The Coptic Encyclopedia
Editors and Consultants Editor In Chief Azlz S. Atiya University of Utah Editor, William Y. Adams University of Kentucky Basilios IV Archbi.s~op of Jerusalem PietTe du Bourguet, S.J. Louvre Museum, Paris Rene-George>;; Coquin College de Frana, Paris W. H. C. Frend Glasgow University Mirril Baulcos Ghali SQCiely of Coptic Ardlaeology, Cairo Bishop Gregorios Higher Institute of Coptic Sll
hi Y. Labib Kid University Tito Orlandi V"ivusity of Rome Marian Robenson Utah State University Kbtlil Sam;r Ppntffical Oriurtal InstilUte, Rome
Consultants Labib Habachi Egyptian DepaT/mem of A,,/;quities, Cairo J. M. Robinson h15!ilute of Antiquit)" and ChriSTianity, ClaremOnl, California Magdi Wahba Cairo University Edllorlal Managing Commlnee S. Kent Brown
Brigham Young University. Provo Fuad Megally Polytechnic of CenrraI London
The Coptic Encyclopedia
Aziz S. Atiya EDITOR IN CHIEF
Volume 2
Macmillan Publishing Company NEW'\ORK
Collier Macmillan Canada TORONID
Maxwell Macmillan International NEW 'lURK· OXFORD· S1NGAPCRE· SYDNEY
Cop)Tight C 1991 by Macmillan Publishing Comp.,")' A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
All rights reserwd. No part of this book may ~ reproduced or transmilled in any form or by any means. electronic 01' mechanical, including photocopying. recording, or b)' any infonnation 5lorage and retrieval ~ystem, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 EgIinton Avenue East, Suite 200, Don Mills, Ontario MJC .lNI Ubrary of Congrns Calalos Card No.: 90-23448 Printed in the United S1ate$ of America. printing num~r I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ubl'21} of Congress Cataloging.in.Publication Data
TIle Coptic encyclopedia. I A!iz S. Ati)... editor·in·dud". p. cm. Includes bibliographical rderences and index. ISBN ~2.897025-X (set) I. CoptiC Church-Diclionaries. 2. Copts-Dictionaries. I. A.tiya, A.ziz S., 1393BX130.5.c66 1991 231'.7'03-----<1c20
90-23443 ClP
The preparation of this volume was made poossible in pan by a gram from the National Endowment for the Humaniti..s, an indepcnd..nt federal agency. PhOlographs on pages 567, 736, 754, 755, 790, 791, 876-878,1284, UII. and 2168 are reproduced courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Photography by the Egyptian Expedition.
• • BABb, Arabi<; name of an ECYPlian town in LM
buill by the 8abylonlara of ~tamia. Mou probably. however, the ""me loes t:-ck to the Old Egyptian P,·h'pj·n·Jwnw ("Nile houlle of Heliopolis·'), which .ounded like "Babylon" to the Gr...,k.< (Gardiner, 1947, p. 143). In late antiquity "Babylon" designated the settled country between Heliopoli, and the Roman fOl1ress situated to the south. Today it n!~" to what is left of the Roman fol1res5 itself. Tk Arabs; named this 10M ~ ALStI.UI' (PaiKe of Candles), a designalion diffic:ull to explain. In the Roman period one of the three lePo~ conlrolli", EcJpt was _ioned in the Iort. which was the IDOSl imporuonl buoon in the counlry. FroID hn-e as late as the K>~nth CftlI11l'Y ..... a>ndueted the deds;"~ Inl1k apins.1he Anlbs, inlo whose hands il feU on 9 April 641 aft<-,- a 1le>'eO..nonth $ieee- " bishop 01 BahylOll called Cy.... is mmtioned in the half of the fifth cCIllUry. His ra>dence, bowner. liu thai of his immedia."" MKN'WC!fS aDd of «IIU'Ile all OI~r n:maininl ci,iliaos, .............. t.... ouuide the fonn:ss.
province of GN.rbiyyah now known lOll Abblj. It liu In the western Del", about 5 mile. (II km) north_$1 of Kafr aJ-ZaYr-it. Muslim authon of the Mid· die Ages menlione
churc:hes and a m05<jue then:. The existence of "many churches" in the tenth century JU"eSU thlol the pia« mUll: have had gru' importa~e for Christians in earlier centunes.
from KeU .. aJ·MuIU tMre i£ ~WII the grave.....,e 01 .. rnonk named Goutinos. the son of NIa· min, from Pebldj. The stone is probably 10 be ..If
m.
BIBUOGIUP'HY
nrnm. s.
Dfl cIuisllkJt.l:DptiM:& At/plUf /" ..,.".
INschu Zdl. Vol I, pp. 274-7.5. ..
