~e and in discernment of r;ood and mi. >tOSOPHYSl'TISM. as held by ,he Copeic <:burt!>... a dorvdopn:Ienl of A\e.>.andrian IbeolocY WI rejected the C<Wl....."ic as il did OIalcedon . . . ,,'holt. Now lItat conl.., rsia ha~ ~ 1ess pro-nOW1c~. the docuine of conrmUllic"lio idiom4lu'" may yet 6nd £,...or in Copoic Christian circles. 1I1BUOCAAntY COMMUNICAno IDlOMATllM (i"lff' change 01 J>rOP"niesl. a lerm appli~ 10 lhe ~non of Christ by lhose in !he ..,.rly church who believed Ihal ahtlough the human and divine nalureS remained scpo "'Ie. Ihe anribul... of lhe om: cOIlld bol: applied 10 Ihe ocher. Thus lhe divine Word cOIlld be de$cribed a.I dying on Ihe Crt>5!l ond Ihe Virgin Mary was Ihe mOlher of God (ThUJlokO$). The Idta of communicIAI.CWON- ibtre. a, ,he siluh session. held em 15 Oc1obcr 451. ,he council drafted a Christolot:Kal definilion W, ...-ned: "Our Lord Jeauf Christ is 10 us one and m.: ame lOll. lhe Jdf~me Perl'ecl in Godi'>ead, 'M scJf~me Perfecl In manhood. lruly God lUId truly man , .• the dill.,.... enee 01 Ihe NalUreI [olfChrisll being in no WIly remcn'eCl because 01 the UJlWn. bul rallter lhe propenies of tach nalure being prnen'td imo one Pl"OS' opon and one H)'J'O$Ia$i$." In Ialer dmes. In unh.,.... an c1Kles. lhe doclrine ..... understood in a "'lOy not In ....rmony wilh Leo_ In Byzamlum. on Ihe othtr band, ,he doclrine ""'" eXlended 10 cOveT Ihe n:lalions 01 ehuKh and Slale. Opp<.»~ 10 Ihe Alexandrian idca were Ih"OIO' gians of the Anlioche"" school (EuSlalhius. Oiodo", .,f T;tl'$us, and THEODORE Of MOPSVl:ST1..., among .,lhel1l), They emph""i",," Ihe eonerele human Ijfe .,f Ihe hlslorical Jesu._ Certain lItlnktrs htld lhat there wtre lwo Son.-Ihe Son of Cod and Iht Son H Be1hUllC'Bak.... J. f. An Jntroducfit;m 10 Ihe E",ry I/ulory of Chrisri"n Docuine. london, 1949. Bou1arand, E. "La IMolOflit amioch"'nne." Bulleline d' Lillh"I.." tcclt,i n FreDd, W. H. C, Th.. l/.is' of Ih .. M Sellel'$, R. V. Two And,m ChriJloIogies. London. 1940. COMMUNION, lit.. act of panaking of: the Body and Blood. or Chrisl. Communion is gj\-en many dnit;naoons in lite New Tesuom....l. such as ". new c......nanl.. (Hth. 8:8-12), ··nemalljk" (In. 6;54), a Hdwtllinc in Chris,'· On. 5:56; 15:5-7). and a -$haring in the Bod)' of a"ist" (I Cor. 10:16- 17). In !he early churt... communion .._ pennill~ only 10 the lailhful. CAT!CHI/)I£N$ who had not yet been accepted into the COncrelation ......re n:quil't'd 10 depart .rn:r the readinp from Ihe EpislIes and the Gospel. lhal is. at 1M: end 01 the Ma!s of: the Caledwmens. The sacramenl was then adminft. le'rtd to all the eOllgrqlltion. "All Ihe failhful ",ho come in and h.,... the Scriptures, bul do nOi stay !or the p"'yen and Holy Communion...... 10 be tJr1>' municalcd.... causing disorder in the church·' (Ap1><,00ic,,1 C"non 9). The ... mc pen.lty aPP/i,d. 01 CO\>T$<', to Ihe clerJ)': "If "ny bishop. presb}1er. or deacon, Or "nyone in Ihe oaccrdotol list. when lht offering i. "''''''''', doe. nOl panake of iI, In him d...d are Ihe cause: and if il bt a reasonable one. leI him be ueused; bUI if he docs nOl declare II. let him he exeommu· nicaled, as being a e.u~ of offence 10 lhe p""plc ... " (Conon 8). COMMUNION OF THE SICK The Council of Antioch (34l) laid down a simllar slipulalion: "As for all those persons who enter the church and lislen to Ihe sacre<.>dy. they r""eive the Bl<><.><.> 579 Blood. $bould a priesl he officiating alone at a servo ice a\tended by a large congregalion he may. 10 save time, ",k a. fully-consecraled deacon to admin· ister the Blood 10 the congregation. Ihough nol to hi. fellow deacons. The churrh ha. laid down cenain requirements to be mel before receiving communion. A commu· nicant must ensure spirilual prepare COMMUNION OF THE SICK, a spe.::ial rite by which Holy Communion is administered to a bedridden person or 10 a prisoner in his cell. I'asting and confession are required whenever possible, After celebrating the Divine Uturgy in Ihc church. and while communicating the people, Ihe priest dips a ponion of the Holy Body in Ihe Precious Blood and places it in the aTlapharicm, and then wraps it with a mat. A deacon tak"" a boule of blessed water and a candle and accompanies the priest. It is necessary thaI the prie.! eats or drinks nolhing after Holy Communion and ob.erYes cornplele silence while on his way to Ihe sick, The priest starts by repealing Ihe prayers of the eleva· tion, consignation, and commixture until the conclusion of Ihe confession. After cnmmunicating the sick person. the priesl washes Ihe ~nophork'" and gives Ihe waler to the sick person to drink. Subsequentl)' waler is poured over the priest's lingers. which he drinks before he "ipes the orlapharia" with the mat and wraps it up. Should Ihe sick person be found physically or morally unfil to receive the Euchari.t. the prie.t should himself consume iI_ The early church insisled that a dying person be communicated; acco 580 COMMUNION TABLE dl of llliCAEA. "Con«rning ..... departinl, Ihe a'" den. eanonicallaw is ",ill 10 be maintained, '0 wi. lha., if any man be a. the point of death he must nO'l be deprived 01 the I"'" and moat indi".....blc Viol.....", .•• ." Tbe thirty-sixtb of !he canons aurib.lled .0 ADWWlU5 (e. 326-371) :u,". HNo prie§I ~nt ohall carry funh lhe M)'SIlI'rin and p;o ...ith !hem about !he SltttIS. ellUl" for a si<"k man, ...ix:n the end and deatlt'. hoour of need dDw nip. And ..tten they mysleries [wilhou.}. they d1:al1 autre.' none bt.u ,hot sick to palUke. And ,hey shall no, do &c. cordii'll '0 b~nur and give unlo one be$iOe ,he iid, bt.u umo lhe sick alone.... I, seems. Itow<:~r, that btcr;n ,he Middle Ages. the Copu ceased 10 take lhe Holy Communion '0 tlte ,iek ol,ll$iu. the church for lear of any "ana. greulofl on Ihe .saer:amcnts. Imlcad. lltey probahly preferred 10 carry Ihe sick 10 lake communion in· side lhe church. Hence .. J".... 'II.., bi.shop of Damiellll in lhe lwelfth centul)'. comp;l.re~ the EuchariSI wilh ils protOlype, the lamh of the old p/lliso\'er. and says. "And ....'e shall not keep il b>ock [Iill the second day]. and we shall no, carl)' it oul of Iltc church. and wltatsoe"cr remains of il lhe prietU shall ell ..• And concerning the first Eucharist, namely. lite hre.d and Ihe chalice whi",1t the Lord blessed and p'''' to His diw:iples. lhen: remained nothing of h O¥tr il .iIl the second day, and il ........ nol cartied 10 a hOUie, Other than the one in which it (tbe Lasl SuPl"Crl was perfonned." Saint ea.il. in his nine1y-dghth canon Sil)". "And _ did not brine the Mystery nutsMte Ihe church al all 10 be ...~ 10 a Pft'IOJUid.e~ the lim Coptic pozriarch 10 arnnge the communlofl for lhe sKk at home. In m_ripcs in \he Ub".,. oflhe Monastery of SainI MlOny .(nos.. 34) and nil). il is wriltetl aboul that patriar~ thaI he, "seeing .he inability of lhe lick lUld bedridden .0 10 10 .be holy church 10 partale of lhe Di",;ne Mysteries H. H. arraJtgN for the Holy Re""ned Sac~rnenl ..• 10 be earri~ to the sick and crippled and bedridden in .helr houses. This ... ise arTangement I' follow~ unlil lhi. day." cany."" M BIBUOGRArHY Riedel. W.• anr. 1973. EMILE MAH~R ISHAO COMMUNJON TABLE, lhe filed Iable .-Adin, in thor middle of tbe saI1ClUry (I"',kse<:ration of altars not buill of stone. and loward Ihe end of the nin'" cen'ury. Palriarch John har·AIgari mter· dicled the ow: of wooden eommunion tables in the Nestorian church. The Ethiopian chu,-,;h. on the other hand. sUll retai"" lhe use of wooden allanHO"''nCl. accordin. 10 lhe procedurr: followed in the c:onsec~tion of lite holy OIUSM the """ice is ;nnriably conducted on a wooden altar. .0 .O\. IIlIWOGIlAPKY Bud..... A. J. n.e Allei,,", Coptic ChtlrcJru u( Egpr, Vol. 2. Oxford, IU4. COMMUNITY COUNCIL, COPTIC, ",nuncil made up of laymen lake pan in lite administ...· lion of communily albi ... Wilh .he eme'K"nce of lhe Coplic church from ilS doeclinin& drcu"",'an",,,,, under lhe $ucceuhe waves of persecution ;1'1 .he Middle Ages. its reawakening in modern .imes was asso<:iated with various allempta at refonn. The fi".t and most .erious attempts at regenen,tion took place under nltlL IV (1$54-1861) who descn'edly 10 • t COMMUNITY COUNCiL, COPTIC earned the titl" of Father of Reform. Besides ",. forms ror the enlightenment of the clergy, he can· centrated on educational and cuhural pro~cls, ~uch as opening numerouS schools, introdudng Coplic and foreign languages imo the curriculum, and estabH,.},ing a priming p,""ss. Th" development of community councils passed throu&,> various stages, following the issuance of Ihe Sultan'. Kh~H hamay,,,,j (official decree) in 1856. This was a form of chaner of libenie. for Ihe Christian minoritie' throughout the \'1'.1 Ottoman empire. It authorized the establishment of special councils within the patriarchales to deal Wilh problems of "penonal status," such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. as "",11 as the administration of the waqfs, prop"l1y donated to the church and the monasteries and held in trust, to be administered for ecdesiastical and charitable pUl"J>OSes. $""h _prllpenie. had been accumulating throughout lhe ages. and were considerably increased during lhe palriarchat" of Demetrius II (1362-1870). On lhe occasion of the .ullan'. vi.il to Eg)pI, the sultan beslowed 1.000 feddtms (acres) of arable land 10 lhe church, and this was supplemented by 500 feddans by Khedi"e IsmA'it (IS63-IS82). With the death of Pope Demetriu. in 1870. Mark (Murqus), bishop of the province of al·Beheirah, was appointed locum tenens until a new patriarch was consecrated. Bishop Mark chose a number of notabl"s to assist him in the administration of the financial affairs of the church. This may be consid· ered lhe firsl nudeus of the community council. The Copts welcomed the project and decided to submit a fermal application to Ihe authorities for the foundation of a similar elluneil te take charge of the waqfs, ""booTs. benevolent societi"s. affairs of personal Matus, and other secular functions, which would relie"e the clergy of such worldly con· cerns, The applicalion was presenled by BOlnROS CHALI to the khedive, who on 5'februa')' 1874 ap· pro"ed the establishment of a council to con.iSl of twel"e members and twelve adJuncl' olected by general suffrage, to meet under tM chairmanship of the patriarch, The relalillnship between Po~ CYkll \' {18741927) and th" elected council was not harmonious. and consequently lhe council w"!' dissoh'ed. Two councils in succession were elecled, but neither could hold a profitable meeting, The first of lhese was again dissolved, and the second was denied access and found the doors of the palriarchale locked in 1692 When the situation was reported to 581 the government, with Boutros Ghali as minister of finance, it was decided lhat bolh the patriarch and Bishop Yu'annis of al-Beheirah had to be removed to the Monaster-y of al·Bar.imu., a m"asure wilhoUI precedem in contempora')' ecclesiastical hislOl)'. Khedi,'e 'AbbAs II (1892- 1914) ordered Ihe return (Of the patriarch on 30 Janua')' 1893, and on I Feb· rua,)' he arriYed in Cairo amid enthusiaslic public acclaim. Those who were responsible for his exile were parooned. and two amendments to the constitUlion of the coundl were enacted, One was bylaw no. 8 of December 1908, by which the patriarch was solely responsible for the appointment of his derical Subslilule in lhe council, and Ihe adminis· tration of the waqts would be entrusted to the patn. arch and four monastic abbots. The second was bylaw no. 3 of February 1912, restricting lhe num, ber of the council membership to a tOlal of lwclve, eighl laymen to be elected by general suffrage and four- cleriCS '0 be nominated by the patriarch. These amendments remained in abeyance for- twel"e years, as they were resisted by lhe community and consequently abolished by parliament, and lhe original conSlilulion of May 18S3 remained in force. In 1927, after fifty.two years as patriarch, lhe dea'h of Cyril V at the age of ninety·six paved the ....'lly for the next .tage. This stage was inaugurated by Yu'anni., bishop of al-Beheirah, first as locum lenen. and in 1928 as Patriarch JOHN X'X. In November Ins the pope accepted the nomination of a comm;uee consisting of four members of the council and two bi.ho"" under his presidency, to .upervise lhe "asl waqf eslale•. BUI lhe system fallered, and lhe case had 10 be rclerred to the court when the patriarch died in 1942. He was .ucceeded by M~CAlttl!S III (19441945) after an interregnum of lwo years. The new po~ issued a favorable leller on 22 February 1944 nominating a commillee of five members of lhe council to be enlrusted with the administration of the waqfs, a measure that was refused by the Holy Synod. The brokenhearted patriarch retired to lhe monastery of Saint Antony (DHIt ~NBA ~NTONlYOS), He died in the following year. Anb! YOsAB I1 (1946-1956), metropolitan of Jirjil, be<;ame pope on the specific condition of his acceding to entrust the administration of the waqfs to the community council. This promise was circumvent· ed after Yustib's consecralion by his raising the abo bots of monasleri", 10 lhe episcopale and entrusl, ing them Wilh the financial administration of the waqfs, At this juncture, Ihe Eg)pIian revolulion of 582 COMPLINE July 1952 broke ouI, and a new council was nomi· nated, Later, in September 1953. the ai!in8 patriar~h, who had been widely criti~i7.ed for personal reason" wa, relieved of hi, powers. A triumvirate of thru bishops took charge of the conduct of patriarchal authvrity. On 13 November 1956, Yiislib II died, thus closing one of the commversial chapters in the contemporary history of the Coptic church. An interregnum of two and a half lear.; followed his death, and Ihe powers of the ~ommunity coun· cil were dr.>stically r-e 1983, bul Ihis had 10 be canceled in the wake of the evenlS surrounding the internal exile by Presidem Sadat of Pope SlIenouda to the Monastery of AnbA Biohoi in September 1981. Following Ihe pope's re.toration early in 1985, a new council was elect· ed in March 1985. The councils, however, still mainlain the important role of participating in the papal eleclions, in their capacily as offi~ial representatives of the Co]>" tic population. Under the church rules as recognized by the stale (presidential decru of 3 November 1957), the gene....1 council ha< the following powers: (I) in conjunction with the Hoty Church Slnod, il appoint. the locom lenen. bi.hop, follow· ing the death of the pope; (2) a commillee con.ist· ing of eighleen members, nine of whom are to be chosen from Ihe general council, is authorized to select candidates for ,he patriarchate; (3) an elecloral committee consisting of the locum ,enens bish· 01', three clergymen, and three eminent members of the community conducts the voting process. According to the 18g3 constitution providing for the establishmenl of community councils, Ine pow_ ers Ihey exercised were exlensive. Subsequently many functions were eliminated. The council had jurisdi~tion of personal .talU. cases, when the parlie. concerned were all of the Coptic Ol1hodox denomination, otherwise the case would fall within the Muslim COurt jurisdiction. Such cases are now to be settled by ~i,~l courts. The management of Coptic school. was originally entrusted to community councils. These schools are nnw under Ihe full supervision of the Ministry of Education. The administration of Ihe waqf> passed to Ihe joint Patriar· chal Laical Waqf Organization in 1960. The 1883 constitution, slightly amended in 1927, also provided for the estabtishment of pro,'incial councils in cathedral cities of Egypt, under the presidency of Iheir local bishops. These councils asSume Iheir responsibilities within their own epar· chies, and are subject to the supervision of the general council in respect to matters of pal1icular imponance. Each council consists of four members, with the exception of the council of Ale'andria, which is made up of seven members under the presiden~y of the vi~ar·general. Apll AzER (IISrAWRQS COMPLINE, the prayer of sleep instituted, ac· cording to the canonical hours, to commemorate the laying down of Ihe body of Jesus Christ in the tomb. In churches and monasteries compline is 1 CONCEPT OF OUR GREAT POWER said after vespers and before the raising of incense for the evening service, The D'PASCAUA (Qeladah, 1979) and Ibn al·'Assal's Kitlib Q/,QQwli>t'>t (Book of Canon law) inclu CONCEPT OF OUR GREAT POWER, an apocalyptic tractate dating from the mid·fourth cen· IUry or shortly the'''after and in"uenced by Jewish spe<:ulations, biblical or apocryphal, slightly tinged with gnosticism. The aim of lhe text is to describf, lhe history of the world in its fundamental ..ages: creation, lhe Rood, the origin of evil. the coming of a Savior who desceods into Hades to homiliate the archons, the appearance of an Antichrist who rules oYer the world. and finally the apocalaslasis (sec· ond coming) and the salvation of the el«t souls. This history i' pre,ented accordiog to a scheme uf th''''' aeons-the a"on of the flesh, lhe psychic aeon, and 'he indestructible aeon. The Great Power takes the role of speaker, and communicatos to his hearers a number of re.'e1ations and teachings. The aeon of the flesh comes into being in thc "great bodi"s" (38). During its reign the vengeance of the father of the ""5h. the water, takes place. He sends the flood upon men, sparing only Noah (38.17-39.15). Then follows the. reign of the psychic aeon (39,16): "It is a small OD~, which is mixed with bodies, begetting in the ~uls and being de· nled." In fact during this aeon tHe pollution, which had already made its appearance."under the aeon of th~ flesh. now increases, and gives birth to all kinds of evils. "many works of wrath, ang~r, envy, malice, hatrd, slander, contempt and ,",'ar, lying and evil counsels, sorrows and pleasures, bilSCnesse. and de· filemenlS, fal..,hoods an 583 lusts and desire. and (the teachings of) ,he Anomoean., evil heresies that ha"e no hasi." (39,33-40,9). The reference to this here,y, which was propagated during thc fourth century, provides a term,,,,,, Q quo for the dating of the text (Wi,.., and Williams, 1979). A man who knows the Great Power is going to be born under the dominion of the ps)·chic aeon (40.24-27). He ""ill drink from the milk of the mother, he will.peak in parabl~s, he will proclaim the aeon that i. to come (40,28-32). Thi. man "spoke in 72 tongues, opened the gates of the heav, ens with his words, put to shame the ruler of Hades, rai!-Cd the dead" (41.6- 11). His coming provokes reaclion from the archons. Thi. man is Christ. By the lreachel)' of Judas, the text tell. us, the archons laid hold of him and brought him before the governor of Hades. But "the nature of his f1csh could not be .ei7-w" (42.1-2). Here we have the Gnostic doctrine of docetic origin, that the Christ could not be grasped. He leaves only his outward semblance in the hand. of the arehons, mocks them ("he prepared himself to go down and put them to shame"), and escapes from them (d. Nag Hammadi Library, Codex II. Seth 51.24-29: 52.10-14; 53,20-21; Codex I, Apocao'ps" of James 30.1-8; 31.15-21; Apocalypse of Peter 80,25-30; 8U-82.17). The coming of Christ is followed by a series of signs that mark the end of the psychic awn: "The sUn set during Ihe day; the day became dark; the evil .pirits were troubled, the aeons will dissolve, But those who would know these things ... will become blessed, ,inc" they will come '" know the truth" (42,15-43,29), The signs of the end are brought on by the dissolution of the archons: the destruction of cities, the shaking of the mOUn· tains, a trembling of the eanh, the death of animals (43.32-44.13) mark the transition from the realm of the archons to th~ kingdom of the Logos. These signs are typical of eschatological tim ••, and are found in similar form in the Jewish pwudepigrapha of the Old Testament (A.cension of Isaiah 4 and 5: 11 Enoch 22; IV Esdras 5; Ascension of Moses). An imitating spirit is .ent by the archon. to combat a di.. ine child come to his maturity (44.31~45A), His coming will also be marked by ,igns of the end (45.31-46.5). Positive signs on the contrary will accompany the coming of the Great Power who wiii protect the elect, who are dOlhed in hoiy garments (46.8-24). These will return to an "immeasurabie light" (46.8-9). The treatise ends Wilh the redemption of the souls, and the fact that the elect have come to be in the unchangeahle aeon, ......:. 584 CONCH BIBLIOGRAPHY Wisse, F" and F, E, Williams, "The Concept of Our Great Power," In Nag Hammadi Codices V, 2-5, a~d VI, ed. D. M. ParmI, pp. 291~324 ({ranslation). Nag Hammadi Studies 11. Leiden, 1979. MAO£U1N£ SC<:>!'£lLQ send you ... Rtteive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive the sins of any, they are forgiven: if you retain the sins of any, they are retained" (In. 20:22-23). This authority Mcame the prerogative of the disciples and the apostles, and was passed on 10 their successors in the episcopate and lhe presb)1el)'. Confession In Ihe Old Testament CONCH. See Symbols in Coptic Art. CONCOMITANCE, the doctrine held in the Roman Catholic church that Ihe Body and Blood of Christ are togelher and simuhanewsly administered in communion even when a communicant receives one of the dements only. This doctrine is meant to justify the act of withdrawing the chalice from the laity ever since the twc]fth century, and giving the Body alone, the Blood being restricted to the d,.rgy. This practice wa-' introduced during the papacy of Paschal II (1099-1118), and the decree was confinne CONFESSION AND PENITENCE. Sacramental confession consists in the a,'owal of one's 'ins and faults, accompanied with genuine contrition, made to a priest for the purpose of obtaining absolution. Before Christ instituted this sacrament, He had given His disdple$ two relevam promise•. When Pe"" recognized the true nature of Jesus Christ as the Messiah and ackno...,dged Him to be tM Son of God, Christ conferred "pon him the authority of loosing and binding (MI.: 16:19). When Christ taught th~' disciples the proper procedure to be ~pplied in the case of a brother who has committed a sin, th~t is, evemually reporting the maller to the church when other conciliatory measures have failed, He "'iterated His pre"ious promi..,s according to which the}' were empowered to forgive penitents thelr sins Or to retain them (Mt. 18:17-18). After the resurrection, Christ breathed on His dis· ciples, saying: "As the Father has sent me, e,'en so I Mosaic law prescribed confession of sins with a view to expiation and atonement, \\'hen a man in' curred guilt and confessed, he was required to bring a sin offering, and Ihe priest would make expiation for him, after which he would be par· doned (Lv. 5:1-6). TM theme of Iohn the Baptist's preaching in the Iudaean wilderness, as a prelude to the coming of Christ, was the exhortation of people to repent, in view of the imminence of the kingdom of he~ven, Later, Ine apo.tlC$, having recei"ed the authority from Jesus Christ, exerci.ed the power of loosing and binding and urged Jews and Gemile. alike to repent and obtain forgiveness (see Acts 8:22: 17,30: 26:20)_ When Anania. and his wife Sapphira lied to the Holy Spirit and to Peter, they were punished with instant death (Acts 5,8-10). Ever since the early days of the church, Ihe sacrament of confession formed a prominent part of Christian worship. The DIDACflE stipulates: "In the church, thou shalt ackno"'-]edge Ihy transgressions, and thou shalt nol come near for thy prayer,; with an evil consdence. This is the way of life" (The Teochin8 of the Twelve Apostles 4, 14), The Apostolic Canons prohibited the clergy from denying this sacrament to any penitent; "If an)' bishop or presbyter does not receive him who lUr,," away from hi••in, but reject' him, let him he deposed: for he grieveth Christ who said, 'TMre is jo)' in heaven over one sinner that repenteth.''' The "OS10lIC CONST111JTlONS, recogni~ing this God-given authorily, enjoin upon Ihe congregation tM dUly of honoring the priesthood: "Reverence tMse, and honor them with all kinds of honor: for they have obtained from God the power of life and death, in their judging of sinner<, and condemning them to the death of eternal life, as also of loosing returning sinners from their sins, and of re.toring them 10 a new life" (Constitutions of Ihe Holy Apos· lies 3,33, 1951. p, 412), With regard to forgiveness through penitential acts the Council of Laodicea (341-381) stipulates: "TItey who have sinned in div· ers pat1iculars, if they ha\'e persevered in the CONFIRMATION prayer of confe..ion and ""nance, and are wholly converted from Iheir faullS, shall be received again to communion, Ihrough the mercy and goodness of God, after a lime of penance appointed to them, in proportion to the nature of their offence" (The C~n ons .. , , Canon 2. 1956. p, 125), The efficacy of penitence is dependent on the following elements: wholeheaned contrition for having sinned against God; detenninalion to improve one's way of me; firm helief in Jesus Christ as the sole Redeemer; and disclosure of sin or fault to the Church in the p .....on of a priest who can grant sacramental absolution. The church has ordained various prayers of absolution. which all refer to the authority given to the priesthood by Christ through the apostles. Besides private confession. made by a person to his confessor alone. Ihe early church adopted another practice. which required peniten" to mal.:e a full. public confession to the congregation. This pJ 585 use of Satanic mel hods in the process, Thi. is tanta· mount to substituting Satan for the Holy Spirit, and, accordingly, the Pharisees were guilt}· of blasphemy, which was an unpardonable ,in. As indicated earlier. a confessor musl be an authorized priest, wilh a pious charncter, spiritual integrity, and a firm grasp of church doctrine. He should have insight into human nature, and show percep'-ion, discernment and cooperation with a fellow human boing who want. to make a clean breast of his personal wrongdoing. Above all he must he trustworthy, discreet, and able to command confidence. He must be willing to fast and pray for and on behalf of those who confess to him In particular, he should Ireat all penitents. rich and poor, with patience, without fear or favor or expec· tation of material reward. As a rule, except in ca,es of disability or inability 10 attend. confe<.uons must he recei.'ed on the church premises, BIBLIOGRAPHY Ballifol. P. Les Origl,.,es de la pi",'lenee, Etude de ]'histoire et de la theologie positive I. Paris. 1902. Cumming:<, D. Tho Rudde" pp. 552-633. Chicago, 1957. Jurgens, W, A. The Faith of Ihe EQdy FQ,h~n. 3 "01<. Collegoville, Minn .. 1970-1979, Kelly. J. N. D. Eady Chrislia,., Doctri,.,es, San Fran· dsco, 1978. Mortimer, R. C. The Origi,,-, of Private Penana in Ihe Weslern Church. Oxford. 1939. Torrance, T. The Doctrine of Gr~ee In tho AfJQ5wlic Fathers. London, 1948. AIlCHBJSHOP BASlu<)S CONFIRMATION, sacrament by which the newly bapti,ed receives the grace of the Holy Spirit, Con6nnation is a complemenl to Ihe sacrament of baptism. Despile being complementary to baptism and following immediately after it, confirmation must be regarded as a distinct sacrament, with its own rites and prayers. In view of its intrinsic quali· lies. confirmation is al$O referred to as laying on of hands and anointing. Through baptism. a person is spiritually rehorn; confinnation conveys special grace that strengthens the recipient for the pradice of the Christian faith. In John 7:37-39 Jesus established this sacrament: "If anyone thirst, let him corne to me and drink. He who believes in me. as the scripture has said, • 586 CONFRATERNITY out of his heart shall 80w rivers of living water. (Now this he said about Ihe Spirit, which lhose who believed in him .......re to receive: for as yet Ihe Spiril had not been giYen, because Jesus was not yet glorified." The descent of Ihe Holy Spirit at PentecoSI granted confIrmation to tbe apostles, and, in their tum, they were able to grant it to other believers by' administering this sacrament to them. Many canons passed by various councils assert the independence of confinnation and ilS separale· nes~ from baptism. According to Canon 38 of lhe Council of Laodicea (between 348 and 381), "They who are baplized, must after baptism be anointed with the heavenly chrism, and be partakers of the kingdom of Chrisl." In connection wilh Ihe various categories of bere· tics who .eturn to the fold of orthodoxy, Canon 7 of the Council of CONSTAN'TINOPt£ (381) ~tales, "Those , .. we receive upon their giving a written nmundation [of their errors) and analhemalize every he.e· sy which is not in accordance wilh lbe holy, calho· lic, and apO;Stolic church of God. Thereupon they are firsl sealed or anointed with the holy oil upon Ihe forehead, eyes, nostrils, moulh, and ears; and when we seal them, we say, ''11le seal of Ihe gin of the Holy Ghost ..." (Ca"o"s 01 rho 0"" Hu"dred a"d Fifty Fathers, 1956, p. 185). The visible element in the sacrament of confinna· tion comprises four parts: (1) An epielesis of the Holy Spirit upon the ""'Ie.. (2) the holy chrism, by which the baptized righlfully becomes a "Chris' tian"; (3) the signing with Ihe holy chrism-the priest anointS the bapti2ed, using thirty-six sign. of Ihe cross, which co"er almosl all the members of his hody: and (4) Ihe prayers said during the proc· ess of anointing, ending with the words: "Receive the Holy Spirit and be a purified vessel of our Lord Jesus Christ." The Coplic church, in line with Other Orthodox churches, has a distinct,i~e sland IOward administer' ing tile sa~rament of confirmation. Whereas in non· Orthodox churches, co~6rmation is the exelusive righl of bishops, there .is nO such restriction imposed on Coplic priesls, as they receive Ihis righl at ordination. Second, unlike other churches where confirmation is delayed lill Ihe age of discretion, Orthodox churches administer it logeeher with Iwo other sacraments, that is,' preceded by baptism, and followed by holy communion. Not only is this practi<e based on solid historical grounds, as it was observed by all churches, Orthodox and ""n-O"hodo, alike, until the thirteenth century, when the Roman Calholic church chose 10 del"y confinna· lion until the age of discretion. II also pro"ides the necessary precaution againsl the likelihood of an unbaptized and unconfirmed child's dealh before attaining that age. BIBLIOGRAPHY Jurgens, W. A. The Fnith of rhe Ear/y Fathers, 3 ,'ols. Collegeville, Minn., 1970- 1979. Kelly, J. N. D. Ea,ly Christia" Do;:trinej. San Francisco, 1978. AIlCH9'SI-IOP BAsIUOS CONFRATERNITY. As in other Chrislian coun· tries of late antiquity, confraternities, or guilds, .....ere aCli.'e in Egypt. Their members were called, in Greek, phi/opo"oi, or lovers of work, and jpoud. "jo;, or 2ealots. The term phi/oponeio", conmterni. ty, is used in documents in reference to ils legal slatu•. (The translation "infinnary" ill lAmpe's PalriSlie Greek Lexicon is incorrect.) The earliesl infonnalion aboul confralemitie., in Th~ Lell~r of Ammo~ (Balkin, 1932, chaps, 31-32), dates back to the times of Athanasius (i.e" the firsl half of Ihe fourth century). The mOSt recent document that mentions confralernilies dates back 10 the "nd of Ihe tenth century. There is liltle possibility thai confraternities play'ed a significant role after the first fifty years of Arab rule, during the period of rapid decrease of Ihe number of ChriSlians in Egypl. Confraternities were characteristic of lowns, We know of only one Cils<: when a confraternity wa.~ situaled in lbe countryside, in Ihe village of Paouore, in the district of Hermopolis (P_ Oxf_ [Some Oxford Papyri] 16, P. Lond. [Greek Papyri in the British Museum) III, 1080, P. Jernstedt 1). It is nol possible 10 establish the social composition of confraternities in Egypt, but by making analogies to olher pro,'inces, one may suppose that Ihey included repreM'ntati"es of different social strata. Despile the lack of infonnation in sources from Egypt, one may assume that confralernities include CONFRATERN1TY 587 r..es ........... eumpk, ,Iotre ....".., pnuo"orwi oi Saint WJCHAa. the Arc~el. Saini ,~ Salll' Eupnemia. aIId !he Sew Chu.-.:h. Also alslin, In th......." "''''' a confnl..mily d .gOUts, or l>Cllarin. recordc:d in u... FJKal Collo: d. He",oopol. of S90-600 (Po SoJb. Inv. 2227). II .. qun.. p"""ibk ,hal til...........'" 01 ...... conFni'..miliel comprisi,,& ,,",ml:>c~ oi Itt.. OlLlIle HeUdopo/i<, wh4"n' ...... mba'sllip pajd on the occ8$ion of a """ddine. binh, 00" baprism (C....• p'" '''P1'"O"'m R..mm IV, 196, from the .....~nth C.."IUI)"). VCl)" likely. ce1'1ain OI'pDittd forms of mUlulO! .wi _no employed in cases of mi.rortune. Bu, unronu""",ly ..~ haw: PO confirmed reconk of ~ion. Al the head of a confral..m;ty stood a prnirp,u Papy.o ....m Rai"eri IV, 19~). $omc organiza'ion.l fuoctiom tha, are hard to defin.. wcrc performed by ,h.. orchi8uon (C.P.R. IV, 19S; ernm, 1905, no. 1046). The funetion of persont callod pale'io" (pre· sumably deri"od from pall') who appe;t.rod togethcr will. philope".oi (C.P.R. IV, 19$; erum, 1905, no. 101) i$ ''agllC. It i< possiba.. thai Iht:y Constiluled a VOUP ",illtin a contra'...."ily. bUI ,hq' miaht abo \>em. a &roUP of monasIic ehara.cttt. Confracernities ",ere ,,\OWed '0 ""'.,. land and houses. In ,he F"",a1 Code of HennopoIi< they IIlto &ppeII1cG as mediators beI",,","n laXplyers and the: '1In1 Mlthoritie:s. Member5 of a conFnilern;ly "'C'.... considlO.....:i a separate lVOuP in a church, along ",;th ttt.. clerg)'. monn. and la)",,",II. Thc aCli"ilie, of such confra· ,crnitie, includcd firs, of all frcquclll common prayers .lId reUgious """,Ice, in churches. The Canon, of Pseudo-Alhan:u;"'s (il.ie sud! a rok. We know.-y little abouttM philanthropic act.... ilks of conlnlemitics. In the: anal oanctualy oi SailllS Cynn aIId John Ihcy ",_ked as malc nunes (Sophro..iau Mon..ch..s SopIrisJ.: N.rrtlM MiT..c..» ."... 5$. Cyri ., JOt>n'lu. PG 81, pl. 3, cols. ]424_ 3676). ~mbrl'5 or confraternities belonSM to a group of l.ymen actina: at the side of the bishop and helping him in vari<>u5 matteI'S. In Alexandria ,hc patri· arch lIM'd ,hem eithcr '0 exe" pre.,urc on Ihc administration or '0 fight q;ain,t his opponcnts (...,., Zachari.. Schola.Ul, Two tesl$. wriIten inlkpendendy. ~m lO sug. I'OSItNK Ibe Akundrian r-~ rtcularty inmod the: InOU pl'l>/Oinen, pIri1optMoi Ie> cablc as ""dl as the- membrl'5 01. his ckrJy (&dce. 1915, J>- 825; Orlandi, 1963, pp. 46-"'7). n... t....1$ coru>ec:l: WI .....lOm 10 the .imes of Athanasius, but Iht:y piOba· bIy pro;..cl back inlO ..... pasI sornflhinll dJat "'. . us...1 in ,he aulh<>~' times, as na,lo,..phic WOl"b often do. The chief!; of the philopt)ttOi brlonllcd 10 the 'own cli,c (Budge. 189"'. p. 58). AlolIll with religiou$ activitln, confra,eml,ln shared :II common social life, as did i1.s.sodil.'ions of Hellenistic .nd Roman timn II.S well as tne confra· lemtlies snd BUilds of medi."al Europe. This is .... Reeled In a CopI;c t""l coming mosl probably from .~ h.a,,, BIBlJOGRAPHl' Bud&e. E. A. W. 54;..' Mich",1 t~ Archa"Kd: Th.ee Encom;"",s. London. 189"'. _ , Misu!larlMus COpl~ Tuets in the Dia/«I of Uppor Egypt. London, 1915, Burmester. O. H. e.. TIl. Ril. of Consecration of tho Palriarch of Moxandria. p. 1). C..iro, 1960. eru",. W. E. Cala/Ofu, of Ih, Coplic Man".,,;p.. i" Ih, British M"~u,,,. London, 1905. Halkin, T., .d. S. " ..cloomit ViI..., rra«..e. B~Is. 19J1. MuRyl'>di, M. "Lcs 'AsIocIa,Io"s n'li~" '"" Ei)'Pte d'apri:s .........rus hwrogl)-phique:s. do!. moIiques eI uecques." One",.I'" t.ov...... ruirislian coofra.c.. rni,m and pagan associalions. Orlandi, T. SrorUJ d.n. dcial", Vol. I. Milan, 1968. Riedel, W., and W. E. CMlm, eds. 11te Csnons oj A'h • 588 CONSECRAnON zacharias ScholWIc:us, Vi" ,,, Sew,,,, "d. M..... K"",ne" PO 2, Paris, 1904. of ~ .... !he udusiw: scnKe of God, In CONSECRATION, to and lhinp 1<> the loW dcd:iCaiion JudaUm. lempl,..., priab, , ~ and other obje<:ts were set apart In solemn c<'«'monles for MCnd purposes. Aflcr their c:r;odus from EjmM. the Israelitn cotU«,..~ all first-born nul" child,.,n 10 the ~rvice of God. and later rWttmed !hem (E>.. U: Nm. 131. and all fi..l-born male hcasu ":el'r offerw as sacrilKe. The tabemacle and irs insuumenl$ and vessocb we,., also sanctified (Nm_ 7), as was the first lemple (l )(p. 7, 8), the occond lemple (Ezr. 6), and lhe _II of Jerusalem (Neh. 12). Churches have alwooy$ bef;n consttralW as placn 01 ChrlSiian worship. In £&YPI, as a ~ulr of lhe ,ucccul.e ",:aves of peneculion that re.triC-ted Chri.IIan worship 10 privale houses and hiding places, Ihe ~rsl church .Ine" Saint Mark', Calhedral in Alexandria was buill b}' Pop" TIlJ;ONAS (282-300), lhe slXleenth pope of Alexandria and palriarch of lhe See of Saini Mark, and dedicd rites for lhe consecration of Pl'lriarchs, bishops, priats, and deacons. and of churches. al"'rs. baplismal ronu. 1;I"rpcal ''CSOCIs. VCSItnCIllS, .....d icons. Ccremonies of consccnl;on can he conducted ....Iy by bishops. AaaUlIS.!Of' BASlU05 CONSTANTINE I (288?-B7). Roman emperor ",110 aJlo>o'ed b=dom of ....,rship ;n the empire, th... endl. . 1M penecution of Ch"",,,,,,,,,, Ftavlll:l Valc-riw; Constantin"" (Comtantine) .... born to Co m, God placed on the $/oieldt of his soldicn. In attordancc with this admonition, he denoted Chris! .... !he shields by inseribinl on them ..... X with 1hc uppt'. ann benl OYtr. Euscbius .c1ates in his Lile of CQrUla"n"e (1.2640) thaI on the "'.., oflhc batde api"'" Mucntius, Consuntinc. convillCed lhat he ""ould nctd the aid of some suptrnaluntl l'O"'~r to prc,'Ill1 in the c0nflict. pondered wtIich lod he shoo.hi wpplKaIC. Recalling Uw the emperors bcfa«: him had placed their hopes in a multitude of JO.-_nt CIllaSlrophn, he resolved to trust In lhe one Sup"",,,e God of his t1uher. He thtn pra)'ed and begged th.. God to ""'cal ..'00 he ,.... and 10 Sland by him ;n his p.cscnt difficultIes. While Constantine " .... Ih"" b<:sceehina God. he and his anny saw in the afternoon sky lhe croes of Christ, cOllsist;ng of liglu, and the legend "By this. conquer." ThaI nighl. after Constantine had fallen asleep ",hile puzzling o'e. the meaning of lhls eplthel, Jesus Chrisl appeared before him "'ilh Ihe sign lhl had shone in Ihe .ky and commanded him 10 usc a likeness of the sign as protection in hi' encounlers with Ihe enemy. Accordingly, Constanline had "'orkers In gold and pn,ciou. Slones conslruci a "'PIka of lhe .Ign. n-.c result "'as a gilded spear wilh a transverse bar 10Ppcen. by ""hom he ...... ;nslnK"ted in the tc:achlnp and doctrines of \he God who had appeared 10 him, Scholars have debated, and conlinue 10 do so :lit greal lenp. ""hat C<>llSl&nlinc actually experienced at the Milvian Brid&c. They disacrcc :also about the appearance and posWble p«-Christian oignikan<:e of 1hc ~ dw Conttanline Ins<:tibcd on his shields, or .aI ltaSl. carried Into baltic. BlJI ""hal is dca... that Con.... nt;ne ac~ as if he had c:r;pericnccd a Iife.<:hangi"l a"Cnt. and shonly thereahcr he bcc::amc a de_ed supponer of lhe beleaguered Chris!ian ,.,liAion. Early in 313, Constantine met in Milan ,,-nh Lici-nius, his fellow A,..USIUS. They formed an alliance. sealed if with lhe marriaae of ConManiine's halfsisteT, Constanlia. 10 licin;llS, and issued Ihe dec",e now known as the Ediel of Milan. The major thrust of the edicl ""as to allO\Ol freedom of ",orshlp to all inhahllaniS of the empire and .pcocifically to halt all p"rsecul;OIl of Chri~lians. U "'ell as to reslore 10 tlte church propc"I". COnfiSCBled In earlier p<'rsc-culions. However, prohibitions againil persecution from ""'lhoo.l1 could n<JI guaranlee peace wilhin the church. Constantine soon found him..,)f embroiled CONSTANTINE I in the Donatisl controversy, which "",pled over lhe discipline of lhose who allegedly belrayed the faith during lhe Greal Pers«ution under Diodetian in 303 and was destined 10 rack lhe church in North Africa for almost four cenluries (see OOi'lATISM). Though his extended and paliem efforts to amitrale the issue laidy and to establish peace between the rival factions mel with failure. Constantine's response to lhe comroversy evinced his genuine con· cern for the well·being of the church. When the Numidian bishops communicated to Constantine their contention that Caecilius' consecration as bishop of Carthage was invalid and lhat Conslantine's support of the Caecilian clergy was partial and unwarramed and asked the emperor to draw up a commiuee of Gallic judges to decide the issue. Conslantine remanded the case 10 the bishop of Rome. who enlisted the aid of three Gallic and ten Ilalian bishops. The case was heard on 2-5 October 313. and the judgment wem against the Numidian faction. which had become known as Donati.t. after its leader DonalU<. When the DonalislS appealed the decision to Constantine. the emperor once again displayed his concern for the welfare and Unil}' of lhe church by convening an"ther hearing al Aries on 1 Augusl 314, This council confinned the verdict of the Council of Rome. Conslant;ne conducted hi. own invesligation inlo the validity of Caedlius· con· secration, and on 10 No,·ember 316 he endorsed Caedliu< as bishop of Carthage and denounced lhe Donalists, whom he had come to see as heretics and schismatics, However, as evidenced by the fact lhat "heretical" Donalism ren1llined the dominant form of ChriSlianity in North Africa for many dec· lOdes thereafter, Constantine"s final verdicl did nOlh;ng 10 heal Ihe rift. During lhe comrm'ersy the peace between Con· slamine and Udnius had begun to wur. eventually breaking down completely in 324. licinius in the east violated not only the spiri"¥>f Ihe Edici of Milan but also its specik prohibili?n againsl persecution of Chrislians. He expelled :Christians from his court, outlawed bishops' couljdls. ruled that Cbristian men and women could n<>t worship to· gelher in churches, and fomade meetings of Chris· tiaM within the cities. There is also some evidence thaI Christians were martyred in the east will. lid· nius' compliance. Such measures and e,'ents must have been galling 10 Conslanline. who openly supponed Chrislianity in the weSlern part of the em· pire will. legislation. building prOSrams. and an oc· casional special dispensalion for Christian cOncemS. In 321 and again in 322, in an ad thaI musl have been calculated to rile his eastem Coon- 589 lerpart. Constantine appointed consuls of his own choosing wilhout lhe approval of Lieinius. Then in 323, Constantine cr,,"sed into the te!Til<>ry of Lidni. us while chasing back invading Goths. who had caused much destruction in Moesia and Thrace. When Ucinius· prolesls won him no satisfaction. war broke out between the Iwo emperors. On 18 Seplember 324. lieini,,", was defealed al Chl)'so~ lis. Constantine spared his life, sending him 10 Thessaloniea, but Lieinius died or was executed~ accounts val)'~not long afterward. Some said he die • 590 CONSTANTINE the NICEN~ CREEP. Eu:selltUS OF CMiS"Rf.A explained that when The f!,-,;T drafT of The creed had been drawn up, Constanline urged all To accepT it after the wo.d "consubstantial" (se<.' HOMOO!.JStON) was added To the description of The Son's relationship with the Fathe. (SocrnTes Hislorin Eccles;nslicn 1,8). Apparently he was concemed that the wording was capable of an Arian interpretation. The motion was carried. The council anaThematized Arius and his teachings. ConStanTine naively beliewd he had squelched the Arian heresy and rosTored uniTy 10 the church, Arius was reinstated in the church at a subse· quenT council in Nicaea in 327, hut ATHANAStUS, who had succeeded Alexander as patriarch of Alexandria, refused to readmit him to the Alexandrian see, d""piTe ConsTanTine's urging. Arius' supporters, working through Ihe MELITtANS, attempTed To dis· credit Athanasiu, and to drive him from his bishop· ric, Their deceptive effons not only came to naught hut also were discoverod to be fmudulent, and CQnstanTine, nOw convinced Ihat Arius' repenlance and return To orthodoxy had noT been sincere, issued an edict thaT all Arian liternture was To be burned and that anyone who concealed Arian texIS sOOuld be put To deaTh. Slill, the pe"",,curion of Athanasius by his MoIi· tian and Arian foes conTinued. Among oTher Things, Athanasius was accused of acquiring his office ille· giTimaTely, of mvishing a virgin, and of killing a Melitian bishop to use his body for sorceI)', When AthalUl$ius' supporters went ouT and found the man ali"e, his deIT""ctors oaid he was using wizardry to fool men's eyes. ConstanTine, innuenced, no doubT, by p~Arians who had access 10 the imperial coun, such as Eu""bius of Nicomedia and his own siSTer, COnSTanTia, scheduled a council at Ty,.., in 335 aT which Athanasius should defend himself from the charges. However, when it became apparenT to Athanasius that The council dominated by those WiTh pro-Arian sym~Thies ;and that his own supporters had ""en locked oui. he Aed To ConsTantinople. But cbarges were soon brought againsT him That he had threatened to cuI of! The vital grain supply from EgypT to COMtantinople. and ConstanTine banished hiro immediately to Trier, where he remained until after The death of the emperor In .;.s 337. Constanline appears to have mcillaTed wildly in his treatment of both Arius and AThanasiu•. Thi. ambivalence is probably to be explained partly by his want of deep understanding of the theological quesTion. aT issue and partly by his zeal To mend The church and make iT whole again in the easieST and quickest way possible. In addition to his conversion to, and support of, ChrisTianity, Conslantine also left hi. mark on the empire by founding the ciTy of ConsTantinople. Fol· lowing The example of Diodetian, who had made moves to esTablish an eastern capiTal in Nicomedia, Con.Tantine established Conslantinople, the "New Rom.... on Ihe siTe of Byzantium. Th. geographical position of The old city was well suiTed 10 .e",·e as The base for the much-ne<:ded imperial presence in The easlern ponion of The empire and for a military bulwark against the incu~ions of eastern nomad. such as the Sc}thians, Goths. and Sannatae. ConSlantine maimained IhroughoUl hi. life thaT he had built the ciTy in obedience To Goo's command. Tmdition STates That when ConsTanline was marking off The boundaries lor the city's walls, one of hi. advis· e~, alanned at how far afield the emperor was Tracing the line, .xpressed concern To his ruler. ConsTanTine replied that he would continue fotward umil the invisible guide marching bef",.., him Thought iT righT to stop. Work on the new capital was begun in 326, and fonnal dedication rites werc held in May 330. The cily included many of the features of Rome, such as The Senate, bul the pre· dominant inAuence Throughout ,,"'as ChrisTian; the pagan Temples and shrines of the old capital were not to be found in ConstanTinople. ConstanTine died on May 337. n BIBLIOGRAPHY Alf5ldi. A. The Convusion of Clms/anline and P~g~n Rome. Oxford, 1969. Barnes, T. D. Con51am'Me aMd EU5ebiu5. Cambridge. Mass., 1981. &lyn",. N, H. COMsMMline Ihe Grear nMd the Chri5lian Church, 2nd ed. Oxford, 1972. Deenies, H. ConS/anline Ihe Grear. trans. R. H. Bainton. New York, 1972. Firth, J. B. Co>tS/nnline Ihe Greal: The Rc"rgnni,alion of Ihe Empire nnd Ihe Triumph Q( Ihe Clturch. New York and London, 1905. Kae,ztes, P. Conslantine: A Greal Christian Mon· ~rch nnd Apostle. AmsTerdam. 1981; includes En· glish translaTion of documents relevant TO the rna· jor e.'ents in Constantine's life. !U.NOAU STeWART CONSTANTINE, sixth-seventh-c.nTury bi.hop, of As}'iil. [This em')' Clm5isiS of Iwo "nd ConsTantin.·s Writings.] ~rTide" HisTOI)' CONSTANTINE: History History A summaI)' of Constamine's life has come down complete in a unique manuscript of the Sahidic recension of the Arabic SY~.u.o.RlON of the Copts, depo.ited at Lu~or. There also exists for the Ii"'t pall and identical with the above document an iso· lated leaf (NationallJbrary. Pans, Arabic 4895). Hi. feast day is II Amsh1r. This text reports thai COlI$tamine received the monaslic habit from the hands of his brother AnbA Moses. otherwise unknown. in a monastery that un· folluoately is not named. Ten young men emb",c"" the monastic life on that day. Among them. in addi· tion to Constantine, was Rufu•. the future bishop of Shu!b (Hypselis!Shotep), and AnM Yiisab (Joseph), who .ubsequently became bishop of Isfa~t (Apollinopolis Parva!Sbe~t). AnM YtisAb is not otherwise I:nown, but RUl'1JS OF SH(YrE. is the author of corn· mentaries on the Gospels, pall of which i. extant, and of senoons preserved in an Ar.d>ic version, His name is also cited in Ihe second encomium of Con· stant;ne on Saint Claudius of Antioch (PO 35. p. 614), The Synaxarion continues Ihat Con.tamine mem· ori,ed Ihe New Testament, except for the Apoca· lypse, and the Psalrm and Ihe Prophets, Constantine was consecrated as bishop by the patriarch DAMIAN between 578 and 605. Damian also made him his vicar for Upper Eg>pt, and dedared. "I shall conse· crate as bishop only him who has with him a writing fmm your hand," This function of palriarchal vicar is allested b}' other texts for other bishops. There was one for Lower Egypl and another for the $ald. It seems to ha"e been exercised above all in the confirmation of Ihe election of new bishops, as suggested by the passage of the Synaxarion relating 10 Constantine. He was no longer a patriarchal vicar from the time of his elevatio,:, to the episcopate. That Constantine was bishop ~the period of Pa· triarch Damian i. also conlinne 591 phrase the literary activity of the saint: "He com· po.sed sennons in great number, lives of martyrs and of saint.," His pastoral acts are mentioned as well: "He 592 CONSTANTINE: Constantine's Writings diocQe who remained in the ""hi.m bqun by h~ predecasoT Ol> ~ Ihronc of Asy1l!, MclitillS, in the foIlrth cenl"'l)'. """-'OGRA>Hy &II, H. I.. and W. E. Crum. hw!. ",tJ Cltnmll'u in EvPf. I.m>don. 1924. Coquln, R.-G. "50""'1 Comonlin, Mqoc d'As~. H o.wmw Stwdill Chrism"", Coltect.""" 16 (I~1r.151-10. CNm. w. E. '"Somt Fut1htr M~i:lon Document$." Iourn,,1 o{ EgypMn AJ'ChcoIoo U (1927):19-26. Caritt", G. "Constantin, tvtq..., d'~:' In Coptic Studies in Htmo, o{ W. E. C....m. 8uU"fin 01 the 8Yt1'",;"" I..",,..te 2 (1950):287_ 3O Ji.sit:~to /94/-/917. VoJ. I, pp. 119-36. Louvain·!a·Ncun. 1980. "Coo.. amin, cV~<J.ue d'As$iool." In Diction· .."i'e d'Ms!<Ji,e .f de gcog,,,phie ecc!fsiUfiqucs. Vol. 13, col. 623. -..-cO R£Nt-GOOlOfS COQUIN Constantine'. Writings, The Coptic I~ition ...... pro.idc .""t _rl. tail" see a.AtIt>rU5 Of' At-."1!OCH). 1. The Anbic I""t of me ucond. panqytic: (encomium) of SIIml Cw.di.us lhc Man)T it ""published. At letil lwo manuscripl$ conwn it: OM II Pam (Arabe lint> [f.cypI, 18ifI, lot 10Ia-l5b) and ~ ocher at f10~lK" (lau~nliana, Oricntll 204 (EgypI, 1508). lois. 69a-l39b). oJ. The beginnin8 of ~ panegyric (encomium) of Saln. Ccorze is found in Sahidk Cop!k In Pari. (Coptic 129/161b [t_lith e.,."lury}. fols. 8&b-9Jb). C.rilt~ published this lut with a Lalln Il"Ilnslation. without rcf~rrillg to th~ Arabic .'ef'$ion (i9S•. pp. 271-17). The Arabic text is known from a aingle manu· script, still unpublished (Coptic Museum, C.lro, Hlllol)' 472 [Egypt, .eventeenth century), copied by NIl!!~Il'h Ibn FarajallAh al-TOkhl; Oraf no, 71512nd; $imaykah no. 1(6). Folios 73a-13111> eontllin five diICouI"SC$ on m~ miracles of Saini George, composed by Th«>philUi of Aieulldria, Aca<:h... of l,.d- da, SEVEIIll5 oi Anlloch. Basil of e-rea. and Con. •Wln.... of ~ This las! di5COO.l...e """"I probably a>nl.llins "'" compkte homily; unfonunately, Iho Graf aDd Sirnaybh eataJos:s pro._ no indpit, and Un>. !he idenlily oi the 1""1$ rnnains uncC'l'tain. if lhe Copcic and Al"Ilbic 1""1$ f""OV" 10 be dilIcnnt, this .......wd pnnidc a new won to add to the list oi Coostanline'$ _rb in AI"Ilbk. •. The ~m P""'ecric (tocomium) of lhc martyr Jobn of Hcl"lld.". has 'lUrri\oc CONSTANTINOPLE, FIRST COUNCIL OF ~ his winp. My belowd ones ... "wn AnbI Damianos, !he Archbishop of A1aandria. sen! lOr- IIle. me •..., wrt:IChed Co..,lanliJl,.,. and conse<:no.ed IIle a bishop. "i"""'I my being "",nhy of II, for 1M lee of !he c,'y of A..iuL ..." Copllc Pa,riarenale. Cairo, HislO<)' lot (Graf no, 445; Slmaykah 2. no, 632 [£gypl, 1691-1693J. fok 224b-24Sa), The catalogs gIve nO Incipil. COplic Patriarchate, Cairo. Hislory 80 (nOl in Cra.f; S; ......ymh 2. no. 621). 2nd pieu. copied by lhe priesl V........ f. On 7 ~'(lnah 1345/1 J..ne 1649; Ihe caWo, liYC5 no Incrpil. SainI Anlhooy. HUlory 107. rols- 17O¥-Uo... 5. The wcond diocoune in ""1>01" of lhe mart)T John d Heradea is entitled "On the Findlnl of H" Body and !he Drdication of His Church on 4 Kiyahk [130 No....: mbeTj." II sunh"f$ in a sire1e rnanuKripl (Copri<: MlIKUn>. Cairo. His\ooy 475; Gnlf no. 718; Simaykah I. no. 102 (fcypl. fourleemh eenlury), fo!. 39b, then a lacuna d elghl shcell, Ihen 48a-49b), The indpit (Arabic leat in Gnof. p, 275) read" "~ allenllve. 0 holy Falllers and brOlhers ... , 10 my poor speech. me your spirilual hilieT. wrelehed and poor:' It ohould be lIOIed lhal Ihis Os read 0fI 4 1G)'ahk. and no. 0fI 4 BiI'urWI. like the lol'el"inl 1....1. 1M Coplic IC1I is .. and 1M Arabic lext .. unpublisMd This _rle is not Iisl:ed by Garine. •. The homily 0.. 1M Fllile.. Soul IIJ E.m In- niJ World is kno.... n froon a 501e Anobk man .... ",ripl (Coplic Palriarchale. Cairo. ThcoIocY 245 {>evenlcenlh century). fob. 54a-68b; Graf no. 544; Simaykah no. 354). Neither of the lWO cau.logs p"'" vides Ihe incipit, The Arable texI is unpublished. and the Coplic teXl is unknown. 7. ne teal, panegyrle (encomium) of Saint hi. dorus of Antio<:h (or or Chi",,). M yot unpublished and praclically unknown, is prcscn"Cd in a ,inlle rnanl.&ripl (Saini Anthony, Hisloryo'23. fob. 3b4lla). Il is imended for 19 Bashans, The Anbic tradition laclQ !he twu ~ cl Salnt A1hanasius Sound in Coptic records. The one~e nlrKt from a homily on Leol and tho: 6east of "-'CT. read 0fI lhe Monday hefore Easur al selll (published by Bu~CT). is probably found in the ArabK: Icclionaries for Holy Week. although it is nOl mentioned in Kholuly literature. ne Arabic tradition provides the eomplele text of the panegyric of Saint George, tho beainning of which su,...,.ive~ in Coptic, The Arabic i150 contain. 1Wl) pfllOClYriCS in hooor doc mllrtyr John Her· acltll. tM fim of which has evcl)thing in flo....... of "'.,..,"T nmo....... its aulhenlicity. '" yet unknown in Coptic. Also a homily uists on lhe fallen .soul and its cait ITorn this world. the CopIie .-enion of whicll h. nOi. been found. Aim..... all the information concernin8 ConsIamine of As)"l! is Iransmilled ....cluslvdy by tne Arable l.-.dition or the COllI•. FOI" "arioui rea· 5Ono (not eacluding prejudice), none of these A1I1' bie Itll~ nas been published 10 dat., BIBLlOClUl"1'If A.mlloe~, E. C. "Mart)Te d'apa Clau~ d'Anli· ach.:' E",des crnhloJoF'I". I~isliques .f hisroriqulS. l1ide-oo, IU5. Cnmt, w. E. A CbU' Manuscripts Ae'i"ired "" tM Tno"e.s 01 fir. Britislt Museum SilfCt 18~. London. 1912. Carill•• G. "CoMlaJllin, t>'eque d·~out." In Coptic Siudies In HO'nOf" of Wolle' Ewing C",m, 8oJ1Ie· tin of the By>anline Inslhule 2, pp. 287+304. 80s. Ion. 1950. Reedited in G. Garin., Scrip/a dlJlocla 1941_/977 I, pp. 119-136. Louvain·la·Ntu>'C. 1930, "Lt Panqyrique de S. Georj;;es allribue it. Constanlin d·Msiout." U AjMSion (1954):271- n. Gnof, G. C"t,,~ de "'''"''$Cril~ ."d or or 593 KHAu!. SA.""... S. J. CONSTANTINOPLE, FIRST COUNCIL OF, summoned by Emperor Theodosius 1and ton· voned at Const~n\inople in May and June 381. and roeogniU "Macedonian" bisltopJ, mainly from wesle", Asia Minor....bom 1I1e emperor and the CO\lncil .....nly u-led 10 con~nce lhat the Holy Spirit did indeed ~nklpate fully In lhe p::>dhcad ....nh the Fathn- and the Son, and INt 10 deny this was Arian . ...,. The "Mac:edonian~ ...... e "'as only one naw>fI foe lhe ...mrno!>$ ol the CO\lncil. The main reason ....as lbe empcrQl"'. decenninalion 10 unite the empire on lhe bas.is of the Nicene failh. As a preliminary, ;m· medialol~ on his arrival in Con.tantinople on 24 November 380 (Socrates Seholastieus Hi.wri" ec· cles;lI$lic" V.ol, he summonwthe :semi-Arian bish. op Dt:n>ophilus and gave him Ihe choice of :.ccept· ina t"" Nlcene Creed or deposition (25 No-ernbet' • 594 CONSTANTINOPLE, FIRST COUNCIL OF )110). To 1m honor. Demophil... chose lhe buet c....,.,.,. had. ~r. been a rnas>drnbk &hift in 11'", empe.......s rdij;1ous oudoalo; since '0 ... ' ' 1I lhe ,..,Ii~n ·hich he onte""d his subjKl$ 10 lI desiilJIiL:tJ VIl .... 21. Once arri"ed in Con'ta"'inople. !he emperor btgan '0 ~ lo...1ll'd a mon: e.o.slCrn "'~nl. On 10 JIUlUOll)' 381 ilJl Mlcl set.in, OIl' .he Nicenr failh made 00 men.ion of Pope Damasus or Pel"" of Aleondria. but simpi)' _ed .hal .he failh axocned ~indlmibk .... bSIance ollhe un· Cc, T...'e1ve Apo5Iles in .he dl)' (end 01 380). council thaI Theooosius nOW summoned was rlcsigned ratify Ihe5e deciSions and unite 'he em· pi"" behind Ih" emperor's polici .... In Ale.andrla, how"ver. Bishop Peler had played an uncernaln If nOl a double game. ln 379 he had been b)' no meaM un"illlng to accept C~ory t i bishop of ConstaD.inople_ Bul before he died on 14 Februa.,.. 380 he had c~led his views. Using an unlll:rvpu' lous adventurer named Ma.\imus the C)-nic. hi! set up ilJl intrigue '"C"ill$l Grqo.,.. IUld acllDlly ...m tome su/fragan bisholXl 10 romecrale Max;1n\1S as bishop of Con5Ianlil'>dllle (C«gory of NaUanws. CanMn de seip50 XI.at4-&41. 9IOff.;' After PelleT' died. his successor. TitnOlhy (380-Jll5), "''as equally I>o:$ile 10 GreK"'Y. and ...'hen!he council ,,",",mbled in May• ....,.., ...~ already faclions. The Wnlern group. ineluding 4mbl"OSC' of Milan. lellned Maximus. while lhe Eastern. "ilh Ihe ucqnion of lhe Eg,l'tian bishops, was ootid in its suppo" of CretO"", From the ou....,1 the liner gained the uppe' hand. The president of Ihe counell was MeI",;us of Am;· <.> '0 I"" "'nn T"" '0 '"""rd was duly en.hroned as bishop;n May 381. Mele.i...· dea.... followeun· cil's deci$ions "'e,.., 10 be far from pala~le 10 Ale.· andria. The canon. of lhe council condemned all Iypes of Arianism, logelher wilh the "Macedonians" and Apollinarlan. (eanon I). Canon 2 developed the leg' islalion of Ihe Council of NICAI'." as to Ihe lerrilorial jurisdiclion of Ihe major see. and added Ihe Imp<><· tant proviso that biw.olXl should nol Inlerie~ In the a1Jairs of "Iyil dio«ses o.her than their OWn. In particular .he bishop of Alexandria muSI confine himself F.g)'pI. AJ a rider Ihi<. canon 3 0rdained thai CooStaminopioe $hould h""e: an honoDTJ' preeminence aher JWmc, ''because Constamin· ople i......... Rome." Canon 4 repudiated Muimly Spoiril .... de· fined. and ..en.1 ehanJf:S we"" IT\lIlde in lhe leXl of Ihe Nicene Creed moved away &om lhe Slnc. Nieene standpoint championed Rome in opposition 10 il. The posilion or Con..an.inople was guaram"ed finally by canon 28 of the Council of CHALCEDON. II was nOl until the end of the ACMIAN stHISM in 519 Ihal lhe papaey accepted lhe Coun.,;l of ConsUtnlinople as an ecumenlc.1 council. Even then. il main· lained .ilenl ce,;e....'allon. ""garding canon 3. The Firsl Councilor Constantinople opened lhe period when difference. among COll5lan.inople. Aleun' dna. aoo Rome dominated the hu.o.,.. of Christiani· .0 '0 .ha. ""''f:TSC CONSTANTINOPLE, SECOND COUNCIL OF ty and ltd 10 dw major d;_... ion bet...«n and thr: CMhcc PO'riar<:hatcs. A1~ BIBUOGIlAPtly Bard,., G" and J. R-- Palanque. '1..e Condie dot Con· ...ntinopl-e." In HiJ_~ d~ rltliu. ed. A. Ftkhe and V. Manin, Vol. 3, lIP. 2I5-9Z. Pam, 1947. Bois, J, "Constantinople (Ier coneile dot):' In Dic/io,,,,,,ir~ de Tloi%gu c'l/hoIiq..~, Vol. 3, CQ/•• 1227-)1. Pari•. 190&. Rrilht. W. NoleS Oft th~ Canons of rh~ First Four C~n~'QI Councils. Znd ed, O"ford, 1892. Gr~gory of Nnian2US. CantlinQ de seipso. In PG 37, culs, 961_1452. Paris, 1862. Hanson, R. P. C. Th~ &drch for th. Christ;'", Doc· rrin. 0/ Cod, cl\ap. 23. Edinbut'llh, 1988. 1I~1t1 •. C. 1., and H. l«lcrcll, lrallS. HUloiu du coneiJ." Vol. 2, pl. I, pp. 1-48.. Paris, 1907. Kelly, J. N, D. Early Chris/Uln Cr~.ds. London, 1950, Kidd. B. J. HiJl CONSTANTINOPLE, SECOND COUNCIL OF, known as lhe fifth &enffill council and con· \'Olted by EmperQr J.... tin;.", 1 In May SS3. It ..... presided o~r by Patriarch Euty<:hiuJ 01 Con.tamin· ople, and attended by 165 bi.hops, nearly all from the eastern and Greek·sp"aldnll provinces of Justini· an'. empire. The main object of lhe coundJ was 10 modify (without appearing 10 do so) the decisions and autllority 01 the Council of CHAt.C(D(lN by ~Qfl' cilll of Easlern and Western ecclcsia5lical rdations. In addition. tM council biled 10 bridJ~ !he wideni", pdf bet~n !he ~. amine Onhodoa ehurch and lhe Monoph~es. ,hw; consolidaline!he breach between lhe Mekhile and Coptic·Monop!tysile churches in fc)'P!. The genesis of Ihe coun~;1 goes back to S38 with the dealh 01 S(VEaUS Of ANTIOCH, wl\o$c theology had been c\>ndemne 595 lion of !he T _ of LB:I I THIl (;llEAT and !he dec.. &ion5 of Chakedooo thai. _ld mul Moftoph.}'$ik obtKtions ..-nile -.airline lhoe a.unomy of thoe Toone and 1M council. The lim allelnpt, rqwescnl' tit by idem nnalWiDe from !he Palc:Yinian monks.. l~nded Orillenism, and _ COl\Mm"l'd in an e.:lkl t"-' abo condemned 0 _ ""d Origen. ism, publW>ed in Jerusal~m in F~bruary 543 (Evag· nus HiSloritl ~ccfu;,..tic" IV.38). However. on~ of th~ Otigenist Ie-.ders, TheodOfU. Askldas, was befriended by Jus,inian and promoted to the influential bishopric of C..,sarea in Cappado· cia. lIil1 inllucnce now ~ame paramount at court, repbcing that of the papal repre..,ntati,'CS. Askida.s belie~d that religi".." unity could be restored in tM EMt if thoe emperor could brine about tlte lor· .....1 condotmnalion of the theolOlY of Tbcodorus of Mopstlestia, "Tlteodon! of CyrThus, and lba$ of Ede:!a, aU rq>tYStowiva of !he Anliocbellt "",hool of lheolo«Y. Ibas's IettC'f 10 lhe P~rsian pusbyt.er Maris 1hM criticiled Cyrirs Chrislolot:t', Th«>dotet's rejolndet- 1O Cyril's T"'e"~ AnMhernas, aDd !lOme outspokenly Antiochcnc writinp of TbcodoIuI were ...,prdcd as osptrisIly obnOJt...... 11vse com· prised lhe '11lrtt Chapt~n" tit.. ~ offend lOr condemnation. A$ bolh Chalcedonians and anti· Chslcedonians in ,he EasI could ~ On ,his propOSllion, ;1 ...... hoped lha, un;ly could then be reo '10re ,_-ani 596 CONSTANTINOPLE, THIRD COUNCil OF AskicLu. and other Ea..em bisl>op5, Vi,;lius uoom· 'r...or>kated !hem (II AugUSf 551). He had in .he meamime been broughl .0 CoIutanlinople: now, Inrin. IDr his life. he fled 10 Chakedon and ~ 10 praidoe al W general eouneil thal W emperorwas ~n. '0 summon. The council mel on S Ma~ 5SJ. V..aius issuee<>logy of Theodon>s (Ihe fourth, fifth. slxlh. and twelfth uplicitlyl. lhe thineen.h IpilUl Theodoret. and !he foun<:enlh apins' lbu. The pC>Ili.ive docu",e of the council m~ to"'....d the Monoph)'!liles in permiuin. Ihe acknowledg· men. of w Son "ou. of 'wo natures," bu. the COf' ollal)' tha. He ...... of ODe nalU..., after lI.e Inc.ma· .Ion _ condemoed {anal......... 3). n.e term much used duriltC !he debates .hal Iheft "'1$ in lhe Son "OfIe divi....... uman .... ergy" (",;" ,lte""drib ~,,~,. frio) all1icipates the attempted ~ cOt!>' promiw of Heraclius in the nol «nIUl)'. 'IlIeM: COIKess>oftS. howe',e!', were compn>miloed by the councll's p;pli<:it ...,ceptance of the canonical 1m... of tIM: doctrine of ~ Jour preYiOU$ councils (i.e., includinl Chalcedon).•lIter came 100 bee 10 hah the emervnc~ of a Monoph~le churrh wilh ilS own hlenorchy. in ' .0 569. Ind Aquileia did not telurn to communion ",ilh Rome unl;] Ibe end 01 Ihe 5eVenlh CeJllUl)'. The council fallN 10 heal .he Monoph)'!lile schi.... while funhu alieN1lrl1.he Western churches from Conl.Wl1inople. It provided JU5linian with a lemponry triump/l 001 made i"....itable the threeo fold division of Chmoendom inlO W~lem and 1'1' pal, B}....nline and Onltodox.,.nd Syrian and ""'Iic Monopftysite churches. !lIAUOCItAI'HT Bindley. T. H.• and F. W. Greeo. 1M OeCWtKIIK:.u DccumDl1:J of ,h~ F~;,It. 4.h ed London. 1950. The anathem. wilh a brief inuoduction are reprinted 0fI pp. 151-56. B<m. J. "ConMan.inop!e (lle coocile del." In Vi"" li CONSTANTINOPLE, nURD COUNCIL OF. This, .he Si1th «lllMnical n$ on II> Seplember 611. The number of bishops at· lendinl undet- »0. and .he minults of the .... liCMion !t, 0"'" 114 '!&nalUres a!tache$ionl. In 624 a recOD' ciliIlg formula "'1l$ d..""D up thai asunnl Ihere were IWO nalures in Christ bUI only one mode of aCli.il)' or "eneraY'-1 formula fOlJnd earlier in Ihe wriling$ of cn,lL 01' "L~ORt.., The fonnula. how......... was rejected by Sophruniul of Jerusalem, and in corre.pondence on Ihe lubje~1 between Ser· gius, palriarch of ConMnminople, and Pope HonoriuS Ilhe Ianer u$<:d lhe lerm "one will" in Chrisl. which soon replaced Ihe more acceptable "one en· ergy." TI>e term ....as us.-:d In Ihe Eclhetis iswe CONSUBSTANTIATION Emperor Heradius [ in 638, ",hich forbade mention of energy and admitted only "one will." This bee3me the rallying c'l" of the Monolhelite._ How_ ever, the ECIM.,;S was withdrawn by Emperor Con· slans II in 648 and was replace 597 lilisme." Eclt", d'Ori""l 27 (1928):6-16, 257-77; 18 (1919):19-34, 171-82; 29 (1930):16-28. Hi:fele, C. J., and H. Leclercq, Imn•. His/oire des concileJ, Vol, 3, pt. I. pp. 471-538. Paris, 1909, Schaff, P., and H. Wace, cds. A SoI.CI Lib,,,,)' of N;un~ and Posl.N;cen~ Ft1Jhu" Vol 14, Th~ Seven Ecumenical Council" ed. Henry A, Percival. pp. 325-52. Grand Rapids, Mich,. 1956. LEsLIE W, BARNARD CONSUBSTANTIATION, theologicaltenn appiied by Manin luthe. 10 Ihe actual substantial cO" e.istence and combination of Ihe Body and Blood of Chrisl with the bread and wine of communion following the eucharislic consecration of Ihe ele· menlS. This doctrine is rejeclcd by Ihe Onhodox church, which holds that the bread and wine, through a mystical lronsformation not easily graspens and enlreati", Itave not been made, there is only bread and wine. But after the gcc", m- d 598 CONSULTATIVE COUNCIL and wonderful p"')'C~ have b«n complele Ju ......... W. A. 11u: Fail" of/he &,ly F,,/Mrs. Vol. I. CoIltV"ille, Minn" 1970. CONSULTATIVE martyr-monk by Ihe name of Co".-es. who il nam...! with anoth.,.. monk and a soldier called. Aluander. II is nol ...id whe..., Ihry ~rst: led the asCeiil! lift!, and H. Delebaye:. in "w Manyrs d'Ec,yple" (1922, esp. p. 90). adoan<:ed the opinion thlt 'hC:K manyB had been assimiLaIed. to Ih" monb Copres and PaltntlUthius of Chapter 10 of lhe ItISTQR.lA II'OIlACHOltt'M L.. Al'Gl"J'rl) but wi!hou. adduci"g proofs for his .iew; this is themo'" only. _"'inl hypothesis. The (opn::s of the Synaxarion (23 TOt) was an Egyptian monk marlyrtd uru:J..r the emperor Julian the Apostale. which .1l0>l'S \OlIO Ioca,e him chronologically. His notic" ;n lhe Greek S}-non is banal and docs nol ptolick any noIewonhy details. Th" Copres menlioAed for his: of wisdom in the Apop/llMpltUd Pd""'" was • solitary of~.,.. tis (the modem WIod! aJ-Na!rtin). 1bcn: Is nothing 10 5UGC5I attribulinl the Ih,eoe •.Ila.yin.... placed under Ihe name Copna 10 thne -e. Coprc:s also ""'de known the "bril· liam achioeve",enl5" of elhe. ",lilaries, such as Sourou., Isaiah, Palll, Anoup. and Helle. Tllanks .0 him, his visilOrs "..,~ able 10 describe in detail the life, and ..cli""s, sometima. miraculous, of lhesc "fathers of the de,..,n." Their stOrie••re somelimes linge a' ""'Om COUNC~ ~~ known as lhe High Cou.ncil. 1M Council of the Ciuodd.the Khcdivial Diwan. 1M General AsKrnbly, the House of Cotn..-u. OC" lhe CcnenJ Council), coun· cil Ioun&ed by ~''''UD W in 182-4 10 deal with all the inlernal albi" of EI)PC- no! rew"'! 10 financial matlers. The cooncil's basic ~tions _no iswed. on 3 JanlW)' 1825: in 1830 those doeaIinl wi1JI ,he orpnb:ation of Itl meeTinp _..., issued. These wet'e folJo.,.td by rule and regulations ...,w· ed. 10 itI orpniDlion and 1lru<::lure. n.e moa im· portanl was the provision made: in article 4 of the rqulalions mued. on I AuI\'Sl 18J.t, which rtad. "consi ·'cases ....hioch concem til<: Islamic Code II mUSl include lWO 'ule.....s. Also ahal i' ....ill have b<:fore il caKS dealing ",i!h mode and supplies which calls for Ihe prC!lI!nce of lwe rnuchanl5 10 deal wilh mallers,1llt- High (""neil will abo need IWO derts CO.Wer58n1 In accountancy to be ""'N5led with keepi". accounls.·· II _ Ihrough Ihis b!1 door thai a number of Copts, e~pert accounlants. were able 10 ;oi" Ihe council. aOl lhey were only a few, and by Ihal 'ime th" council had uhaulled ilS validilY, having been leplaced by Olh"r counoils lhal look 0"'" lis func· lions. .we; YONAN LASI8 RIZO BIBLlOC."PHY COPRES, SAINT. monk and martyr. The Creek Synaxarlon gives Information al tWO dales about a Delehaye:, H. "Les Martyrs d'Egyple." Analecla 801(andim,a 40 (1922):5-154,299-364, Gibson, M. D. CMa(o£..e of ,he Arabic Ma,,,,scrlpls COPT in Ihe Converll of St. Cotherin' On Mounl Sino;. Studia Sinaitica 3. London. 