W~n,
1984.
The FIKtra.s
RA.'oiDolU. SnwAAT
The pn:unl fOl'1JUS (Bulkr, 1914: Toy, 1937, pp. 52-78), which c"",~nlionallydales from lhe period of lhe emperor Trapn in the .second century, is, Kconling Ihe 5(lI.Irces. a r«OlI51ruclion of a IorIn:ss mat goes back to the Penian period (Josq>hus 2.15. I). Of Ih", l>owever. tllen is no certain lmo" ..I. edge. Although the Romllll (o"ress was ulled as a quarry down to the end of the nineteenth century, it mu.st be regarded ;OS one of the best-pre.erved forIre" .tructures from lhe llont.an period. Cel1ainty on~ can still r~cognit~ lhe course of the cumin wall with its numerous half-rounded baslions and
BAIlLUHIYVAM. See Tan'is..
'0
BABYLON, the oldest pan of the dly of Cairo. Babylon is situated on the east bank of the Nile. to $Ome "xtenl on the border MtWffn Upper and Lower EJYpC. The >arne .pot marks the mOlllh of a n~l, originally cut about 600 B.C.. which connecl· ed the Nile 10 the Red Sea. The cily wu widely reluded amon, andent writers (Diodoru, Siculu$ 1.56.3: Strabo Georr"P~J 11. 1.30) as having been
317
318
BABYWN
foregruund, Fan of Bah,'lon (Old Cairol, Backgrwnd; ..nlrance 10 the Wpli< Museum. CourtU' Arab Rep"blie of E,ypi
ftichlS of",au-s. On lbt wnI sidf', "'~~ Ihe k>n~ .... b<>nJt,rtd ,mmedialclv br !he ri,«, lhe~ "'.,.,. a ri.-..r laIc flanked by lWO remarkablv Slro"t!, full" cireular 10V0'''''. • rare f""lun:' in lhe Iayuul of Roman fonre$S<$. A """,o"d lI"lC faced loulh "'ilh a door bet",,,e,, I"'IJ half-rounded 10"'...... op;;"ing 001 in traditional fashion from an i"ncr coon and func· lioning as II l.nd ptc. Alm_ een.ainl~ lhere "a.s al least • oecond land ptc on lhe ""nh "!k of ,,'" bnress. Ruin. 01 the botldinp "iUrin lh" fonress .n:' nol 'il.ibk. Ahn- lbt conqu<:s< of the k>nrcu. tt>e 'icloriottl Anab :>rmy c-~aled Ih.. n('''' city of al·FIISl~1 10 Ih.. nonh of Ihhylon around lhe mosque, named aher lhe commandcr·in·chlef 'Ar"," ibn al·'A~, Tile na(h'e. mood. ChriSlian population, who had prohably 10<1 mOSl of !heir hooses, scHled in the rued fonrcss. ... here theY had alreadY laken up qua".... during rhr siege.
Churches Within the Forlress ""'" oldelt ch"",h .......ilhin the fo"C. ;ong 10 Ihil A .... b period. The oldt'5' found.~'ion that Is known 11 the Church of Saint SCrgius (AbO Sarjah), which .... '"S 10 lhis day (BUller, 1884, PI' l'lff,; Middlelon. 1885. PI' 397lf.). II is tM q>i"",opal ehun:-h In ,he ci,y and "'10< built .1 the lum of
the ~-e,"h to 'he riahlh centu') in lhe ""nod of 'Abd ai·MaI,k under the palliardat.. of JOtI' ltl 11 is • basilica ""Ih a pll,,')' built 0\-rT columns ""IIh • wL"S,ern re,urn ai.te and lripanil.. s;r.n~tuar.,., which was pr"'I""'abl.,- ""par,lIed from the naw hy a nar ro.... mulll nOw nO longer in exi"ence Th".., is a <"pi bO"nealh 'he $.aneWa... with w,,11 nichell arranged CroM...ise. Al a laler da'e it ",as li,... n II lhrcc-aisle form "', the tns<'nion of 1...·0 rows of columno. Btcause of its """"Iural con"",,· lion ... i,h !he UPJ"'l" (hun;h. th" col" could h..... been buill ontv af,cr lhe conSll"UCtion of ,he chun:'h. Since the la'cr Middle Ages. lhe l"I"nd has d...,ula,,,d (hat lhe Hoi. Famny found sheller in lhis c')l" during the flight", Egypt. A;'M,\QMlzl, wriling in the fifteenth centul')', is the first seriou~ hi.torian 10 gi.·e an accounl of ;1. Earli.., rd"renee.< ar.. found in Ie local d,..omans-. N~..",helos, lhe cnpl of Sain. Sc'll;US is ..... -er menlioned in dcs..riplltlll5 of lhe 'lInous 510J'" of Ihe Hoi. Famil~ in the la'1le htllorical ....orb of Ihe Coptic church. Th" Church of $;" BarbSr~h (Monnerel de Vi] lard and A. ralricolo, 1922) is a sisH" buildiog of Ihe Church of SainI Se,.,iw.. II com ... from the oame period and likvo"lSe "'"3:1 dn',ncd as a ba.s1Iica
BABYLON
with pllerion. although il is subwonlially I"", well prne:~. ElIin. of the lworntinh cenUlIY. llnd ..