1894. Goo. G. Calclogue des manu.crir. orab.s-ch,oliens COnserve. au Caire, Studi e lesti 63. Vatican City. 1934, Ward. B. The Sa)"ings of Ihe Desul Falhus: The Alphobelical Col/ecrion. London, 1981. RENE·GEORGES eooulll COPT. Defining the word "Copt"' is not an easy mat1~r. Grntuitous applications of th~ telm in many cil'Cum.tanc~s have come together under the Cop· tic umbrella, ro;uhing in a surpri.ing mi~ture of connotations, A definition, therefore. lhat considers factual usage o. acceptable conventional usage be· comes necessary. The root of th~ word selVes "" a beginning. Two etymologieo .ha"e been proposed. One is based on homonymy. which conne<;ts the term with th~ name of the city Coptos (modern Qiq), situaterl about 25 miles (40 km) northe,,"! of Lu~or. In thi. city in Upper Egypt the Copts have been. and still an:, more numerous than elsewhere in the coumry. a fact that tends to support thi' Ih~ory. However. today Qiq is largely Muslim. and in Ihe past it w,," neve' distinguished"" a c~nter or place of Cop!ic activit)", "" was AsyU! or Suh~j. farther to the north in Upper Egypt, The..,fo..,. homonymy h"" no historical justification that would authorize a deriva· tion of the word in relation 10 the city of Coptos. The oth~r hypothesis ..,05 in the ....'ord Copt the equivalent of the Greek AigyplOsjAlgyprioi, but reduced to the root cOnsonants. This reduction in· deed took place in Anable administrative acts from the time of 'he Muslim conquest of the country in 641. The mos, obvious probability (still awailing te"ual evidence) is that the vocabl. passed thus from th."" acts imo Ih~ spok.n language, as would be natumt. In Ambic neither "oweb nor diphthongs are tmnscribed, So in this manner 1,gyptosjAigyptioi becam~ !cpl, and in the subsequen~ pronunciation, "Copt,"' to designate th~ counlry and its native inhabitants. It should be noted that the Gr.ek words Aigyptosj Aigyplio; tbemselves S«m to have been formed by lhe Greeks upon the name of the principal sanctuary in the north of Egypt. thaI of tbe ancient Cily of Memphis. dedicate, for which the C..,eks did not tran""ribe lhe a.spirat~d .ounds and modified tbe vowels. No doubt the Greeks decide 599 most ancient Egyptian center in tbe north where they had first ..,nled, Con.equenlly i, w"" uoed for ethnic and geographic purposes more than for its religious appurtenance.. Had it been OIhelWi.." the Greeks would cenainly have opted for the sanctuary of Amon·Ra at Karnak in Luxor. From the ambizalion of AigyplQsjAigyprioi, and from tbe etymology reconstructed the.efrom, there is reason to conclude that tbese words take on firsl of all a geographic ..,n"". and second, a meaning that is essentially ethnic. Thus they signify none other lItan Egypt and lhe EgyptiaM of the period immediately following the pharaohs, The same tbing, of course, mu.t be .aid for the word "Copt." Semantic. and circumstances have, nevertheles., added a local religious and Chri.tian ..,nse to the original meaning of "Copt." In effec', the word "Copt" served to distinguish the conquering Ambs, who were Muslims, from the nati.'e inhabitants of I'.8-vpI, the greal majority of ,,"'hom wen Christians. A. a consequence, the tendency to idemify Muslim with Amb sp..,ad throughout the Islamic world. II w"" later strengthened by a prOiressive conversion of Egyptian Christians to blam under th~ p..,ssure of considerable burdens, notably fiscal, which weighed upon them to the point that within tbree c~n,uri.. only a minority remain.d failhful 10 ChristIan beliefs~a minority very importanl to ,hi. day, It is wi,h the elements of this minority lhat the Crusaders of the thirteenth century deal!. The same thing may be said for European travelers who at lhe end of the sixleenth century were interested in the manuscripts of the Coptic mon""terie•. So the IeI'm "Cop!" took on, and bas kept, a meaning thaI i. inoeparably ethnic and Christian, From lhat tim~, for means of cla.<sification, mod· ern historians ha.e gone back chTOnologically and have adopled an older meaning from a time ante· rior to the formation and usage of the word. In ~ffect, thi. comple~ inte'l'relation has bun affixed to all the indigenous inhabitants of Egypt and to e,'erything concerning them <Wer a period of history dating !Tom lhe third to the middle of the 'e>" ~nth century-with no other distinction. Within Egypt the word "Copt"' pntained to the language, wc;aI life, an, and liturgy (Christian). More e~len si"ely, outsid~ of Egypt, it ""'''" appiied to those people to whom 'he word seemed appropriate: the Elhiopians, for e~ample, by reason of their ties with Christian Egypt, ties that were ecclesiastical (hierarchy and administmtion) and liturgical or dogmatic. Th~ ... me may be said for lhe Syro-Jacobites and the Annenians becau"" of th.ir official MOIIOPHYStT· 600 COPT 1SM. Such was the amplitude reached by the word "Copt" brought about arbitrarily by .chola.... It came abom in a rather natura! way. since it all had to do .....ith the people from which this minority had come and with eve'11hing connected to them. h was. however. no less an anachronism. character· ized, at the same time. by a much abused generali· zation. The need to distinguish by this .....ord the native Egyptians from tlte occup)'ing Roman or Byzantine powers, or later the Arab conquerors. brings nO justification at all. Moreover. accepting these erroneous applications and definitions causes immediat< problems. The first of tltese. and one that supersedes all the others. seems to have been vinually unnoticed to the present. The word "Copt" to mean "Egyptian Christian" cannot be reconciled with the characterization by modern hi.torian. of "Copt" as a period of time, from tlte third to the middle of the seventh cen,ury. including all the Egyp'ian people. not all of whom were Christian. This objec,ion is more credible when considering that the Egyp'ians did not awaken '0 find themselvcs all Chri.tian a"he beginning of the ,hird century. any more than other people, Christianity. on ,he contrary, did not attain a majority in Egypt until ,he middle of the fifth century. The majority of the people up '0 tha1time had been on the side of tbe pagan Eg~iptians, whose influence did not recede all at once, And yet 1hese pagan Egyptian. canno' be separated totally from the Christian Egyptians. For they ail had in common their social ,tatus, taxes and other obligations. language, an. and. for some, a magic or gnostic literature. The attribution of the label "Copt"· 10 this mixed ODciety is difficult in the extreme, Under the guise of simplification, only confusion resulted. In addition. the frequent extension in the reli· gious sense of the word "Copt" to Christian Ethio· pians. Syro·Jacobites. and Annenian. makes it radio cally and arbitrarily empJy of its essential ethnic base. I~, application in tliese communities to the period that prccMe, the formation and use of the word by the Arab conquerors of Egypt makes this usage as anachronistic a~d unjustifiable as wh~n used in referring to this same peri<xl in Egypt, The label of "Copts" conferred upon Onhodox Egyptian Christiaru; who during the nineteenth cen· tury bttame Catholic or P'rotestant-all the while keeping to the Coptic ritual-iS more acceptable. in that it limits the creation of new distinctions among the Egyptian Chri.tiam. Nevenheless, it maxesc the usage of the word .till more <:omplex, And. to add to the confusion, the profe..ion of agnosticism by cerrain contemporary Copt. removes the religious value from a word that had de.'e1oped an ethno·re· ligious meaning. without clarifYing it at aiL One would be tempted to cast a.ide the improper usages of the word and 10 impose upon it a d"finition taking into ac"ount only facts, whatever their complexity. But this .....ould create new confusion because the anachronisms de.cribed above have be· come accepted, and hence make up a pan of the word's meaning, It .seems wiser to endorse th"m all with deliberation. but to offer at the same time more acceptable bases for their conventional usage. With .uch re<:koning, the in-egularities could sen-e scieminc truth. Only the mw;t impo.., iblc ones would be rejected, especially cenain inadmi.. ible exten.ions of the term. From this perspedive, the following outline can be propo,ed, In Egypt or Concerning Egyptians L The Coptic period in Egypt lasted from the second century B.C. to the middle of the seventh century A,D, It. lerminu. a quo is justified by th" beginning of the fonnation of the Coptic language. last stage of the I'.g)-ptian tongue, traced up 10 that point in hierogll1'h. or writtcn in hieratic or de· motic. The word "Copt" has only an ethnic meaning. The native inhabitants of I'.g)-pt during this period are Copts. initially mostly pagan. tben pagan and Christian, and finally Chri,tian by a large rna· jority. During this period the language is common to all. as i. the writing; the literature and an are Coptic. either pagan or Christian according to the subject maucr; the Christian liturgy i, Coptic: the pagan cult of pharaonic origin, mixed together with Greek "mysteries." is also Coptic. 2. lbe Coptic communit)' in egypt lasted from the middle of the seventh century to the twentieth cenlUl)'. The meaning of lhe word "Copt" is ethnoChristian. The word "Copt" designate. essentially the Onhodox Copts. By extension. it may I>e applied to COplS who have become Catholic or Protestant, or even agno.tic (but then re.'ening to the purely ethnic meaning). The Coptic language remained that of the Coptic communit)' for a shon time only. By the lenth century it was supplanted by Arabic, as was their literature. which. however, remained Christian, The Coptic liturgy hpt it. place of honor in this community and is to be distinguished from other Christian liturgies. Coptic an is also thaI of this communit)' and is thus Christian, It lost it, ,,,Iue as an during the thineenth century, COPTIC CATHOLIC CHURCH Outside Egypt The w"rd "Copt" is to I><: discarded when discuss· ing the Syro·Jacobites and the Armenians and whate.'er may concern them. Nor can it designate the Ethiopians. ",'ho are of a different race and Ian· guage. But it may be used to describe ecclesiastical and administrati.e affairs such as their dogma and liturgy. Concerning Ethiopians, it is normal to speak of the Coptic hiel'3rchy. Coptic Christians, and Coptic liturgy. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bourguet, P. du, L 'An cople. Catalogue d·exposition. Editions du Minlstere des Affaires cuhurelles. Paris. 1964. pp. 2$-27. ___ L'art copre. pp. 5-6. Paris, 1967. Dores"", J. "Les Coptes." His!o,,, ,m;'-erselk Col',cl'o~ d. 10 Pleiod•. Paris. 1970. Lefebvre. G. "Grammaire de I'egypticn classique," 2d ed" p. 6, n. 3, Cairo, 1955. PtERRE ()IJ BOURGUET, S. J. COPTIC CATHOLIC CHURCH, a distinct Eastern church in communion with Rome, Its patri· archate is in Ale~andria. Pope Leo XII of Rome (1823-1829) was fals.!y led to I><:lieve that tl><: viceroy or Egypt. MtiljAMMAD 'ALl. wished the establishment of the Coptic Catholic patriarchate for all COp1!l and the appointment of the vicar apmtolic MaximO'S Guaid (Zuwayd) as the first patriarch, On I August 1824, Leo XII personally consecrated as bishop Abraham Khashilr. a very young Coptic alumnus of the Propaganda College in Rome. The bishop was supposed to return to Egypt and consecrate Maximus as patriarch of Alexandria. Having acknowledged that the non-Catholic patriarchate existed actually but not de jure and having proclaimed it suppressed. in the bti}~Petrus AposlOlOFum Pri~ceps of 15 August 1824. ~o , XII founded the Catholic Coptic patriarchate of :,l""andria, Leo XII soon recognized that he had been detei.'ed. and the establishment of the patriarchate r"main"d on paper only. The C~tholic Copts continu"d to be ruled by vicars apostolic. In s..ptember 1895, a delegation of Catholic Copts, headed by the .'icar apostolic Cyril MaqM. arrived at Rome and petitioned Pope Leo XIII to funn a Catholic Coptic patriarchate. Leo XIlI (1878-1903). in the apostolic len"r Christi Domini (27 November 1895). proclaimed: "We reestablish the Patriarchate of Ale~andria and ercet it for the 601 Copts." In the sam" l"tl"r, Cyril Maq1r was appointed apostolic administrator of the patriarchate. Furthennore, Pope Leo XIII stated that this Catholic patriarchate was "th" only one which legitimately rules the Church founded by [Saint] Mark, the only heir of all the m"mories faithfully hand"d down from th" pristine and glorious times of the Patriar· chate of Alexandria." Thus. from the juridical Roman point of view, the Coptic patriarch~te of Alex· andria. not being in communion with Rome, was a legal fiction and canonically did not "xist; thus, all the hierarchs of the Coptic church had no spiritual power or jurisdiction. This regrettable attitude overlooked the fact that Catholic Copts wer" a tiny mi· nority in Egypt, and the non·Catholic Copts had a tradition ",aching back to Saint Mark. Consequently. wh"n a Coptic bishop or priest convened to Catholicism, it was presum"d that he had no juris· dietion o\'er his nock and that the Roman see had to grant him all the faculties (e.g.. as Pope Benedict XIV had granted faculties to Bishop Athanasius on 4 AUgu$t 1741). In 1898. under the presidency of the apostolic administrator Cyril Maq1r. the synod of Alexandria of the uniate Copts was held. It was a latinizing event. The synod introduc"d latin feasts: COll'US Christi. All SaInts. the Immaculate Conception. and Saim Joseph. At the ""pr"ss wish of Pope Leo Xlii, during th" closing ceremonies of the synod Cyril Maq1r dedicated the Coptic Catholic Chureh to the Sacr"d Heart of Jesus. The decrees of the synod we", approv"d by the Roman Curia. Leo XIII also approved the introducticm of latin-rite offices and the rosary into the Coptic Catholic Church, The synod also introduced the latin discIpline of cleri· cal celibacy. Th" patriarch, h"wever, could grant a dispensation to marned priests converting to Catholicism. The same synod introduced the FIUOOll£ into the creed and th"ologicalthought, and accused the orthodox Copts of "having followw external doctrines." Furthermore, the synod tried to prov" that th" Greek fathers had come close to the filio· que and present"d wimesses of the Eg~,ptian tradi· tion aUeg"dly tending toward the filioque. This synod was a classie example of uniatism; it was a very rapid latini2.lltion of the Eastern canonical Chris· tian discipline, liturgy. theological th"ught, and spirituality. On 19 Jun" 1899, the apostolic administrator of the patriarchate, Cyril Maq1r, was appointed patri· arch of Alexandria by Leo XIIl: he was to be known as CYRlL tt, recognizing Cyril the Great (412_444) as CYRIL t. This, of course, was not accepted by th" • 602 COPTIC CONGRFSS OF ASYOT Coptic community, whose palriarch bearing Ihe name Cyril II lived in Ihe elevenlh century. Soon great difficulties emerged, especially wilh re.pect to the financial dependem:e nf the patriarchate on Romc, and in 1908 Ihe patriarch was suspended, A great number of uniale CoPI$ returned to the Coplic Onhodo. Church. Cyril II published a ~mphlet against the pa~l primacy bul agaIn subjected him, self to Rome In 1912 and died in 1922 in Beirut as a titular archbishop at peace with the Roman Curia, Cyril II had been a great $Cholar; nole his L'Eglise cop/e, sa fo; d'auiourd'hui comparee avec la fo; de ses peres (Cairo, 1893); Hi./Oire de Nglise Eunles Docete 14 (1961):36-62; and 15 (1962): 70-105. Sacra congregation. per Ie chiese orientali. Orierlte cat/alico: Cenni s/Ork; e s/alis/lcht, pp. 91-104. Vatican City, 1974. ScadUIO, M. "La missione di CriSlo!oro Rodriguez aI Cairo (1561-1563)." Archivum His/oricum Socielalls It d'Alexa"drie depui:; 51, Marc iusqu'i! nos jou'S (Cairo, (894); La Co"slilU/io" divi"e de Nglise (Bern, 1922). The Calholic patriarchal .u remained unoccupied until 30 December 1927, when Bishop Markos Khuzam was named as administrator, Only after a probationary period of lwent}' years, on 9 Augusl 1947, was he permitted /0 occupy Ihe Calholic patriarchal see 3$ Mark 11 (Mark I being the E\'angeliOl). On 2 February 1958, Mark 1I died, and on 10 May 1958, Slephanos I Sidanis was appointed patriarch, In 1965 he was crealed the fi"'l Coplic cardinaL The erection of the Catholic patriarchate contribuled greatly to Ihe growth of Ihe Coptic Calholic Church: in 1895, it had 5,000 comrnunicanl$; in 1907, 14,576; in 1931, 35,365; in 19SO, 57,556; in 1959,80,580; and in 1975, 107,500. Beside. the palriarchal eparchy of Alexandria (with residence in Cairo) Ihere are the eparchies of Asyi'o!, Miny>\., and Luxor, The Catholic patriarchate is ruled by the patriarch with his synod, which includes all the bi.hop$. In Ihe ~triarchate there are preseminaries in Tah!! and Alexandria, and minor and major seminaries in Cairo. The official Arabic bullelin of the Catholic palriar<:hate is AI-$al COPTIC CONGRESS OF ASYOT (6-8 March 1911), meeting attended by 1,ISO delegates aCling on behalf of t0500 COplS, with Bushni Hanna as chairman, and Tawfiq Doss os secretary. The congress was convened agaimt a background of comrove",}' and comrary to the wishes of Patriarch cYRIL V (1874-1927), as well as the moderate el"ment. in the community, The government reluc· tantly panted permission for the meetIng 10 "" held, providing thaI members refrained from any action that might lead to a breach of the peace. Cyril V expressed hi. concern in a statement on 2 March, "Whilst it gives us pleasure to sec that a number of Copts have agreed to work together for the welfare of the community at large, we would lSk our belO'ied children 10 refrain from building up a huge galhering in Asyiil, which could result in agitation and render them liable to criticism. We would lherefore urge everybody to exercise ex· treme prudence, wi.dom and circumspection." The metropolitan of Asyii!, Bishop Macarius, held ;L different vi"".,.. "Wilh all respect and obedience to Your Holiness," he s.aid in a telegram 10 the patriarch, "I would asSUre you that there i. no cause for concern. No penonal or public damage is likely to result, the main objective of the Congress being the forging of .trong,,. lies among all Egyptians through the safeguarding of the legitimate rights of Copts. I do not feel the slightesl apprehension of its being held in AsyU!." This anxiety was al.o reflected by the choice of the congress chairman and its speake",. Bushra HannA was chosen In preference to the exlremist Akhnukh FAnus; and the speakers were mostly nationali.t figures such as Murqu. !:lanna, Sinot !:Ianni, and Fakhrl 'Abdelnour. Even Akhnukh FAnUs, known fur his indammatory anicles in the M4r and al·Wa(an newspape", Showed remarkable COPTIC EVANGELICAL CHURCH restraint in hi••~ch. To emphasize this ""use of national;'rn. Ihe inaugural session slane 603 the 5 percent tax I""i" Tiriq al·Bishrt. AI-M".Urntln wa-al-Aqbd( fT l(tlr COPTIC EVANGELICAL CHURCH, a Pre.· byterian national ch"n;h founded through the ef· fort. of the United Presbyterian Church in North America in 1854. The first Pre.byterian missionaries to Egypt emphasized bible teaching and preaching. The Evangelical churches are about 250 In number beside, having anOlher 200 meeting centers for prayers, with a community of 250.000. These churches ha~" 340 pastors, most of them having eam"d their B.D. degree In theological sdences from the Evangelical Theological Seminary at Cairo establi.hed in 1863. Some serve in educational are· as. others in social services, Some deal with youlh and OIhers work In various adminl.troth.., capaci· ties, The majority are pasto","_ On 5 February t863. the Egyptian Presbytery de· cided to establish a theological school to prepare the national Evangelical pastors. It otart" boo" The Evangelical work spread from Egypt to the Sudan, and the first Egyptian pastor who went there was Jabrt l:Iann~. H" established the E"angelical Church in the Sudan in 1900. The Presbytery of the Sudan was part of the Synod of the Nile of the Evangelical Church in Egypt until 1965, whcn it became independent, The Synod of the Nile sem to COPTIC UNGUAGE, SPOKEN South Sudan the lim ErJ.plian mit.iionary. Dr. Su· "1iylim Sidhum. The adminislndive Sl:nJclu~ of lhe chun:h c0nsists of thoe basic unil. thaI is "the 10Cl01 church:' Ihe Synod of the Nile comprisin. debl J)lUb)1eOes. The modenllOl" of the Synod is eleele COPTIC LANGUAGE, SPOKEN, Coptic ..... lhe spoken language of andenl Egypl un,1I the AIUD CONQUEST OF EGYJPf in the .e~enlh Cenlury, h was recorded first in lhe hirrogl}phic (sacred) scripl. lhe earlir.. fonn of Egyplian piclorial wrilinll, and illJccuded by the hieralic (priestly), which was lhe ,implifiO'd runninll ""ripE, and Ihe delY\O(it (from "demos,'" meaninll people)...·hich beame the pop. ular form of Eg)l'1ian "''riti''ll. later, during the reil" at lhe Plolrmaic dynasty, appmaima'rly in lhe third cenlury B£.. inslead of lhe 11m complic-al.IN! demolic script. E«JiptiaDI bepn 10 adopo the Gr~1< alphabet. which ~ dislillJUlshfd M CopIic. Becau>e !he Cred alphabet could 110I cope "';th all the E«YPciaD 5OUn6s. it became MCeISaJy U) add Ia"en Ietlr... from lhe demotic fCript to "". p",," the full rangr of thr Coptic Ian,....,l'I'. Thll$<" _reo of .,.,.,....,. !he 6naI """..,n kite... of the new Copric alphab<:l. Ih2I is. ~ (wo)•• (/IIY).:J (1II.y), t (houn). ,II; (j<m,.), " (fhim.). and t (tl). 11 should be notO'd, howe,..,r. lhiE lhe leurr :J (1II.y) ""Osted only in the Bohairic dialrct. II(l( in the SUtidic, and that the Al Greek lenninoloc,y. In the meanlime. the gm..,m· ment emplO}'ttS learned lhe Greek language, .. did most dasus at 5OCIe1y in Lower E«YJM. This kd 10 the J>fOln!ssn.., rnCOTpOl1ltlon of GTetk words into the local democic, endin, up ...;lh the ntablishment of ""haI is known as I'rooo-Coplic. This "''as mainly opoI<en f.«ypI:ian wrillen In Creek cltaractC'B. The Papyrus Heioo lhe seven aforemenlioned lene.... They wr~ ......nly lhe produCI of ""&fin m~l;r signs, .ymbols, and horoscopes. Since the AIe~andrian population was con~rrsanl ..ilh Gr~k liS well .. with Copl;C, many Grcrk theoiOllical teons wrre used in all al' lempl!; 10 lranslalC the scripture imo Coplic. Wilh Ihe spread of Christlanlty among the inhabitams of the Delta and Upper Egypt where people were nOI tOn~ersam wilh Greek and only knew the nativr longue, il became n""cssary to t....n.late the scriplure imo Coptic with fewer Greek inftuengr of lhe country fo>lk persiSled In numerous region, of Upper Eg}pl 10 ,h" end of Ihe $iuernlh century and Ihe beginning of Ihe ,e~ent«nlh. The {atl0rs al work In the grndual disappeantncr of Ihe Cnptic language may be enumeraled as fol· lows: I. The decision in 706 of ·A\>d·AJlih ibn 'Abd al· Malik, the Arn.b "keroy of Egypt. to u"" Arabic as COPTIC LANGUAGE, SPOKEN the only language of the administration. To keep their places in the adminislnttion. the Coptic functionaries leamed the language of the rulers and this led to the appearance of bilingual documents 31 first, ultimately giving way (0 Arabic as the role mode of expression in the gov.rnm.lII. t. The gradual apostasy of the Copts 10 Islam as a !'<:suh of the successive waves of financial pressu,"". and rdigious pe=cut;on. The change was accelerated by the promise of promotion to all 1s1amized members of 1M community and the desire 10 es· cape from the imp",ition of a progressively heavy capitation tas known as JIZYAH on toose who dung 10 the old faith and =isted apostasy to ,"lam. 3. The excess;"" ""necutions of the natives. not· ably by al'l;!A"".'ol BI·At.IR IWH (996-1020) who issued an order 10 .to!' the use of Coptic not only ;n public places and ollices bul al.o at homes and in private circles. Th05e caught conversing in Coptic we,.., liable 10 have Iheir tongues cut. Consequently. Ihe Copts were forced to ..,,..,en their places of worship where ,..,Jigious offices we,.., ""Iebraled in Coptic. Ne,·enheless. the ruling class did not hesitate to anack Ihese places of worship and to punish all Coplic worshipers wilhout mercy, 11 is said Ihal the establishment of mill. at Ihe entn.nce of churches in those days was intentionally done to drown OUI the sound of Coplic hymns within, as a means of deluding Ihe government force. from without. ... The decadence of the monaslic institulions. which hilheno had been fon,..,sses of strength for the Chrislian faith, The monks were subjecled 10 heary imposts. and it is said thai in 710 Ihose who paid Ibe ta>:.e. were- marked by cauterization of Iheir hands. Consequently. monks unable 10 show their cauterizalion we,.., .ubjecled 10 the most sor· did perseculion. In 732 a group of .ucll monks had Iheir hands amputated, and some died while their churches were pillaged. ~l. 5. Tile introduclion of Ihe AD!>ic language in the churches to cope willi the gn;dual failu,.., of tbe congregation 10 undersland the Gospels and Ihe liturgies in Coplic. This change' was aulhorized by Pope G~BRIEL II in the twelfth century. and lhe arab· izalion of Ihe church offices has cominued until the present. The use of Arabic instead of Coptic in religious literalu,.., i. ~I e~emplified in the HislOry of Ihe Patriarchs compiled by ~wlrus, bishop of Ashmun· ayn in the lemh century. Again in the Ihineemh cenlury. the famous work on the story of churches and mon3Sleries. ascribed wrongl)' to ~II(J $AlIl;! TilE ~RMENlAN, 605 and aUlhored by ~IIU Al.-MAMRIM, appeared in Arabic. At Ihis time. however, numerous treatises appea,..,d bilingually in Coplic and Arabic. To this period also belongs the composilion or the work< known as SUUAM (pI., SaIMim), that is. the Scala (glossary. vocabulary). which consisted of Coptic vocabulary rendered inlo Arabic. Abii Isl).aq ibn al··Assal is responsible for one .uch work enti· tied III·Sul/am al-Muqaff~ wa a'·D~a~ab al·Mu~aff~ (Rhymed Glossary). His brolher, Abii al·Faraj ibn al··Assal. wrote a famous inlroducli"n in Arabic on the rules of the Coptic language (see ~\\'l.AD AI.·ASSAL). Al-Samanniidi. the pen name of AnhA Yu'annis. bishop of Samannud, wrole another Sullam, the vocabulary of .... hich is derived from the Gospels. Ihe Epi.tle., the Psalms. and the liturgical works. He also composed an introduction on the Coplic Bohairic dialect, as well as olher work< on the Sahidic dialect. Ibn IUtib Oay~r ....role Kil~b a/·Tab· ~irah (Guide Bo 606 COPTIC LANGUAGE, SPOKEN made by the famous Egyptologist J. MASPE.RO in 1909, the Copts .til1 spoke Coptic. Durinllhe reign of louis XIV (1643-1715). it is t",dilion that a priest and an old Coptic woman were introduced to a seventeenth..::enlury French tourist as Ihe last Egyptian> who were thoroughly acquainted ....ith Coptic as a spohn language. AfteIVIaro. Coptic survived only a.. the language of the liturgy. Moreover, Ihe Dominican traveler J, M. VAN$L.EB points out in Ihe account of hi. travels in Upper Egypl in 16721673 thai Anba Yu'annis, archbishop of Asy(i!, intl'O' duced to him a certain Mu'allim Athanas;u•. who was the last Copt 10 be ~on.'ersanl with lbe Coptic language as a speaking medium in the country. Nevertheless. the Engl;"h wnter James E. Quibel1 reports in the year 1901 that the Reyerend DaYid Strang of Ihe American mission at Bani Sud in· funned him that when he first came to Egypt ""me three decades before Ihat date. Coplic had been spoken in Upper Egypt within living memory. As a concrete example, a certain Jam EIltephanos, an old man from Q(j~, stated that he remembered as a boy hearing his parents con.'erse in Coptic, which was pr0b3bly true of the inhabitants of both Oit~ and Naqidah (Worrell. 1942, p. 306). W. H. Worrell quotes an oral tradition about Coptic in Ihe village of liniyyah, a village in the ""me neighborhOO thai lilurgical Coptic has been preoerved within the church as an eslablished tradition, though the use of Arabic has been growing. In fact. the disco.'ery of the Coptic ecclesiastical heritage and Ihe revival of the slUdy of the Coplic language appears to have been made in modem tim~ by Western scholarship in Europe. The Ii,."t work to be published in the West in this field was wrinen by the Jesuit priest Athanasius Kircher. and .....as entitled P.-oJro"'us Copt..s siw Aegypriacus (l636). He 101"" crealed a grammar of the Coptic language entitled Lingua aegypliaca resritUlo (i6431644). In 1639, T. Petraeus published halm 1 in Bohairic Coptic supplemenled by phonetic Latin characters under the title Psalm.. s Primus Davidis, Copt'ce. Arabia et Larine (london, 1659), Since then, se.'era! otlle.- Coptic grammars have appea.-ed -by Blumbe.-g (1716). Christian Scholtz (1778). and the Catholic Coptic schola.- RIlfi!'lI al-Tilkhl (1778)-logether wilh the firsl Coptic lexicon by La~roze (1775). In Egypt ilself, the study of Coptic in schools was sponsored by CYRIL IV (1854-1861). who insisted on the use of Coptic in churches as Ihe official liturgical language. Outside the church. lql~diyits Lablb became a champion of Ihe use of Coptic among the laity as a spoken language. In the meantime, Cyril IV entrusted the HEGtJMENOS Takla wilh the teachinil. On a scienti1i~ basis. of the Cop· tic language. liturgy, and hymnaJ to priests. He was succeeded in this capacity by Mu'aJlim 'IRYAN JlRJIS MUFTA!:t. Unfortunately, the latter was responsible for departing in his system from the old Coptic phonolol}' to the modern C .....ek. This took place wilh the "",isla ncO' of a teacher of the Greek Ian· guage al the 'Abjdiyyah School in Cairo, This new system was unopposed by Ihe church authority and $OOn spread among lhe younger general ion of Ihe modern Coptic priests. Among its strong supporters was the great champion of the Coptic language, Iqladiyw Lab,b, who .',as himself a pupil of Mu·aJ· lim 'Iryan MufulI,J. In the late twentieth century, a new trend has """n encouraged by SHENOUDA 111. Emile Maher Ishaq. as head of Ihe Coplic language ....ction in the Cairo Clerical College. is promulgating the return to the origin.l Coptic phonology and the elimina· tion of the Greek influence that is foreign 10 traditional Coptic. BIBLIOGRI\PHY Blumberg. C. G. Fundamema lingua~ coplicae in gralia", eo",,,, eonscripra. Leipzig. 1716. Ishak. E. M. The PhQntliJ:s a"d Philology of Ih. 80h· airic Dialecr of Coplie, and rhe S..",ival of Coptic COPTIC MUSE.UM 607 Il'ord. III tJl.. Colloq"iol tmd Cu...;c,,1 Arab..:· 01 EC/pI, "nd of Coplic Gnunm,,'iCtif ConSln4('tlons in CoJ/oqu",l CC/plitln, 2 >'ols. D. Phil lhe"", O~· lord, 1975 Juji, Philuu......., ·A..-..q. DltllnJr ,\lu~/J. 'A..,.. Clio' ro.1911 _ Al-LuJ1t.1l "'.Qi~,-.,'d1t. Clioiro, 1916KirchC1". A P'rotJ,.,...u. Copt... .... ~ Ael;>."....." .... Rome, 1636. l.acro~, \\ V. cit. uJiNJn .tfYPIUICO-l.,........ u ,'tit• • ,n"" I",p"e _umtn/is .""'''10 studio eolltelUm tl tU.bo"'llUft. o.r.,.-d. 1775. _ Ling....~lYplitlc" ...."il,,'''. Rome, 164), Pelrxus. T P""Im..s Prumts D",~dis, COp/let. 04,.6London. 1659. OuaIRm~ ..... E. M Rultercltu cnltquu ICt tI UIUlt. q"u s'" I" t."'8U' fI Imlori· 10 lilli,m"'e de fEC'pl< fI Paris. 1808 1Ua(;l'll alTllkhl R"di",cnM /i"8".' COplU. s,,'. "ef)'p'i"c"., Ron'e. 1778. Sd"'lh~. Christi.n. Cm",,,,,,';c,, ucgyp""c" """'$n. 194Z. _::--: A Short Accoulli <>f Ihe COpls. Ann o4rtlor. ~heh .. 1945. EMIIL M""o. ISHAQ "".I COPTIC LEGION. & .. Va'qiib. Gtnc-raI C"p,it Mu.e"rn (Old CairO), ("urt,'anl. Comus)' Copli" Muse"m, Cairo. ""'0 be from 'he en,rance of ,hc mu,""um. Th" nucleu. of 'hc ("poi< collcc,ion eon.i"'....1 Clf a number oi hi.. ori" ',cm~ assembled from Copti<; oom..... Clld Cop,ic ehurche<. and aneiem monas'er· i~. as well as fmm a number Clf a ... ha"",l<>gical Wi,h the supp<>n of Patna",h CHit \ (13741927) il was poWble .0 aequirc KIm" painted ce-iJings, marble column•. IJ>OSa.IC Roon. and Iounlains. .. ,,<"II as a fe..... mples of clabont.. ca... ctl wood..-on from old palaeo and pn'.... R..dcnces. Wilh lhe: ,rans!.... <:l !be museum OWnC'.¥up from ohe church ICl the D<-pan ....m of o4/lu'l\l1ll0, !he collec00n .."OS fulthcr enr>chctl b-o ,he~ abIc C<>pUC <>b;ccu oi a r c ~ disllnclion ac· eumub'td in ,he f.c}'P'ian M""",m 10 ,he ......·Iv =ahliohcd C""P'i< MUSCIllll, Inilial1~' the museum cOIUmed of a rc'!al"'cl,, sn.all .. ing tha, lall,. u,enManlial modC'nt buildlnA inaugura,ed in 1947 lr, King I'ouad I, ,h... pro"i(!ing ,he needed !>PK" fClr ,heincrC'asing archacol<>giul a/ld ani""ie eollec'ion •. II w.... ,h..rcfore f"J"-Sible 10 de>'C>le eenain hall. 'Cl ."",cia! colleclklns .""h as swnework, w'oodwon, me!:>I•. and '''diles, The libm')' prm'cd 10 hi: ,he pride of the mllS<'om, since it contajo~d a rich COlicelion "f Coptic ""uree•. In addition '0 p"blish~d maler;ab, a ,-...<1 "'''''ber Clf Cop,k manu,",ripts w~re a..emblcd From the and..m enureh~.. and mCln".teri..... An enonnouS "'es. """'1'11 COPTIC MUSEUM. musn.tm blnded in Clioiro in 1902 11k 6r'Sl ~ibi.ion oi Copooc an in f.c)'P' look plac~ so~.~ ,. !he end oi ,he /I,nne.omh cen,ul')' III lhe Bu!J,q Mu"""", .•..., prccul$()r ()( ,he lel",,1 M""ctm, oi EgyptIan o4nl)qui'ics. The eollec· lion .... nhib,tcd in a hall calleplic church \lnlil 193\. when it bl.." ame a na'lonal mu scum u/ld~r Ih. juri>di"tion of 'he Egyp,ian Depan· mcn! AnliQU;li... The sil<' chosen for ,he m""""m was ,he art·" of Inc fonrt~~ of BABVWN, which had bun founded hI' Emperor Trapn ('16-117) and whos-e walls Can slill or w"'" 608 COPTIC REFORM SOCIETY docurnentary objects weI"<" housed in it. The unique Cn()\ti~ papyri collection known as the NAG HA~lMADl URU"Y waS deposited among ilS u"CaSUJ'es, Signifi· caltl private collections werC aho a~quired, as that of lhc Coplic historian M!"H~'tL StlA~ijlli!d. Some uf its contents wel'e cataloge" by lien'; ;l.lun· ier and Wah~r CI'Uln, as w~1l as Murqus Simaykah and Yassa Abd al.M,,",,1:'. ,\ ,',,"'1 aaumulation of Coplic and Arabi~ manuscripts of all ages are a,'ailable to quaJifie century_ III 1984, the museum was pallly reno'''teg for the '"'" '" 1,500 1,470 items of stone and marble sculplure frescues lc<:>ns h'ol)' objeclS, pillS 248 bones. 6 mother of pearl, 4 horn, and 1 amber Copli~ "'."ile, mClal "bjeCl-' including gold, ,il"cr, bronze, iron, c<:>pper, and lead 1,274 1,534 93 piece. of car....,d woodwork piece. of pottery and glazed ceramic glass items D1BUOGRJlPIIY Crum, W, E, Coplic MO"""'et1IS (Calalogue gc"hal des a"'iq,,ilos egypHeJl~.$ du Musee dll Cai,~). Calro, 1902. Gabra, G, The Pro;eet. "Cara/oguc Gi,,"'al du Music C"ple." In Thc Greek PrcseJlce i~ A~ci~~l eDPl.. Sympmi",~. Delphi: M,"ch J7_}(), /988. cd, L. ,\Iarangolt an {'!Vicki "('ala/agile Gi~€ml dll M"$€C Caple": Sla~d der Ari>cire" his D"umher /988, In Prac••dmgs <:>/11,. Fowlh 1~lernarjonal Co"grcss af Coplic Siudies II..m,,'ai~ La Ncu,,", 5-10 .~"p. tember 1988), cd, J, Ries. FOl1hcoming, Munier. If, Mm",scrilS wple, (CQ/Qlogue general du Amiq"il.' egyplie,me, du Mu,e~ dll C~irc). Cairo. 1916, Murqus Sima,'kah. G~Id. 10 Ihe CQPllC MIIsw"'. Cain>, 1~J2 ___ A Bri"f Guide 10 liz" Coptic Museum a"d r<:> Ih" PriMcipal A>lcrem CI",rehe, of Cairo, Cairo. 