the nonh.side was lirs. built .t lhe beginninll of !he N'allieth ~""twy_ The roon'IS origlnolly oiIualed in lhis Uc:J. had. quite II diff"""nt u..pe. 'The Church of Sitl ~m (....Ad!n'). called "'.Mu';aI\aqllh (u", Sttspended One). _ lor .. lime the chum. 01. the -patrian::luue In u", city (BulleT. Int. Vol. I. pp. lO6fl".). II is cOllJlrut::led oYer the .....th pie 01. lbe Roman ionn::sa and conoequenll)' an only Iu."" been buill after the Anb ~ooquesc. II is lirst mftltioned. in IilenlUR in the period of !he
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319
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Pl... cMlhe Church of Saint Sergius. Cou,resy Pnu G,o..",allll.
,
320
BABYLON
,
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I
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thou'"
L. J
,I
longer be IISCCnained from dle present sIMe 01 the building. n... church """y be reprdcd u old. even mentioot of It ill the docs not go back very far. n... earliest mention is by Ibn Duqndq in the inurt«oth century. Al tIat time the c,,",rch was c"""''"''t~ with • nunnery. Other clIurches ..... DOl ~ n.c Copcic Church of Saini ~ . btlongi... cleariy 10 th., four-pi.llar typf: of building. wq I>wnecI clown in th., middIc of the llinc:en:nth cC!llCl.lty and was rchuilt wilhouI ~ aI Ute end of the cenlUl')'. To tlte Ila/Ilf: camp btlonss • 06'a1 a1··lrdn (Wtdding House). a 11 paIae., of th" Mamluk period. Th., Church of the VlJlPn, Oattlyyal a1.RII).ln. mentioned in thc laic ninth cenrury, _ "ubst
-
,
.,
,
t'Lf" Plan of Int crypt beneatn In. sanctuaryQflht Ch\lrch of Salm Strgius. Coun~sy Pelrr GY(lJ.m~nn. ninlh·c"nl\lry palriarch YUsA8 I in a repQ" doaling wilh tht dtW\Jction of tbt plkry. In II. original outli~. tht church appe;'lI"$ 10 h.o~t bun a col· umned Sll'\lCtu.......ith a naVe! .00 two aisles buill In lhe lradillonal manner with a nanhex and I,;panit" Anct.... ry. Altached to if was an additional chaptl COflSlt\lCltd o--tr the loQO.It/w:_ IOWC!t" of the Roman font'C!SS and conOft:~ 10 the actual btiilica by a colonnade. once open. In the laIC lenth c",nw.,.. MI· Dua IV Ulcnded the uppn- Boor of thil Jide chap"I in order 10 prarid" accommodation fw th" patri. ,"",N. D.rring the Iasl 1Ul0ration. It was C!tT'OnC!OU5Iy wm..d into an acldilional chapel. Whal is left of. tbe Church of Sill Maryam in iU original _ " ia con/i....d 10 the an::a of. UIis side chapel. ThC! basilica iUe!f. bo"".tr. ",as inapenly r_orK! in thr nin_nth e~twy....""""'br a chun:h with a 1UI~ and lour aisles camo;into 00.... and in the proc_ the pi....,. "'"25 Rmow:d. The <;......1; Churd> of Saint GeoI"JC, which like its p.-..dec_ was buill over. the noo1h IQIOitr of the former river piC of the ROlRan fonrel. was rebuilt after a devastating lire on 4 Augusl 11Il),). In its struclu",l outline, il comprises a doubl,,·.btllW 1'0" I\lnda with a concenlric inn... colonnade IIlppon· lng an d""aled cupola. The eastern seellon of Ihe ambulalory Ii occupied by the sanct....ry. The en· lrance 10 Ihe church lies to the north. How far Ihis amanllement corr••ponds to the original OUlline. which was alrudy dtstroyed once before in the course of the disturbances of the year 1882. can no
ChU«:Ma Outald. the Fonreu The praenoe.l pans of the Church of Mir Mini go bKk to lis foundaJlon in the 6rs1 half 01 lhe eilhth co:ntury. II was precede a na"", and two .aWes ...,th p11erieo in the tnoctuItY of ~ depth, logc:eher with tbc southern ou~ wall, haw: IUm>'ed. III the elcVC!rlth or e2rly IWCIfth cenlucy. the d1urch ...- fumr.hcd with a JHJnJdcJ.,sion. bul ill tlte presenl sUole of roobuildinit. only Karcdy identifiable ....mai... on the south side rvived. Judci... by its presoen. shape. II would appear that we arc dcaling ..."ith an oblong c....rch ..·lth cupolas characteristic: of Upper
ha,,, ...
"",. Churche. In Dayr Abo Sayrayn The most important church In Dayr Abii Sayfayn and the largest anclenl church in the 8....a of an· cient Babylon;" dtdicaled 10 Saini Mercuriw (MarquriyU.). Of the original buildin,. Ihe fOl1nda.lion waU•. a part of Ihe p.......nl ouler wall. and the eastern section of lhe! IlInctuary are besI presen'ed.
BABYLON
l1>ey Iioe a picture: of a wide church of ,eMrous proponions witll a northern anncll.-.,...-haps UMd as • b;tptisttf)'-on the level 01 the sanctuary. In this the church .. p<"rhaps the 00l1y church buildi.,. )eft Mandi,. !hat goa back 10 • pre-Mus!im foundation. A.l ... unknowrI in lime. the c:hu~h _ ~ ~N and subM:qo.Ieooy sea>lariKd. In the laic lCnUt century huiardI Abraham had !be church rebuilt. makina: ntenlin uN: 01 the el
ronn.
poi,"
second half 01 the twelfth centuI}"....-ben only !be chapel of Saini Gco'1le mUllIN III the east end 01 the south gall.,.,. is ,ocporte'd to havc rcmai"cd in-
-
In the nonhea51 c:orroeT. lhe church has twO e>tra c:hapds. ...-hkh "''Cfe pnXlably added in the !'Oo-etfth CftltuIJ. The ODe situated dOf'Cl" ID the church (01lows the -.ad of. rc
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Plan of the Church of Mil" Mini. Co.-TMS1 Pltlltr Gmss"'Dnn.
;' ,: •
322
BABYWN
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Plan of
th~
chur<:h
compl~x
-,
dedicated to Saint MercUl;us. Courte,)' Peter Grossmann.
fore that time. In its p1\s~nt form th~ chur<:h is a basilica with an often reconstructed gallery and a subsequ~ntly ~xt~nd~d. sanctuary and a later khurus. It is no long~r p""sibl~ to delennine exact· Iy th~ original shape of th~_ sanctuary. but it se~m, that it had th~ cOn\'~ntional tripartit~ di,·ision. In the Middle Age, the entrane~ lay on th~ south .ide of the church. wh~re today the epiphany tank and the remains of a column~d portico are preserved_ In modern times the entrance was shifted back to the west sick. The third church in Da)T ...bo Sayfayn is dedicat· ed to the Virgin Mary, called al·Damshiriyyah. It is mentioned by ai-Kind; in the tenth e~ntury among
the new building. torn down by 'Ali ibn Sulaym~n al-'AbMs:i in th~ ~ighth c~ntury. Whether there are vestiges of the eighth century in the present Slruc· ture remains doubtful, although 00 account of the irregularities of its ,hape, the possibility cannot lJ., ruled out absolutely. It give< the appearanc~ of a sturdily recoosuucted basilica with ,e,'eral ,""used columns. Th~ sanctuary has the usual tripartite di,'i,ion. Th~ ap:s~ sid~ chamher on the north was transformed in mo,"" ,""c~nt times into a BAH AL-NtsA' (area for women to receiv~ communion). The al··...dhri' church in l:IARJT WWAyUtH was m~ntioned in the early twelfth century when it was us~d to consecrate a bishop. In the second half of
BACHAnv, CHARLES
!he 1~lfth cenllllY lhe church ...... appaunlly Iak· tn owr by !he Anntnian$. Todoy it bdolllS 10 a "'Omtn's con~enl. 'Iht bulldi". i!St1f ha. been \"try badly r,..,or>'" JlNCled. and """'" of the walls ~$ 10 be older than dw: n,hlt<"flth ctnrury. ~r, ........... of Ihe iMOrporallion of the oldto- foundaliom, _ can l'ttOplu rt:lU£hIy some of lhe ""tline. of iIll oriIi· ..... JlNClure. They stlgesl !hat !he ""&ina! build· ina had Ihe ""dint oJ. a teansq>I baWio:;a. In com· pari!.on with other loso: naVt al presenl It. eowred by • band roof. Apan from this, lbe only orisi"'" dements are plC5Crved in Ihe west pan of the church with the ",-.lied-in columns of the ~em row of suppons. Dayr a1·Amlr Tidnis ronlains I..... churcIIes lhal ~ a...