1938 Pahor Lahib. Thc Coplic Museum, Cairo, 1950, ___, TIle Coplic Mwc",,, a'ld Ihe fort,"ss of Bal>· JiIJ>l aI Old Cairo. Cairo, 1953. ___, CIJplic G"osljc P"pyri in liz" C<:>pl'C Mwew" at Old Cairo, Cairo. 1956. ___. Das koplische Kaj,o. Koplische K",.", ChriSt, .Il/llm ~m Nil, pp. 92-94. 8<;<:0, 1963, Raouf Habib. TIle C<:>plia MU"""', Ge"e,,,i Guide, Cairo, 1967, Su'ad Mahir and l;iishmm Me"iha C<:>plic Textile .• i" Ihe Caplic Museum. Cairo, 1957, In Arabic, Slrzygowski, lo.cr, Kopllsche Kmtsl (Ca",/o!>,<e geM' h~1 des ~"'iqujlts egypliC>lMe> (/1< M",,€e (/11 Caire), Vienna, 1904. MU"'R BASTA COPTIC Coptic Museum (Old Cairo). Hall of 1\1'" Jercmiah (Saqqarah), Column. disc",'crcd in 1907, P~lpil al the far end is one "I the oldest yet found, COl REFORM SOCIETY, founded around 1907_1908 by A.hnukh Fanus, a lawycr and journalist of British educati<m After ,he attempts by some COplS to e",,,bJish a Coplic political ral1y .....ere rejeclerganization to defend COpli~ intere'lS. ~h,"l members were em· ployees of the Egyptian State Rail .....ays or school teachers. The)' demanded equal opponuni,ies to he alfordcd 10 Coptic applicantS fur adminiSlratiw gO'Tm· mem poSl', a major grie"ance of lhe COPlS un COPTIC RELATIONS WlTH ROME c.,.,.. EiYPlian ""llhorilit:l of rtstricling ace... or 10 ,,,,* posu. H~"U. according 10 Briti$h SUoIis!:iu and Sfat~nts. 1M Copts we.-e al.-eady o-~rnpre Jerlled 11'1 "dmini.. n.llYe poK!I. BIBUOC....PHY Mul)a.mmad Sarrid IQllnL Al-A.d.:zh &l-Qib!f ~itM" ..... If.irl1t.t1l. Cairo. 1962. Dous BEH~AllI.ISV' COPTIC RELATIONS WITH ROME. 11'1"'liquity. the pope and Ch~h of Alexandria .. ood in clos.e and friendly rdalioll5 with the popol! and Church of Ro...... Quil~ olt~n both ~hurcha lOrmf'd an alriant~ "pinst N~.... Rom~ (Const.anl;nopl~) and its patriarch. Th~ tarly syBOds of Akxandri" _A: recOiniz~ by Rom~: tlOOET1<[US t "gainsl OIllC£N (HI); Pl!nll. II .i,,;n,t 1oIE1.[T11JS of L)'OJpoli, (306): ALEX......• DEli. I "i"in,l.l ARms (318 or 321): ATHANASIUS I apinSllht AIIIANISM of Ih~ Eu.sebiano (3J9); Alhanasius. who darili~d Ih( I(nninology of ousia and h~poslaJj., [hm Initialing Ih.. rttondliation of th", Semi-Arians (362); CVJ.I~ I againsl NESTORn;s (430). HOWfi!'V5. •nd und~r I'EJEII III MONGUS) iniliattd a tompltle break wilh Rome. This !Mled until the lim.. of 1M Crusades wlltn ull$UCtesslul ncgol~ lions lor ....... nion _.-e an~mpled under 1M Coplic pope CYRIl,. III (l215-12U). Th~ """'1'1101'1 of 1M Cops with It.ome during the Council of Aoren« in 144! and its a«~ ..,. the Coptic popl.! JOHN Itl (1427-1452) round no support an>O<>l the Copli<: Jl«llIle. Qcta9Qna11y unlil 1582. Rome did conslckr the Chu/'(h of Aloandria as Unial~ (-= R.ORDC!. cons At THE COI.N:II. 01'). Bel...- . . tM Council of FloreDU (109-1"5) and the ..... d '" the n;neteenm cnnury. the Roman thufC'h hckl II ri&o...... ~ on 1M, unity and unit", of lhe ch,,",h: m.. nature of ",hism as the sqN.... ion &om Ihe ChufC'h of Rome. and 1M unIon as tM lull and u"tonditional subjealon 101M pope and tM, Holy Roman AJlO"l<>lk See. Thus, for example. on 20 April 1590. Ptl"" SixlUS V wrote 10 [M, Cop,1c Pope (i.l.81UEI. '1m of Aleundria lhl "k and his !lock "'tr.. separllted from Ih~ unity of tk Holy See as " brand ",hi<:h hu lost all hs lap , .. and tould 1'101 bear froil whkh would be wonhy of ~I~rnal hl:atilud",:' and Ih~rdor~ h~ would have to brinl his tloo::k 10 obedi~nt~ and subjection to the Roman pontiff, who is lhe Vkar of Christ. Some· limes lhe popes of Romt preferrtd 10 delignatt lhe bsltrn churd...s as "nal;om" (~.g.. Pope Inn<>ctnt 609 XII in his breve 10 the Coptic PatriafC'h JOH!'i" 1t\'L 3 Marth 1(97). In 1~60. 1"0 Coptic priests _nt 10 Rome as dtl~ pteI of the Coplic chufC'h 10 1le'goIiaen[ two Jesuits. Christoforo RodriJUCZ and Giovanni Ba![;s.. lOll Eliano. 10 W CCplM: Pope GAlllUa. VII (15251S68). Tllis mission brought 00 potitiw: rc:sults. foe !he Roman rq,"s~11CaIi.'eS dtrnand«! of Uw: C<>pls and wir pope unc:onditional subjection 10 the pope of R.om<' ..im all 1Iw .... iml'lifi!d al lh~ time. The Copts rtfu.ed this type of SIIbjeC'lion. for it ...... 11I;"1'1 10 thrir und~ndinl of thurd unily. In 1582. anotber a"cmp! III reunion with Rome ....... made 11)' th~ Coptic pope JOlON XIV (1570- 1585) ....t ..Mt inltntiolU ",~re liTl(erc "nd .serious. He rcqutsted Pope Gregoty XIII (1572-1585) 10 sttld lelales from Rome 10 n~[lal" [he lerms of reun_ ion. When Ih~ lwo papal Itples. Ciovanni Ball;"" Eliano and Frant~S(o Sasso, "rrived, ht ton>'ohd a oynoo of lhe Coplk church 10 di",uss th( mamr. How..vtr...hen John XIV died S\ldd~nly in m~sleri 00. drtum'lant~s. lk two legalCS ......,re imprison~d by Turkish aurhoo[!es as foreign .pies. They _"'" r~I~....,d 01'11)' aft~r a ransom of 5.000 gold p;e<:es ",as paid. Eliano ""'Iotlatcd ....ith the n ..... I"'[ri"'tll. (;ABOJa. VIII (1586-1601)," profession of bilh lhal did 1101 ioclud~ a formula of "III~ 1_ naNres in Chrisl"; this s«ms 10 h.a~ found no $tIpport in Rome. H....,""""r. "'" IlUUm~ a YCty ri!:' ornus and ncpti.-e po!.itlon with respect 10 th~ Coptic ritn. in whith h", found many "supeNi· Iions.On 15 January 15tH. Clemenl VIII. in the Pl'fS~nu '" r.o,en\)'"iour canfinak. rKehed in "",d.i.mc:e fiYe ~w.iws of ~I VIII. In his name tMy mad!' :II plolasion '" bilh (the formula of Grqooy XIII) pJolasinC obediente 10 W pope of Rome and abjuring "all [My hdd unlil _ ...'hiclt was ~ 10 the rile of lhe Holy Roman Church..·· On 28 Junt 1597. 1M rq>..-nlalives or ~ I VIII rflUmed ..-jth ratified docum~llIs or ......."ion a"d """'"' grantN an lIudifflt~ "";Ih Clem....1 VIII. The do<:wntnlS or Ihis ..,union did nor ' ....nl lit.. Coplic chut'l'h suflic:icnt lIulonom~ and c union of 1595-1597 "",. maintd ;netfttti.,t. In 1.57/t. Po"" C..,gory XIII had cslablished lhe 610 COPTIC RELATIONS WITH ROME Greek College in Rome with Ihe stipulalion Ihat the studems be inslrucled in Greek language, liternlure, theology, and eccle~iastkal rile~, and he prohibited the use ()f Latin. All this was won ignored, and Ihe Greek College bey Father Paulo di locii to work among the Copt•. Then in 1630, the Capuchin father Joseph of Paris establishe feS$ion of faith to R.ome; and on 4 August 1741, Pope Benedict xrv grnnted Athanasiu. jurisdiction over all Ihe Catholic Copts (aboul 2,300). Athanasius hardly used Ihese faculties, and then returned to the Coptic church. On 3 June 1744, the pope Benedict XIV appoint· ed Just'" Maraghl as 'kar general, who died in 1748. Then the prefect of the Latin Rite Reformed Franciscans received jurisdiction over the Uniate Copts, a circumstance that considernbly under. mined the Uniate cause. In 1758 the Coplic arch· bishop, Anthony Fulayfil. became Calholic, and in 1761 Rome appointed him the first Coptic vicar apostolic. Rome ruled the Catholic Copts through apostolic vicars untH the second erection of the Coptic Catholic Patriarchate of Ale~andria in 1895. The eighteenth century was characterized by con· fusion marked by lack of underslanding. During the firsl half of the eighteenth century, Franciscan mis· .ionaries in Egypt demanded that the Catholic Copts bum their books, and ma"y missionaries ac· tually ridiculed and misrepresented Ihe Eastern rile., lradilion, and customs. An extreme case occurred when the prefect of the Refonned Francis· cans bluntly told the Coptic Catholic priests tllat their "prnyers we<e going 10 the devil and "ot to God"' (26 September 1805: Metzler, 1960, p. 377). However, during this period the Uniate Copl Riiff;']l al·TUkhl (d. 1787) was editing and printing Coptic liturgical books in Rome, and he was appointed the ordaining bishop for Coptic seminarians in Rome. The popes of Rome generally had no knowledge of the pallicular custom. and laws of Ihe Copts, and u,ually followed eilher Latin or Byzantine practices and canon. in their dealing with the Catholic Copts. For example, Pope Benedict XIV, in the Apostolic Instruction Eo quamvis lempore (4 May 1745) 10 Ihe Catholic Copts, relied on Greek ,ources, and so Ihought that Oriental clergy could marry before but nol after ordination as deacon~-but the Coptic CUSlom and tradition permitted ordained deacon. 10 rnarry. FUllhermore, Ihe Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith alway~ kept the Catholic Copts in strictest obedience and dependence, much more than any other Easlern Catholic church. Thi. i. il· lustraled by the fact that after their return to Egypt, the Coplic priests educated in Rome were usually given faculties for three years ooly "in order to keep them in a slricter dependence" (Decree of 1736). The Roman Catholic missionaries (and possi· bly also the Uniate clergy) hoped to win over the Coptic pope JoH" XVII (1726-1745) and hi. COPTIC STREET SUCCe<M)r "ARK VI! (1745-1769) to the cause of un· ion. They we,,~ unsuccessful because joining the union was considered becoming a "Franc" (i.e., an alien wilh French culture), However. several of the clergy did make a secret profession of Catholic faith, the value of which was questionable. On 15 March 1790, the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith fortified lhe decree of 1719. which pro· hibited the Coptic Catholic priests from having in· tercommun;on with the non-Catholics. In the same decree, the Congregation stipulated that absolution could be granted to converts to the Catholic church only after !hI')' abjured errors and they professed the faith of Urban VIII. This ddinitively setlled the thorny quesllon of intercommunion that had been under discussion among the missionaries. The creation of the Coptic Catholic Patriarchate in 1824 increased the tensions and hostilities be· tween the Coptic and the Roman churches, (On the establishment of the Patriarchate and subsequem evenu in the nineteenth and twemieth cemuries up 10 1971. see C 611 Vol. I, Churches in Communion with Rome. pp. 128-37. Milwaukee, Wis" 1961. Burm"'ter. 0, H, E, The Egyptian or Coplic ChuTch. pp, 303-311. Cairo, 1967, Chauleur. S. HislOire des COpIeS d'Egyple. Paris, 1960. Columbo. A. Le origi"i della gerarchi" ddla Chiesa COplG cGlo{ica "d ..colo xvn. Oricntalia Christi· ana Analecta 140. Rome. 1953. Cramer. M, Das christlich--hJptisch. A.ppl." ei"sl u"d heme. Ori.mie ..."g. Wie.baden. 1959, Cramer. M.. and W, Till. "Kopten.'· In Lexikon fur Theologie und Kirch, Vol. 6. pp. 538-46. Frei. burg, 1957-1965. Faine. J. "Ale~andrie." In Dictior",.;" d·hi. £i". PETRO B. T. BllANlUK BIBUOGRAPHY Arbanites, A, K. "Koptike illiesia," Thre,keurike kai Ed;ke Egkuklop"ideia. Athens. 1965. Atiya. A. S. A History of E"Slern Chris!ia,,;ly. London. 1968. ___ The COpl, and Christi"n Civilization Salt Lake City, Utah. 1979. Attwater. D. The Chr-islian Church.. of the EaSI. COPTIC STREET, Bloom.bury district. Borough of Camden. london. w,e.t. a sman street in cent",1 London opposite the British Museum. It was formed during the building boom follo""'ing the Great Fire of London in 1666 and called [)uke Street after the Dukes of Bedford, who owned it. It 612 COPTIC TFSTAMENT OF ISAAC in 1894 to tnd confusion wllh other Duke Strffl5 in we capilat The new name was i/lspired by lII'l important collection of manUK~ from 11M: Coptic church. which had been acquired by the Brilish M.,-.m douiroa Ihtc ~ious )'tV. "'"as ....... med f\!40 MEC.W.Y COPTIC TEST~ OF ISAAC, a pseudo epivIophai book possibly cbling l'rom the lo,mh Or fifth n/ltury. T..·o Coptic Y~lopment 01 Coptic litera'"re (see UtEaATIJ&.E, 00l'T1C). Guidi rip.tJy OOse....eI lhal lhe T...,tll· ",e.1/ 0/ ISIlIlC and the Tes'll~'" of Jdcoh are imila· Ilye 01 Ihe Tesuunenl of Abril"""', ahhaugh lhe TUtd_'" 0/ IStJIIC introduces a new elemen,-Ihe monol and religious leachinl allribuled La I~ (Guidi. 1900. p. 123). Guidi is on less safe vound when he aoa on 10 argue tlw lhey ~ composed ori&inaJly in Coptic. Although me pbilolopeaJ endellee is incOl>Clusive. the possibiliry 01 • Greek oritinaJ 0( the TOSI""'tnl of ISIldC _ boo consi6ered. """n if no Greek YcnOon has bun JK'C'5O"'ecL P. Nqel (1963) is ccnain thai the Sahid;,; Tesld' ...e ..' of Isuc was tnlDdaltd from ,he Grftt and lhat lhe worlI can boo /)el-en Jao and 410. "There is. however. 100 lillie ev>der>et On Ihe lentsis of ,he won. 10 pcmti1 illi datine ncept in a lenlatlve way. In i1!l prescnl form. Ihe T...,ld_,,1 of Ist,at is ceminly Christian. bul ic contains lewish lel"'ndary malerial. The txpIieidy Chrislian cle· ments may have been supcrimposoed. for they appur 10 be eMily dtu~hablt. A brief summary of Ihe contents Gf 11M: work fol· lows. As an old man. Isaac is visiltd by lht anlel who auends his father. Abraham. in hene" and Is ,Gld of his own Impending dralh. Isaac e~presses concern fur htl son lacob but is reassured by the angel and lnmucled to pass on the luchiD' that he ci.a¥d ""* him.w:1f ..... ",edlld.. Jacob lhen an,,"CS, and ~ comforts his pitying son. spea);inl 10 him of me ino:vitability 0( dealh. ",""ich is c<:>oWmtd. by ...., cx......"'ric:Dc:e of Old TeSlamenI c~le~. except lOr Enoch. A dlOI1 prophetk JlUAl'" dacn"bcs !be Iifc 01 J.nus and refers 10 lhe Eucharisa.. Isaac's Muw:hold. assembles IrolInd him. but his dr:o.lIl is delayed and he oonl;nllCS 10 live an aKelic lik. Hoe prot>Ollncn a 5Crirs of elh;c.a) cxhonations ad· drcued 10 pries... monks. and laymen. The ancd~ and lakes him 10 t-""",. ...twnct he looks down on !he ...rn1>le fale lhat is in 510'" for sinDe"," Tonnenton, whosoe chief is AbdeJDtroucbos. mele 0Ul a ........ t)' of CMlel puniohments 10 all Ih.... who ha.e alnned. Isaac Is lhen led 10 bis father. Abraham. and Ihl'OUlh him is inslrucled by the lord on the condilions ~e$S.llry for entry inlO lhe kingdom of God. After the LoT BIBUoc;.UPHY G. H. The Test....e'" 0/ Ab.tJha .... pp. 55ft:. (appendis by S. w.e1~J. London. 1921. O>arIeswonh, J. H. The 'se"deptvdph" lind Modern Resedtch. PI'. 123ft:. Missoula. Morol-. 1916_ Iklcor. M. u T""'Q"""'" d'A~ ••hD",. pp. 78ft. Studia ;n Vetcm Teatamenli Pseudepipapba 2. Lcidcn. 1913. GuIdI. I. "II TC$lameniO di lsacco e il T<:stamtrtlo di Giacobboe. R. Acnd_id ..a:ion"le de! Li,.u;. Rome. CI4ne "'. sc~e _ali. Alii Re1!dicOlUi. ocr. 5,9 (1900):2231. James. 101_ Ro. eel TIle TUtamtnl <>f AMII"",... pp. 61. Cambridzc, 18n. Repr. 1961• Ku!m, K.. H. "The Sahidic Version of"'" TO:Slamtnl of I1L>Pc,,] Studies II (1961):32S-36. Nagel. P. "Zur sahidischen Version des Tcslamen,es lsaaks:' Wisse..schll'tlkhe Zei/schrifl du M".tinLu.th~y·Univusjl~1 HQlle·Wille .. be"8 12. nos. 3-4 (1963)'259-63. 8o~. N K. H. KUHN COPTO-ARMENIAN RELATIONS. SU Armenians and lhe Copis. COPTOLOGlCAL STUDIES COPTO-ETHIOPIAN CHURCH NEGOTIATIONS, SU Ethiopian Church AUlocephaly, COPTOLOGIA, international journal of Coptic thought and Onhodox spirituality inaugurated in January 1981. The journal seeks to encourage the use of Coptic Onhodox piety to COPTOLOGICAL STUDIES, COplological studies may be di,'ided inl<> several periods. The oldest began in the fin;t Christian cemuries, when the Greek alphabel with the additional leners from demolic was used to elevate the spoken Egyptian language into a wrinen language. This made it pos· ~ible for many EIDptians to read Ihe Old and New Testaments or Cnostic writings. The inventor of this Coplic alphabet is unknown. The glosses in magical texts are probably to be regarded as funher prelimi· nary stages. Aner the in>'emion of the alphabet. rule. had 10 be created for the translation of lhe.., writings from Greek into Coptic. Bilingual GrecoCoptic word lislS were prepared, and later trilingual Ii.ts including Ultin. In addition, bilingual manu· .cripts of the Old and New Testaments were writ· ten, The translation of Coptic literature from one dialect into another~for example. the translation of Sahidic literature into Bohairic-also began at this time, as did the e/Jon that can be detected in Bohairic to replace Greek loanword. with Coptic word•. As a result of bilinguali.m. Greek documen· tary fonnulas in the realm of law were tran.lated into Coptic. A new phase in Coptologica~'tudies began after the ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT, when Coptic was gradually superseded by Arabic as 'me colloquial lan· guage and the language of literature and busine... To preserve the knowledge of the Coptic language. induding Bohairic as the language ¢f the church. Coptic-Arabic word l"'ts (scolae) and grammatical summaries were prepared, which were to he of the greatest impo>Unce for the nexl phase ¢f C¢ptol¢gi· cal studies. Ambic versions were added to the Cop· tic litera';' texts, especially the Old and New Testa· ments. and many literary writings were translated into Arabic. The Bohairic dialect remained the Ian· guage of the church. 613 A new phase began in the sixteenth Or se,·cnteenth century. when European travelers brought Coptic manuscripts from Egypt to Europe. and «holars concerned themselves with the decipher· ing .of these manuscripts. The first one we know to have pos..,ssed Coptic manuscripts was the Arabist Cio,'anni Battista Raimondi (1540-c. 1610). About 1600 the French bibliophile N. C. F. de Peiresc (1580-1637) obtained Coptic manuscripts from Coptic monasteries through travelers in Egypt, and stimulated Claude $aumaise to Coptological studies. In 1626 the Italian traveler Pielro della Valle returned from Egypt with Coptic manuscript~. among which was a scolo written in the year 131'1. The Italian Franciscan Thomas Obidni oc;, the Berlin Cop· 614 COPTOlOGICAl STUDIES tic manuscripl$. Such manuscript copies, along with the first winted Coptic teJ'en though defectively-a Coptic grammar and several Coplic liturgical books with an Arabic translati,,,,, the Ana-phora (1136). Horologion (1750), Ponlifical (1161-1762), and Rit· ual (1763). In addition to the scholars ....'ho pursued lheir Coptological studies out of imerest in the content of the Coptic te~IS or in the Coptic language, other scholars concerned themselves with the Coptic Ian· guage in order 10 decipher the hieroglyphs with ils aid. They staned from the c"rrect assumption of some relati"nship between the Coptic language and the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Only the three mosl im· ponant among many scbolars need be mentioned, the Swedish diplomal and Orientalist Johann Davi --~ founded the "Berlin school:' which invesligaled the early Egyptian period as well as the Coplic language, and published Coptic literary and nonlite· rary texts. The Bedin .chool, Ihrough its represen· tatives allhe Unive ...ity of Berlin-K. H. Selhe. H. Grapow, and F. Hintze {b. 1915)-held fasl 10 Ihis lradition and also exercised a greal allraction for many scholan;. In addilion to the Gennan Egyptologists who devoted Ihemselves 10 Coptological studies we may memion above all W. E, CRUM. who on Erman's advice 5peciali'ed in Coptology_ Many of Erman's pupils later worl<ed in disciplines relate I , -----=oj~ COPTOLOGICAL STUDIES and New Testaments, church history and the history of dogma, or confessional and liturgical studies. B.,.ides the Egyptologisl Griffith, the classical ar· chaeologist MICHAIOWSKt has gained a reputation in connection with the young discipline of Nubiology. Murad Kami! became the preeminent scholar in Ethiopic studies and the rdations hetween tlte Coplic and the Ethiopian church. In the realm of legal history. A. A. Schiller and A. Steinwenter have WOn lasting credit for Iheir research into Coptic law. while in the history of medi· cine the Egyptologists Grapow and Erichsen should be mentioned. In Egypt, Coptic laymen were mindful of their glorious past, and in the second half of the nine· teenth century began. with the aid of the printing press, to make Coptic (Bohairicl-Arabic grammars and dictionaries available to their countrymen. Li· turgical books and olher works that previously had been reproduced only by transcripts were primed by them. lqlldyiis Lablb should especially be men· tioned. In the twentietb century the numher of Copts pursuing Coptological studies has increased, Among them are Murqus Simaykah, the founder of the Coptic Museum, his collaborator Yassa ·Abd al· Masi!), and Georgy Sobhy, as wdl as such profes· sors in the Egyplian universities as Sami Gabra and Murad Kami!. The beginning of the n~t phase in Coptologi· cal studies cannot be clearly identified. It began at the latest in 1930 with tbe discovery of the Manichaean codices. to which were added in 1946 the finds of the Gnostic library at Nag Hammadi and the biblical manuscripts and other Coptic writings that later found their way to the Chester Beauy and Bodmer libraries (see BODM£R PAPYRt) and to other colleclions (see PAPTRIlS VIS<:OVEJUf.S), The.., finds awoke the interest of wider circles in Coplology, and prompted scholars in disciplines bordering on Coptology to c~rate in the publication of these importanl manuSj:ripts. 1n Egwt the new interest was demonstrated liy the foundation of the Societe d'Archeologie cople.'n 1934 and by ilS subsequent ""lh'ities, such as Ihe publishing of the first Coptological journal and several series of Coptic and Arabic source documents, the building of a Coplological library. and the ucavation of a mOno astery. Later. scholars founded the Instilute of Higher Coplic Studies. which. in addition to Coplological ",search, was intended to sel'ie the further development of the Copts. The education of the Coptic clergy was improved in a newly founded theologi. cal faculty 01 the Coptic patriarchate. 615 The increasing interest io Coptic works of art found expression in art exhibitions: in 1941 in Brooklyn, in 1944 in Cairo, and in 1963 at the Villa HUgd in Essen. This last exhibition traveled via Zurich and Vienna to Paris. The exhibitions also exercised an influence through scientific catalogs and symposia. In Egypt, mined Coptic sites were excavated, for instance. the pilgrim town of Aba MinA. The many excavations carned oul in Nubia by teams from many nations between 1959 and 1963, as a rescue operalion prior to the flooding of the country through the n""" high dam. yielded such rich finds, especially from the Coptic period. that they led to the founding in 1972 of the International Society for Nubian Studies. There was discussion between excavators and theorists at the international con· gresses of Nubiologists (the si",h took place at Uppsala in 1986). The Christian period with its rich finds-we need only recall the wall paintings in fARAS and the discovery of numerous manuscripts at ~R tBRIM-occupied a large place in these con· gresses. After the completion of the campaigns in Nubia. excavations of Coptic mins in Egypt were earned out in increasing numbers; of these we should mention above all the ","ca,ations in the KaLlA. The work of the International Committee for the Nag Hammadi Codices led. after its conclusion. to the fonnation of the International Association for Coptic Studies in 1916 and the First Jnternational Congress of CoptologislS in Cairo, The founh con· gress was held at Lomain in 1988. In addition to the holding of congresses. the association coordinates the work on the Coptic sourCes. It supports scholars in their labors, and also sets in motion the accomplishment of such major tasks as the new edition of the Coptic N""" Testament and the firsl edition of the Coptic Old Testament. Since the 1960s an increased interest in Copto· logy aroused by the discoveries, exhibitions, and excavation. mentioned above has been apparent in universities, There are now professorships of Copto· logy or of Coptfc language and literumr., at anum· bu of European universities: Gen.,va, Halle. MUnster. and Rome. In other universities (such as Yale and Paris) Coptologists have been called to profes· sorships of theology, the hi.tory of religions, or Ihe Christian Orient. In Cairo the COPTtC MUSEUM has been enlarged both in personnel and in s~e, a center for Coptic studies has been created. and a start has been made on assembling on an international basis a gene",l catalog of the contents of the museum. By no 616 COPTOLOGY meanS least to be mentioned is the international collaboration on the present COpl;C Encyclopedia, Along.ide the increasing intaest in Coptological studies and their development, we must, unfortunately, report some setback!;, The increasing spedali:>ation in the scientific disciplines has caused the concern ".jth areas of Coptology in many of Ihe disciplines bordering on C<>ptol<>gy to abate. This can be "'labli.hed above all in "-gypt<>logy, where the Egyptologist to an increasing e~tem is no longer concerned with Coptological problems, and of· ten no longer e"en teaches the Coptic language, In addition, il frequently happens in English and American universities Ihat Ihe posts of Coptologists, on the death or retirement of the holder, are not filled by Coptologists, but are devoled 10 olher sci· entific descipline,_ The latter threatens not only the development but also the existence of CoptologicaJ planning in universities and re.,;,arch institutes (such as the international archeological instilutes in Cairo), as well as the continuance of scientific un· dertakings. BIBLlOGRAPffY Gravit, F. W. "Peires<: et les etudes coptes en France au XVlI!' siede." 8uiielin de /a Sodhe d'aFc~t.ologie <'ople 4 (1938):1-22. Inn..,her, J. "Die Entwieklung der kOplOlogischen Studien an der Manin Luther Univcrsit~l." In KoplOlogiJche Swdien in deF DDR, pp. 6-29. Wis· senschaftliche Zeitsehrift der Manin Luther Universitiit Halle'Wittenberg, Sonderherl. HalleWittenberg, 1965, ___. "Die Anfange der kc>plischen Papyrolosie," In Graeco.Coplica. Griechen und Kople" im by. umlinigie cople 20 (1971):211-14. Munier, H. "Gaston Maspero et les etudes copte.... Bulletin de /'A55odalion dts "mis d.... egUses /'"rl copies I (1936):27-36. el de Mysror, W. 'Telat acmel de, ~ud£$ coptologiques en Pologne." Enchoria 8 (1978):25-28. Nagel, P. Bibliographie zur r",such«n und sowjd, ischen Kupt%gle. Arbeiten aus der Uni\'ersit~ts· und LandesbibliOthek &lchsen-Anhalt in HaHe 23. Halle/Saale, 1978, Petersen, H, "Coptic Studies in the United States of America," Bulletin de 10 Sodht. d'orcht.ologie copte 19 (1970):249-75, Qualreml:re, E. RecheFches <·ritiqu.. or hislOriques 5UF la langue -r /" lill,raluFe de /'Eppte. Paris, 1808. Rykmans, G, "L'Orienta1isme ~ Louvain avant 1936," Le Afl<seon 79 (1966):13-33. Schiller, A. A., and W. Worrell. "Tenlati,'e Directory of Persons Interested in Coptic Studi""," Aegypms 12 (t932):393-4D1. Schwartze, M, Koptijche Grommotik, pp. 16-32. Berlin, 1850. Segelberg, E. "Coptk Studies in S,,'e ". M~RT1N KRAUSE COPTOLOGY, a scientific discipline in Oriental .tudies that in,'estigates the language and culture of Egypt and Nubia in the widest sense: literature, religion, history, arplic words derive from Egyplian, as their etymologies show (see J. Cerny, Coptic Etym%gleol Die· tionm)' [Cambridge, 1976]). The reproduction of the vowels in Coptic is important to the Egyptologist for the reconstruction of the vowel. that wcre nol ,,-rillen in Egyptian, and for the investigation of verbal accent, syllable structure, and metric. in Egyptian. In tenns of content, a continuity can be obsc[;'ed belween the anden! Egyplian and lhe Christian period in the su[;'i",,1 of ancient Egyptian element. (concepts, ideas, and usages), panicularly in relig· ion, literature, and arr, but also in Coplic medicine. Coptology i, linked with clas.ical philology by the Slock of Greek and Ultin loanwords in lhe Coptic language: the Grcek, accounting for abom 20 per· cent, far surpass Ihe Ultin. Their examination, which has begun, will experience a new florescence when all the loanwords haw been collected. In addition there are Iexts preserved in Coptic that were originally composed in Greek, but wbose Greek version either has not su[;';.'ed Or exists only in fragments or in a Ultin translation, Here Gnostic and Hennetic writings from the Nag Hammadi discovery especially should be mentioned. In asso<:iation ,,"'ilh Byzanline studies, Coplology investigates the Byzantine period in Eg~pt. COPrOLOGY Work on th~ ~xamination of Coptic codicology and paleography connects Coptology with paPJ'rology. In addition to a f~w ,crolls, ~ar1y Coptic codi· c~s in particular have be.. n p~served: they are roughl}' com~mporary with the Cruk. While Creek paleography has be~n well im'estigated, the Coptic h.. nOI advanced heyond pr~limina'1' work. Only with the appearance of COLOPHONS do w~ find our· selves on finn ground. Collaborotion with the Creek papyrologists i. nec~.sary because Creel< and Coptic docum~nts often belong to the same ARCHIVES, The Cop,ic nonlituary te"ts are important sour<;e. for the history and Ihe cultural and economic developments of late antiquily. 8pecially from th~ sixth cenlury on, they take their place alongside the Greek sour<;es, bter ,..,place them, and are then the only sour<;es, The same holds gO<Xl for epigrophy: grovestones, inscription. on buildings, and groffiti are couched in C"ptic as w~lI as in Greek. In the f(>rID, used we can oflen demonstrot~ the lranslation of Greek models. Whil~ G,..,~l< inscriptions in Egypt be<:ame fewer after the Sidh century, in Nubia they alternated wilh Coptic for another five hundred years. In association with tbe hislory of religion., Coptology examines the Gnostic, H~rmetic, and Mani· chaean texts, which often are preserv~d only in Coptic translation and have long !leen lost in Iheir original language, The Coptic magical texts and spells also belong here. Th~ work of Ih~ Coptologist intersect. with .'ari· ous theological disciplines (Old and New Testa· ment, church history and history of dogma, confe .. si"nallo,.." and liturgic,). Here reference should be made abov~ all to th~ worl< on edilions of the Coptic Old and New Testaments, to work in texlUal crilicism, and to Ihe editing of apocryphal and pseudepigraphical writingS of both Testaments. In church history, Ihe origi.ns of Christianity in Egypt, ils history beyond the sptt from the imperial church after Ihe Council of CH~t,.eEOON, and the th.,. oloa;ical dispules that we,.., dealt with al the early Christian councils are all the ,**cts of Coplologi· cal ,..,search. A special investigali,'e task foree is al work on monasticism in Egypl and Ihe hagiography of Coptic Christianity. The i",'esligation of local Eg}'Jllian church hislory is slill in it. beginningS. The eonfessional historian, in aSSOCialion with the Coptologist, examines Ihe history of tbe Coptic church and its dogmas afler its separation from Ihe imperial church, We thus corne 10 the period thaI exlends from Ihe ~RAB CONQUEST OF EGvn down to the p,..,senl. He,.., 617 the,.., are conneclions wilh Arabic studies and with Ihe sludy of Islam. The Coplic language gradually lost its significance as a colloquial and Ii,emry Ian· guage and was replaced, except as th~ language of Ihe chur<:h, b}' Arabic. The C"pts translated Iheir lilerary works into Arabic, and p,""paI"<'d Coplic·Ara· bic word lists, the scala_, and grammalical summaries, in order 10 preserve Ihe knowledge of their languag~. Pan of the Coptic literature i. pre.e,,'ed only in Arabic translalion. The Coplic language had previously influenced Egyptian Arabic in its phonolog)', and Coptic wonh had been accepted into Arabic a. loanwords. Th~ r~lalions betw""n Copts and Mosl~ms a,.., also a subject for research in both disciplines. Along with classical, early Chrislian, and Byzantine archaeologists, Ihose concerned with provincial archaeology, and hi.torians of architecture, Coptologists a,.., concerned with Ihe study of Coptic art, iconography, and archileclure, H~,.." On the one hand, they have established a survival of Egyp· lian building tradilion in Coptic architecture, for instance, at the White Monastery in SuMj (D~YR ~NBA SHI~D~H), which Sh~nule had built at th~ begin· ning of Ihe ftfth century in th~ style of an Egyplian lemple. Picloriallhemes from late antiquily appear, above all on Coptic lextiles. Coptology is linked with Nubiolog}', a discipline only a few decade. old, in the investigation of Nu· bia in th~ Christian period, which spans a period of mor~ Ihan a thousand years. The Chrislian epoch in Nubia came 10 an end only in Ihe sixteemh century, Like Ihe Elhiopian church, lhe Nubian was depend~nt on th~ patriarch of the Coptic church, The excavations carried oul in Nubia before Ih~ build· the dam at Aswan have brought 10 light ahuning dam SOorce material (wrillen and archaeological), which also .beds new light on the relations be· tween the Coptic and the Nubian churches. Research into the ,..,Iation betwe~n Ihe Coplic church and Ihe Ethiopian church links Coplology wilh Ethiopic sludies. The Ethiopian palriarch wa.~ an EiYPtian Copt until Emperor H~tLE SELAs,sIE brok~ with mi, ancient usage. Coptic literolore wa.< translated from Arnbic into Ethiopic. Th~ field of CoplOlogy also intersecls with Ihe study of the Christian East (see ORlENS CHRlSTMNlJS) which is concerne "r 618 COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT ing H. J. Polotsky.ltave concerned themselves with this t",k. C<>ptology is connected with the history of law through investigation of Coptic law or of the law of the Cop.ic documents. So far only rome of the sourcn. Coptic nonlitemry papyri and o.tmea. ha.'e been published. The older publications need to be replaced by new ones, since they no longer correspond to the requirements of modem text editions. The investigation of the Coptic medical texts linh Coptology with the history of medicine, Although anciem Egyptian medicine was treated in nine v(>l. urn" by H, Grapow and his collabomt<>l'S. many texIS in the Greek and Coptic languages still await treatment. BIBLIOGRAPHY Krause, M. "Die Koptologie im Gemge der Wissen· s COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT, Indi· viduals identified by the word Qlb! figure promi· nently in the Arabic biographical literature of medi· eval Egypt. and especially during the Mamluk period (1249-1517). The len<> referred to persons of Coptic lineage, Virtually all individuals recorded in these biographical sources, howe,'er, were prac· ticing Muslims-as were their fathers and often their grandfathers. Yet they were still regarded as "of the Coptic people."' They were routinely depict· ed as having a natural aptitude for a<:counting and administration. but also as having an inclination toward treachery, dishonesty. guile. and. above all, spiritual ambiguity. Several\lwriters of the Mamluk em claimed that a Muslim ,of Coptic descent was potentially a false Muslim. Even worse, he was sus· pecled of <:on,'e"ing to the ll'ajority faith. admitted· ly <>ften under duress. in order to aggrandize his own position at the expen.e of hi. "genuine" Mus· lim colleague•. Indeed. such a person was frequently accused of converting in, order to blaspheme again.t Islam and to lead true believers "'tray. Such • false Muslim w", always, It was alleged. on the .'erge of retrogressing to Christian pra<:lkes, The Copts who succeeded in Cairo during the Middle Ages unquestionably found themseh'es in a delicale situation. They professed Islam. yet were not widely accepted as true believers. How many of them were actually backsliders Is difficult to assess. Most did retain some ties with their religious past. and many continued to inter.tct with Coptic social groups. This contact was the subje<:t of wide discu.· sian. and was viewed as a sign of indifferent adhel'ence to the true faith. Yet Muslim Copts apparently had little choice in the levels of society open to them. since all the indkators point to a state of partial segregation from the various elements of the orthodox ·ula.m~' class (learned Imetpreters of (s· lami<: Law). Had they \>een wlllingly accepted, these people might have been asSimilated into its !"anh. They were not ac<:epted. however. and the !"ange of activities they pursue the Mamluk power structure-or their panicipation in the Islamic establishmemo The Mamluks were prepared to rec."it Muslim Copts to their sen;<:e, and it is likely that they promoted propaganda hoslile t<> Copts In <>rder to bind them more tightly, Indeed. only the Mamluks stood between the Copts and the potentially dangerous masse. of the population; no acts of per,c<:utlon could occur without their acquiescence. Individual Copts who realized that they stood to lose in any cdlltest with a legitimate Muslim were ready to accept the ambivalent conditions of serv· ice imposed by their Mamluk overlords. who alone opeMd lhe doors of influence and wealth. That Mamluks provided security to Copts largely because they were of use to them did not instill feelings of mutual affection. But whatever the motives. secm"ity In return for sen'ke was better than no security at alL The Mamluh appointed Mmlim Copts 10 several of lhe highe.t ex«utive offices of the state. where they often administered the fiscal and procedural affairs of the imperial <:ourt and the households of the great amirs. Copts were occasionally rewarded for exceptional ;t$$lstance in times of crisis with the honor.try r.tnk of amiL But they were nO! permitted to engage in any miliul)' activitie•. which remained the exclusive prerogative of the Mamluks. especially those of the first generation. Copts were en<:our· aged to infiltrate scverallevels of lhe governmental bureaucracy. They staffed many segments of the s""relarial closs. They were appointed to financial controllerships expressly to amus substantiai for· lUne. that they were to share with their patrons, Vet only one individual held the post of controller COPTS IN lATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT of pious ftldowm<,nlS irI a Muslim ulicious in..in>tioa. and his Slkn.hips direnly lWOCDttd "..ith .n. ......., 01 the regi_. and eliot! nOl adminu.n fun-iI courts or the sovemmental bureaus, &nd fe.... ever attained the plvolal office of secretary of Ihe chancdlery. Throuilhoul the lalcr Middle Ages, the Muslim CoplS do no! seem 10 haw pined accC$$ to offices endowed will, the aUlhori!)' to make hclal. Per.llm' 01 Christian ancestry _ .... nOl ....ly regarded as .wited 10 study blamic law. Abovoe all. they -...ere not considered legiti.....le arbileB in Iega1 questions conami", Muslims. Muslim Copu hdd no lepl ofl;ces in lhe sample derhed from thc biog... ptllcallil~nolureof Ihis P""" 00, NOI a ,ingle case wti reponed for any tipeet of the judiciary. Since Ihe lesal professJon was a fun· damental componenl of Ihe '"I"mb' cll155 and ill mosl aUlhoriLalive element. the a~nce of Muslim Copes from its nnks undencores lheir marginal Itat\>$, This hypolhesis of """"linality I, reinforced by-Ihe ..nULl absenclC of Muslim Copu from the sc.hoIarly and 1'IC]j~ t.al.Clooies. The)o tended neither 1<1 pursue advanced :saudies In the Islamic seloences nor to min"'", to the opiritual r-.cb of the Islamic commurlil)'. Since they ~ MlWims, many wouJd po-esu..... bly "">-e wislted 10 00 50. and o<>e mwl therefore cond,w thaI lhey _re denied the 0pportunity. BiocraPhical compliers d>d l>OI apwn ...hy Muslim Copts pu~ed f,ew $ludin in the Is· Iamic curricuIum_ TIley simply did lIO'I record any IUCh $ludies, as they did 10 meliculousl.y for per· IOnl Ihey consi 619 Ihty "-ere useful 10 the Mamlub. who. a1thoo.lJh nordy a>-erse 10 extortinl IIlOncy by any a"';b.bIt: means, nooethcles'en from its enemies. In pnctke, Ihey found lhe Copt$. Ideal agenu for un· obllusive infiltration inlO the revenue·yielding pro<:· esus_ The app"arance of the pme in d,_" Mllllary·Ex«UI!U ORiC" OIIie;;,11 in this lCaICfOry ..->tided 50mIC .......... 'e of aulhority ....~ procedural .,m,iniltnlon o' ad· risc'rs. In the M2mh.tk SUOte. _ ci u- postS "l'''''' he-ld by- members of tbe military dite. Yet the ltppUran<:e of Mudim Copts in this calegooy lUI· eesu that adroil memben of lhe minority ''''''''' could aspi"", 1<1 offices normally d.,.".,.,] 10 civilians in general. Vinually all penons in ,his eate(l:Of)' had de>-eloped dient lies ";111 OI'C or more inlluemial Marnluks; a majority "-er~ »MIeiates of sullanS. Amlr: Mamluk ofli«r. When the litle was be· 110we ol, la.yn al-Din Ya!:tyt ibn 'Abd aI·Ramet 263)). AmIT al·......Jr,.'ar.u.: Of6ctr of (ruyal) consult.a· lion. Ibre: title appeared only in this ease.. Presum· ably a clo.iliAn member of the 5UIIaD's advilorJ eouncil wilh CUlCIltive rnponsibilitia. One posilion, 100 pet'Cent of one lotaI: Sa'd al-Dln lbrihlm Ibn 'Abd a1.R.azdq a1-Sun· dart: aI-Mi~ a1.()ibll, known as Ibn Gh.urlib, of 100, official milill.ry nonk in the Mamluk hierarehy. One of the hiihe~1 honon ever beslo....ed on any ci>-iIian in the Stale. 620 COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT re<:08nizlng ~KqMional 5I!'""ice to Ih~ sulun. Th~ appnnonc:~ of Ihis lille in a civUian's ell'ee' lisl p~ IMI !he M...... luk military syslem was nc)I lOWly esclusive and thai Mus!iln Copts ",'ho hll.d ~ eslnominary talent ",-en: singlt the ~turib, but potition noted onl)' In A1d..luIll. f_ 23; v.~te1 47. o.wUltr. b~<'Uli\"e of the impo:riaI <,OUrl in Cairo (in .... eiudel): litrDlly, beartr of 1M wlIan's pcn bolt or inbund. Rnponsible lor ","<1)-111& out the sulu.n'$ eomrnaru:\$, and th"" 1lO intennediary belween the thmne and senior buruucTal$. PreH'nler of petilion. submillW. during lludi~nca, al' rang~' of lhe wllan'. daily ochedule, assigntr of <Socu~nts 10 appropnatt d;",,,~s, and iotCurer of lhe ro)'al silnalur~ andjor ..,al on tdicts. Usually a Mamluk grand amir and thtrefore diitingulshcd among Mwlims of Christian background. One posillon, It.. than 3 ptrcent of thirty·slx total: N~ir al·Dln Muhammad ibn 'Abd al·Razzjq. d. Mul;!anam 981/April-May 1H6 55. no. 70). (.i?""". VlII, p. Kltshi/: InspKlor. PTmincial official H'nl OUI from Cairo or based locally (more T1Ir~ly) 10 supcnife upke.op of public .... orb (roads, canals. diw, loll W1tions, and ruardhouses). A senior insp«lor was appoinled as governor- 01. the Ddu {.'......,h al~, Upper Egypt (al·",... jlo "I-Oibtr), and of th~ fayytlm and Bahnasi. The latter....,n: mUiwy pos.ts restricled to hipr oIfocen, but Copts appeI-tN In the Meal and administrative ranks. Three pofitions, 16 ptn'ent 01. nineteen toUJ: fakhr aI·Din 'Abd aI-G1llmi ibn 'Abo! ai,1U.tdq al· Annanl al..()i~i, d. ~sn--wiI a21/November 1418 (Marthal, II, L 33!: Wid 1...0) (Iwit~). Katfm aI·Din 'Abd al-Kalim ibn 'Abo! aI-Rau:foq aI-Qibll al·Mi,rt, known &'i Ibn Kilib aI-Mu· ni"h, d. RIIbr II aS2jJune~July 1448 (M" .. lIa/, II. f, 345; Wiet 14(1)- Muqadda"" Commander. Usually an offic~ r~· sirlcltd to Ihe most ...ni"," Mantlu" amir. Slgnlfi· cam h~re Is thaI an individual from the Coptic mi· nority received this litle. which confel1"td military Slat us, If not powers. Two position•. 2 percenl of 104 lotal: Sa'd al·Dln Ibn\hlm ibn 'Abd ;>.1.RauJ,q al.sun· dart al·MI¢ al·Oib!!, known as Ibn Chur4b. d, Rajah SOSjDecember IfOS-January 1406 (Qaw' I. p_ 65; Marth.l, f. 23; Wiet 47) (Iwice). Nrnb: Reprn~ruatiff of lhe Sulun. In 1M Mamluk rnilitary hi.enon:hy, ~pre$enu.tl,'e of (he sultan In the ~-ptian or S)mn PJO';nces. In Ihis conl~"t, a Copt .... ,,-..:1 as QSlItanllO ....11;,;" Mamluk oIli«rs. O ai-Din Mut:wnmad ibn 'Abd aI·Ruziq aIAnnan! aI-QiblI, d. Mul;tarnrn 881/April~May 1H6 (M"nJo./, III, f. ISO: "1n 2187). N"qib a'-jaysk Adjutanl of Ihe anny. R"'"P""'Sible for guanrueei"ll the pfUotnc~ of amin and officials ",+.ov services "'..::re ~uire,<"illoll'. 25 percent of Iwel.'e lotal' N~ir ai-Din MuJ.-ammad ibn 'Abd al·Razz:oq. d. Mul).arram 881jApril-May 1476 (Qaw' Vln. p. 55.110.70: Ma"II.llll. f. 1$0; Wiel 2187) (three limes)_ Sh~dd: Supelinltndtnt 01. a myal bu~u or of a r0)1OI monopoly, lr~ry, l'CfI06ilory, or eustornS 5tation. (often in a provincial aphal). One posilion, 7 pcrcntl of fuunetn tCKal: Karim a1.o;n 'Abd aI·kartm ibn 'Abd al-RazrAq al--Oibll ..HIi¥', lutown as Ibn Kollib al-Mlldkh:il., d. Rabr II 152jJur>t-July 1441 (Ql>.... IV, p. 313, 110. 841). Shadd .UltllUid not be routinely ~iettd or budgeted from 1M Wlte treasury. Unilomli for royal Mam· lub, robes 01. honor. and ""pen_lor WIle festival!. we~ ah.o paid oUI of lhe fund. This official ...ually in a pr(windal capital; his countcrpan in Cairo was lhe "ltV' .1.kIraH· One position, 50 percent of two tOlal: fen"'" uyn ",1·Oln ·Abo! al·Qadir ibn 'Abd al·Ghanl al· Armanl a1·Qibp ..1·O.ihlrl, knO"'ll as Ibn Abl al· raraj. d_ 833/1430 (1.1,,"",,1 II. f. 338: Wiet 1445). U'IMM: Majordomo. lilerally uSJ~dll-d~r (master of the ..........). Qv.erseer of a sultan'$ or amir". , COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT houKhokl. ~ .... i$o<- of ...""tin for dot royal £am;. Iy and ~e ~lub. Durifll lhe C;,uwan pm.cd (lJS2-1517), he onen combined ~ ollk~ (",ppbntin, tM ~) to _me control over all SlMe fi~ Usually ~Qll~rnod on a ~ amir ..-100 was • ~ a5S0Cia'e of lhe culTtnl stlhan. th~ ollice maRed the hi,hest level 10 whi<:h a <:;,il burea""nt migtu ..pire. The frequenc:y of alTest.'i and dism;$S'ol. ac:c:oml'anyinl the office, howe>..,r, sugeRS ,hat il$ ~tige was ~Qt.lnte,balanced by its risk. Nineleen positions. 26 percent of seventy·three total: fakhr at·Oln 'Abd ...l-Ghanl ibn 'Abzaq al· Arm",,1 .1.Qi~I> known as Ibn Abl al-Faraj. d. Shawwil 82ljNeI 1442) (I",ice). Kal'lm ,,1·Dln 'Abd. a1·Karfm ibn 'Abd al·Razzjq .loQibll al·M¥. known • Ibn Khib al·MuI'Likhit. d. bbf II llS2jJune-J"ly 144a (Q"w' IV, p. 30, "'" 341). 2.1)'1'1 a)·Dln '.\bd al~ir ibn 'Ahd al--GhanI a1. Armanl ,,1.()ibJl a1-oM1irf, lno\01l • Ibn Abi aI· Fa~, d. 833jI42'9-I • .30 (MlInhal II, f. 338; Wio1 1445) (twice). Tlj aJ·[lfn 'AM al·Razzaq ibn lbrihlm ,,1·0;0\1, known as Ibn a1-Ha)1&m. d. Phil aJ·Qa·dab 834j A"illSt-Seplem!>er 1431 (1;'" ..... N. p. 191. no. 485). Taql al·Dln ·Abd al·Wahhlb ibn 'Abd·Allah al· MI,tI al.(Jibt! al-l;Ianafl. d. DhQ al·Qa·dah 8191 De~em!>er 1416-Jan".1)' 1417 (Manhal II. f. 3591>; Wiel 1487). Sa'd .1·Dln Faraj ibn M1jid .1·Qib!; al·M~rf, koown as Ibn aJ.NaJ:IhAl, d. Jumidi II 8Mj Muclt-April 1;a;>1 (q...... VI. P. 1&9. no. 570; M....MI II, f. HS; Woet I~I) (1Wiu). Sa'd aI·Dln Ibriblm ibn 'Abel aJ·Razziq al-SkatI· dat'l al-MiFi aJ.()i~1. kno>o-n.u Ibn Ghurib. d. Rapb l103fDecembcr 1405-b!ua.ry 1-106 (.(law' I, p. 65: Mttnhall. f. 23; Wiet 41) (twice). ~r aI·Din ),tuhamtnad ibn "Abel aJ·Razdq a/. Armanl aI-O;~ d. Mtll;>arnm 88ljApril-M.ay (~w' VIII, p. SS, nO. 70; Mtt..m./III. r. 180; Wio1 H87) (three times). Mant'lr ibn aI~ aI.(Jib!!. d. Sh • .........;J 870jMayJune 1466 (1)<>w' X. p. 170, DO. 716). Sharaf aI·Dln MIls;i. ibn Ylllur al·BQllj! al·Mi¥! al·Qihit1 al.Qib,I, known all Ibn \(;ltib Ghartb. d. ~afar 882:/May-June 1477 (1;'~w' X, p. 192. DO. 810), byn al·Dln Yal:tY'" ibn ..\bd al·Rau1.q al·Qib!; al· Olhlrl, kno:»on as ai-Ash....'. d.. Rabl' I 874!S<'p- 1.'6 621 tember-October 1469 (Qa.... X. p. 231, "'0. 983; M'encer of the It.han·s tn!:Ml1l"eI and munitiolll, raponsibk for in· ventories of supplin and annamenu held in Te< se....e for mili"'.,- ampalgns. Also a<:countal>le for llUper>ising the 5tI1U1n's ",""te estate_ Rare: the of· ~ce appea... only ;n 'his cue. T","O positions. 100 perc..nt of two total: Taql aI·Dln 'Abd al,Walthlb ibn 'Abd·Allilh al· Mi,r1 al·Qibll al'l;Ianafl, known as Ibn Abl SMkir. d. Dhu al·Qa·daJ1 819jOe~ember 1416-Jal>"al)' 1417 (.Q~w' V, p. 102, no. 384) (twice). UJlIJdIJ. ,,1-m""d'i~nH: Ov...sc<:r of stale leaso!s and rents. Based in the Er;yplian prm'incell. or holdIng ..,cQt.lntable ...bordi ....le officials "'ho were l0cally rupotlSI1>Ie lor collecdna: ren15 from Ilovemment ptopetliC's. Rare: offic:e a~ only in this _. One position. 100 pc...,.... t of one lotal: The precedin, Ibn Abl SlIikIr. U~.IJ ,,/."""11: Overseer of pious 'IUS! founda· tions. To he dislinplld>ed from .he ncWt' dl.......0q4f or eonlroller of StICh endowments. this ....... a 51ate official dir«tly tied to t~ Mamluk regime. Jlel,pon. sible for monitoring exchanS.... rtpLacernents. sales, and alienations of "wq4j. In practice, In· vol'ed wilh government con6scation of piou, en· dowment•. That thi. office appeared only in lhe ca'eer of an emi...,nt Copt is not coincklental. One position, 100 ~t"(:enl of one total: The prtteding Ibn Abl Shll W..itl: Commissioner, fiscal acent of the gcwem· moenl. Wlthow complement. "" official a,-erxeinl the swe tnasu.,- or tile special fund. Two posilions. 13 pet"(:n>t of sixtterl. total: Sa'd aI·Dln Ibnhlm Ibn 'Abd aI·Katlm aI.Qi~ a1-M~ a1-Shafi1, knooo,·n _ Ibn ~ib Jakarn, d. Rabr I S4lfSeptember-October 107 (.Qaw' l. p.6I). ~IAh ai-Din Mu!:,&mma.d ibn lbmim. d. Rajab 895jlliy-June 1490 (1;1""" VI. p. 283, no. 949). Will: Go,..,mor of a town or diurlcl. usually chief of police. A military office with direct tie. to the l<X'al populace, Usually h..ld by an "mir of secon· dary or teniary rank. Pr~rogalive. often used to e~lon bri"'" Or to o,enee go,emment con~""lO' 110.., of propeny. T..·o position•• 13 percent of sbcleen: • 622 COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT Fakhr "'·Din·Abd al-Ghanl ibn 'Abd ",.Ra>zAq al· Am>anI al-otb!t1. knov,..... Ibn Abi a1.FaDj, dSha_-tI '21fN<>w:mber 1411 (""'Null II. f. 336; W"'I 1442) (Iwice). Forty-I_ .....ilions. S JlC'lunl 01. S3' total rq>G"' ed in ttm ClIIegory in the IWO diocti~, were held by JlC'nom 01. Coptic Incesny. au,alucralk Oflict!l Officials in Ihi$ c"leJOry sen'cd as procedural ad· minlst",to'" or consultantS In Thc ~""al and diplo· maTic bureaus of the Mamluk statc. A majority of such bureaus wcrc located in Cairo, Thc imperial apilal, although lrs$Cr bureaucracies of similar hi· erarch;':aI orpnimTion were mainl.ainal in the S)'I' ian pro,incial apiuols as well. The suotistiol fot' personnel in these posldons OOCltnsted marle 'Ami/: Factor or collection agent usually of the 1100"h (pooIl tax paid by non·Muslims), or in a ",Ii,io·academic institulion. Subordinate 10 Ihe supervi. so. of this department. The Iltlc also appears in the lil....tu'" in connection with <:It ....r tliwe"" inV()l,~ ..ith rnan..., accorded 10 cenain groups. The n",III ,/~"r./ (syndic olthe J'r'opIwt's descenda.nl$) employed bcK>rS in his serrice. HowcYff. the sinsJe OCCUrTClK:C of th~ term ~hout complemen. '"'I' IQU its initial meaning. On<: position. 100 pcrCftll ol ont total.: ~~ ibo:> aI~ a1.()i~. d. ShawwalI70/MayJuna 1466 (i).....' X, p. 170. no. 716). •A"'i! .I·,,""qii/: hclOY or coll«lion agenT servinl under cither thc .. b~I' "I·ewql!nr. more likely. lhe !Waneer (~stbdd.) ol pious lrust found.ations lOS I 1O'·",mmenl <:Il!idal. The po,ition appeared only in 1nis case. and was tied to tne w"q{ of a grand amir. On~ posilion, 100 pcrt:ent of one 101ai: Man~r ibn al·~ .1-Qibll, d. Shaww;lol 870/MayJune 1466 (i)ew' X, p. 170, no. 716). K.l.tib (pI~ bmbll): ~ M scribe in a fituI In....... A ~ of recClrlb and babne.... of ac· CClUnlS. St!.:ret*riei In Mamluk Ecn>t. in COIIlr'lSl: ..ith ....-"IIfl. j .. (c1erlll. who had the nowiaI richl ci wwqf'. iomul siJnalure). wen: <:. De~pite its Influence. thi~ office remained an object of lcom Ind belittlement 10 many civilian IIOIables. Thi~ lack ill ",tecm certainly contributeonaIly mobile in • ",wive sr... than other offi<:ials in thc bureau· c~ alcgory. (See (pJquhandI. ~ I. 9. D. DO-35, 1«1. 175-80: II.~. D. 33. 52. 97. ill. 339. 441-0: Ill. ISO; \'.•52; VI. 41.) Twanly-four positions (withoul complemenl), 19 "",,,ent of cithty-lwo lotaI: Shams al·Oln AbU al·faraj 'Abel·AILth al,Maq,1 .1· Qib!i. d. Sha.....'il nS/August-Septem'oar 13S4 (Manh"t Ill, f. S06\>; Wiel 28(9), Amln aI-Din 'A\>d·AIIIlh ibn Rishah al·Qib\l al·Asl· ami al-Mifl1, d. 790/1388 (Manna/II. f. 277b; Wict 1343). Taj al·Din 'Abd .I·'-';Im ibn $ad"'lah al.Qibll aI, Miami, no dealh dalc (i)""" IV. p. 2<10. 1'<:1. 620)• aI-.... 'Abd "'.chanl aI-Qib!i "'·Mip'!, d. Sha'Wn 813/NO\'Wlbcr-Deeem'oar 1410 (~w' IV. p. 145, I)(). 633). KartJD a)·Dln 'Abd ..·kartm 'Abd a1.Jluliq al· Q>"b!1 al-~, known • Ibn Kalib "'·MuniltlW, d. Rabr 11 8S2/June-July U411 (I}."" IV. p. 313. no. 84lll (,..ice), Kartm ai-Din 'Abd aI·Kal1m ibn Barakah a1.()i~i aI·Mi:lrl. known as Ibn Ulib Jabm. d RabI' I 833/Novambar-Dt!ccmbcr 1249 (~w' IV, p. JOg, no. 833). KarIm al·D1n 'Abd al,K;trfm ibn Fakhlrah al.Qlb!1. d. Rajab 8SS/July-AuSU" 14S1 <.!? M".id ",,111. , COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT Tij al·Dln 'Abd aJ..RazDq Ibn Ib,ihlm aI.QIDp aI· M1¥l kz>ow" as Ibn .,·Ha)1am, cL U4/14JO1431 (.!Janllal II, l 31511; W.. t 1407). Tij aI·Dln 'Abd aJ..Wah!>ib ibn N"'t"Allih aI~1 ahulaml, known as aI-Shaykh aI'khalir, no. death daU' (llIanilal II, I. 364b; Wiet 1498). S.'d aI·Dln Abo aI-<;hi!ib Ib,ihlm .I-Qib!i, kno... n u Ibn 'Awid al-s.rrt.j, d. Rabr II 8S6{ApriIMay 14S2 (l);I.w' XI, p. IlO, roo. 373). Sa'd al·Din Ibn\.hlm ibn 'Abd .1.Wahhib al-Qibtf al·Maymem!. known as Ibn .1·N_jib. d. 795/ 1392-1)93 (Manhal t, p. 99, no, 51; Wiet SI). Sa'd al·Dln Ibrahim ibn 'Abd AI.RauAq al-Qib!1 al'MU$liml al-Skanda'" al·MI~rt, known ;l.S Ibn Ghurib, d. Rajab 808/D«ember Iw' I. p. 33). 'Al.", aI·D1n Abo aI.Fat,l1 SaliM a1.Oib!J, d- Dh(; al.(la'daft t>1l{7tb.y-Jur>< 1468 (ll"w' XI. p. 16). no. SIS). Fakhr aI·Dln Mipd ibn 'Abel aI·R&zdq aI-Q>~ aI· A$laml aI·Sbndar1, !<nov.... IS Ibn Ghur:lb. cL '11/la(llI-l<W9 (ManIr./lII. f. 71 b; "",",,,,, 1~9), Fillr aI·Din Wojid ibn Ahl aI·Fao:!"il al-Qibtf, known as Ibn aI·Ma...... q. d, Rajab 83)/JobrchApril 1430 (,(hzw' VI. p. 235, no. 812l. Majd aI·Dln Majid ibn aI·~ aJ-Qib!i al·AsI· amI. d. Dhil a1-l:Iiijah 843{May-June 1440 (Q~w' VI, p. no. 813) (lwice). Khayr al.D1n Mu~ammad Ibn YaJ:Iya al·Qibp. known as Ibn FakMrah, d, 899/1493-1494 (Q""" X, p. 72, no, 245). Sharaf al·D1n ibn Y".... f al·BOttjl al.Mi¥' .l-Qahi'" aI-Qibll, known 1$ Ibn lOtib GILaJ1b, d. $alar 8U~-Ju,.. loin (Q ns. K..tib 1Il........nb: Secrnary in the buR3ll of royal (sup!) ",ilif;,.nlf p<esscs; acCountanl of in""ntorle$ in !he SUIte WO Ulwff aJ""..w. {accounl:l./lt 623 of finaoces under the IIlI;;r ..........&J. Three paoitiDnf. 43 percent of_" total: Kal1m ,,1·DiD 'Abd a1·Kal1m ibn Barakah :a.I.QibJf aI·Mi¥1. known • 1blI KJotib born, d. U3{ 1430 (Md1lJurl1l. I. ~3; Wlet 1457). Man"", ibn a1~ a1-Qib!1. d, Sha_'>il 870/M:oyJune 1466 (11""" X, p. 170, no. 716). Sharaf ,,1·Din Mil>A ibn Yl1!uf al-Blltljl al-MIJr1 a1~irl al-Oib!I, kno... n as Ibn Utib Gharlb, d. Safar 832/May-June 1477 (paw' X, p. 192, no. 810). Kdlib ''''.... lian and Syrian provinc" used to SIlJ'lXWt the myaI Mamluk amin. Two posittoll&, 29 percent of """,-en total: MuwaHaq aI·Din ·Abd·AlIih ibn Jbrihim aI-Qibll a1.()ihirf, d. Rabl' 1 In/AuplSl-So:pumber 1472 (Qa .... V. P. 4. no. 7). Kha-)T al-Dln Mlll:a:ammad ibn Ya!;I)"1o a1-Qib!l. :os Ibn Fakhlrah. cL 899/1493-1494 (Q m.o..'ll K.tib df_ dl-AJlml4flc SecrelMy in the bureau of Mamlub; accOllnlant of fund5 used U) "",inlai" the royal barn.c:b in Cairo (levenl located in lhe Oaf oh Or Ciladel. othera On R.aw~ah Island or Ray· diniyyah) and the pro-.'incial capital•. Four p""itions, 33 pef"(:ent of twelve lOU'" MuwalJaq ai-Din 'Abd·AllAh Ibn Ibrihlm al·Qib!1 al.Qihil1, d. Rab!' I 877jAuKUst-Scptembu 1472 (,(hz"" V. p. 4, nO. 7). Kartm al-Di" 'Abd al·Katlm ibn Abi al-Fac;ll al· Oib!1 :o1·M~ known iI$ Ibn Jalll1d. d. Rajab MI/Octobtr-Nowmber 1476 (Qaw' IV. p. 316, 00. 860). Tij aI·Dln 'Abd al·Razziq ibn IbI-ahIm al~l. known ... Ibn Kitib Jabm. d. Dbu al-I;fi,ijah I~/Augusl-Stptem'- 14J1 (Qolw' IV. Po 191, no. 48.5). S.·d ai-DIn Far,oj ibn MAjid .I-Q>b!i aI-Mi¥', known as Ibn aI·Nal)I)AJ. d. JuJnidj II 80S/ MarclI-Aplil 1461 (Qow VI. p. 169, 0<>. 570). 'AbeI al"~m ibn Dirilam w"·N....,. K.rIb d1w~" a{.",.. ,.ad: Secrelal}' in the ....ll1n·s opecial bureau [hat funded monlhly payments to his Mamluk lroopers. ",, KlIlib al-dlw equipment, fodd..., for their m()Llnts. and so fonh, In general. this bureau collected re,'enues from ur· ban propenin, mark""s, pon tolls, larilh. and a variety of taxes- ....th... r than from land allotments. go~emmenl. specifically the dlwlln 11""wl,,}, (ste un<Jer ndt/. I/.d"wlnm· 624 COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT pll.....,eds or wllkll ....pponed amin and Wffe under u... jurisdklloon !he diM-obi "I-jay"'. One po$llloon. 100 pen,"," of one 100aI. or Ma~ ibn a1~ aJ-Qib!l. d- Sba-'l S10fMayJune 1466 W"H" X. p. 110. no_ 116l. 1CJI1J> iJI....... al·mJUUl;'·~l: Secretary la Ihe ooreau of rec;lamalion. <esponsible foe ""'''in, and col· le<:Iin, income from estaln 01 Mamlulr. amin wfto died. or ,"'en' dismi<w:d and/ar dcmOied before lhe end oIlhe aceounLing ~nr. This bureau '"1111 initial· ly known .. 1M orwlln aJ-5w!.u (..ltan" depart. menl). bul lhe IIde dropped out of usc ..·ilh Ihe eJ<pansion of tM dfM'll.. a/';"y'" and 1M office 01 'Ul~tl~, In Ihe bIer Mamluk periodOne posi,ion. 100 perurn of one loul. 'Alam al·Drn 'Abd al.Wahhib ibn (}aili ,1·Qlb!f al.()l.hi". d. Mul]am>m 791{December 1388January 1)89 (Ma ..haill. f. :>65b: Wlet 1.99). K~lib al·l~ld' Secretary 10 Ihe 1~1~. an hont>,.,' X. p.lOO. no. SSot). K.,rb .1·Jirr. Confidential secre1ary. head of !he tl/M.....1.im1l~· (royal chancellery). Servin. as fo.... e11f1 mlnistn (responsible £Or Infonning lhe ....I"'n about cbssiMd staU and dipi<::omalic mallen) ...d as senloC' ICribe (raponsiblc £Or p~lin, oRidal cOlie....ondence 10 lht ruler and supel'\Uin, !he draftln, of replies to SUl'h ccrn:spondomce. beaTer of Ute 'O)'al _I and se""rer of the ....1,...·• danalure 01' emblem; director of lhe .--oy:aI POlo! and ....,. oengen). He also Kt~nded the 9ol11a1> duri .., audi~nce:s i.. the Palace op,Jll5Iice (DJr aJ.·AdJ). rec;eivin, pelitions from the J"M'/ltld, and ""Oliing closely wilb lhe four chief judges in appeal. hean! "" Ihe Ihrone. One of Ib~ 1l>05t i,,/hleniial civil offi· ciall in lhe ""aim (the office ....... duplka,e ""rim ai-Din 'Abd al·Ka.rlm ibI'I 'Abd al-Ra=Kj al..Q;~i aJ-Mi?,,!. known as Ibn KJ.llb al_Ma· ""khat. d. Ibbr II SS2!'UM-July 1448 W"...' IV. P. 313, no 148; 11... /I./II.£' ~S; Wi", 1461) (.v.""",). FHhr .. DIn MjjMl ibn Abl al·Fa4Jo·i/ a1-0ibti. known as Ibn al-Marq11q. d. Rajah 833/MarchApril 1430 (Q presumably in the dtv.'in al-Mam;llilk. bunau of Mamlub (...,., aboo>~). On~ posi.ion. 100 perce"t of one 10Ia1: Sa'd al·Din Ibrihlm ib.. fakhr aJ·Din al-Qib!l. d_ Rajab llM/May 1.60 (1;)<1,.,' I. P. 183). Milk "/.,.....,,.,,', Accounl.llnt of propertiQ hold b)' Mamluk amin (presumably .. iq!"). All lh<.... ,*rences 10 Ihis poil occu~d In ,he carun of Muslim Copts, underscoring the sultan's poIky of granl· Ing ",liabl~ cli~nls supervisory powen o,'~r his am''''' eStale.. Thre~ po,llions. 100 percenl of Ih.ee lotal: Karim al·Dln ·Abd al·KlIr1m ibn 'Abd al·Ra=iq al-Qib!l. known as Ibn KAtib al·Munakhll. d. Rabl' 11 852/June-July 1448 (0",.,' IV. p. 313. no. 848; "'""ha/li. 345; Wiet 14/01) (twice). N~, al·Din M~mad ibn 'AM al-R.nziq alQibli, d- MuI)arnm 881/April-May 147(0 WaH" VlII. p. 55, no. 10). MrJ>atJrir. 51:"""",0:1. inlendanl. Sening In a wide nnl" of b.....,....,raIic Sellinp. !he ...ubd."ir worted under the aulhority of a ~.;U « to process ac:counU and generally to maintain l""itutiona1 fu."ctionf... Also appean in the .....rees 011 oc~ "" a courier and a precunor who cbred !he slree" lor i",ponanl olfidak. A111>ou8b • subo1dinate pool. me majorit)· of indiwiduala holdinE il _re Muslims of pro>..", line...",- Muslim Copts r:a,..,ly recri>-ed the po$llion. al\.aChed as II often was to reliaJo--ac.adentic inslihnloM as ..~Il as the ,.,. gime·. J"""nJ. One po$llion. 1.5 percent of ii~ty-six lou!: ""ib Tlj al·Din 'lIbd al·Rnd.q ibn 'Abd·AIWI ai.Qlb!l. known as 11m Kilib al·Mul\il specifically lh~ dlwh ~1·d COPTS IN UTE MEDIEVAL EGYPT al·Mipf, knov,." as Ibn Kidb Jabm. d Rabr I 8H/No....... bn-~Dwt'mber 1429 (lJ;> ...~ IV. p. JOS. no. 13J). fakhr aJ·Din Mijid ibn 'Abd al-RazUoq aJ-Qibp aJ· Skandarl, known .. Ibn Gbw'Ab, d. Dhu ai-!:fijjall III/April-May 1409 (Q Sa'd aI·Dln Ibr.\hlm Ibn 'Abd al·Wahhib aI·Olb!l aI·Maym"n\. d, 795/1392-1393 (M,,,,hai I, p. 99, DO. 51; Wi.l 51). M..Wshi. tIlwot.. ,,/-tJr~f: Slewud in the ~ bureau Juper'Yisinlil a fund mainglned IQ CO"-W !he COW; ol mililasy expeditions and o~. rebted e~· pensel: (w...mmes I~ed as !he ~priry fund'l. One f'II5i1ion. 100 percent 01 0'" Mlal: Abo aI~ aI-Q;bp'. d. Rabr I 899jFebl"\l&ryMarch 1489 (J!trw' XI. p. 120. no. 376)_ Mu~s1Ii7 Wif~' "I....u/rfld: Sieward in !he ac· «Iunu depal1menl of the sullan's special bureau did>unine payments ro his Mamluk lroopers. One posilion, 100 pereent of one loul TtJ al·Dln 'Abd al·RauJ.q ibn 'Abel·AIlAh al·Qib!!. known as Ibn Katib al·Mun'''hAt. d. Jumldl I 827/May 1423 <J;law' IV, p. 194. no. 495). MUJlawfl: Accountant in a fiscal burtau 01 Ihe 8~mmenl or a rdigio·ac:oo:ltcmlc inslitudon. Thru posi1ion>. 75 percent of four tOlaI: Amln al·Din 'Abd-All:oh ibn al·Ttj aJ.Qibp aI-AsI· .ml, d. 7040/1339-1340 (AI<J"""l II. f. 262; W",,1310). Tij aI·Dln 'AM a/.RazUoq Ibn .}MAlw, a1.Qib!;I, known .. Ibn Kitib al-Munilhtl. d. Jumidi I 8n/April 1424 (.Q Shantf al·Dln "Abd al·Wahhlb ibn "..;II·Allah al· Oibll al·Aslaml aI·Qa!tlr1, no 625 lnowD as aJ·KaffliI. d. 7~5/I)4of-1345 (""'''''''' I. f. ~5; W"1et 96). M"Jla....p dtw.I" "f.ja,uc N::counu.nt in the .rmy bureau, ",ttic:h 0\'enII'" nvmua yielded by land aJlotmenlS 10 support the IUltan's ldamlult amin and tltdr retinues. 0"", paritioD, 100 percenl of 0"'" Mlal: 'Alam aI·Din Shikir al·/o1ltrl al~. kn<;>..."TI as Ibn .1·JI'1n, d. 790/1388 (Ma"hat II. f. 170; Wiet 1162). Mus"'wf! al·kholH: AccOUntanl in lhe $ui! "'"*Ce ....... FOIlr paril;""". 100 percen' ol four toUt: 'Abel al-Ghani ibn .1·Haypm aI~. knov."T1 as Ibn aJ.Haysam. 110 dntb datc (Ma""""/ II. f. 3351>; W>et 1«1). Karim al-Din 'Abd aJ·K.artm ibn Fakhloth a1.QibJl, d. bjab 8S5/Augu$l-Seplember 1451 (q.....' IV. p. 321. no. 1179). Tlj .1·Din 'Abd .1·R.azz.lq io" ·Abd·A11ah al~l. known as Ibn Kilio al·MunAkh. d. Jumidl 1 837jAprii 1424 (Manha/li. f. 316b; Wiel 1409). Majd al·DIn Rizq·AUAh Ibn F""'I·AlIah al.()ahl!1al· Qibu al·Aslamt d, 740/1339- 1340 (Mankal II, f. 97b; Wie. 1031). MU$'"wfl ,,/·khidl"4h: Accoungnl in I1M' royal wardrobe of the lreawry, ~b1c lor alloni"ll funds to pay for produClion of robes of bonor distributed by sultaru C;onai service or lOnna! promotions (Ji,-en to both Mamluks and civilians). Robes Wo ..." ... be· SIOUo'I'd upon ~ and other visitinll dill"i· taries. The position 0«:1In-ed only in this case. One posiIi011, 100 pen:ent of one rotal: The prec:odi"ll Majd al·Dln Rilq·A1Iih. MU1~aJlim td..,.."q/t.f: Official in the, bureau of pi· OIK ItUM fOundations, presumably muned ill the I.... of waqf with cxpenise in mailers of sale. ..,. placcmenl, or lran$fer. Onc posilion. ~ percenl of SC\'CnIUn .0ul: NAlir al·DIn Mu(iammad Ibn 'Abd al·Ra=\q al· Qib!i. d. MuJ.tamun S/ll/April-Ma~ 147~ Wa ...· VIII, p. 55, no. 70). 626 COPTS IN lATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT M"I~bmm uJ-df"'~II: Official in !he lipandal lxI· fUU, lpecifically !he 01_ al-Da...tah (see unock-r "';;' Ill-d" ....,."). 0ulie5 limibr '0 Iho:ot of 'he "'.... /Mm" bu1 empowered decide procedural lepl malIn'S CQDCtminl collection and e.pendl,u.., of ",,'enua. One polilioll. 100 pe,..,etll of one 1<:> '0 Tij aI·OIn 'Abd a1·Wahhib ibn N~""1Jh aJoOi:11 u.Asbmf, known as aJ-sha)til al·~lr, d DtIu al.()a·da/t llb5/AugusI-Mplembn 1461 (1;)."" 'II, P. 114, no. 4(8). U",,,Ic.llim -'n M al·l(J.lib al·Maysam, d. Sha'w,n 892/JulyAugml 1437 (l! M",.,,,qq": Clerk, ",nbe. In cont!'U1 with Ihe Icjr,b, this official had the preropli,'e of ,,,,,,,/1', Ihe offici.1 riihl of signalure, seal, or other ;nsiania Ieg;olly ce"ifyinl documents. Thi. preroplive wl'$ gt;lnted only 10 individuals who had received for' mal lrainlng in tho 1.lamic sciencei'. A dlstlnction for persons of Coptic ancestry. Three' positions, 2.6 pel'Cent of 116 lOIlIl; Amln aHlin Ibrihlm Ibn 'Abd al'Ghanl al.()ib!-i al·M~I'I, known l'$ Ibn a1-I-b~, d. Rabf' II 8S9/March-April 1454 (l!"-w' I, p. 67), SNnI al·Dln YaJ:!y.l al-Qibll a1-Oihirt, kno..'.... as Ibn ~rah. d. Mul]anam S82/April-May 1477 fiji...... X. p. 268. DO. 1(61) (Iwice). UllW ·tn M.jd al·Dln Fa4I-A11ih 'Abel al·lW)lnan aI· Mi¥' al.Qib!1 al'f:Ianaf1, known .. Ibn MaUnis. d. Rabl' II 8n/April-MoOy 1419 (q.. w' VI, P. 172. 00. 581). u"...... qq.· Ji,.,dn .. ScriM In the imperial c .... nc~lIery. One position, II perant of Ihineen tOIll!: The preceding Ibn MakAnis. N~I"r; fiscal conlroller. su"".....i50r. This offic~ e~o)~ed from the O~eT>eer of re~~nUel yl~lded by Chanlllble lrusll (",.,qlif) 10 fiscal administrator of a gov~mmenl bure.... or budgel direc:lor of a religio- acadt:mic inslilution 5Uch . . . mosque, m001), or !?UfI hospic~ in Ih~ E&YP!ian Mamluk period. Rdalively few persons of Coptic ancesIry held poou in !he bller capacity. bu1 !hey ,.~d fnqucllliy in !he fonner. The super'risoly po~ 01 ,. d;iT O¥t:r a mc.J bu....... enabled him 10 p-oc:ess larie ro-vntur:s. III virtually all ........ he ........ In _;phon. pe«:eDIlI(l' of wch lUOlIOel into a p.h'lll~ fund r=orved lor his puron. the sultan or vand amir ..-110 had appoinled him. M05I n.. WU .."e.., c<:>mpdled 10 ..... re their wlltolity widt ,. cosupet' -risor. often tided f'I~ib and ...-Ily of "lamluk 0rigin, ,...Ito chttked '0 l « .hal h~ .... performing his c1andeoriJ'll' func.ion 10 his employ«.....1i$fac100n. (See Qalqashandl, ~.. b~ V, 465; IX. 257-58_) Thrtt posil>on•• 2 percenl of 169 10Ia1: Sitarns ai-Din Inbrlhlm ibn ·Abd·Allah al·Qibli, known as K.llib Amln, d. Sha'b,ln 7911/MayJun~ 1396 (M""",,I!, p. 57, no, 31: Wi~t 31). Sa'd ai-DIn lbdltlm ibn 'Abd a)·Raniq al-Skandart al·Mipl al.Qlb!1. known as Ibn Ghumb, d. Rajab IlOll/Decemhu I«IS-January 1406 (~",." I. p. 65). Fakhr ai-Din MAjid ibn 'Ahd al·Ramq a1-Qib!1 alSkandar!. known III Ibn Gh"rtb. d. Dhu a1-l:Iijah llll/April-May 1409 (l,)<:I ..... VI. p. 2,].4. no. 811). Nsw.-Iq: Supervbor ol mark~lS. specifically the hone and .bve marten. Distinct from the m"~Ipe<:lor of weighu and measure> in the marUu, 10 whio:h no penon of CopIic bad· around was appoinled in this survey. The liun- ",-as a ItpI official. lClNI~d from the persons of proven Muslim lineae" and fonnal lraininc in the $hIIrl' "lL 'The ~r ..... a r-e-etIUfO oollttlOr in >tale ~]>lo)' and wbordinate 10 the UeculM x<:reury (d<no-'j. dlr) and the "'<>tir. ODe po:lSilion. lJ percenl of!hree lolal: 'AIam ai-DIn YaJ:!yi al·Qi~1 a~M~rt. d. Rajah nSf Morch-April 14)2 (Ud,,""l Ill. f. 508; Wie! 28il). N'p. nuption and bribery, Therefo.., hi. COPTS IN IATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT character "'as '0 .how no blemish. his ..,Ija)ous convi<':tio", no deviance whatsoever. A",orut bel...........~ appoin.td. and ohio oil" lie men'fKe '0 a MLt>lim CopI. anadoe.l to a specifw; ro-.nclariOlt (Sa~mWtiyJah Madnoah). J>f'O"U lbt few CODverts 0. their de>.andanl$ hdd "" p." One potition. 2 pereenl of fifty-two touol, Ibrahim ibn Fakh. al·Dln al.Qi~I, known as Ibn al·StJk4. wa·al·LaymOn, d. Rajab 1164fMay 1460 (Qaw' I. p. IS3;. N~>ir aJ./nmdar: StJpcl'llsor of the port. The post fiNt appean fer the pon of AIUlindna, but after the monopolie> iml"""'d by StJltan Ba.l'>bAy (S25_8411 1421_I.J1). the offieial appean In the Red Sea pons con'1'OIl«l by the regime. Th.« po5ltion., 100 pcn:cnt of th""" total: Karim aI·Ofn 'Abd al·Karlm ibn 'Ahd al-Razdq aI~1 a!.·Mi!:I1. l:nown as Ibn K.ilib aJ.MunIkhM. d. Rabr II 852/June-July t.uS (AI",,""'/ II. f. J.45; Woe! 1461) (rw>ee). Stl'd aI·!)b, Ibrahim aI.Qib!! aI·Naprl aI-MUliiml, ktlo..-n as Ibn al-Mar'•• d. Rabr 11 PM/AueustSeptember 1440 {J;) ·uu.: StJpervilor of the finaneial "1.J,,.. bureaus, In theol)' he ... ...-..d ..... thonty with the w"dr and cmigned all li$<:.l dire<:tlve~ with him; in practice he jlradually ...pcneded him. Thi. indlvid· ual directed an umbrella department overseeing the OIh •• 6~al burellU$. all of which had to r.port their Kcount. at regula. interval•. AI5<>. royal instruments of appointment to Ii• .,.l oIlicf:S we.e "" Shanu al·Oln ·Abd·AllMlal·Maqsl' al.Qib!l. d. Sha·· bAn 755/August-~ember lJ54 (M"nh"t. f. S06b; Wiet 2809). Amln al·Dln 'Ab..f.Allth ibn Rls~ah al·QibJl al-Asi . • ml al.Mifl1. d. 790jlJ88 (M4"h4t 11. f. 2nb: WOet 1J.4J). 627 AmID aI·Din 'Abd--A11ah ibn aI·T;ij aJ Qi~ al·As!· amL d. 740/1319-1).40 (M4NW II. f. 262; Wiet 1J10). KarIm aI·Din 'Abe1 lIl·Kat1rn ibn 'Abe1 al·Razdq a1.QibJi aI-M~ known as Ibn Makin•• d. JumW 11 80JjJanUlill)'-Fehruuy loWl (J;)oj ibn Mijid aJ.Qi~ u.M¥i, kn........ '"' Ibn aI·Na1:t~. d. Jumadfo II 865/ March-April 1461 (J;)e.-Oc:fOber 1469 X. p. 2n. no. 98]; ManJuoIlII. I. 4Olb; Wiet 26]3) (Iwice). w<>W' N~;ir 4/-4(,,1>/: Supervisor of the ror-I 5tables. reo 6PQ11$ible fOl" dis"ibulinl re~nUf:S de:signaled to maintain the ro)'ill cavalry hou$ed in the Citadel complea (near the Maydan al·Ruma},jah). He ad· ministered purchases of fodder and harness... well III payment of waies to srooms and ~lable anend· ants. Nine positKms, 4i """,ent of tWf:nt)'two Colal: 628 cons IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT Amln al·Din 'Abd-Allih ibn Abl aJ·Fanoj aI.Qib!l aI·Mi¥!, known • Ibn Tij aJ·Din MOsI. d. J.... madli II 844!Oct. . .-N.....'CftIM 1440 CQ.rw' V. p. •1, no. 155; M"'nJ.aJ Il. f. 256; W~t 1297) (.......,~J. T.ij a)·Din 'Abd aI·Wahhib ibn N~bh aI.Qib!l al-Aslamr. known lQ a1-$haykh .... Kha!ir. d. !>hu al.Q;a·dah 865/Aucwt-Sq>t....... t>tr 1%1 (Q...... V. p. 11 •• no. 408: M""lutl II. f. 164b: Wi~1 14'18) (Iwice). Sa'd al·Din Faraj ibn MAjid al·Oi"'l al·MI~rf. known as Ibn al·Na~~AI. d. JumMo\. II 865/Feb· ruary~March 1461 (Q""" VI. p. 169, no. 570). hkhr al·Din MAjid Ibn Abl al·F...,u,·il al.Qib!1. known"" Ibn ManOq. d. Rajab 8H/MareltApril 1430 fQ", ibn 'Abel al-Ibzzaq aI.QibJl aI· Oihirt, mo.n as a).A$hqaT. d. Rabf I 17./Srp"'mllti--OclOber 1.69tpaw' X. p. 2H.1IoO. 9SJ; ,..,..,J""llll. f. 402b; Wid 2633) (twic~). Nqr ~lt: Supemso. of !he army burau .... mlnislerin& tlte vanl of. and ruripu COU«oI«I &om. all mililary land alloimenl.S in Egypt and Syr- ia. An ucttdlngly Inftuenlial official b«_ or his discnlionary powers o,'cr personnel (Mamluk am· irs) who receivey3l fisc. He souVtl 10 appolnl individuah wlto wcre dcpcndcnl upon 111m for their securily and profnsional advancemc:nL (Sec Oalqashandl. ~ IV. 17,.30. 