-anged 0fI lhe ""... .oda of an inner 0ClUI'1. The one on !he toUth side, dedicaled 10 Saini TheoOoNll (ndnu). ill first mentioned in lhe.second I>aIf of the eltYenIh Ctntuly and still contaillS remains of a u'nU1lliud building ""til an ambulMoty orici' ....n)' constructed around ~r corner pillan. Othe..... wisoe its prtSe111 construction is subsuonlU.Uy from the eialtlunth ctntury. Chanoclerimic an Iht larat semien-Ollar $IInetuanes and tho: absa>ce of a 1:1111"'" The clturch 011 Ihe JIOnh s""" is dedlclled 10 Saint Cyna and SainI John, and its earliest. mention ill by Ibn DuqmAq in the founeemlt cenlury. Inside are prc:M! .....l!d the remains of a powerful kh~",s dividing wall. On the outside the elturch has been completely recon.trucled so that il Is nO longer possible to recogni,e its original fonn. The Chur<:h of Saim Michael i. lite m
323
in the Hi$lrJ'J Df Ihll P"'ritJrchs, "'"lIS built al the beginning of the elewnth cenlul')'. Indeed, all lhal survives of lhe ~nal layout eli the church are a coupJe eli pillars concealed in the lile surrounding wall and also pOl$ibty a f""", seclions of the original OIIli1r ",'alb. They indicale that lite build:iD& "''as once a """'ilia. Today the church sl'-vs all the sip of ...now reconsln.>clioos with n<m>erous alterations and addilions on all Mde!.. BlllUOGurHY
Bulkr. It... J. Thll "lICk"l Co,mc Clrurches of Egypl, Vol. I. Oxford. 18&1. :c--C- Babylon of EfYPI, Oxfurd, 1914. Coquin. C. us I:difices .;h,bitllS d.. Yieu.r C..ire. Bibliodlcque d'itudes coplQ II. Caim. 1974. Cardin,.,.. A, H. ,4'Kienl Etypl'a.. Orwm"slic.., Vol. 2. London. 1947. Crossmann, P. ''Zur chri.llielltn Baukunsl in Amlen."' £n.;holia 8 (1978)'141. plale 16b. _ _ Mille/alter/khe Ltmghau,kuppe/ki,chen uud VerWtmd,c Type>! in Obe,dOPte". Ghickstadt, 1982. Middlelon. J. H. "On Ihe Coptic Churches of Old Cairo."' A,cltato/aria 46 (1865):397fF. Monneret de Villard, U. "Nole sloriehe sulle chiest di al·Fus!4!." RenJko>!ti adl" Reo/e "ccaJem'" Nooo..ale Jei l.ince' 5, ser. 6 (1929):2116lf. Monne.-et de Villard, u.. and M. A. Palricolo. u. chinD ili S. &rlM",. ~ce. 1922. Palricolo, M. A. "Uonuments copies." Compus 'e"· Jus du Comili de comen'. . dl'> "'on""'....ts de ran .. r..he 32 {1915-1919):I91lJ. Toy. S. "Babylon oJ. f&ypt." JoII"''''' rJ{ the 8rilis1t "rclureologic../ Auociarioot 3, st>". 1 {19J7):52-78. I'nu <;aO$SMANN
,,,,n
BACHAny. CHARLES (1909-1957). secretary of the 5OCIE:TY or corne AlIClWlU.OGT from lis establishmen, in 1934 unlil hit. death. He laid the ro..ndatiom fur lilt 5OCieIy'S procnun of activily and for il. libraI}'. He abo desi",ed its main sen... of publicalions. In 1944 Itt orp,.,iud al Cairo • successful exhibilion of Coplk an. w~ich "''as probably the nrsl anywhere in lhe world. In IY43 and 19<49 he di.... ~led the sodely's excavalions al DAn APA 1'IJ00BMlMON in lJpper Eml. BIBLIOGRAI'I(¥
Ghah, Mirtit Boutr06. Obituary of Charles Bacltally. Bulleli" de la Socitti d'archtologill cQpte 14 (1950-1957):249-51.
324
BACHEUS
Khaler, Ii.. ~Biblioal"llphie de Charles Bachall,.~ S"lkti" 1<1 S«ihl 4'.rc~~ ~opl" 14 (lm-19S1):217-28.