190 lrelationship with Il'\tS.I ~nies in Damaoscus); VI. 61; XI. 89. 93.) Fifteen posilions, 18 pe~ent of eicltl,-o total: 'Alam ai-DIn 'Abel·AlIIII Ibn A!;Imad al~1 at· Mq;r1. d. 75S/1354-1355 C'lom1uIl II, f. 2S7; Wie1 1301). S.'d al·Din Ibnlblm ibn 'Ab(! at·Ra=\q al-5bndar! a1-Mi¥! aI.Muslim!. known as Ibn Ghu~b. d. Raja/> 808/December 1403-January 1406 (Qaw' I. p. 63; Ma.. hall. p. 85, no .•7: Wict 37) (four times). Iamil aJ·Din Ibriltlm al.Qib!l aJ.Aslam!. known a5 Jamil ai-Din aI·Kaffjt, d. 143/lJ.4-13.5 (Ma". hall. f_ 45; Wiel 96), Falli ai-Din M.IjMl ibn Abi aJ-F~'il a1.Qi!lf1. known as Ibn aI·Ma.mill. d. R&jab 833{MarchApril 1.30 tp"... VI. p. 235. 1>0_ Il2). N~r aJ.Din MuJ:wnnwi ibn 'Abel al-Razzaq al· Annanl a.I..Qibjl, no dnIt1t dale (1tI....Jrtt.1 Ill. f. 180; Wit! 2187). Fal:hr al·Dln MIl~ammad ibn Far,lI·AlIah aj.f.l~· rini al-Qib!1 al·Q6hiri aJ·Mlaml, d. 7,)2113311332 (M.."hallll. f. 24Ob; Wlet 2311). Shl.ms al·Dln MOsli ibn 'Abd al·WaltMb al·Mi~r1 al·Qib!i. d. 771/1369-1370 (Manha/IIl, f. 313; Wiet 2534) (Iwice/. Sharaf aJ-DIn Masa ibn Yiisuf aI-Karlik! al·Qibll al-Shawbakl. no death date (Manllal 111. f. 379; witt 2571) (three time.). Iami! al·Dln Nsuf ibn 'Abd al·lCarfm a1.Qib!1 at· Shifi1, known as Ibn Kitib Iakam, d. Oltu al· l:'-ijjah 862/Oclober-November 1.38 (Ma..Jrtt.f III, r.•59; W"1tl 2710). ,..~ ..l~ (dho..An "I·J: Supervisor of 1M suI· \an's special bureau adminislerlnB a fund resen'fd 10 cover costs of miliW')' umpaipts an "" 'Ab.;n ai-DIn ·AbQ.Alah ibn ~mad al-Oib!l aI· ~. known as!bft lunbUr. d. 155/13S4-I35S (ltl'II1Jra1I1. r. 257; Wlel 1301)Fakhr aI·Din ·Abd·AlIib ibn MUsil aI-Oib!l al·Mi¥!. known a$ Ibn Tjj at·Din. d. 776/137.-1375 (M"nlutlll, r. 276b; Wit! 1340). 'Abd al-Ghanr ibn Hana-m ;>1..Qihu, known as Ibn al·Hawam. nO death date (M".. hal II, f. HSb: Wiet 1441) (".ice). Maj J COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT aJ'Mi~l1, known as Ibn Klilib Jabm. d. IUbr I 8Jl/NO\·embcr-Dtte~r 1.29 (Q""" IV. p, 308. no. 8J3; M<>nh11 aI·As/· ami. d. Jumld:li I 768f)aauary-Fdtruary 1lf>7 lU....""IIll. f. 72b; Wiel 1951). Sham$ aI·Dln Mils.li ibn 'Abd al-Wah/db aI·M~1'I aI·Oib!l, d. 77lj1J69-1J7~~M""hallll, r. 113; Wlet 2S54) (1"->«), '.....ID ai·Dln Yahyj al.Qib!i al-~ d. Rajab 8JSI Ma~h_""pril 14}2 (Manlta! 111. f- 508; Wiet 28(3). Jamil al·Oln Yoisuf ibn 'Abel .1·Karim al.shjfi·l al·OiI>1I. known as Ibn KAl:ib Jakam, d. Ohu al·l;lij,iah 862jO<:lober-No,'~mber 1458 (M" ..I0 ../ Tl\. f. 459: W;"l 2710), Nb;;r ,,/·kh;~bn ..h (ol-kablr): $u!"'TVi.or of Ihe roy· al reposimry of robes in Ihe Citadel. His duties werr j(rad".Uy supplanle 629 Amln ai-Din 'Abd-AII:Iih ibn .... hI IJ.Fa"'i ~i .. I-M~. trno..." as Ibn Tij II·tIl" Miis:Ii. p. 41, 1>0. 155). Shams ai-Din 1oI\is;1. ib" 'Abel al·Walthib al-Mifri aI.Qib!i. d. nljB69-1J70 (.,,,..10..1111. f_ J7}; Wlel 2554). NI.;ir "/·..,..fraJ (Jitrin aJ.J; Supervisoor of tM spt-- cial bureau established 10 support ,hoe ... han·s Mamlub. reo.pomibJc lor payina lnar 5tipends and ordering thrir dot),;n.. fodcIe-r. and loO on. R.,.,..,. nues loet aside fur this depanmelll _re coJlttt"'" from lOlls and market Wles i" pro>'incia\ ,owns, plus ..,.,·eraJ customs dUlies. The depanmenl healrne promi....nl durina the ..,ha,nate 01 Barqliq (784-801/1182-IJ99i. w-llo,.,rclIued brp numbe.. of Mamluk lroopen. A ma;orit~ of those post>; "'lOre held by Muslim Cop1S. Eighteen posilions, 75 pl'rc:en' of twenl)'four 10' 1.1: nj al-Oln 'Abd al-<~Im ibn ~qah al·Qib!i al· Aslam!, d_ 844/1440-1441 (/?w· IV, p. 240, no. 620: Manh.1 II. f. 333; Wiet 1417) (Iwice). Kartm al·Din 'Abd a1·Kal1m Ibn 'Abd al.Rauaq .I.olb!i .1·M~r!. k_n as Ibn Kitib al·ManAkbil, d. !UbI' 11 8S2/June-July 1448 W"w' IV. p. 31J. no. 348: M..nIt,,1 11, f. 345; Wiet I~I) (twM:el. TJj aI-OJn •Abd a1.Razdq ibn 'Abd·Al1ih aI-Oib!l, known as Ibn Ulib al-Mul\Akh:lil. d_ J..mida I B27jApril 1424 (/;t..... IV, p. 194. no. 495: ,1.1....10<11 II. f. 316b: Wiet 14(9) (l"ic~). Ttj a1.();., ,...bd aI·~ ibn fbt-lhlm a1.Qibo. known iI:'I Ibn a!·Ha>1Qm. d. Dllu aJ.--I;IiDah B341 Iwgusl-Sq>lrmher 1431 (Q.. w' IV. p. 191. no. 485; M=haill. f. 11Sb; Wlel 1407) (1,..;,;10). Taql aJ-Dio 'Abd a1-WahhAb ibn 'Abd-AlI:lih (MIojidl a1-Qi~1 al-I;lanaft. known iI:'I Ibn Ahl Shlkir. d. Dhu al.()o'20). &'d al·Din Ibr:ihlm al·N~il1 I1-Qib!! .1.MasJiml. i<no",." ... lbn al-Mar'ah. d. Rabl·1I114./"'ugustSeptembe.- 1440 (J)""" I. p. 1841. "'mln .1·l)jn IhDhlm Ibn 'Abd .1<;h.nl al-Qibti al·Mi!l1, known"" Ibn al·Hal1lm, d. RaW J1 859jMarch-"'pril 1455 (Qaw' l. p, 67). Man~;" ibn al~f1 al·Oib!l, d. Shawwil 1170/MayJune 1466 (/?aw' X, p. 179, 00. 716). Sharaf al·Din MUsi. ibn Yilsuf .1·BOlljl al-Misrt 630 COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT al.Q;thil'l aJ-Qi!>fl, d.1}ala~ SS2/May-June 1477 (/?<>.... X. p. 192, no. 8(0). bl}'n ~J.l)fn VaI)yt Ibn 'Abd a/.~ a/·Qit,,1 aJ· ooil'l. known u aJ·Ashq.... d. RabJ' I 814,tSoq>. tembe~-October 1469 (Q-' X. P. 233, no. 983; ,"""h.., Ill, f. «l2b; Wie1 UJJ) {three tlll>Q). ~~ib .I. v·""'I. One positil>n. 50 percent oflWO lotal: Fakh~ aJ·OIn 'Abd-Altah ibn Mu.A a/.()i!>fl al·Mi¥', known all Ibn Uj aI·Din, d_ 776/lJ14-lJ15 (M.."IuIII1, £. 2761>; Wie1 (340). ~-'1ib .1-..1",,-,: Imendant of the bu~eau io~ ~evenues accruing 10 the Prophet's descendants. An individual appointed to this oIIice served ~ a lupe",llOry agent of the regime, shlrinS his authority (as a regulalO~) with the "aqlb al.aJI,,,,-!, who was mure autonomuus although also appoinled by the sultan. This d~rtment was open to bribery due 10 lhe claim. pelX>rl' with proven I:Ibhiml genealO@iet could m~ke on lhe su,te rreasury. R>t"&. eries were Inevitable, and the f4i1;b "''a5 respoll5lole roc- nllina lhe ....qib to acoounl, $ince the Lauer identi6ed with lhe '.. f"v,.<1'_ No Muslim Copt held the latter office, but the only rderence to the for.. meT occu~ in ~ Copl's career. One position, 100 ~reC':llt of one total: dlw"-" ~Iu~ aJ·Din ·Abd·Allih ibn ibTihlm a1-QilMJ al-01hlrt d. Ral>r I 8n/Aup5C-Scpt:hnbe~ 1412 (Qortol V, p. 4, no. 7), $altmenl.. iD~iraclice the f4~ib acted a$ a rqul~tor of the ~~ and "'. ansWC1'tlble directly to the regime for l'CV<'nues }ielded by land aUotmenu ,",med by tbe ""han to $1IPI'On hi$ M~mluk officen. From a fiscal perspe<:tive, the "'M one of the more important officn in .h.e bt.I~au· cratk hierarchy, On~ position, H perc~nt of fou~ total: Fakhr .I·DI" 'Abd al·Ghanl al.()ib!I, known as Ibn Blnr al·MulkT. d. Raj~b 84lt/Octobe~-Novern~~ 1444 (Qaw' IV, p. 251. no. 6SJ). wQ~rr: Durinl 1M Abbasid period, prime mi"ls.ler after the caliph, hi$ aher qo. stIpet"Visor of the laX bure.... and chancellery, Under the fa.imicl caliphs and AyyubJd mh.ans ol Egypt, this official enjoyed similar sweeping powen. A1bon!inale OIIly 10 the ruler. But .. ntle~ the Mamluk $t.Ilt.ans. and especialI:y from lbe rtip d al-~Jr &rqQq (ri. !O1/1}99), the poooilion piIdo.oally diminished. and ,,_ no lonrer rankal as "office al the oword" (and thlOl rwdy dnoI't'ed on a MamIulr amir). Variotn fonne~ func· lions wne p~i",ly assumed by fiscal in..,ntiants (Il"-;:41) ..-ho now rlirected the financial bu· rno.t$ {Drnon al'Mal. DlWlln al·[bwlalt) and ~ special fund ea.ablW>ed fo~ the &u.ltan'$ military ex· penses (Di""'n a)-~). The .....tiTS po-evJous chancellory prcroplives were assumed by ~ confidential secretary (Alltih ..t·,;,,), ~nd his tonner dose .-..ci· ation with lhe autocrat was now maintained by ~ majordomo (..-Jldda,), U$UaJly a Mamluk grand ami. .nd coll....gue of the lulran, Thul, by the bter Middle Ages, Ihe vizierate in Egypt was restricted lars"1)' 10 collection of censin specific la,e. and dutie.-a procedural rather than :In executive of· fice. A$ the viz.ler3te dedined in authority, the per· celltage of Copl$ appointed to h steadily increased, l1le resultant burgeoning of references 10 Copts therefore panollels a prolVt:S'lve erooion of tbe officc'$ ~ulhority while also Wl8toStIng the officeholde-r'$ ri.ing dependence on tile regirne'$ autoentic power$ to perform hiJ dutin. Lale~ Mamlui sultan. were prone- '0 place Copts in lucrative but .....Ine...· ble posllionlo 10 lO$Stlre a Row of ~-enues d~t1y '0 tbeI~ coIfers throuch eonfiscatlon and other pressure tactics. 1be ~ of antoSl for peDOll$ holding the viDerale oceeded 50 J'Cf'"nt "' S harm a)·Din 'Abel·AlUil a1-Maqsl aI~l, d- Sha'hAn 755/AuguR-September lJ~ (M.."h.d III, f. 506b: Wiet 28051). 'Alam ~1·Dln ·Abd·Al.... ibn Ai)miKI ",I-Qibtl aIM~, d. 7S5{l35-4-U55 (Ma"ltal II, f. 257; Wkt 1301). Fakhr ai-Din 'Abd,Allih ibn M"d al-Qlb!1 al·Mi~t1, known as Ibn Tlj al·Oln, d, 776/1374-1375 (Ma"h,,1 II, f. 276b: Wiet 1340). Karim al·Dln 'Abd·AIlAh ibn SMki~ al·QibJl al. Mi~t1, known as Ibn al·GhannAm, d. Shawwil 823(ktober-Novembe~ 1420 (~a ...' V, p, 21, no. 73). I COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYYT "min aI·Dln 'Abo;J.A1Uh ibn aJ.Tij aI-{}ibd a1-AsJ. ami, d. 7~/133'-1340 (/tIIbir'l, d.. SNo.....'ll1 8l1/No..embtr 141' (.K 631 Sa'd aI-DIn FaJaj ibn MAjid aI.()ibl.1 a1-M~rt, known ... Ibn aI·1Ul)I:IlI. d_ J\lrNdi II 865/ M..-ch-April 1461 (.1;1.....' VI, p. 169, DO. 570). Shams aI·Din IbBhlm ibn 'Abd-A.Ilih a/.Qibl.J. Ii. Sha'b6n 798jMay-June lJ.69 ('wa"hIIll. p. 51, \'00.31; Wiel 31). Amln aI·Dln ibrahIm ibn 'Abd aI.(;han1 al-Qibl.l, k.......·n as Ibn aI·Han-m, d. ~ 859/JanuaryFebruary 1455 (14a"hIIl l. p. 93, no. 49; W;et 49) (t..,1«). Sa'd aI·Dln lbr!htm ibn 'Ahd al·Karlm al·0ib11 .1·M;~"', knQwn as Ibn KAlib Jakam, d. RabJ' 1 841/September-October 1437 (Qaw' I, p. 68; M""},,,I I. p. 96. nO, 50; Wiet SO) (lwice), Sa'd al·Din Ib~lm ibn ·Abd al·RazUq al-Skan· dart al-M~'" aI·Oi~1 ""Musliml, known as Ibn Gltllrib. d_ Rajab 808/Df<:ember I.-oS-January 1406 (QII.... I. p. 65; Ma"h.1 l. p. 85, no. 41; Wiet 47) (Nice). Saet 1949) (lwice). Fakhr ai-Din Mljid ibn Qan.,lnah a1-Qi~1 aI·AsI· .ml. d. Jumidt I 768{January-February 1367 (M""h,,1 III, f. nb; Wiet 1951). Man,l1r ibn al"?afl al'Qibll, d. Shawwa\ 870/MayJune 1466 (I,)"w' X. p, 170, no. 716). Sham< .1-Dln N~r·All~h .1·Qlh!' al·Aslaml, k\l("',-n as Ibn aI-Najar. no death date (1,)",.,' X. p. 200, no. 855). Soo'd aI·Din Nasc-AIIlh a1oQibj' al·M1amJ nI-{):\hi". known as Ibn a1.lbqar1, d.. JamAd:i II 799/ MardI 1397 (M Sharaf .1·Dln Yal:.ty.i a1-Qibl.! a1-Olhili, kn<>Wn as Ibn $ani'aIt, d. Muf:>anam 881/ApriI-May 1411 (Q"w' X, p. 268, \'00. 1061) (I..;ce). Jamil aI·Din Ytlsif ibn 'Abd a1·Kartm aI.()ib!1 al· Sblfi'l. u.o-..·n as Ibn ""lib Jalt:am. d. Dhu "', J:fijjah 16Z/October-November 14$8 (Ma"hlll 111. f. 459: Wiel 2710), In lhis category 228 -positions, 21 percent of 1.039 loral reported in the lWO diclionaries. were held by personl of C<>plic .nces!ry. 632 COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT AnlHn&....kl OccupatloM In a>nIBSI wi... ohcir prominmce in the d;-"""I of Iht AUmluk relione, rela1;"e!y ft:w perMftl of Col'l'~ orilio en~ ;n the myriad crafts or nun· ufaclunnl tndts reponed in the biograpl'licaJ li'eT' a'ure of Ihe 1011".- Middle A,es (f""neenlh and 6fleenlh cemu';,...). Their reprfle'nullion amonl ,lie m\!n:anlile netWOfU of Cairo also wa< su'l'ri.in,ly minimal, especially in li,llt of the re,ime's <.poflldic 'Hemp" 10 place ,he lra",fer of lu.xury foreiln producu, such as ,pices from south Asia, under .!tIle monopol)'. More Ihan two hundred references 10 "",rcham. appeared in the su ....'.y (d, Prll)', pp, 242-.f6), One kind 01 occuplItion tha, Copt. SOUVn frequenlly in\'011ied prl'$Of\al service ikhidm.Jo). ei· lhe!' in a bure3ll. of the &O~emment or in the homehold of a grand amir or olh,.,. IClJlmen! official. Btl~t; Draper. cloth merchant- Dealinl: primarily in ~I ilems mh.r lhan eIabo""..ly embroi· de=;! d«onWiw: p>ecQ dui&ner ho:>usehokl with tK> dwana/ion of t;le""ry tninin._ The olher impHe. some devee of skill in accountancy, especially when pruedin, "I·dlw~n. Usually an ini· tial position. menlioned.t lhc beginning of an indio ~iduaJ'. career_ The s.pecialized usage of l:h~dim lied 10 :I. religious instl,utlon (such .. khlJdim ./. ilm!" Or kJo"dim dl....dljitl). looic;atinll SWIl' ~ • pilgrim or ~ mystic. doe:I not apply .0 llonc cases. none of ...·hich W~'e associated wilh religious te....ice. Eln.... posilions. 5 pen:~m of 224 lotaI: KarIm ai-Din 'AbnJ"1/ ll.l J4]; ....1"" 14S7). Sa'd aI·Din Ib.....lm .I-Qlbp aI-~rt ...·M,wiml. known,," Ibn .1·Mar'all, d. Rabr II 844/""gllStSeptembe-r 1440 tQa...' I. p. 184). Shaml ai-DIn IbBhlm ibn 'Abd-Allih al·Oib!!. known as KAtib Amin, d. SIta'W.n 798/M kn<wo." as .... Bashlrt, d. ~ alg/April-May 1415 (J?<nol l. p. JJ) (Iw;ce). Majd aI·Dln MIojid aloQib!llll'~1 a1·Ar.bm1. d. Dhu aJ.J:Ip SO/May-lune 1440 (Qn as Ibn al·Najpr, nO dea,h dale (Q financial bureau. presumably the DIw"" dl-D..wl"h or bureau of '~v~nues (sec >l'4;1r "1.d,,w'~Jo), Thl. was a.n eml)'·le"",l po5ltion .uggesling appremice· ship in bookkeeping and ""cretanal ,kill•. Three po£itionl, 7S percent of four 10lal: Sa'd ai-Din Il:>nhrm al·Qib!1 aI·~rt al-M .... llml. mQWrl as Ibn "'.Mar'ab. d. Rabf Jl 844/AU&US'I5 ,he "Sui· Ikpar1ment," .eferring to tbe Bureau of Re· Khjjf1im ",l-tllw/J" dl·...II""'; 5 claims responsible for colieCling income from es· tales of Mamluk amirs who die ·flJd: "Merchant 10 )"""hs"; in this con· tlllt. a de in children', pnner!U U ",wild connoled dealings with .be ""'I~d ",. Njj, (des.cendanll of MlImlub) is unclear from the bK>graphy. One po$ilion, 100 percent of one lotal: TdjiT lil Bad. ai-DIn 1;I"".n ibn Suwayd al-Mitrl al·Qibil ,,1.MAlik!. known u Ibn Suwayd, d, $afa. 829/ l>e<:ember 142S-J.nullry 142~ ("?,,w' 1ll, p. 101. no_ 406). , COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT nii. ol-firo";.- "We",han. of the fraoD. Deal. wi.h EuropUII "''""'....1115 III 11M: Import....xpon 1'-" of I ,,'"' loods. In Ihis caM:. the individual setWd at>!o"", i",!,«,or In It... port of Tariblw.. lmnl urilh 00 eOlloo loOld to Eun>p<"allS. ThaI Ibis .Inde ~nc:e to """h a ~.ion ap. fl'"ar..d In a M!.ISlim Cop(, c~r il nOl",,""rrhy_ One p<JSI.ion, roo percenl of OIIe 1"",1; H Sa'.:! al·Dln Ibrahim 1I.1-N.!+irl al·0i!l11 aI.Musliml. known as Ibn al-Mar'ah. d. Rabr II 844!August_ s..plemkr 1440 (I;law' [, p. 184), Zi'boqr: Deale. in mercury (R. Dozy, S~pplement a~.r dicria"naiIos arab.. I, pp. 576-77). One position. 100 pcrcenl of one 10la1: Ibr.lblm ibn Mubl",k al·Dhoohll 1I.1-shayb;lnl al. Oibll, born 839/1435-IUo (Qaw' I. p_ 118). Ninelecn posi.ions. 1 percem of 2S4 llIIaI in lhis I;:lllqjOf)' rq>oned in the 'wo dlc.ionarios. "-ere held by ~ of Copclc lI.nU$lry. L1te",l')'. Scholarly,.nd ReligiOl.U Officei' or TIlle. PII'i.ions in do.. calcgory, alon, with spccialoo in l'eYealed law (sn..ri"ah). consli.ut«l the founda. tion of lhe ·.. /"md·, lhe ti~i1 literal)' el~e of p.... modem Egyp!. Since few pel"$/l/ll of Chri$tian ori. gin held ollie" 0' r«eived tilles In this brocd field, and nOne in the legal disciplines, r""""lIlalion of Muslim Copts among the learned "tabli.hment of Mamluk Egypl (125O-ISI7) Was lnsiv>ifican•. In Iheory. Islam is an egalitarian faith with nu pro,i. slon for discriminalion among belif!.",rs. regardless of previOU$ confessional ~nu.ion or herilage. BtU In praclice, Coptic con'",rts to Islam or their de:KendanlS seem 10 ha,.., been IlIJ"BCly adudcd fn;om the maillSlJ"eam of Mu$lim InleJlec.ua1 life un. del- lhe Mamluil "'lime. Yel the OCCUrrfflCe of the foIlowlfl1 turnpJes. sparse as may be amr>"fl the myriad religious and kholarIY offices reponed in lhe SOUK docs p~ 1....1 enn)" mw the '~l•. ,"41' dass "' pos.sible lor a few meml>trs of "'" Muslim Coptic communlly. AJlb: Man of Ielten. Conno'e. accomplishmem in lhe lirel"llry a,-u similar 10 .he .itle sAil'ir. TIM: ten.h I'onn usage of Ihis root. ista'Ja". 10 .ake on -SOme. one as a preceptor (R. Do:zy. S"ppllmenl aux dieri(>n~,,,'res arabu I. 14). did not appear in this ca.e. Olle reference, S percent of ninelten lotal: 1tk4 Fakhr ai-DIn ''''bod al·RaJ:lrnin Ibn 'Abd al-R:attAq al-Qibfl al·J:lanafl al-QI.hir1, known .. Ibn Mal<.i. 633 n". d. Dhu aJ.l.fijiah 794fOctober-November 1392 ("',,~hdl II. f. 2'90: Wict 1310). !tI...,.; d.s1udIbil1: U.erally, "~r of 11M: ,rid" o. Hre<:ner of b.alUSII"llde" (su.rrounding a sepul_ chet-): Qur'in reader in an el~cd ondOIJ or pl. Iery of a religiouo foundoo.ion......... lly .he dome (q.. bNh) of an endowed lomb (In this c...... Baybar. sl""h Khf,niQih In Cairo). Thoo&h II ""M a dlSllnc_ lion I'or a M!.ISJim of Coplic anc""lry, this was Ihe only ",ference 10 an illdi~idual of such background in the enlire ...Iigious ca.egory of occupation., IC' cording 10 a .u,-vey (d, C. Pelry. Tire Civilian Elile of Cairo. pp. 262-67). Total refenonces 10 muqri'lo. alone (withoul complement) approached lwo hun. dred positions. (See alw R. Dozy. Supp/bnenl aux <1/<:oon",,;,es arl>bc~ [Lciden. 1927], I. 723, II. 329; G. MakdW.. The Ri~ 01 Colle~, p. 2IS.) One posi.ioll. 100 pcn:em of 011. . .1IIaI: Fillr aJ·~ ibn al-Ghannim aJ-Qibll aI-.$Uf(. d. JllI1Udl II I9S/April-Ma, 1490 (/?"",' XI. p. 164. DO. 521}. MUI"~ Specialisl in principles/doctrines of "')'"tic (~fij btlld and rilual prac.ice. This indiyjd- ",,[ was probably an In",UClor ("'udarns or opirilU' 11.1 guide of novices: In Sa1d aJ-StJ·ad;\' and Bayba... slya Khlnqah.). However. the o~e",ll number of ",Ferenc... 10 professorships (endowed teaching po!I1S) in all discipljne~ Qr "'hhoul complement ap. proached six hundred in .his sUlVey (d. Pelry, The Civm~~ Elile of Cairo, pp. 250-S3), One position, 14 pcrcem of SCV<'n total: Falr.hr aI-Din ibn al-GhannAm al.()ibli al¥ft. d. Jumidi II !9S/April_M.y 1490 (l).,w' XI. p. 164, no. 521). S/td'jr. Poe!, f'ttCICI'iu Fakhr al·Din 'Abd aJ.~mAn ibn 'Abd al.~ al-<)j!l1' aJ·J:lanall al.()Ah.581: M"'th"lll. F. S2Ob: Wicl 1794). Ibrihlm ibn MubArak al-Ohahll al-Sbayb;lnl aI. Qlb!l, born 839/1435-1436 (I;law' I. p. 118). 634 COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT Sis rduences, 2 perc_. of 21l IofaI reponed in lh_ C>l1cg<:>rW:s in lht two diclionaries, were held by peQ0n5 of CQptic ancest..,.. BIllUOGRArtn" All rd"erences 1<> penons an: From the following biocr-P/tical cIictionaries. both compiled In lhe r.t- lemlh unlury (bul u.e w:c<>Dd liIIi", indiriduals From !he fourteenth): a1-sakhiwt, AJ.q.......l-lAm,· Ii A'yfl" "'-0-. ..J.Tu.", 12 volumes (CaIro, 1934; GAL II, .), no. I; CAL Supp. II, )1-)2); and Ibn Taghrt·birdl, AI·Muohlll ~/I .......J-M..ss.."'" btU • 1.W4/1, Vol. I in prinl (Cairo. (956), remaioder in rlWlUlCripl (Nalionaf library 01 CaIro, III); 1'.1.liollill Library, Paris. fonds..-.be, 2068-7); GAL II. no. .); .... m....ry of biocnPhics In G. WieI, "'Les biocnlph~ du ManhaI SafI":' Mb"oi•.,s de fI"s/i,,,/ d'EfYpIe 19. 1932. Allhough no praelklng Chrisli.n, were included in the.., werlts, the stalisties lhI"",e, Vol. 2. pp. 112203 (lerusakm, 195$). for the IilcnlUn: on tlIe suobject of de1erioradon of Ohimmi $b.WS in Ef:ypt durina ..... M.....luk pen. od, 6ft G. Wiet, "~." &tcydop ArUI~HWCU .. 'AynJ. aI•. ·"lqtl.I-J"mjn /I Tanllt AIt1 .. I.J~IIm." MS Dlr al·Kutub, TinKh 1044. GAL, Vol. 2. p, 65; Supp, 2, P. 51. Dimashqi, aI·. Kitiib 1I1·ls1Ilirfl1t ila M'~AJi" .1·Ti· i" ..h. Cairo. 1900-1901. lbn ~aj.r al"A$qalAnl. AI.lJ""•• ,,/·Kflm,'",h fr A'y4" "I""f,-"II ..1.Tltd",in"h, 4 vols. Hyderabad, 19291931. GAL 2, p. 83. _ _, I"b.!' f.1.i·Gh"mr hi·A,,/><1' ol'"U",., ) vols. Cdi· ro, 1969_1973. GAL, Vol. 2, p. 83. Ibn Iyb, 9,d,'" f.1.1·Zuh'" /I Waq(t'" ,/·O..lIilr, ~ vols, Istanbul, Cairo, Wiesbaden, 1931 - 1963. Ibn TaghrJ-birdi. AI-N"iilm I1.I_Zl1.hi'l1.h /I M"lillc Mi~. _-0. 6J~. aJ... AI·T~r bi... I,Tij4rll1o. Cairo, 1935. CAL, Vol. I. pp. 152-53: Supp. l. p. 244. J..mtu,'lrt, aJ... Kir41J ,1· With"" .... ..f..K.. /Mlt. Le;pzi& 1926-. Kha1iI a1·~irt. Zubddl XlII1lf '1..jfj..... ,,~'m u.s../{I1."iyyl1.h. CaIro. ,,,. ;:-;---c Kil'/> Q......"I" 11.1. W/tjfllh. Cairo. 1929. .. OaIqlll5handi. aI·. $..b~ Ill·A'sIt.I /I ~,,"al 1-lrISltIt.', 14 ¥ok. Cairo. 1914_1928, ~• .1.1·. Al-Wd/l bj,Ill,W"/l1.yil/. Isranbul. 1949. 1953; o..rn-:us. 1959; Wiesbaden. 1962~. SakhJ.wt, aI-. AI.Tiln' "1·U,,sh"k /I Dhayl "I-S"M,. Cairo, 1896-1897. GAL. Vol. 2, p. 48. no. 3. Suyfl!l. al·.If"'" ff Akhbolr Mi¥ .........1· Qiihirt1.h, 2 vak C..iro, 1909. GAL 2. p. 157; Supp. 2. p. 196. ,1·1.1,,1)'''''''''' Seeond..ry Source. .uhlor, E.. A SOCial ""d Ecollomie Hi~,ory uf lh~ N~I1.' EI1.SI ;" ,he Middle A,~~. Berkeley. Calif.. 1976. A1iYl'. A. "~b!." In E"c:fC/oyIl~dl, oj Is1Ilm, 2nd <:untal of /M Ali/eric.." 0rV1IU1-1 Soci<:ry 69 (1949):135-41. _ _ "'Sludics Oil lbe SIrUClUK of the Mamlult Arnoy." Bulklin 0/ 1M SdtooI of 0 ....,,,,,,, ""d Afria" StudiJu 15 (195)):202-238, 44-8-76; 16 (1954);57-90. _ -n.e Syslcnl of Payment in Mamluk Military Society." J(nUn,1 of r1I~ Ee_ic .."t! SoriIl1 Hu· I«:f oj u,c on",,/ 1 (1957):37-65; Orienl 1 (1958):257-96. _ _ "Dis<:hartt!:s from Service, BuiWunenu and ImprisonmcnlS in Malnluk Society." l!it..d Orit!:"• •Ill Sludies 2 (1972);25-50. _ _ "AspecU of the Mamluk Pht!:nomt!:llOn." Du lull1tl 53, 00. 2 (1976):196-225; 54, no. 1 (19n); I ~ ". Babtnger. f. "Wa1Ir." In E"cydQp1..,.,. hI e _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.....:;.1 CORNELIUS ture and Appointment:' J"ternati(mal Journal of Middl~ East SllJdi~s 3 (1972):59-74, 199-216, ___. "Recruitment, Muster and Review in Medi· eval Islamic Annies," In War, Technology and Society In th~ Middle East, ed. V, Pany and M, Yapp, pp, 59-77, Oxford, 1975. ___. "Protected Peoples (Chrislians and Jews) in Medieval Egypt and Syria," Bulletin of th~ John Rylands Lib,ary 62 (1979):11-36, Cheikho, L us Vb" el ,ccrilaires a'abes ch,~tie"s en 'slam 622-/577, ed. Camille Hechalme, S. 1. AI-TurAth al-'Arabl al·MasI~1 II. Lebanon and Rome, 1987. Text in Arabic. Title pages in Arabic and French. Introduction in Arabic and French, Escoviu, J. H. "Vocational Pallerns of Ihe Scribes of Ihe Mamluk Chancery." Arab/ca 23 (1976):46- " Gril, D. "Une emente anli·chrtlienne lo QO~ au debUI du VIIIe-XIVe si~de." Annales islamologiques 16 (1980):243-74. Krenkow, F. "~Iib:' In Eru:yclopa<Jdia of lslam, 1st e.tensive bibliography. Perlmann. M. "Notes on Anti-Christian Propaganda in the Mamluk Empire:' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and Afrn:an Sludios 10 (1940- 19<12):843- " ___. "Asna.w"s Tract Against Christian Officials:' Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, Vol. 2, pp. 172-208. Jerusalem, 1958. Petry, C. "Ge<>graphic Origins of DiWlln Officials in Cairo During the Fifteenth Century." Journal of Economic and Social Hlst6~ of Ihe Oritnt 21 (1978): pl. 2, pp. 166-84. , ___. Th~ Civilian Elite of C"iro in the Later Middle Ages. Princeton, 1981. Popper, W. Etypi and Syria Under the Circa ..ian Sultans. Vols. 15~16 of Universit)' of California Publications in Semilic Philology. Berkeley, 19551957. Indices of offices. Rabie, H. The Financial Sysum of Egypt, A.H. 564741/A.D. 1/69-1341. O~ford, 1972. Richards, D. '"The Coptic Bureaucracy Under the Mamluk$." In Colloque i"urnaJional sur I'histoi,e du C"i'l<, pp. 313-81. Cairo, 1969. Sourdel. D.. wilh R. Senheim. "~tib:' In EncyclQpoedio of "lam, 2nd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 754-57. 635 ___. Le vizirat 'abboside. Damaso:us, 1959. Stnuss, E. "The Social Isolation of the AIlI al·Dhim· rna." In Eludes ariontales a 10 memolre de Paul Hirschler, e CORNELIUS, vne of Ihe prominent "ancient brolhers" of the Pachomian koinonia (community). He belonged 10 Ihe second group of disciples who carne 10 PACHOMlUS around 324 (Lefort, Sahidic· Bohainc 24; Halkin, 1982, Greek, recension 1,26), and he was appointed by him as father of the Mon· astery of Tmoushons shortly after it was received into the koinonia (Lefort, Sahidic·Bohairic 51.59: Halkin, Greek, recension I, 54.61). He is mentioned among the elders at the time of Theodorus' appointment as father of Tahennt$l: in 336-337 (Halkin, Greek, recension 1,79), as well as al the time of Ihe veat tri;>1 of Theodorus around 344 (Hal kin, Greek, recension l. 1(6). He died in 346 during the same plague that canie BIBLIOGRAPHY Halkin, F. Sa~cti Pachamii vitao graeca~. Subsidia Hagiographies 19. Brussels, 1982. 636 CORPUS HERMETICUM Ufun. L T. S. P"cltott!ii viI.. boh..lrice scriplll. CSCO 89. Lo'''''''n. 1925. 1953. ~ S. P""hom.ii villle $4Jridiu scrip'..e. CSCO 99.100. Louvain, 1933-1934, Repr. 1952. ARMAND VEILLEUX A. K. s.. tambl:on. and B. L,ew;s. Cambrid&e. 1970. Hilli. P. K.. Hif.lOrY of .he Arabs. London. 1946. ta...... roole. S. Hi.>."'Y of ED'pl I" /he Middle """s. London. 190\. SuBH' 'i.WSIS COSMAS II. fifty-fourth palriaTCh of the SIte of CORPUS HERMETICUM. See Hennes Trismqistl>$. COS!\tAS I. r.:..ty.fOllnh patriarch of lhe See of Saint MIork (730-731) (fns! day: 3(1 Ba·Onah). He wu • n.ti~c of the 10wn of Bani. nnr Samannoo in th.. Charbiyyah Province. Little is known a\>oul hi$ $teular life before he look Ihe monaslic .'ow in the wlldern<ss nf AnW Maepr. Cosm", ""01 a monMlic life dislinlUtshed by ""ne· lily. humililY••nd self-denial. Who:n ~ Coptic archons unanimou>ly deci0 ac«pt their mvil:lllioo and prolrsled that he "'''' unworthy of occ"pyin, ,h.. lhrone of SainI Man.. H~-enhele5s. ,he community of the &oilhful forced him 10 accede 10 their wi~es. and he "''lOS consequfi1dy consecral' ed patriarch. His a<::ce~ion. IlOwe~er. came al a time when 'he polilical and economic circumstances of Ihe Umay' yad empire wen pr..... rious. and Ihis hll 'lIMA'" BIBLIOGRAPHY Aliya, A. S. Hi.lo'"! of EllS/ern ,"'. Cambridge Hi.>rrwy of 1,I"m. Chri.sli~l1ity, London. 2 mls. ed. P. M. Hoh. SainI Mark (851-858). A nalive of s....... nnOd. Cosmas joined Do)'\" AnW 101.agar as I. dea<:on and lhen became. prabyln. He _ SCilithere ""hen he was JumlTlOf>lti<>u.' dues 10 the church, But in lhe haranl"" thai iollowed, fithlinll broke out bit· tween lhe conllrtgale<>oth patriarclts suffered much peneculion .. his bands. ""cording 10 the History of rlK Porri· IIrr"" (VoI.l. pl. I, p. 6). E&n» stltfllS 10 h",,-e &ored lhe ""'On<. for lhe caliph appoinled • PIIa,*""" named "l-Ghayr 'Abd al·Masll) ibn I,!:sq, a curioos name, probably of an Islami'ed Eastern ChtiMian. 11$ o"ersee. of Ihe taxI" and", govcrnor. wilh ",. plkit orden 10 Jive Ihe Copl' no rrspite on his exlraordinary financial impotlt. ""mad COSMAS III Col'lsequemly. a 6eree ,.,.,,'"' of _euion was il'lllUJU""led in Egypt This .._ 1'10'1 confined to un· usual wncial demands bul abo 61ended to rdiJion lO/Id 1M social ordo:r. In n,••lIers of ~IiPOIl. ..n croues wne 10 be broun. and the nn,;nc of bel .. was forbidden. Ouistian prayers were virtually Wenced, .nd th.. ..... 01. ...-int _ prol!ibited in onkt- 10 depth... !he priesIt.ood m or en, lranetl of ehurCMS, and a IJ'H»' r.ma,. However. nO'I IOf1ll alter the ~menl 01 Copts by MUilirns In lhe administnlion. the final>Ces of the counlry bepn 10 suffn- OSIcnsiblc depletion. Even ......allhy Mus!u... sucll as n." Sa·1t! aI·Asla, kinl. wnt' .ictimized by ",... lim fuDctioNriea.. Apparendy lhe poll ~ (1IZTAH), which had been lwo di~. now beam<: as hi&h as fifteen dinan. Lhine in the counuy became aImosI inIoIcrabk, and many Copts p....ferred 10 ~ their faith to sa'... their skins. while 1M: helpless patriarch IoGUd upon tM -.lid situalion in Iran. A nrw funClion. ary, al'I;Urith ibn Minln. pro~ed to be C\' 637 order lo sal...., the deplrled economy. Also. the CofM ..... re employed In ~hlpbulldiOl and manning the 1Ice1. and in the manipulation of seafaring craft. n.ese wr:re. bacIIy nccckd by the Mus/ims in dr:l'en'lC or their cooostaI foni6ca.lons. as wdl • for launch· In5 counleTTi'ids on Byoanr.ine shores al'Id isIandro. Thus. it appears that. at the end of lhe reign of Calipft al-Muta,, lane· Poole, S. His/ory of Egyp/ ;M Ihe Middle Ages, London, 1901, Muir. W, The Caliphare: 1/$ Rin. Decline and Fa;;. Edinburgh. 1924. Weil, G. Cd:ochichte der elul/iten, S vols. Mannhe;m. 1846-186lSueHI V. LoBI8 COSMAS Ill, 6hy-eIcblll patriarch of lhe $roe of SaiDl M.arll (9:!O-932). Cos._ apparently succeed· ed GOlWEl. I without compliat...... aboul his selec· lion. His life is trnIed •....,. bridI, in the Illsron Of' mE 'AnwtOtS. despi1e his ....lali>'riy lone .-rico of I_I"" yean.. NOIhIOl on h. iOlema/ rd.acions ..ilh tho: Islamic adminislnlion .. cited In his biogr,tpb)'. and ~ ooly ilem oi aD Inl......lionaI characler thai Is dted eOII«'..... his nominallon of a crrWn BulfUS as an:hbishop for the dioc:..... of Elhiq>ia. It is said that u... Elhiopian monaoeh emn.<Skd Bu!"US ",til caring for his t....o $Ons after his dealh and !hal Bu!O'S pve the crown 10 the younser son. who seemed rnor" sunable for runninS affairs of u... kingdom. Laler. a moor. by lhe na"", of MI.... of Dayr Anba AnlUniyus, and a eomp.lDion can>f: to Ethiopia and rcquesl.,d funds from the archbishop, who refused. They conspired ~ln'l him by submit· lin, fal.., leners /rom Ihe palrlarch 10 Ihe olde. son. Th" lellers Slated lhal MInt was Ihe real appointee 10 the Ethiopian diocese and Ihal SU!ru. WllS an impostor. Con..,quenll)'. Ihe older son musle....d an army and, wilh the new p....lender. def..aled Ih" I"" 638 COSMAS AND DAMIAN, SAINTS younger hrolher, seized the <:rown, and e.iled Bugus, later, Mini and his companion quarreled onr the episcopal treasure, and thdr trick was e.posed, The disagreement ended in their di.mis»-l and an appeal was made for the return of the rightful dig, nity, But Bu!lUS had died in the interval, and the Elhiopian diocese remained vacanl during the reign of five successive patriarch•. Meanwhile, the new sovereign had Mini killed and invested the assistam of BUJlus with the duties of his master's office, de· spite the fact thaI he was not properly consecrated by Cosmas. Cosmas died on 3 BaramMt. $VBltl y, UBIB COSMAS AND DAMIAN, SAINTS, two doc, to~ and brolhe... who suffered manyrdom at the time of the Diodetian persecutions (feasl day. 22 HlItOr). They were called tmargyroi (silveri,,",,) be· cause they did not ask money from the sick whom they cured, The Byzanline church, however. graduany came to distinguish three pairs of brolhers named Cosmas and Damian, who suffered. respc<:' tively, in Anobia under the emperor Hadrian, al Rome under Carinus, and finally in Asia after Dio· detian. Such v..as Ihe opinion of the palriarch Me· thodius in the ninlh century. It has become clear Ihal all three groups derive from Pheremma. a pla<:e ncar Cyr in Cilicia. The cult of the Allargyroi spread with extraordinary vig· or !>ccause, as healing saints, they gradually sup' planted their pagan predecessors Castor and Pollux, the Dioscuri. Numerous coll«tions of cures were added 10 the many forms of Ihe legend. The shonest account, from Asia, is scarcely a manyrdom. Cosmas and Damian practice medicine without charge at Pheremma. One day Damian, for fear of huning Ihe feding' of a poor woman named Palladia, accepts Ihree ~. Cosmas tells him Ihal hence/onn they will always work together but that after death Ihey should be buried separately. Damian di.... first. Cosmas thereafter heals a camel with a broken fOOl. Cosmas also dies, and at Ihe moment of his burial the people hesitate to comply wilh the hrothe...' requ....t. But the camel announces in a human voice that the brothers are not 10 be separaled in the lomb. This meager report presuppo..... the tomb at Pheremma and the commemoration on I Novem!>cr at Constantinople. This story was taken up by Simeon Metaphrastes. It exists in Latin, Georgian, and Arabic versions, and is generally followed by accounts of mirades. In Greek, fifty·seven different atTangements have been counted for sixty·two mirades. Some of them occur in Georgian or in Ar-...hic. The second group may be called Roman. lbe feast day i. 1 July. The doctors are denounced be· fore the emperor Carinus, who has them brought to Rome. At the time of their interrogation, the A""r· pro; threaten th. emperor with a stiff neck, and in fact, the emperor suddenly has his head inverted on his shoulders. Bewildered. he cries for mercy and proclaims the true God. He is then <:ured and de· crees an edict of IOler-...nce throughout the empire. Relurning 10 Iheir own country, the doctors are the victim. of an ambush by a jealous colleague, who kills them by guile in the mountain._ Th.... are no miracl.... associated with this legend. But already in !he Syriac vemon one fifth· or sixlh-<:entury wimess relates the episode of the eggs, attaching il 10 a perse<:ution of Kurinos and to the emperor'. stiff neck. The two fOlms were thus nol distinguished in Syria. What is more, the historian Malalas knew Ihe Slory in the sixth cenrury. Far from traveling 10 Rome, Ihe brothe.. cured Carinm al the time of his campaign againsl the Persians 10 avenge his brother Numerian. When tile emperor leaves the region of Cyr, their jealous colleague ambushes the saints. [n spite of an inter<:hange of Carinus and Numerian effected by Malalas, this version eliminales evet)· difference between the Asiatic and the Roman groups_ In the third group, the Ar-...bic, the", is a Passion of the c1"",ic type in which the live brOlhers Cos· mas, Damian, Anthimus, Leontius, and Euprepius are indicted hefore the tribunal of LJ"ias at Aegae in Cilicia. At the lime of their examination they declare lhat Ihey are nali"", of "Amhia." They un· dergo drowning, .courging. fire. and the cross, and then are beheaded. The feast is on 11 October. Whal appears in Coptic and Ar-...bic is a comhina· tion of Iwo legends, of which the .ubstance is as follows. Under Dioclelian and Maximian, the widow Theodote lives with her five sonS in the castle called Son of God (the name Theodote does not occur el$Cwhere, save in Ihe Asialic group). The two e1desl SOIlS, Cosmas and Damian, are doclors. The stones of the eggs and the camel appear in Ihis account. Next i1 i. ""plained how Dioclc\ian, who apparently rceognized this hospital of the Son of God, turned against Ihe Chrislians. The bish"p of Antioch agreed to hold the SOn of Ihe shah of Persia as a hosrage on the emperor'. hehalf, Seduced by rich gifts from the shah, the bishop ""IS the hostage free. When Diocletian comes to reclaim him, the b'sh<>p says lhat he is dead and hands over another body, swearing by all that is most sacred in Chrisli- COSMAS AND DAMIAN. SAINTS an•.,. "'111 this Is lhe eoqJ5e cl !be .......'s son. But Oiocletian produc:es the JOWlS man, ..ttom he had caplUrN alive, and ~ !be bishop and all Christianity. by ...hicll he had sworn. 10 lhe ..-t """e!che Antiodl and suf(,... lOnure under !he ",ekel L,sillL They come f1"O<:h they are bound falls 10 !he ground .nd the ...hoIe urIh belins to lrtmble. Tbeo Greek miracles. This It:lCt combitt<'5 the Asiatic .nd !he Arable I'OU~' lind e~clud,," the Roman. Two fealures con· ne<:t this le..,nd with Ihe Copcic liter-ature: the pTtl· ence of ViClor and the attitude with ",card 10 the "",,,,n\5 lit Anti«h lIS II who.... The son of the shah of Persia Ilppean in a oerlts of other '_ions. bul the,e he bears tho: name of Nic:omedts: lhe PtiIions of Claudius. Basilida, John aDd S¥m1OOll, Jl$tI$. EpimatS. and Ilho tho: eulogy of Thoodorus. This is the ")'Cle of Sasilides. in which !he manyn lin .....ilielally unlled InlO a family. Bul the very name of Nlcomtdts is no Kddent. It _ at Nicornedllo that AlUA.....15M chidly flourished. The memory ol huI of Samosata, the bishop of Mttio<:h .nonty bdort the COlll;n, of Oioclel..... is no! SU1ltJe to !he praenuodon of this ItJend. P..tl of. WIlt deposed for corTUpCion ~ Oiocltriatl came 10 ~r. Elsewhere the of emperors fa.. ......It 10 Christiacity Is probablc. The group of _ n mirad,"" has betn praerved In Coplk at the beginning oi. manUSIOripl In !be Piel'JlOOt Morpn Library (Codt~ 586, dated from 844, foil, 8- 15). MUlilated dKlUgh il is at Ihe ""lin· nina. ;t prete....." $Ome inlertSlinl details. At the lime of Ihe minK:les, the /i~e martyt"$ lire aU called t",lce by Ihelr n.mes. l1Je martyrdom of Uoe brolh· en i. li~ed on 22 HalO.r and 10 Ba'unah. Thill lut dale i& explicitly proclaimed "" the d.y 0)( the vie· tol)' of Con&tantine. who i& said to ha~e taken p.rt on Ihls occasion in a eucharistic liturgy <>II the day ,...""n lhe bones oi the sa;nls ",ere lalberN from the dtl$t ror burial at Pheremma. l1Je te~t cQ<1t;nUQ e- d.,. s..- """"'1)' 639 that this was lht day on which the icon or th", Son 01 God. ",hich Di<>cltlian had 10m do:>wn. ",as sel up lipiD. This IllSl detail is dearly linked wiIh the f:X. ordiwn ol!be Copti<:-Arabic Passion, in "hkh Con_ ..... repa.i ....hat a lenuindy dtce.i.-..d DiodeIian had dtstroy<:d.. The -oMoIrinc thine about this lqend is Wt, ~ from its ele1ntrtu of 6ctioo at Antiodt. it rather <:oinddes"';lII I"C" pen:tptible than in the Copto-Arabic: form oi the lqend of the Am..JD....,;. The rnI opposition be1W«n !be IrouPS of A....r.tY1'Oi is btlwem !he R0man croup known 10 Malalas lind the Coplic: Arabi<: VOUP. which both go back 10 lhe I",dition of Ph,... remma. near Cyr. The "'yc:le of the kin, of P","""·lO KIn. Nicomedtl, cOI,lld have Its root& in the jusli/i.ation of Diodetian. ",he .1 ~rst ..'as favo""ble to lhe Anargyroi. This favor mlghl e~en he a come· quence of Carinu,' ",dict 01 tolerance. But the fact remains that the amoom by the }ealous tival is lrrlie from Berlin, and thrwc from P1oris, 10 which mU!ll be added !be leaf, . - ooml, used by Lefmt, 1940, pp. 40-.011. This,.... immtdlIMdy JlU<'edes the CopIic 102,8 in the National Lil>BI)', Paris.. The mt.rtilated serio:< of thot mlracln are in the Pierpont MorprI Ubnry, rnanll$Ctipl loiS 586). The CopIo-Anbi<: ..... >on would "" difficult w ra>oMUucI ..ithout !be help of the parallel Arabi<: _is u... u... """*"' """ ..enions. An AnIbk bent publMed by Yu!:'annJ. SulaynWr (1926; d. GrIll. 1941, p. SOl). BUI more numerous ..ibttsses are e~tanl: Mi"garuo Syria<; nunus<;tipl 361 (Carsltuni, Ihir· IUlllh eenwry), fob. 98-114 O~fonI, Hunt .0170 manUloCtiplIl577) Oxlord, Bodleian, mXllllSCripi 3266. ~Iden 54 (foununth CenlUI)') British Museum. Oti",nlal .01123 (stventc"",th cenmry), 101,. 1-13 Paris, A""bic manU$Cript 4776 (1896), fol•. J:>-59 Pari" Arabic manuscript 4879 (nineteenlh centu· ry). fols. 54- JJ I and 111-21, four miracle, Minpna Syriac ma.nuscripl 240 (\686). fols. 25.oil and 41_48. TIt."., te~\5 p.esoent a 8NUP of JeVon miracles that are al$O fOlmd in lhe Cairo 640 COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES manuscript 712 (fourt~enlh cenlury), fols. 33947 (Gmf. 1934, p. 266). Mingana Syriac manuscript 562 (1815). fol •. 219- " Paris, Arabic manuscript 154 (sevent~enlh c~nlu, ry), fols. 38-53 Mingana Syriac manuscript 22 (1527). fols. 4-29 as well as in manuscripts inadequately described, such all Sharfet 11/6 (twelhlt cemu'1'). Beirut 625 (seventeenth century), and Golha 2882, fols. 97104. Tlte fragmenl in Paris 258. fols. 25Ov, contains the third mirade of Rupprecht's G.eek series (Blbli· otheca Hagiographica Graeca 373b). But the Arabic tradition has al50 inherited texts from the other collection. which have .till !lardl1"bcen studied. In the Asiatic group, we have the Sinai Mabic manuscript 540 (twelhh cemury). fol•. 40 and 534 (tltin~mh cemury), lois. 293, For the mirades, Si· nai Arabic manuscript 540 contains a collection of twenty storie. in fols. 42-104. In lhe uncontaminated Arabic group, lhe Arabic version (Bibliotheca Hagiographica Grneca 378) will be found in two manuscripts in the British MU5<:Um; Or. 5019 (eleventh century) and Sinai Ar· abie manuscripl 534 (thirteemh century); for lhe PasIlion, see BibliOlheca Hagi<>graphica Graeca 379, on 17 October, Sinai Arabic co Esbmeck, M. van. "La Diffusion orientale de la Ie· gende d~s saints Cosm~ et Damien."' Hag;"· graphic, C,,/tUMS e/ sociirh IVe_Xlle si~des. pp. 61 -77. Collection Etudes auguslinienn~s. Paris, 1981. Graf, G. CaMlng"e des rnan",cT;/S a.abes chrbims conse",,,s au CaiTe, Valican Cily, 1934. Malalas, J. Joann;s Mala;ae Chronograph;a, ed. Lud· wig A. Dindon. Bonn, ~!3>. Till, W. Koplische Heilige . und M~r1yrerleg""der, Vol. L pp. 156-63. Rome, 1935. Yul)annA SulaymAn. Tuhf!./ al.",m~n Ii Sim/ al. Illrisayn Quzman wa-Darnylln. Cairo, 1926. MICHEL VAN EsBROECK COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES, the nam~ giv- en to an anonymous Nestorian autnor of lhe twel~e book Chris/ian TopogTaphy, written a f~w years befOTe the Second Council of CO'lSTANT[NOP~E (553). Cos""", was an Egyptian mercltam, probably from Alexandria, who plied his lrade in Alexandria, lhe Red sea pon of Adulis (Sawakin). and Ceylon (Sri Lanka), calling at the island of Soc01ra and the ports of the Malabar Coast of soutll India on lhe way. He had probably sailed as fur noM as the Somali Coast (Zingion) (11.30). Cosmas was a man of his time, one for whom interest in lheological questions took precertg table, 12,000 miles long and 6,0(1(1 miles wide. surrounded by ocean (1I.24, 47. 48) beyond which was Paradise, where Adam and E"e had li,'ed (d. 11,43). The COSTUME. CIVIL whok ar~......'U Jurroundtd by high. ~rpt1ldk"lar IDOtlntains on ..'hi~h tIw: ,,",,,It of heUftl ~. 8eIw«n hea.-en and earth lay tIw: firmamUI. divld· i"l 1M uni_ InlO lwo s~ God lU>d .he jus, ~II on the upptr leYd. 10 which JnlUI would lw .mniltC'(\ WI" th~ ~ ; on the kM"" w;os hun\anhy In this lifeTM ~1IlcaJ descriptions thai e-s. JltO' videlI are tlwrdO.., incidental to his main purpo&e. buI thq are nondlwlea """Y ac~unaU. As a )'OUI'I man h~ "''M In Adule a' tt.", outbrnI< of .he war betWftfl the llltinuartee of A.Ieundria as a tnajo<- I~e CUller for ll'O'Ods imported into the Byzanline Empire from IIw: counlrio borderin, the Indian Ocean. S18UOGJUPHY chnsii.. Cos_ Inclocopleusies. TOf'OlrtJpIt,. In PC as. cob. 52-.76. Paris. 1&64. Lccl",,,q, H. '"Kosmas IndkopleustCs," DicfioOl...."'" tf'ATchto/orie clr.il;.,....'" ...,ie. W, H. C. F1IENO COSTUME. ClVlL. fabricl: p..-rvcd 641 in public collection. an: wry oftm in fntmenllo. whether becau5e lhey we.... dMco.-.:red in a poor _'" of JK""'I"'"'alion .,.- because " dogie pn1>eJ1l was dhided al the end of the ncaval;"". Tbe Ibllng of lhe5e Ie-liles i. I"nerally agreed 10 be a sem.iliYe man..-. aince !bey _ fre.qutnLly come from clandesti.ne uca>"lt1lor6- Their classifieation 1he,efore dept."e1s on the st)'1e and not the archaeokJsi<.al contexL Some official exca""tions. such as lho&e a' Akhmim.. lhe Fa})'iim. and Aminoi' (.urrl~). have enri~hed the m..eunlf,. MOSI oli~n. unfortlU"lllldy, these discoveries ba"" not be-en published Or are mentioned only in paMine in the publiCllliollS (n' ca>""ion. of Ciblalal 81....11). or a.., no! reproduced In phot~. finally. certain importanl collecdons have regre1U.b1y nol )~ been published .)'SIcrrullically (Coptic M..eum, Cairo: Melropolitan Museum, New York). Comparing pTe$Crved remain. and represen....· tiolU of clolhed pl'l"Sonages i. al$O helpful in analyz· Ing Coptic civilian costume. Slelae and reliefs treal 8arments in ralher summary fashion. bul they are rich.r in information when painled de....il. have ...".vi.'ed. Wall ~iminp. ,enerally more pre~i.... portray civilians only rarely. Some ,extiles depici clothed lieu........ and may Ihus be used 10 delrnnlne ,he alnU\g~ment of the pi«n IN.t ~om~ ,he ~""ume. Finally. the clothes in USC in £cypt In the 6rs! cenluries of ,he ChrisliAn era are abundantly represaned by portrait£. mash, and fun.,.,..'Y cloths. n............. of Coptic WOI'IIen _anne a headdrcso "'. .. '''''f'Ccted. from. lhe becinninll of the Christ"'n en until _II aft... the Arab conqUe9:. This ....tom, ~ommon 10 the pe CUStOm 642 COSTUME, CIVIL their owner have been cut from coarse linen cloth or decorated with a subde combination of colored ribbons sewn on a background of linen of extremely fine texlUre (fragmenary mummy head. Louvre). Others are adorned with chenilles of colored wool or tapeStry motifs. Corresponding, no doubt, to the period during which discriminatory measures were taken against the Copts by the caliph Hlirlin al·Rashid, Some bon· nets carry a sewn de<:oration of two stripes that form a cross (Louvre, TC 2479). It was from the tenth century on that bonneu of muhicolored silk were manufactured for women as well as children. Thdr use. obviously reserved for the highest classes in the population, continued beyond this period. There are only .'ery few bonnets in the colle<:tions. and they are genenlly fragmentary (Louvre. 8241). Museums do posse.. numerous head bands (fil· lets) executed in a plaiting often given the name sprang in unbleache over. some pads have ~n found ~wn to a small shawl. This fashion could have been introduced into Egypt from Palmyra, where it was much in favor, as witnessed by the female funerary busts found at this site. It is more difficult to detennine the use of small leather pads wilh openwork and gilded decoration, which have been discovered at the neck of some mummIes and whooe dImensions are sensibly smaller than tho.., of the fahric examples (Louvre. X4S51: British Museum, 26563), Shawlll The shawl. together ",;th tbe tunic, i. the piece of clothins best represented in the collections, and its almost systematic u.., is confirmed both by the pi<:torial evidence and by the archaeologists. Different types of shawls ..,em to have bun in use. One most frequently represented consists of a large .ectangu· lar piece of fabric draped around the shoulders and the waist (covering the head when it is worn b}' women), leaving one arm free. This alTltngemem is reproduced on a painting from Antinot representing the decease COSTUME. CIVIL oJ.ee'"eI "..,,~n II lhc same Ii,..., as Ihe body of Ihe pnnC1l1 II .. eqUIpped "j!h 3 hood fonnrd by I rno",nglc folded ,n tWO Ind "" " to the $I" aI the "Ctl< (L.ouHe. HIS3; 8<Jde.Mu m IfQrlDC'r K.liscrFriocdricJot.MuSoeUmj. Bertin. 17521). The dccoralJOft of lhc$t mand~ ",." p,;lIlcmed on IIuio. of the tUll"" :and uno;J<,noo..,..,' I pIJ'lIld C>'Olu lio". II consists of d.,·j (.~ical bands nami,. the netl< openinl 011 back and fronl), ed&i,,1' 10 lhe dena. Ind n'tnlua.llv orlncllU. (ll'IoC'daIhonl placO'd II lhe ~ldcn. Ina,-klround (in' ..cad linen) and ror Ihe dCcoralion. and by way of conscquence lhe Ulcnsion of Ihc 1~'Ch"iqu" of lapeSl1')' and of color 10 Ihe background of Ihe ga" mcnt. Al Ihe same lime. a >'CI')' dear laSlc aloSerts itsclf lor omarne"'al overlay and lhe usc of decora· ,ion sch'lSes (Lou"rc, 2051. 2057). It is dilflcuillo decide "'hether "'e should classify a curious p ... menl reproduced on certain sleI"" "" a "'3n,le (Brililh Museum. 1523; Coplic M ... ctJm. Cairo. 8689J, It comes 10' poin' on"'" fronl of lhe bod). ,,-hl(:h m"'l indklte lhal. beinl circular in lorn, (,,-herea< all "..,,~n Coptic ~ n "'ere basicall, rcaanpllar ... oqUIn... nee ~ ....., ,,'O"Cn 10 shipe and llot cu. from • piKe of fabric to be sec" n up ahe......,.rd) and withou' any sli, for Lhc arms. k could be .hrown back on 1M shoulder1; to .U",,· p-ca1C1" frftdom (>f ....,.,..,meol. or 643 Mamie. chC'stnuI·colored backcround "ilh rcd neck line 3nd shouldcT IMnd decoraled ""h mOlif,; in ,-'Cru 3nd rcd. Tape""" Nin,h cenlury, Un~lh, 1.15 m; "idlh: 1.50 m, CQlmdy 1.0""" M"se"m, Po';s flowe", (Lou\'re, MCr,60), always execuled in 13pcSlrv, Some 3re en'irel" cO"cred "'III> reg"le~ of tapeslry. decoralions of 3nimals ~m. or of geometrical or floral molifs. "ilh ...btlc , ...rialions of color al the hea" of a .,nlle mohf. effecled ~' gradual Iv lillnening of the colors (\IUS« des Beau. Art<. Orleans. 54; Lou'-re. MG426. MG449. MG730J_ Some Icchniqucs Ippcar to h3'''' bttn used less. SClrvU From lhe doscOVtti... madc inJhc tt~erW$," is knov.... lhal both mw and "..,men ,,-ore sc.(\'.... This Is con6rmcd tr.- numerous mummy elol.... SIClac, and eVCn fabrics (Ofte deli'-'nl from Akhmlm Ind pr'CSCrYCd at the "'beU Stiftunll)· Lone. n",""" . • nd oflen endine in flinges. the:s.c ""arws were """'t oflen carel.....ly Ihrown O"tr Ihc shoulders QI'" round Ihe neck. Sometimes Ihey "",re draped In a fairly complex manner. like large sh3,,'ls (Slela in Ihe Coplic MUjeum, Cairo, 8687). While many sc3rve. discovered arc of wool of plain color, Ihc majorily of Ih"'!c pr<-'SC(\'ed in Ihc museums carrY a decoralion placlMl al ,he ex'remi'ics. which COnSiSIS of slmple Slripes (Lou'-re. MG738; Sld3 in Ihe Hril ish Mu..,um. 1533). Iquares, me 1001.1 of a sha,,( (or shoulder band) wilh OClagons on a )'e1low background and fou~ dance... ln rcd or dark blue. ahemald,-. T3pestl). T,,'e1lth ccnlu,"", Lenglh: 0,40 m; width: 0.S8 rn. Co,mesv 1.0<".,.,. M"seum. P",is, 644 COSTUME, CIVIL That of weaving a boucle dfforation is very rarely ",/On, ahhough il was a technique r~miliar to Ihe Copli~ weaWtS (I..omTc, M(613), In olher ca.cs, I;nes of color traced by using warp and wOQf of different colotS marked out squares on the back, ground of ,he material. This t""hnique was employed ,,'ell afler Ihc Arab conqu"';l for nolly for ,he de~oration of Copti~ materials, of printing ,,-ilh a Slen~iI plate is au""ted for a scarf found at Antinol' by Gayel and now pre",,...'ed in Ihe Musces R<>pux d'Art Ct d'Hiswire in Bms",ls (44) I 1 Tunics The lunk is the piece of clothing most often repr,,"'rued, a< ",ell a< the une of ",hi~h the large" number are found in the ~olb;ti(",s. Thi, abundan' documenta'ion is explained bv the fu~t ,hat ,his gannent was in use among the Copts from the beginning of the Christian era until long aner the Arab conquesl. Funhermorc, the discoveries made at Ihe time uf lhe offieial e~cava,ions testify thaI ci,-ilians WCTC often buried wilh se"eral tUllics OllC on top of another, This is no, a ,pc~ifically funcrary CUSlom, since "'an painting., like ponrai15, masks, and mummy c101hs, freQuentl)' depict person. wearIng al least two tunk,. In fact, it is usual t<> notic" lWO ",ries or clavi al Ihe Ie".; of the nc-<:K opening, or again '0 see a longer lunic ex,ending be)'ond the ouler ,uni~. • Tunic ",ilh sl""..es, dttoroled with ",-,"nkal embroidered lines of alternating flowerets and ero"e'. Embroidered tex'ile. Length, 2.30 m, wid,h, including the slee'o'C' 2,(,6 m. Courle.,y Louvre M"se"",. /-'",i$. • _ c ~~~~--' Tunic decoI"led "ith embmideJ'ed designs and four perwnage. who wear long-s1eewd tunic. wi,h dis· tin~li"c hand" nn'klin"s, and helt>. Textile. Lal" Middle Ages. Length: 1.08 m: width, 0,80 m, Courtesy Louvre Mu,e",,, Pa,;s. The forn, of Coptic tunks is constant until ,he lenlh ,·enlur)'. They fonn , Twill, slee'o'Cs, and ore woven of a single pie~e, beginning ",ill, a ,lee,-e, the decor,'ion being e,ecuted al the same time (orbicula, labula, cla!'i, sleeve·hands, decoration at ,he neck or the OOllOIl1 of lhe garment). Whether ,hey or" long_reaching 10 the ankl.,,;-or .honSlopping at the knec._all had an irnpres.'i'o'C bt'eadlh of shoulder compat'ed wi,h the narrown"" of the ,leeves. The excCSll fablie fell ba~k on the arm at the level of the elbow (as is shown hy a p"il11ing from lhe lomb of Thcodo:sia at Antinoe), and the fullrtess of the garment w", caught in a, Ihe wai.'l by a bclt. h Is for this reason that man)' tunks had a "itched fold at ,he ",ai". [)c,torated lunics were worn hOlh hy women and by men, and chil· dren were dressed like adulls. These pre~ious gar· ",ents were rnanufanured by ,peeiali"s, and i, is cOmmon 10 frnd a used tunk decoralion employed agarn as an e~onom)' measure and sewn on a new tunic. COSTUME, CIVIL 645 AF6093; Musics R",.."" d'An el d·Hi..oire. Bm.· ""b. 415) indicale a ,'cl')' a.hanee 8<1 • Chil tunk "';Ih hood. ratw. '" "h ro"'l; of dark animal. and pbn". Tapeslrv. EI~"emh eemul) unglh (excluding lhe ~I"",es and ho<xI): 040 m; widlh: 0.48 m, Corm~'l' Lou",e Mmeu.... PQri•. ...... h,,,.., ....... thaI the US<' 0( beltS "'1lo$ rendel'Cd i~ tJ,. the 'fl'at ..ldth 0( lunk$. ArcharoIogisu men.ion dilJ.,,-em kinds of beltS found duro in, ~....,--atiotl5, and il is p1C45, MG3b8; HI, MG594), Finally. Gayel a. Anlinoi' and Quib~1I at Saqqara ha,'e di,· eo,eret! belts of multlcolorcd knitting (t.uo"n:. Af'6027.) Undergarment. Handbags Some IUtlle•• panieularly fine and almost transparent, ha>e been round by ar"hae"logj~l. as ha,'lng been worn under lhkker tunic•• ;n female IOl11b~ (Anlinol!. Sllqqara). Their fonn is in no ",av diff",enL from I....L of lhe otHer lunks. The decoraLion. ho",,,,'er, IS c ....raelenslicall} a -S<'ri<-s of 1I0",ers or floral buttons an'llngw. al Lhe edge of the slee,·cs. of eI''''i, or of ....ocul•. and somelimes enri"bed "nh brae lnan&les filled ",ith the same molifs placed at lhe neck openin, or al lhe bonom no.r lhe ed&e (lou,T\'. FI89. FI90). Whethcr from an e""ess of modesty or ncal~ ae-nc<'. arc~u do not mcolion Olm ungubr piece of fabri" sImply draped, unle$< it ",as fonned bv a lriangular loinclolh in Lhe manner of those found in Nubia In "c.,ain monbt"') "emeteries. In addilion to this. women won: a linen c10lh s"e only n:feren<:" 10 undergarments are bv Cal'CL an On a few stelae (Coptic Museum. Cairo, 8705) and in certain painlings (\\';IdT Sarjah). p""'ple arc depicle Sod. The UK of socb b,- lhe C<>pl' is ronfirmtd both by Ihe nea'''lions carried OuI at Aminot! or Bahna'" an 646 COSTUME, CIVIL nO doubt to make TOOm for sandal laces. The'e sock, are mo.t oflen colorcd, and SOme were adorned with stripes. At Amino<', Ga}'e1 fouod some socks Wilh tOP and hed of a dilf..renl color from that of Ihe main body. Thc descrip,ion he giws and the facl that lhey .....ere di,co"cred in vcT)' rich tombs prOmpt one to think thaI these we'e socks worn by the members of the Bj'zanlinc administration stationed at Amino<'. In addition. Gayet mentions slockings of wool and socks of stitched doth, of which no example is prc",n.'ed in thc public coll.c'ion., Sandals and Shoes The uS(' of sandals. frequem in pharaonic Egypt and in panicular from the New Kingdom orl, was mainlained in Coplic Egypt. The Copts, howe"er, diversified the categori.s of footwear and employed ieather almost exdusi,'ely, .....hereas in ancien' Egypt vegetable fiM"" were prer.rred, Coptic sandals, like their more ancient prototypes, .....ere al· .....ays provided with a strap separating ,he big toe from the othe"". Howe"er, instead of being fastened direelly to the sides of tho sandal, as in the .impler model, (Romans Museum, 176), this Ihong may have been attachcd to one or more tranS"erse bands, w~i,h may have been richly decorated (Romans Museum, 173). Somctimes a s,rap passing behind the hecl wa, added (Romans Museum, 171). Shoe. pTOp"dy SO called are rn.mioned much morc "flen than sandals by the archaeologists, and appear in larger numbers in the collections, The sole was always composed of ,c"crai layers, ",hile the upper aod Ihe sides may ha"e been either of one piece (Louvre, B294) or in three pieces (Louvre, 01335). The ~ed was always reinforced by a ~micircular piece of leather. The uppcr may be TOund«l (Louvre, C740, D1747, BUO). w-aight (Louvre, B217), or pointed (Lou"'., 040, C342, 0942). More rardy, laces were knolle Oe<:oratec curved upward as well as al t~e top of the boot Like the shoes and sandals, the boots have nO heel.; the use of hecls appears 10 have been totally un· known in Coptic Egypt. From the beginning of Ihe Christian era to the Two ornamemed shoes l.eat~"r. (OHCU.'y M"""", of I..ad, Jec",alem, COSTUME, CIVIL tweJhh century, Coplic chilian costume varied liule in ;ts components, Il is, howe,'cr, f>C>Ssible to detect that in the coorse of lime Some clemen ... formerly in fashion fell inlO dis"se, Thus il is that the large shaw) of the early cemuries was replaced b)' the small sha,,1, ilself later til'aled by [he lOande, I' is the permanence in thc ose of these different gac' menlS thaI alt,....c... altention when one studies lhe 647 Copti<: civilian dress. We note during "",-eml cenluries the custom of pUlting tuni<'s (nonnally lwo or three) <>n top of one anOlher and cO"cring them 5Ome,im.,. with a shawl. sometimes with a mantI", The "'"" of headdresses for women is al'" a eonslant. It l1\u" "" statcd that. On the whole, the Mab ,On queSt does not seem in any wa}' to have over· turned lhe habit. of the Copt. in matle1" of dress, The,e appear 10 ha"e been modified only well after the conquest under pre"u,.e from Mu,lim fashion, afler which the Copti" community was considerably diminished. II is not possible at present to determine with any preds;on Ihe Au",uations of fashion among the Copts and their impan On this 01' thaI piece of Coplic dress. The documents a1'e tOU "ften la, king. and oor ignorance "f the areha<><>logical cnnle"t of the pieces preserved mean> Ihat ;1 is f'O"Sible only for the tunics and shawls 10 trace a cllronologi<:al ""olulion supporled by stody of Ibe materials, the tcchniques, and the dee oral ion. (See a150: Texliles, Coptie.] Dalrnatlc Woman wearing a tunic crossed diagonally by a lozenge·shaped decoration called ,1"'rabo>1. I)e'ail of a ,h"ul,)er·lxmd from a woman's robe, Tapestl')', End of 'enth eenlol')'. ungth' 18 cm; width: 20 em, COIn/es., 1.0'0'''' Museum, PlltiS, The origin of the dalmatic is not "el')' well known. The word ilself seems to jodicate that il is a garment deriviog from Dalmatia, a prmince of lhe Roman Empire from the 'econd cemury B.C. But al pr<.,;enl. we do 001 know any ""amplc of the an· "ient Dalmatian cOSlume. The only doc"ments al our disf>C>Sal are Lalin and Greek texis in which lhe word "clalmatic" is used and some graphic repro"ntalio". in which certain pe1'SOnages wear a costmoe dose to 'h Iilerary deo;criptions. Unfortunalely. the'" is no tangible proof of lhe concordance of these sourees: no inscription on th" frescoes of the Roman catacombs affirms Ihal the orams are dothed in dalmalics. and con"ersely no andem text ollers a diagram "f Ibe ,'estmenl. Caution is therdore req"ired. The dalmatic was a long while gaffilent falling to the feet. h could be woven in wool, silk. or linen. It was ad<>med, and Ihe 'n'pero,., them""l,'es (for ~ 648 COSTUME, CIVIL wonn, of the dalmatic "'.... consiclatl..n..s laI~r, add I~ £.diel 01 thc 1obximum, proclaimed by thc C1IIperor DJOC.... Tl.l)l/ in ~.o. )01 to rcsoI...I' an <:<:onomi<: cris~, gn'a a tis.I of pric<:J lor dalmaw lor men and women. The .. in the pontifiea1e 01 Pope S,.I· _~r ()14-H5). who made it the official YUllMnl of deacons. According co me Vii" SyM$lri. how~... cr, tM dalmalic becune a liturgical .~menl only under UheriU$ (352-366). In fK!. n "'as probably in II.. «>u~ of the fifth C(Dlury A.D. 1""1 II bee.amc a mark of the kom~D de~ons. allhoush lhe pope :somerlmes accord<:d lh( right of "'-cannl il 10 de,· IY of olher churcho:s. From the mird untury .l..D, w<: finp.>Jise$ 01 E$).-pI (al Sa1ional dim:Ke of dte: coun.", lhew: 'e,uiles have .surviv<:d '0 0 .... own day. These tunics, most ohm ...im long slft"csand makin, a real brcal< .... ith Ihe lradiliol\al loinclo1h of Ihe pharaoni<:: period and .he /U.meslde robe-werc su/lkienlly long and full for lhc lenn "dalmalic" 10 COmo. al oncc 10 mind. Bul a simplc description proV(S lhal Ih(y a,( compl(l<:ly diff"renl, lhelr cI~ ..; 8'" m"'l oft(n linked togC1hu by 8 yoke edging Ih( opening for Ihe ncck; lhey 8re ....ider. no lon8er oelf·color<:d. and end in a circular or ilJICar-lhaped d«oralive mOlif. Finally. lhey 8en· ~rally ItOP in lhe middl( of the chest. "Ionl~ide "">It !hem appo:ar me orbic..14. circular or 5IlUan: m<:J'lUed. lei «t !be s1toulde", and .. I.... Icvel of the knca. A d«onui"" band on I.... lower pan of me pnnem .5Olnf:'Iirnes pkb up, in lh<: opposil<: ing in common ...,m the dalmadc. On the 0I1>cr hand. il is iden,i<:aI wim lhe desil'l worn al do<: sant( period Ihmu&houl Medilerran<:an basin. of which the IDIlIIOIic of chI' Jl"CaI hunl at Pian:a Armerina (Sicily) furnishes numerous cUIDpla. Moreovtt, 11 preso:nlS $Orne limUaritics with the 101' nics found al ....myra. me,ropolis of ,h( descn of ~Tia-lo ,"'hich It P'fisler (1932) lraces the origin of lhe Coplic garmenl-and from thel'( with P<:r:Ua. One poinl, however, remain, obe<:ure, the pJ"l.'$enc( at Akhmlm (ancienl Greek Panopoli,) of two tunics id(ntical Wilh Ihe Roman dalmalk. Onc ;" mcrtlioo(d by A. S. Cole (1881-189S); the olher i. in lhe Vic'ona and Alben Muscum in London (descriplion by Kendrick. 1920), A Ihird c~ample is the dalmatic in the Louvre (TC246J). lhe p",,'(noncc of ...ilich is unknown (p<:ma»S Antinoopolis). Akhmlm and AntiOl>()jlOlis ~helt(r<:d a GrKO-ROnt8D popula· and Akhmlm ..... a grcal ,extlle cenlcr. km,...ln dtroughou, the civiliud world of Ihe p<:riod. Did obese imporlM dalmal.ics or Coptic dalmalia imilh( Roman paurm? Were they ra<:n-ed. for th<: l1W' of the G.--e«>-Roman popt.oblion. 00-- wcr. they <:q.... lly ~ by !he CopI$? We do nOl know. But we h.." conc:rete prot'll of Ihe C::Iistence of the garrn<:rIl of ...·hkh mr a..dents 10.11 us and of which the ft-esr0<'$ of the Roman caIKombs pro.ide the 6rst "'vi I'" 'ion. ....1' pictu.... Bourgu<:I, P. eN. CAUllo,.,. du Iloffu copIes tlu. Mu,ie till l.ouvrc, Vol. I. Paris, 19601. Burmester. O. H. £. The EDprn", or Coplit: Church_ Cairo, 1%7. Cabral. F., and F. L«lerq, edi. "o..lmaliquc:· In Dietm.uldirc tI'~rrJ,I.(J/orie elirlnCA"c ct dr iitur· Sir, Pa';'. 1920. Col(. A. S. 0" th( Art 01 T~put'7"makint: Anti Em· broidery. Soclely for lhe EncQul"llaemrnt of Arts. ManufacIU'(S. ond Commerce, Cantor uClurl'S. V04. 2. London. 1881-1895, Comb<:fi•. F. Vilo b.4ri Su".,.t'; (llIu.'trium christi m(Jrtyrum, Lccti I";umphi), p, 265. Paris, 1660. Crum. W. E. Coptic DIc/ionary, O~ford. 1962. Daremberg. C. and E. Sailio. '"l>.>lmalica." In Die_ • COSTUME, MILITARY lIo''''''"e au ,,,,uq,"'is g<<f, Po".,jic"/i.<. Vol. 1. P 171. Paris. 18%-1892. "Ed,«um DiocIc1"ni eI col1eprum do: ~"is rerum .-enahum:· In IKSCTipliatles Asin Pro...",i..· ,..,.. Eu ....".e a ....« .."'... flkrici u,'",.. e. ed. T ;>.tomrmen. S "aIs. CoqJMS Inseriphon..... uu.... Mm, \'01 3. pi. 2, pp. 82(-84. Berlin. 187l·1902 J. C.lIllof_S dts obje" TecMdflis ,; ,1'111root pe-ml..... les /auif/es de 1898 " 1907. ed. E. Ca\"e1. A. !...trow Pari., 1 9$. 1m.;"pllOn"", ~Iif tl IlNrri Ls......'"m. Supplt< mem, pt. 1. ed. T \'OfflJDSeJl. O. HilllChfeld. lInd A. Dom~""'i (Corpus Imc"",io""", u,,,....,. um. Vol. 3. supplement). pp. 1942-51 Berlin. 1902. Kendrick. A. F. C,,'alor"t at TuIiles from 8,,,,-;.,&frD"nds Itt £&)'PI. Vol l. G....eco--Romo .. Period, VlclOria and AI~" Museum, l..ondon, 1920, _ . C"IO/O!:"e of TUlilu from S"n·i""g.... ill £C1Pt, Vol 2, Puiod of Tr""';1io" and o( Chr'" Emblems, Vlcloria and Alben Museum, 1.000' don, 1921. lampridiu~. A. "Anloninu. Hdiogabalus," In l! ,,,,d. Ii"" '"MIl, ,,,ca"lt p"r /es !tis/onen. ,rees CI 649 '0 CoptS at the end of ,he B"'-"n';nc occupa'ion. A s'aluetle lhal belongs '0 II", COplic: coU"",'ion, of the Lou"..., V.-es concnle fann 10 .his historical da.om. This $UllUC1te. aboul 19 incl>n (0.47 m) high and made of 1,,,,,,,,00" p,un,ed in red ochn. with .he pupils of lhe ryes in black, pan".,.. a SQ.ndinr; man hnldinJ; a buckieT'. Al his ~ .. "" canic5 a sl>ealhcd tbger. He is dressed ;n a IUnIC ,hal SlOP; a, ,he In'l'eS. and his 'orliO is coo-ered b) a cuirass of ocales, ...,~nled bv a brae plasoron. JoSl abo\-e !he ~lt there -"ppeats on ,he cu,,,... a rorzon'S head, full-face. TIns ",.. imendl'dlo s.rile rea:r imo lhe enemy_ lbe lwo Ieatr and lhe 1«, a.... en"eloped in breec~ of coarse bUic:",,"-ork. pemaps of 1","10er. since Ihere is f\O IOOlwear. The head i> remarkable for ilS .,.-pression, "i,h almond eve. in an'iq"" on chubb~' checks and a Wlon n~ abm.'C closed lips in a roun ",,-tc nat I"""s. ed. G. DlH';quel. Pari" 1903. LaulTer, S. D,vH,'im,s P,e;~JiJ:/. Bertin, 1971 pfisler,O "I.e COSlllme civil caple. ><:s compl)l'ln' 1<'$ eI woo holu.ion." Mi",o;,e< de /'Ecole Ii" Lo,,,,,, (1981). PfislCr, R. "La dkora.ion deo t10lfes d'AnlJno<'" In Rf>"u. Jes ATIS osi"'iques. AnnalC$ du Mu.~ Cu,me" pp 21S-43 Pam, 1928 ----c us dtl>u/s d.. vt/emeou <'Opte. F..Iuoo d'Orien",l~. Motlanle. LinQSSit,. Vol. 2. Paris. 1932. TUl;le~ de P..I......,.e. Pam. 1934 Ouibc:ll. 1 E. b,e....'lO/fs .., SIl'N""" 1905- f9tJ(), Cairo. 1907. Eu...."""" '" Saqq..... J908_1909. 1909· 1910 T1t" "",""$ien- of Ap" h"""MS, \-"ol. 1\, P 19l1, Cairo. 1912 \'\"ichl \\ Die/i"."..,;", "'-""'oJapp.e de III Ia"".e C'Of'te. Lou,";>.in. 1983. D()J,u~IOU PFlSTEll DoM'''OI..E Fu.M'l COSTUME, MILITARY. Since !he COPIS Ii"cd under 1""'i3n occupation or dominatiOn ....1l1ch n.~ duced Ihem 10 a loler-lled communi,y, on,' mighl lhink thaI n"I;IRl)' ••"·...ice wO\lld nol b-e acce-:;ible 10 lhc COpIS, Ne,'enhele.,;, it i' lmown ,hn! $;lim PACIlO.'lIVS sen'ed in the am", for a lim" in 'he "'iglt of Cons'an,;nc, ailhough he ,,-as soon dis· dlarged. Moreo"er, CWn poolS of high command, and conS('quenll... ,ubordinate postS, were cnll"Ncd Copric all,nia,;.' ofrhc Roman army. Li meslone Slalu· elle painled in ..cd ochre. End of third cenlu'v. Height 0.47 m: widlh 0.18 'n; 'hickn",,"' 0.12 m CVII,IeSV Lo,,"'e JIIIJt'um, P""s, 650 COSTUME OF THE REUGIOUS attained tbe rank of centurion, whicb his accoutre· ments seem to indicate, although he does not !>ear a sword. Whetber he was an auxiliary or a junior officer. his representation supplies an important document for the military costume of the period. But his bearing especially and the striking realism of his face with its wide opened eyes under thick arching eyebrows show a rare teclInique in Coptic art. This is tbe $Ole known example of military statuary of the period. The last type of representation of militaI)' figures -and, in consequence, of the unifonn-encountered in Coptic iconography includes biblical figures, like those of Saul or David, and persons whose function or activity i. of .ome special inter· est. An episode from the cycle of David that adorns Chapel 3 of the mon""tery of Blliwl! (Cleda.t, 1904, p. 20, pI. 17) catches him at tbe moment before he confronts Goliath. when he is armed under the di· re<:tion of Saul. The king i. enthroned between Jwo guards. one holding a lance but neither presenting any other identifying mark, David, according to Cleda.t's commentary. wean a cuirass and under it slopping at the 1mees, a tunic of metal over a tunic of rose material with darker vertical lines. He is shod with boots to the knees. The left arm is bent under a round buckler adorned with spirals. and the right arm brandishes a sword. Finally. in the scene of the Massacre of the Innocents at DAVR ABO I;ItNNlS and at Blwl!. tbe soldiers of Herod wear the Persian tunic with three pointed Raps, Of th~ representations. only the military cos· tume of the Louvre statuette emerges as an authen· tic witness to a slate and a period. Amid general uncertainty about Roman usage in this regard. the monuments that prosent it are too badly damaged to contribute to the documentation $0 far as the imperial period is concerned. and the Louvre piece i. unique and pre<:ious. The other uniforms mentioned here do not seem to '~orrespond to the peri. ods to which the personagts , belong. Thus. they Seem to be conventional and merely indicative of functions exercised. as happened later in medieval illuminatio", of Christian manuscripts, Western and Eastern. BIBUOGRAPHY Bourguet. P. duo "A propos d'un militaire "gypti"" de Ia periode romaine." Bulletin d, fd SOci~l~ franfafst d'Egyptolog~ 6g (1973):11-16. Bunnester. 