.u
~
Peni;an or JAIotE5 1l'lTUC1SUS. and IbM M intends lOi"l 10 'lisit ItU manyr;um in Et;ypt. 81BUOCUPHY
BACHEUS, fictilious fiaure in Coplic lilenlUK t<:> wh<:>'" at leasl lwo ho"'llies Ire auribuled. He k menlionen (lJnlversity Ubl"lll)', 0.10. 217). Here Ba.cheus hilS become bish"P of Maium... (Gaza). a particularly important center in the period of the Cbalcedonian conlrovenies, and near 10 Aschaion. It .. also Slated ,,,"mcally that "'he coowne
k_"
"'i"'"
Campaanano, A.. eel. PI. Cirillo di wn•••de......e, CJm",/i., caple ...114 ".mOM, sun. C,.,.,e 10 s,,11.o Verxint. Teati 0' documenl; per Jo studio dell'.nlichili, Selie Copoa. Vol. 65. Milan. 19f1O. ZMga. G. Cal.klt". Codi&"", Copticor"", Ma"'" scriptoru", q"i I" M"oea Borria"o VcUtris Adoe.· V",UIi'. Roma. tUD; Hildoshtim. 1973. Tiro
ORLANDI
BADARI, AL•. Sec P1lgrimal'"S' BADK AL-JAMALI, Faumid ..me. al lhe lime of al-MLlSun¥< (I03S~ 1(94). Badr ....JimlIl - . bon> a( tlte bqinnin. of Ihe d~,,,h <:ftl.tury. He n Armenian sb,.,. of tl'Ol: Syrian amir larnil a!·Da lah Ibn 'Ammir. He bopn his career in S)"ria,.....nere 1'01: was gtn'tm<>c 01. Daznascu:o! lwice, then 01. •AkU. Ahltough 0<11 always succesUul in his polilleal career-he . . . npeUed from his posl in J)amuclJS twic~-h.. had. thanks 10 the Annen"n troopt lhal formed the nucleus of his lU"my. won c:ondderable fame by his muUle apinSI th~ amti~ of the Sal· jllqs. When al·Mustan~ir was hard pres..-d from without by Ille altaCks oi the SaljUqs and from .... Ilh. In by famine, mllmanalement, and lhe comlnuina: slruggle between his .Iaves and the Turki.h lroops led by BadT'. arch enemy Nasir al-Da....lah ibn Hamdin. he was finally deprived of.ll ilUthotity. It _ to Badr that he tumed lor help. In the winler of A.H. 4li6/A.D. 1013 Badr pol to on from 'AkU and unexpectedly IUmed up in Egypl, ",hen: he rap;dly ....ned masffliJI& the sttua.· lion by doin, aWl»' wilh his <:fttmio$ in one stroke and reslorin, law and OO"der to the tnroMl:riclcefgnh), vizier, chic:f jusIiI:~ {qUI .1..qMt!M.), and chid propapndist of the lsml1lr faith (J,n af.Ju'~), With his inveslilun:•• decisive change look plau in lhe offiu of lhe ...we... ~ and Ihe position of the vizier. The early Falimids up to aJ·Mu'iu. had con· ferred ....ecutive wb 10 officials c.lled ",,,waqqf (prOiectorj OT ",,,dabOl' (director). A~coTding to the unanlmou. witntss of lite .
BADR AL·JAMALi
Ia~fldh)
or "virierale (If the pen" (wiZolral al-qalam), The holder of Ihis office "was he who, depending on the imam's opinion and guidance, acted as a mediator between the lauer and the people" (alQalqasltandl, Sub;' V, 449). !'
325
immiSJ3tion of Armenians 10 Egypt. In 1075-1076 the Armenian Catholico. Gregor II Vkayaser (Manyrophilos) paid a .'isil 10 Egypt. He "'as not onl}' receive92) was lreated respectfully by the vizier at his enthronement in 1078, although Ihere is no proof that he held an especially inAuential position with tlte laner, On one occasion Badr set· tled a controversy among the dergy concerning problems of the moral qualification of some ..,desiastkal dignitaries by referring them 10 their own legislation, The ,'iziers leniency reached ill; limit, however, as soon as financial affairs were inv"I"ed. Thus, in 1086 he increased the poll lax (IlZYAH) and, along with this measure, reintroduce
Canard, M. "Un Vizier chretien a l',;poque fa!imi· Ie." A""o.[es de ['["slimt d'iludes Qrientales 12
326
BAGAWAT. AL-: Location and Architecture
(19.54):84-113. "NOleS sur Ie.; Annmlen. en Ea1"e • I'q:.oque fA!iml~_N AnlUl/es de I'InSh'"./ d'l,,,dcs ~"'"ks 13 (1955):143-57. Dhahabl. al·. KiJM, dUM',,} "Udf.m, \101. I, pp. 206. 201,209. Hyderabad. A.M. 1377/(1957). Ibn KhalII"n, cd M~i 'd·lJin 'Abd dl-Jfllhfld, fBiovaJlft>cal Diclionary), trans. William M~kin Baron Slane. Clliro. 19U-1949. Ibn M1.l)'llSSaT, Amudcs d'Ecyple. Publications de l'lnstibd ~ d'.ud>klqic orientale, ed H. ~,pp. 15-16,20,22-28• .lO-31. Cairo. 1919. Ibn a1·QaJ"Il5l. Q<1-iJ Td'~ Du"uhq, ed. H. F. "rn~, pp. 84. 9]-97,109_110. !.riden. 1908. Lane-Poole, S. A HislOT)' d/ ED1" In lite /Uiddle A,es. London. 1901. AUjid, A. M. A/·/mhrl "1./U"Sl,,n"" bi'nl.h ,,/·F4!;ml. Cairo, 1960. O'leary, D. A Sho" History 01 ,he FIIlimld Khdlil"te. London, 1923. Oalqashandl, Al)mad ibn 'Al1 al. ~"b~ "I·..t·sh~, 14 vah. C.lro, 1913, W!hItenfc1d, f. Gej
Suam Y. lJ.art\
BAGAWAT, AL·.
(This entry COnS/SIS of ,hree
emdef. The lim difC"S$CS IIrL IocIlJlOn, ,he I'd'" Siles. drnl ,he d,ehileCl..re. TIre second Cllldfot#cs lind disc..ucs Ihe Greek mscripfions. Coptic ,..scrip. riou IIle ,1rL ... biccl d/ I~ Ihird llnick. J
Location and Architecture Aj.Bap",'il is
an tarI,· Chrmiall n«ropolis of the
anc;c". IOWn of HilHs ("'Odenl KAarph). The va''''' d: lhe p"p" period ",'Cre arnn,ed u rod: lOfllht on lhe nonh and ~ slopes of Ih~ cliff I)'ing to tM eaR opposile Ihioltormer to...... area (on the rneral situalion. see "inlack. 1941. pl. 29). or gradllllllJ climbed bip>er. The Ialer grave, predom· lnanlly deriving from ddle and al the ... me .ime in a eommanding position is a larxe building (chapel 180) with u· lremely Ihin ",ails, originally ConSIl'\lCI~d as a ~ou"y.rd building, which in Ihe archaeological III' ~ralure i. frC<juendy des<:ribed as a church (Uauser, 1932, p. 40: faUn)', 1951, pp. 1.57-S9). Inside, a weslern panko and an open tncQnch dirKted 10' ward Ih~ tast ar~ situated e..actly oppos-ile on~ an· alber 0fI lhe lwo .ides of th~ inner cOll". Laler Ih~
inl~rio~ . . .
lransformed inlo II Ihree..... le BASJUCA and proYided ",'ilh lOtI ulerNol peristyle running all round Functionally 1M buildin. stn'ed for the holding of meals for 1M e m"",ls for the dead, here also arranged in a semldrde, ha"e 0150 ~U" vi.cd Olltn, ",,'enol have ill ",.. Ued forecoun (chapel~ 150, 199, 111, 2ll). In 50_ cases an apse i~ added on lhe ea>l side cl Ihe mausoleum (chapels 2OS, 2(6), and this _ occaaionallJ npandt.:! inlO a rolunda·liU (chapels 69, 192, 2S9) or OCtaional fo<m (chapet 213), In tICK a few cases, the maus0leums an: connected ...ith a om.lIl church (chapels 9, 24, 90), or have IMmselvn -.umed the form of a church Ihrouah
BIBLlOGRA~HY
Bock, W. de. Matln'a".. pa"r
{'a,cilia/ogie de I'EgyplC chritie"ne, pp, 7-38, SI. Pelersburg, 1901. s~n:ir ~
r BAGAWA.T, AL-: Greek Inscriptions
327
-,
,
.-
-l'!II'I .-
-
,
•
"
Plan of Chapel ISO at al·Hapw:'!. A. The original counyard building. external peristyle. Co",usy Peter Crossmann. fa'hry, A. The Egypt;an Duerr.: The Necropolis of El-Bagowdt in Kh,"ga Oo,is, Cairo, 1951. Gr_rnann, P. Milleloltuliche Langha"shppdhY. chen "tid verw,mdu Type" i" Oberligyp"". Glticbladl, 1982, Hauser, W. "The Christian Necropolis in Khargeh O""i•." B"lIe1;n ollhe Metropolitan Museum of Art (1932);38-50. Kaufmann, C. M. Ei" olu:,nt,tl;chu Pompeii. Mainl. 1902,
,
Winlod. H. E. The Tempi; of Hib;~ in el Khorgeh Oasis I. New York, 1941: h"JER GRoss.\t\~N
Greek Inscriptions Among nearly 400 Coptic or Greco-Coptic gr;tfliti. one may count al al-Bagaw:'! scarcely twenty·five Gruk insaiptions or graffiti, to which mUSt be added a dOLen funeral)' stelae dis~overed in re~.nT years in situ. A fundamental dislin~tion mUSt be made between graffiti by visitors and graffiti or
B. The later three·ai,led basilica with