0. H, E. Th, Egyptian or Coplic Church. Cairo, 1967, Cl"dat. 1. Mona. S.l. COSTUME Of THE REUGIOUS, the dress of hermits, monks, and secular clergy, When Chris' tianity appeared in Egypt, the earliest con werts, for the most part from a Jewish milieu, did not dreo.s differently from their coreligionists. lesus did not modify the dress of his disciple•. He gawe them only the injunction reported in Manhew 10:9-10: ''Take no gold, nor silver, nor copper in your belts, no bag for your joW'ttey. nor two tuni"-S, nor sandals. nor a staff...." lesus opposes the custom of the traveler or the wandering philosopher, requesting an even greater depri1/lltion. But this appeal of lesus does not appear to have been actually put into practice in the later Christian setting. In both lewish and Christian environments, there were .everal di.tinctive customs in matters of dress. Women, young girl•. or wido"," who livewer of Jesus, His simplicity and His innocence: the girdfe (leather belt WOrn by $Oldiers), which kept the Christian from impurity and was an attrib· ute of the soldier of Christ: the sleeweless mnic, symbol of renunciation of the world; and sandafs, which rather than shoes gawe nimhleness for run· ning the spiritual course. This costume, how"v"r, was not worn in any rigorous fashion in the different ascetic centers. Anchorite. and cenobites exhibited various and $Orne· , COSTUME OF THE REUGIOUS limes whimsical form. 01 dress, at leasl in early limes, They drew upon local forms of dress, adap,ing them as closely as possible to lhe basic ideal scheme. Consideralions of lhe level of asceticism, Ihe malerial resources, and personal preferences were also taken into accounE. Also it was possible 10 distinguish onc group of monks from anOther by .'analions in ,heir tlrc'S An importanl eVolulion loward a more uniform style 01 dress took place nnder Ihe inAnence of lhe polilical, economic, social. and religious progress of Egypl. The stale had some'hin!; EO say, and popu· Iar fashions_Egyplian. Greco·Roman. Syrian, Byz· anline, or Arab. 10 mention onl)' the mosl import· anI-Influenced e<'en lhe religious, These condilicms produced in Egypl • very changing and sublle style of dress. for these fashions ",ere more or less fi.. cd accordillg 10 lhe reginns, lhe levels of population. and lhe zoneS of immigration. This evu· lUlion 651 work" garment of ,'ariou, fabric" which ga<'e it a muhicolored appearance. Two tunics. the kolob,o", from Creece or Syria, and Ihe l"bll(101. are oflen confused. The Ii",' was of brown wool, lhe second of white linen and originally wurn by lhe Leviles (hence the name), "lmighl In fonn and WilhoUl ,Ieeve. or seams. In the same way lhc plebcian cloaks of Greece and Rome, the lodix and lhe mtlM~, wcre found among lhe monk< of £g:,-pl. The lodix was very shaggy, of wool wo<'en with all its Ile(:«, either ,heel' wool or guat hair; It .e",ed both as a greatcoat and as a rug or blankel for covcring animals. The Creek m~ltJl< (maollc) was made of shecpskin or goatskin wilh ils white fleece. II was knolled On lhe chcst, and was akin 10 lhe balol, In Rome it was also faslened with a fibula. Third Century E&:,l',ian asceticism in the lhird cenlury p"S5ed lhrough a periud of .'lreme p",erty and solilude. Some hermits wure nolhing al all and posseS5ed nothing, nol e"en a garment, WilhoUl even a loin· clOth, Ihey covered lhem"",ke. only wilh lheir long hair or lheir beard if lhey could grow One. Some used lheir ma1!S as clothing as well as for sleeping. O1he'" piaite<J lunics for lhem..,I.'e, from lhe fiber 01 palm, pap,TUS, or some olher fibrous and coarse planE. Simple long while lunks of linen, withQut slee<'.,.; or decoration, were also used. Some ascet· ics wOre the kl~fr (cap), which was like the car> of "ery small children. Some c",'ered Ihemsel"e' in cool wealher or on journeys Wilh the balol (cloak of sheepskin or goatskin), which On occasion ..,,,'ed as 3 pouch if lhe ends were knolled. Som<: girded themselvtl wilb lhe moih (J.,eatber cincture charac· teristic uf .oldie",). on which WaS hung a purse for 'mall change. The maS! <-aiiam ascelics lapped over Ihemselves, from and back, the skMma, 0,. Arabic marwah (scapular of lanncd lealher, made of bands passed over lhe shoulders and attached 10 lhe moih). Although lhesc gIInnents constituted lhe basic model of religious dreS5, lhe complele c<>:slUmc was praClically never worn al Ibis period. Alongsidc lhese garments of Eg:,l'lian origin, a whole range of c101hing brought ;n from abroad was gradually establi,hC Person wi'h a cane wearing a long tunic. Wuod. Courtejy u.mvre .I-Iu,.u"', Pari,·. 652 COSTUME OF THE RELIGIOUS The mllNI llenenolly came 00...., to !he In'e1 0I1h.e knees. II is onen ponrayed In rq>Tnenla'ion!; of Moso and FJijah. In Il.omaniztd conlellts. lh<e .,,os. replau Fourth Cenlul')" A mh... i~' chlo~ ,ook place in ,he founh cen,ury when ,he 61'SI rules f....- monastic life, Including do,hinc. were enK,ed, and in a ''CTY "f'C' ci6c: manncr. fi"" by AIlT'OHY (......-vd J10) and then by MCH(lMJIlS (JI5). The laller "''''. taUn up and enc:ou~ by Ant.lNASItlS • of Alc>.andria. afl"ected also the oecular e"'lJY ....d ll,urpeal """&C. Other rules followed.. ...·hich we do nOi a1..."Y" know, since ,hey probably remained in the domain of o",l,radi· tion and are cOIlS"'quently lost. The dirN,ive$ issued each monastery of any Importance had Ito own us· aJe" f<>llowing the !>asic m<.>del more or less strict· Iy, I, ....:as Ih... lhat the number of the gannenu WOrn by ,he religious grew. In addilion 10 ,hose known in the preced.i"l century ...'e may nOle ,he c.eil~n (1IInic), of ccane linen. h.."..p, or jUle. made of ., pieces of cloth joi,.,ed at !he shoukIers and rec !"1ar in form: ,he pori (BOOaIric, phti.nr), (dOQOkl, of dark colo<- Ind.roven of lIeecJ wool, reserved foe divine scrric:e; u..ltou. (leather belt or pl. .ron tIw soldiers abo ""OT'it); dot (loincloth) of bondWr; the Jrhoo, (perhaps a IiturJkal runic of linnl); and finally lhe rall,o«, of tanned plSitin or shttpSkin, ""h;oh was akin '0 Ihe JJ:),b.. a but perna", ccr-responded 10 ,he ,rianJUlu Ipl'llm of lhe ShenuI;"',.. monks; found on ,he mum· mies of ..,.'eral monks. it symboli.ed a .'ery high degree ", 3.elt of l....ther Iha, gathered the tunk 10 lhe body and held in the 1I"III.s. and Ihe I~",io", withoul any o~nl, 1 ."ko", syrnboI of mor1ification, ",·Mch could _ as a n"b"" jusl ... well IlS for linen or 1ornc10lh. for lhe liturJ:Y, lhere a ",'bok am)· of prmnlU. The principal ilem the Jl6en.rioIt, a 1\.1. n;e made of linen and falling 10 the f«t, ",ith sJee..-es S1il<:hed and gpered at lhe wriMs- I,., early ,imes Ibis runk was liways whi'e. Some'times ;, was adorned wilh dll'" or with mOlifs embroidered on the lower pan. Other .'estments included lhi! 1uJ· also a tunic ollir>en for lhe u'" of deacons and priests. dO$Cly resembling Ihe long litu'1lleal tunic; the ~p<'J",;., made of two pieces of linen joined at the .houlders and whi,e in color, put on by prjelllS and deacons al the moment of cornmu' nkm; lhe hMn".d/, a small cloak for Ihe liturgy. which r=alled the woolen palliu... of Ihe RomaJlll; the mllpJrorio.., which was in origin a woman's cloak....'Om amund ,he ned: and shoulde", among men. as among the monks in lhe CllliSl:ian peri<.>d, and re:socmblinc ,he; Latin ......i"""'. a kind of tN....1 edBed with fringes; and lhe kl1i", a long: double to.nd of wool pasai"i round !he head. then eO"OlSIng bdIincl the back and wten"" in the iPrd1e. "'a,......, Fifth ~nlury Th", 6ftb cen,ury was ,he veal period of lhe ."". lOl,lIirm or io«He. Ihe ito/obion, the Id;.ilim, and ,he aU•. ...hile Ihe Imlion. bnlonarion. lodu, ",llplton· 0", and katano"t! ",em to have been abandoned. The koukou11ion wa:s originally a .imple piece of material of ,mall dimensions.. or evcn a bag, atIached al the back to CO"er Ihe head in Ilmel of rain or cold. It thus look the place of a hood on lhick cloaks. r"'asanlll, anisans, and tTavelers .....re the 6..1 t ar i'. then .he s1.~ and lhe monks, In JIl2 il "''*-$ officially authori#d_ ",..lIomao anny in Gaul adopted it for Ihe ...inler, ",+Okh Iuds one Kl ,mnk of a pnnent properly Gaulish.. Small chil· dren were mufB"" up in hoods of identical fwm. Some .ypically EcwIian prmenlS also ~ pcar-cd. 10 be replaced by othe~ This was probaWy due to a SlricW" appltca,>t>n of lhe rules In Ihe IJlOnasllc communi,..... Th... the monks WOre only the lunic, vlIln, and caci,rm, lhe leillfl, ,he m<>ill, and probably lhe and hhoos; Ihough ...., ha,·e no n-idence of lhese certainly dating from lhis cen· tury. lhey definitely SUT\li~ed in,o Ihe follo",;ng cen, tmies, '0 .... pot. Shth Century Ouring the si'-Ih century. there ",-erc sareely any changes £rom the po'eCedlng one. The i:k>ft was perhaps less frcqllCnl, or reslricled to liturgical tKllBe, COSTUME OF THE RELIGIOUS as ...as lhe. k<.>lobion. But lhe. 'hourgji bepn '0 appear. This ...';tS mode of leathe., and tqJUSC:med lhe ann<>< llptne;, ro·il for boIh men and "omen. I, ..-as a kllld of ..... I~ of k:atm... hich rrcalled lhe td"ltIlJn (baldric, o. orn:arRtnw should~ bIolt) of the C~ks .nd Roman. ... ..·ell ... ,he Cr«k ~"'" The tho"...;; "-as one oflhc coos«""ed ~-...cMftlU handed o.-n i.. Ihc COIInot of the .~; .. «,..,mOM' to< monks and nuDS at • bter pcriQd. Sennth Century 1'1>c..., ....,..., pnH<>und modification. in Ec>l't ., lhe ""'" of lhe .rn,-aI 01. w Arabo, .nd dC)lh;"I "'lIS no ucepc;on. Tbt f<":atu"," of the monaolic hab;1 wen: Joharply lr';lndOTmed. Ii.~. b«aUM' f&)-PI lurned ;n upon i""lf in a period ... hen ;1 SOtlght to diminate fo...,tgn CI... loms ,hat we", too pressing o. burdetuome, The onlY garments of Greco-Ronlan or 8p.anline origin thai we", pr<Se,.,e 653 lie twice ... long a5 il ""as "ide, cu, in ",rietl)' """ilinnr fashion with I hole at the cenler. It ".,.. ...'loglSU ha•.., found on the of a monasu:"'Y al .IlA-Ol'm i..... ruction!! rebting 10 the 11I.li•• lCeordi", 10 ..itich then: ...-en: t...., posoible stze:i, s.....ll .nd l~. But ...., should also note !hal the tlt.h.....as abo a simple $leU lor ooioou:u.d 01""" mrrchandise. and thai i' somrUmrs had .be color of an oniOtt. The Sttk ........ mi..... 10 the tIr. which the l11<>n,," rapidly .dopled to "-"pl""'e Ihal o.her hooded cloak. the birri" (or lalin bI"u.), n.e n>onks eontinu,-.l to folio.... the ancient ideal of Palladiu. and Cassian in assipting syn,bolJ. to ,annenlll. e,-en if the e,·oattion of m2nyroom and the a.rentl bec.."e I.... pn)nOlmced The clochinK of this period ....,.. al...""" "",ned bv a I;'ely desire for ...... nde..ng and solilude, 1'O•..,m and pcnilence, ...hleh in forn>er Ii""'" .he p ,,-all. lM'·" .... cle~_-- Elghlh CenlUT)' and After Rdiqual')' plaque depicling SI. Simeon St)'lites. Enehased silver, Syria. S;~lh cemu')·. Heigh\: 030 m; "'idth, ,26 m. Co,,"e.y L.."vre AI",,,.,,,,,", P"ri. The evidence: relat;nllO the eOStu",e of.he ...,Jigi""" in later ti"'el! is .teln" So",e _noes still menlion the epiwtli. ;n the eighth and ninth cenCUries; lbe b~llin, the ",hi"", and lhe ko"Ue in Ihe ninth cenlury; Ihe q"I"">U,,·,,n, lbe koukle. and Ihe kl"f' in Ihe Iwelfth: lhe qnlanJ,,"'nh again in the fourteenlh: and ~nally. the iII,ab and the ",i=, in thc .w\'Cnteenlh centul)'. The iibbah was a long tunic of bro"n "'001, the sleeve. of "hich did not reach the w.-is•• and "itich " .... closed in front. The ",fUll' WllS a large: lined cl"",k, black on Ihe outside and whilc on Ihe inside. 654 COSTUME OF THE REUGIOUS tunics. "" manlles 'here a ~ th~ b..nTltS, the wmUtlt. and the I".•.,.U,,; .. headdreso. ,~ c.u.t, tht Aukl. the lJIn..n... hile 50""" mantles (hln,.... ..,.......,,-,,},) had a hood anOtChed. As" belt for lite lilU!JY. ,he mijious adotHed ,he hyass.h and lhe "''"I"A.h. "ill. the N".shll .. • ornamen': and for fuotwcar the ""'rAub (rootw~) and tlJ.u",lJh (....clal). The poorrs' clot""d lh"msekes in Or "'P. Thtr.. ~rc also panlaloons. which \'''''re worn by the rclilliouj a, " late dale. bu, for which w" h,,\'e only "ague icon",raphlc e"'idence. Oespite lhls multiplicity in malic,.. of clothing, an underl}'ing "on'inuloy kept aliye the direct h""itnge of lhe lirol rcliglOUj, Anton)' and Pachon'ius: cOJ' tume was accommodated to the: religious domain, and • continuing heril.,le was very dcfinttjvcll es· tablished in a bnd .....,et"ed ..,th the blood of lhe nrlie$, mart)"J'5. Throu.ho",' all the chanlQ. lhe ancien' ,-aloes pcrsi$ted. thfOUlh an InleniotJs con· cern ror adaptation able. br- example'. tnnspose the Greek Sl,d"",,,,, Into lhe ""'hie u/i· ,tJ,anlh. the i"",1IUOOft inw """.. or .......... lpcn· ",,,,,,qq.' Lo>o'~r part of ..... nic (detail) sIlo"inl ~mbroi COlma-' Lou>T~ .YUU'UM. "ons. II ...... ,ener.olly ~·td ror tnnlin«In I"ac:•• ,..... gh !he in dothinl durinll~ Arab ~riod in,roduc~d mlIny new lhinp. lhey did not ~bc~ !he ol'ilinal c101hing. E"~n nO'" ,~ ~1ipous of CoptIC EgypI call 10 mind lhe .. nc~n. model and il$ symbolism. nen if som<:limcs they hayt forgol1~n lhe lirs. sil!ni~cllnce or !he origin of lheir dress. rmrn>s This brief su,...ey of Ihe religious clOlhing of Eg)'jl1 i' by no means tih.",,,i,..,. A more lhorough ,"\ldy of Coplic clothing rc,'~aJs. ;n fact. n,any olher articlt:s of clothing.•1-., "hich we ha,'~ only \'eN det.aJ1s and no da,in&- Thus wc knov.· tha' In early ,imt:s people conlinued 10 wear the she11li. a loindooh. unl..... !hill II the Roman ce'I/O; that ""me wnpped themscl>'CS in shrouds or funer.uy cloth.: .here .._ a cloak. !h~ sJroibi. and a woolM! tunic. the lInIOnI the monks. The Ialltt also ~ from the Greco-Roman wardrobe the "./.m runic. !he .,01.1. the cloab p ,h., ..... 10 rew .ha, Ji'ou"'. !lack of • ,unlc ShClWinll a Byramine c~ in the cemer. Tex,;le. ~IC Middle Ages. Leng,h: 1.08 m: wid'h' O.S m C"unuy l..ol,,"'e Museu.... Pori•. COVENANT OF 'UMAR dam), 1M stlk imo shuqq~}" Ihe zont into ::u""ar, and the skMmQ into "kfm, though the origins of th~ garments mi<l be forgollen, [Su als<>; Lilurgical VeSlments. I mBUOGIlAPHY Benigni, U, "Lexiei ecclesiastid coplicL" In Bessarin"e, ed, Emanno ~scher, rasc. 61, 19<17; fuse. 62, 1901. Burmesler, O. H. E. The Egyptian or C"p/ic Church. Cairo, 1%7. Butler, A. The Andell1 Coptic Churc},es, Vol. 2. Ox· ford, 1884, Crum, W. E. A Coptic Dictionary. Oxford, 1939: reis· sued 1962-1972. Dozy, R. P. A. Dicli""naire detaill~ des noms de w.temenlS che'l./es arabes. Amsterdam, 1846. Muyser.. J, "Vie d'Amba Harmim par Hor de Preht." Bulle/i" de la SOci'l~ d'archiologie wpte, Vol. 9:1, pt, 2. Wtlrzburg, 1863, Renaudot, E. Ritus Orientalium Cop/arum, Syrorum el Armenorum, Vol. I, pI. 2. Wtirzburg, 1863. Vycichl, W, Dic/ionnQ;re ilymolorique d. la langue cople. Louvain, 1983. NICOll' MORFlN·GoUMlIER COTTON, See Textiles. Coplic: Yarns. COVENANT OF 'UMAR, ascrii>ed 10 Ihe sec· ond Onhodox caliph, 'Umar ibn al.Kha!!!b (634644), and regarded as a document of primary im· porlance in regulating the relations betwoen the Muslim conquerors of Ihe Middle Easl and their Dhimmi subjects, that is, the Jews and the Chri.· lians, including the Coptic nalion in Egypl. The situation of the Copts vis·a·vi. the Arab conquerors under Ihe leadership of 'Amr ibn al·'~ was, however, a pe<:uliar one. Egypt ...... bun under the By2aO' line yoke at the time of Ihe advent of the Arabs. Sinoe the Counoil of CHAI.c['OON in 4,51, Ihe Byzan' line lords in Egypt wen: of Ihe Melchile creed, which the Copts disregarded as heretical. Cyrus 01· Muqawqas, Ihe Byzallline mler al the lime of Ihe Conque.I, persecuted the Monophysite Copts as heretical; Ihe Copts in relurn ",-,oused him of heresy and loathed Ibe subjugation of lheir oount')' 10 Ihe By2aOtine empire. The resulT of Ihis anomalous situalion was lhal in 64llhe Copts did nol oare who invaded Iheir cOUn' try, for Iheir position could be no worse Ihan under the Byzantine mle. Therefore, lhey stood aside dur- • 655 illg Ihe progressi,.. struggle between the Arab. and the Byzallline defender.; of their Egyplian colony. All they knew about Ihe newcomers was lhat they were monotheistic in Iheir religion, which sounded somewhat like Iheir OW" Monophysite oreed. So iT did nol mailer to litem very much ,,"'ho WOll the ensuing banles. The triumph of the Arabs al the battle of Heliopolis (641) was followed by the fall of numerous oilie. in the Delta, including AIr1b and Mimif. The lerror inDicled on the inhabitants could be malched only by Ihe Byzantine persecution in the prior deoade. Aocording to bi.hop JOHN OF NtKl· 00. Ihe eminenl chronicler and eyewitness of Ihese events, people "began 10 help Ihe Muslims," at least by oarrying fodder and promo,", (Butler, 1978, p. 236), which they sorely needed in their slruggle. The next decisive step for the Arab. was the capture of the forlress of Babylon, wherefrom the Byzantine maslers conducted their firm rule of Ihe Delta in the north and Upper Egypl in lite south, This is nO! the place to discuss the details of the ensuing .iege and warfare leading to the sun-ender of Ihe formi· dable fortress on Good Friday, 6 April 641 (Buder, 1978, pp. 258-74). The fate of Egypt was sealed with the fall of Ihe capital cily of Ale:.andria in Ihe nexi year and 1M flight of Cyrus 10 ConSTanlinople after signing the tr""ty of 8 Novembe. 641. Accord· ing 10 John of Nikiou (Butler, 1978, pp. 320-21), the slipulalions of that momelllous treaty were as follows, ]. paymem of a fixed lribule 10 the Arab~ 2. eleven monllts of armistice, ending in Ihe Coptic month of Paape on 28 September 642 3. cessation of hostililies on both side., including operatiolls against Alexandria 4. departure by sea of the Roman garrison of Alex· andria wilh its lreasure, but Romans within the coulIlry to be subjeol to payment of lribule on leaving 5. no Roman. 10 allempt recovery of Egypt in the future 6. Muslims 10 desi.t from church seizure and inter· ference with Chrislians 7. Jews to be permitted 10 st4ly in Alexandria 8. Roman host4lges numbering 150 officers and 50 civilians 10 remain for the execution of the tl"ellty. The eslimale of the tribute in artiele 1 amounted to 12 million dinars (BUller, 1978, p . .321). The main item of the treal)' Con.isled of the safeguard· ing of the churches and the securily of Ihe Chrislian population . 656 CRAMER, MARIA Parall'" 10 Ibis """lIlY. lhe Arabs Sttm 10 !>awe iuued \he uous e-nant of ·Umar. The early Islamic historians a>Ch U 'Abd .... J:bbm. Kind!:, and 8a!idhun do not h....e anJ record of this coYenam. which led _ Khobrs 10 considcT the cow:· nant 6ctitiow. o. apocryphal. N""rthekss, il5 delailm cillUion by a1-Qa.lqash.llnodi (1355 or 1lS61418), """n at that lale date. l~ no chane" lor doIIbtinl th" v"r.ocitJ of the situation as .. whol". if not in ilS minm" details. He.... is a sum~ry of al·Qalqashandl"s aCCOUnl of the Covenant (l913, pp. 381-87), which runS In perfect parallel to th" Trea· ty of Aluandria. in ;1$ varl"d s1ipulation~ and COn' dillon•. First, the lIZHH, or poll tax. was to be paid by all Dhimmis, that ". protecled non·Muslim wb· jecu. Second. Dbimmis W"1l' requimd 10 olrel'" tTee hospilalily 10 all Muslim sold;.,.. lor lhrcc do.ys in lheir churches. 1'h.ird. they well' to be 10)-aI Sll~ 10 lheir Muslim Mel'S. Funhermo...., they -... pe"" mi'ned 10 ride onl)' donkeys and lhc)' " ..,..., 10 ride them ~y$. ~ .""",ired 10 me in Ihe preleDCe 01 Muslims, and they WCIl' 10 "'...aT \"$' """'IS thai ~ distingulsh.able froll> ~ 01 their M....im compatriots. Dh;mmil were not 10 t'llisoe lImr ",*"" in I"""Y"r, and die)' we.... not 10 hold OSlffilalious processions wilh lhci:r ccmcrl and SCriptllll'S- Their chll",h l;>.,lls well' 10 be I'IInl in low Ion.... This special .tipula1ion could be ficli· tious, since bells appeared In the East"rn churehes only in modern times, and c"nainly not bero.., t),., sevenle"nth cenllll)', according to Ihe Je,uit C. Sic· ard (Tager. 1951, p. 54, n. I). Under Ihese condl· lions. I),., Christiam. includinl the Copts of EcYPt, were allowed to relaill their establi.... ed churches withoul inlenell'nc". However. they not allowed 10 IUtOrC .... iM n...,. we.., ."~ The cO\...-..1 abo stipulated duot Dbimmis were nOlI. pennined 10 be employcd in !h" It:'T\ice of "'U5Iim$ or 1M MUlti.",lolat! in KCordanc" wilh """ dlcg,\eS of th.e Qur'1n. This principle.......'e'Yer. prm."aI to be utterly iJnpnclic-al for tlw.: simpk reaaeon !hac \he Copts. "'110 w",re the iilCCQoJ'WUII.., were the only fwK:1~ who could Mlp with !he levy of !he KHAJW. o. lenenol lAUlion. Tho: rnI".. had no other means of Ie.,inl uues bu1 through the good offices of th",ir Coptic subjects. So_ .... Ien DCCaston",ny dismissed the Copts from ollie"" ""suit· Ing in the collapse Qf th", ",conomy and the u!timale return of the Copts 10 reclif)' the financial p<Jsilion of the state. N""",nhel",u, jurists such as Ibn ",I· Naqqlsh cominu",d to uphold this s)"l",m, al leut in theory. in their (..hi>" (juridkal c<>nRI1U1oIIon) .. sued I>efo«, 1362 (&1111. U51, p. <119). The restrictions imposed on the Dhimmls """"' Il'instated by caJq,hs from time to time.. Abo1 Yl1sut" Va'qQh. a conumpo.....,. M!Ulim judge of the time of Caliph IUriln aJ·Rashld (756-809), SWQ that lhese conditions were fully recorded in his Kill/> a/·K,""., (Book of T.."tion). n.c same AbU Ytlsuf also "'Y'. on t"" authority of 'Abd-al·Ral)rtlin Ibn Th"'it ibn Tholb:A.n, thai 'u""", ibn ·AI:>d·al·'Azfz wrote to one of his rep""sema!ives confirminl th", substance of 'Urnar ibn al·Kha!!OllUIe., 10 anoiheT for rear of an-est b! !he Byzanline 1'\11.,. Cyrus a1·Mwpwqas. Bomjamin 1 ,,_ honr,r.,d by lhe Muslim ,icton. ,,'ho permillcd him 10 occtIJl)' 011' mer...... churches Pf"e'iDudy ,,~ by the Mekhites wtUl", lhe Coptic Soundacions cemained aceUIl' ulUkr the lemu the Co'ienant of ·UlI1JIr. or ....bclur RahfTllln I. Non-Muslims ultd", Sh"ri'"h. Bnmwood, Md" 1919. Bat Ye·or. Th. DM",,,,IJ. Ie..... "nd Chri5Ii...., und" /,l"m. London and Toronto. 1985. Belin. M, "Feloua r"latlf Ala condition des Zimmis, et paniculit..,rnenl des Ch"";Iien. en pays Musul· IJUllUi depuis I'~tablissement de 1'[sJamlsrne jus' qu'"", mili.., du Ville si~de de l'h4i"':' 1014"'''[ tui4tiJlue. "'r. 4. 18 (1851),417-516. Butler, A. J. Tile ,(r.b ConqueJl' 01 EfypI. Oltford. 1902; TqII". 1975. Lane-Poole, s.,( HiJlol'y 01 £07" i.. Ihe Middle ..,..... London. 1921; npr. N.,.... yo.... 1969. ~di, .aI•. $~ aM'sJr4, Vol. 13. pp. la3ff. c.iro, 1911. Tag",.. J. Aq04! ..-.Mu............ c.iro. 1951. AZJz S. ATllA CRAMER. MARIA (11198-1978), German Cop10k>pst. She ",.. a pupil of Henn...n AANIU: and Hennalln JtlP;~ Thoulh ...,., was working .. a schooheacher. she published "",'er;tl books and anicles on Cop/ic paleOIr;tphy, book iIlumlnalion. Inscriptions. liturgy, and hymns. Some of her works relaled 10 Coptic studies are: KopliJch. fnschriflu im lU>i.u-Frndrich·Museum tu Be,lin (uiro. 19 I CROSBY SCH0YEN CODEX Buchmalerei; lIIuminauonen in Monu· .kripMn du c:hri.tlich·kopti,c:hen ),gypten vom 4. hi, _urn 19. Johrhundert (Recklinghausen, 1964); Kopti.che Pa/aographie (Wiesbaden. 1964); Koptische Liturgie" (Trier. 1 Koptisch~ MART'N KRAUSE CRONIUS OF NITRIA, SAINT. SU Anlony of Egypt. Saint; Paul the Simple. Saint, CROSBY SCH0YEN CODEX (earlier names; Crosby Codex. Mississippi Coptic C<>dex 1, and Sav· el)' Codex), a single-quire papyrus code~ in Sahidic Coptic that carne 10 light os part of a major manu, script discovery made by Egyptian peasanlS in 1952 near the base of the diff Jabal Abu Manna ""me 7'h miles (12 km) east of the discoyery site of the NAG HAMMADl UBRARY, The manus<:ript collection. known locally as the Di,hn" Papers (after the neal' by lOwn of Dishn"). induded remains of some thirty-eighl books (rolls and cooices) among which are dassical texts, biblical and apocryphal manu· scripts. mathematical exerci""s. and leuers of Pa<;h· omian monks. The indus ion of the Pachornian rna· terial has led James M. Robin""n to suggesllhal the entire colleclion den"es originally from a Pachomian Iib"uy (Robinson, 1986, Pl'. 1-25). The Pachomian monaslic system, headquartcred at n",arby Pbow (modem Hw al--oibii), induded ""m", dewn mon· asleries in Upper Egypt. The Crosby·Schyen Codex, which measures 15.2 X 14.7 cm, is composed of a single quire of thirtyfive sheels or folded pairs of conjugate leaves. Its original lotal of 136 pages has been diminishe 657 final pages of the codex are lost, one has no way of knowing whether the last unidentified text COnl;nued to the end of Ihe codex. This final text appears 10 ~ an early Christian homily that ad..ises lhe need for action and preparedness alongside of be· lief. The selection of Ihese five U"clales for inclusion in a single codex has led to the speculation of Ihe codex's use as a paschal lectionary, "a reader's book used at the ob""rvance of Christ's death and resurrection_and 'pso facIO at a bapti.m" (Caba· niss, 1961. pp. 70-72). The single s<:ri~ who copied the codex wrote in black ink wilh a coarse pen. The hand is caT(>ful, large, and bold (Willis, 1961, p. 388). Later COITeClion, 10 the texI may b\> th", work of a second scribe. With the e~ception of Ihe final unidentified traClate, the code~ was written in double columns of varying length (11-19 lines). The finallractate is WTInen in a single column, Coptic pagination is present though not continuous for the entire code •. The scri~ began new enumeration with th", first page of I Peter (1'. 75) and Ihe firsl page of Jonah (p. 107). The Coptic diaieci Ihroughout i. Sahidic, Ihough "arious dialeclical peculiarities are In 1)(> found. The dale of Ihe codex has 1)(>en variously esl;mated from Ihe latter half of the second century 10 Ihe sixlh century, Ihough a third cemury dale i, mosl often ciled (Willi., p. 389; Cabani.., p. 71; E. G. Turner, 1977, p. 137; Hall, 1979, p. xlv and xvii n. .,. The Crosby-Sch0yen Cod",. Wall originally acquired by th", Uni,'ersity of Mississippi in 1955 through a donation of Lucius Olen and Margaret Reed Crosby (Willis, pp, 382-83). 11 was labeled by the university as Mississippi Coptic Code~ I: lhe Crosby Codex. Work toward publicalion Wall ~gun immediately, bUI circumstances resulting from Ihe desegregation of Ihe Un;"ersily of Mi..issippi caused delay and in Ihe end failure of these effort.<. The codex remained in the University of Missi..ippi library until 1981 when it WOS d",acqui.itioned and sold. It has .ince remained in privale hands. It was acquired in the early 19805 by lhe Pax ex lnno~a· tione Foundalion under Ihe leadership of Winsor T. Savery. While owned by Ihe foundation, til(> codex bore Ihe name $awry Code" ("The Savery Code" in Claremont," W. 4-5). The code" was purchased at auclion in Decem~r 1988 (Checkland, 1988) by Manin Sch0yen of Norway and rela~led Crosby· Sch0yen Code", Manuocript 193 in Ihe Sch<>yen Collection. A erilical edition, the editio princep" 658 CROSS prepucd under me a..spkes or me Imtinue for Aadquity and Ouistianily in C"'=nont, California. is fon},comiDg. BlIlUOG",,",T "Bible Scripu Bouchl. Two Jbre Collections Are (lifu 10 Uni\'enil)' or Mississippi:' Th~ N~w YOlk Tim~s, Nov. 27, 1955, p, 135. Cabeniss. A. "The Unlven.lty of MimMippi Copllc Pap)TUS Manuscript, A l'aschal ~ctionaryr' N~"" T~Slam"l/ Sludi~s II (1961):70-72, Checkland, S. J. "Medinal Tau FClCh 2.5m for MU!lCum," Th~ Londo" Times. lle n,,· r;" CROSS. SU Symbols In Coplic ArL CROSS, MANUAL See Jt~ Imtnlrnents. CROSS. PECTORAL S~~ UI~ In.oania. m, s;lCram~nL -Unless Ihe sigP of the cross is made eitl>e>- on the fo~ of the faitliul. or Oft the _er itself .....nen..,;Uo mcy are rqenenled. or on the 011 wnh ...-t.;,;h dley are anoinled with chris.... or on lhe sacrifice with whid> .hey are nourished, no:moe of mete lhingo is duly performed" (Saini AU£USIine. Homily 1111 on Saini John 19:24). The s.ign of the CroM lakes various forms. each having iu OYl"n interpmation. It may be made w'ilh the ria:hl Ihu...b when cTOSSing onI'$Clf, and Ihe ri&ht forefiniler when crossing Olher people Or mings, This can be inlerpreled as a sign of Ih, oneness of God, or ,. reference 10 Chrisl's uyina, "But if il is by th~ finger of Go CROSS, PROCESSIONAL ""''". I I I B.l5IUOS See titlfflical In· CROSS, SIGN OF THE. symbolic sign of Ihe crucifixion. The writings allhe church fathers and the oldes! lllUrgies clearly Indicale Ihe use al lh, sign of the c'""" as an in~,ra1 pan of me serW:e or CROSS, TRIUMPH OF THE, a subjeci of rich Chri$lian significance and Ihe th~m~ of a lape~lry In lh, co11«lion of Coplic texliles In th~ !..ouvre. About 4 feet (1.20 melers) hillh ",nd 6.8 f~el (2.10 melers) Ions, i. w ... CTealed In me technique of "looped" fabric, ,,'hleh produced a relief ~ffect. I CRO&'<;, TRJUMPH OF THE Triumph of the Cross. [)etail of the cenler. Cf>t1 been affe 659 Triumph of the Cross, Detail "f the right: Jonah. Co"rle•., Louvre M",<:mn, Pan,. ,e~ister i' a full·length picmre of Eden. At the sides, on either side of lwo bushes, vdld and domestic animals play log",he, (Is. 11:6),I"aving room in lhe cemer for the Iranian I......" of life, The tree is on Ihe same a,i, '" a cm" a~sala-descended from the pharaonic sign of life (ANlu'l)-in the cem", of the upper register. The loop that sumlOunlS Ihe two cro"",d branches of this emblem is conceived as a crown of laurel, dOlled with precious ston..... and containing a star fonned of IwO inlen;c<:ting squares. On eilher side a decomted column separale, the tree from two ,een", oriented toward il. On Ihe left, "ery incomplete, is a donkey ad,'ancing loward a peacock. from whose beak hangs a ,mall Cm" mz;"la, thc "'enc $uj\gcst, the propheq of Balaam (Nnt. 24:17). which would be confirmed by Ihe slar integrated into the central emx an.ala, On Ihe tighl, Jonah, duly identified b)' an insctipl!on abo"e his bcad and rising a< an orant from Ih" k~I0' (sea c ......alur<:) undcr Ihe lrunk and fruit cf Ihe "",tor tree, j,; lhc manifest $ign of the resurreelion of ChriSI (MI. 12:40), The lapestry lhus depicts lhe Tdumph of lhe Cros•. arising out nf thc cnli", Old Tes"l!nC~1 hi"ury of ",Imti"" and, through the lree of life ;n Ihe canhly paradise. linking it to the hea"enly Jenl-S.'· lem, jusl as by ils Form ;1 transpons the whoie of th" pharaonic pa Triumph of lh" Cross. O<.'\ail of lhe left: Prophec)' cf Salaam. C"urle•., Lou,'re M,,,,,,,,,,, Pari•. Bourguel, P. duo "Deux pieces COple< de 10 fin de la periode omme,.,ade." ReI'"e d" Lou',"<= el des M"so!es d' F"mce 19. 2 (1969):101-105. PIERRE nu BoU~GUET. S. J. 660 CROSS, VENERATION OF THE CROSS, VENERATION OF THE. Throogh CROSS-IN·SQUARE. also called qumcwu. the 1M CJ\lcifu>on <:J. 1"'-'5 Chris'l, 1M ".on. "'Ilich had preriou:dy been a method of pu.n~nt, humilia· Iioo, and .i,n; they wore It TOUOO lheir ne<:ks: thlt)' de<:o....ted their buildings with it: they ..r..ct..d h over the gra\'eS of their dead. It aho became an object const.antly in the ~nds of their priests. lhe Coplk church deslJllates two day$ for Ihe Holy Cross: 17 lut. 10 commemonte the disc~l)' of lhe CI'OSS by EmpreM Helena. Il'I{){lIer of Emperor C(l.'<STANTlNE I W Grnl. in 326. aDd 10 Baramhll. to commemOrate its restoration 10 1........ lem in 618 ~Iowin& the defeal of the Penians b)' Emperor IIEKACUus. who released the cros.s and liberated Plmiar<:h Zac.hariah Ol J............ lJL The venrntioll of the eraas, b,- bendi"l the k........ bowilll down hdore it in reverence, and ~ it. b a nu.r1< oE Te§peC1 lUld ho......,e to the Savior's cross. noo: in """,""ip but In wne. .ion. Christiam Itonor Ihe CI"OU for nri0U5 realOlU' (1) il is their own sac.ed emblem; (1) il .. Ihe symbol of redemption; (3) it was on the cross that God revealed Himself 10 UI In the penon of. lhe crud· fied. enablinJ us 10 witness God'. consummale love. Hi. perl""'l sanctity. HIs boundle•• mercy. His superior justice. His sublime wiidom. and His tran· scendenl authority ovc. nlture aOO the enlire ere· ation: (4) it i. the symbol of unily and peace...ttieh broke OOwn "the dividing wall of hostility" (Eph. 2: 14 - 16); the "",. hal brouchl about full reconcili· uion. noI. only betw«n God and man. Inn also between man and men. The nsenlial ....i6ca""1! 01 the miracle 01 t.he Cl\>Ci~n is I1.lmmed Uli< in the lII'OJ'ds 01 Saim A ~ -It "'as lininc for the Lon:! 10 spread oul His hands ... thai with the one He mid'ot draw lhe ancienl people, and with tIM: otbrr the GenlilQ, 10 unite boIh in Him." of chur<:h huiIdinK olin., middle and laIe Byn.ntlneo periods of the 8yunlineo em· pire. It characteris'lically consists of an appmx~ rnately square room. the naos. from ......ieh is C\rt OUI an inoemal e\'Ol.HblIped unil. by e""CIlng four columns aI the cenl.... and joinillll them b)' metllrlS of arch... 10 the outer walls. The "enua' :0....... apin sq.>arr:. always carna a pendtnlivc dome. while lhe "rOM arms exlendln. outWlOrd from it are barrel·, CTOOlS'. or salh'l'uhed. The .mall corner sections outside the cross arms a", likewise covered with croso- or sail·vaults. In the East this naos. orRanized in such a ,",'ay, Is joined to a normal s;lnctua.,. con....linll of three chambers. each of which Is uSu' ally furnished with a lillie easlern apse. which Is. as • rule, .,ncased on Ihree ..des on the easl ... ter wall. Al the we$l end a simple. equally \""ulled na', the.. is n>oIIIly attaCbed. In addition, this t)~ of buildinl may be provided wnh :an lUnbu1alory. The e......m-sq.....e type p,..,...mabIy .... ~aJiud fer !hoe lim tim .. aTOUnd .ul. !80 in the lio·alled Nell. the ......... pWa: churcb oIEmp<:ror &a,ill (11678116) in Constanlinople. This ediJice bas not been preoc....-..d. bu1 il Is ..:\equuely known from some contemponry descriptions and numerous su.ce«dInR buildinp. The earliest eumples are lhe nonh church of.lhe monastery of lips (Fena"; I... Cam Ii) from '107 and the ehurch of lhe My...,lalon (Bodrum Camii) from 920, A1Kl well known a,.., lhe Pan"llia ton Chalkenn (1028) from Thessalonica and lhe Theoloko. church of Hosios Louk.as al Stiri. in Pho· cis. whose dale II a 11111 unsellled problem. Until the end of the 1I1e Byunti.... period Byun· line chun:h archile<:lure was dominated _Imost .... "lusWdy by the eross-in-square type. Tbe chances il unde""ent in the COllrw of time in DO way alfe<:led the ba.k princlple oI;he type. This is the ease even ..,th W reduc:ed .... mon that appears from the late de>~nth Ulltury, in ...hkh the easlern cn)SI ann eoinc>ded ..;Ut the central chamber of.tbe ~ . ary. n,., pair of columns •• ;he from ..... thereby renderM superfluous. On the otbrr blind. in Ei)"pt the el"OM'in-squan can be found only in a &:w isolaled imtan<:a. which for lhe most pan ha"e ...""IIt IIIIBLIO(;RAPtlY Dl>nielou. J. A Hij/Of)' of E"rly Chn5/i"n Dnetrine, Vol. I. chap, 19, London, 1964. A~CHlIISHOP BA,SIIJQS CROSSES. See Metalwork. Coplic; Woodwork. Copll<:. most imponan. type I I or I CROSS·iN·SOUARE lions, lhe eumples mtnlioned do nol du."lay a ~pa accen,uation of !he ~Ier_ Only the dome 0''''' the centrlll bay is .... Ier. Unlike ,he Byza.nine Cl'Otiin-squa", they an, mo""""er. pr<widC'd wilh a 1:J"i",s, which is a norrnaI feature of II)1lIg" churches ~n inlO !he Mamluk period. In Nubia lhe """lion is subwanlially diff~nL All a result dIlle scncnJ dedi..., in popu.lalion in the lhin«nth untuty and the decline oi ChriMii.n;ly Krompanyin, ie. me eristi~ churchQ wen IlOI I~nned Ihrough n:building. Coouequendy. sev....... churches comF&Bl>Ic to the 8).... nli..., cl1JlJ&in. square ha•.., bun p.-..scrved lhere. Chant;lcrisak: examples are the church of An:hangel Raphael at .....IT. the church al Faqirdib. and presumably also lhe noMh church al ·... BDAILIH NIROI. Unlike Ihe Byz. anline ed;~cn, columns ..'ere never applied In lhese builoi n g5 for easily explainable "'&SOnS. The ~upports arc pillars buill up using rubble or mud bridu. ano in order 10 achieve grealer ~labillly, lhey "ery often also have a cruciform c","·$(:cliQn, Furthermure, he,.., une ~nd. lhallhe ~palial accen· lualion of Ihe Cemer lhal i. es,emial 10 lhe lype is only very negligemly observed. A beauliful example of a reouced crou·in~uare from Nubia is "",wide ,w 661 BIBUOCR,t,I"ffY Adarns, W. Y. ""_·pharaonic Nubia in !he Lighl of Archaeology II:' J(lUm,,1 of £cpl;'n ArdJeoJon 51 (1965):160-78. Brnciani. £. Le ch>ae." In T,,,,,;, (19'61). Miuione arr::""ol"fica m EVIU> t:It, un,n.."siuppJlcirclt~n unJ "".......nJle Typen i.. ObofrilCJIle... Glilekslad!, 19112. ",""ulheimer, R. &;/y ClrriSli"n "na BF"ntin~ AT' e/wecluTe_ Hannonds""Onh. 1965. Mango, C. BJ!J2nl;ne ATClrileclut~. New York. 1976. Megaw. A. H. S. ''The Oril-inai Fonn of the ,.".".. 10k"" Church of ConlAanline Up"," Vumlx"'"" o..h P"pus 18 (1964):279-98. Millet. G. L·Ecol~ g,~c"", d"ns r"rchitecw,e byz"n. line. 2nd ed, london, 1974. Millingen. A. van, Spllline Churchcs In Cm"lOln· linoplc, 2nd cd. !.ondcm, 1974, Monn",..,l de Villard, U, L" Nubi" mcd;oev"I~, Vols. 1-4. Cairo, 1935-1957. Rice, D, T. "Exca.'ation. al BotJrum Camii 1930:' Br,p.ntion 8 (l931):ISI.74.

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