drawings lhat may be called original to Ihe sile. It is among the laller that we rank se"eral liturgi~al te>!s, a Ir;s~g;o~ (a shon hymn of response), some p"'-ye..., or simple quotations of sacred texts. In this respc~t, appeals to the divine pity are ~, fre· quem. The God of the Old Testament, Christ, and 'he Hoi)' Trinity are invoked impartially. E\"en Saint Paul is quoted. In th. 10mb of the young Petechon, a long a<:Toslic poem on Ihe name of the deceased informs us thaI he left his eanhl)' fianc~e 10 b."ome a panaker of the spiri\. With .orne epitaphs, onl)' 'he surrounding decO"'-tion and ,h. general context give rea.wn for 'hinking them Chrislian. So il is wi'h the epimph of a soldier from Hennonthis; for Ihal of Aytheio, no doubt also a soldier who came from far away, since he was a native of the region of &>stra: and fol' that of Tis, which recalls that his mausoleum cost fony arlaba. (of wheat), Passing "isilors address therosel,·e. to Christ, to enter in'o his kingdom, or to God, the one who succors, There are also natu"'-Ily slaves of Jesus Christ, who have left only a signature. Some of the Greek text.
328
BAGAWAT, AL-: Coptic Inscriptions
l
•••
Plan of the
comple~ in
the northern area of aJ-Bagaw~t. Co"'I~,y Pettr GFO.<srn"~~.
of al·Bagawat go back to the fourth c~mul)', They are naturally indigenou,: .tran,iem visitors wrote there in Greek down to therixth and seventh centuries and perhaps b~}'ondi The known funeral)' stelae from al·Bagawat are "II late, and in general contain only the name of t,he decea,ed. They are tno"" of Sarapammon, Apoll"n, Senamounis, P$cnpnouthes, Timouthi" Horu$, ThlalO~, Tephatis, and Ploua. BIBLlOGRAf'IfV
Roquet, G. "U" graflites copte" de Bagawa! (OMi" de Kharga). Remarque, prtliminai",",," Bullel;n (trirnestrld) de la Soclile Ira~,ai," d'hud" mariales 76 (1976):25-49. GUY W~GNER
Coptic Inscriptions Of the 263 chapel. in the cemetery of al-Bagawat counted by Fakhl)' (1951), a con"iderable number are covered with Arabic graffiti of all period.: the hi'torical importance of some of them has been opportunely undcrlined b}' I. M. Haggagi (1978). Thirty-five chapel, contain Greek and Coptic graffi· ti, numbering nearly 400. Recently (Roquet, 1976) the hi",ol)' of the exploration of the site has been recalled, and the imerest of the documentation col. lected made plain. Some graffiti are simple signa· tures, a name, a family connection, a visitor'" iden· lit}' card. Others are e1aborat., incised or painted, somdime. carefully done: a prayer, an appeal to the invited visitor to pray for the signatory, imitat-
l
BAGHAM IBN BAOORAH AL-$AWWAF
«
inl the uwaJ formul ... of the coi<)f>hons maIlU· SCriplS. Other BBflili are a""cdoIal. Wi,h olhers. we follow th,. i1i",,",~ of some penon. in their vW,inc or tM chapels and in their devol...... Some ",Titers are monks Or cleq.y-so they ....,·-bul 0Ihefs .re more une>.pcclal: local ofticen. such as • f"sJ..ne (vill""e ~e);. t"ltI<Wte (w:onior. champion); an lllI'Iir'. «our\er. If the \ioitor prides himllotlf on his binhpbce.• place name is pn:serwd. Fe", tUUl are daled. from lOll. ho",n'tt. me.... an' ' - vU' fili br the same 'risiloc. written in 8ohairk. The Iocal.pecch s""'-... lnee'! or ""INIindtrs 01111 allin· illes "';Ih the L~opoIiran diakcl. 10 wm. noel)'" Ihing seems to ir>dicale lhaJ 'M frequenlinl of 'M sile ., .1·Bapwlt by Coplic """akers ..;os &plical out between the sixth and eleventh cenlurin.. BIBLlOGaA'HY Fakhry. A. The Egyplian DU.,1S; The Necropolis 01 EI·8"r"w~r in Kharga O,u;s. Cai,..,. 1951. HallPlli, I. M. "Graffito. anbe, de aagawil." In An"aleJ isl.m"/ogiq,,.s 14 (1978);271-87, pis. 21*
22 RoqUIPI. G. "Lts gralfues copies de Bail"wit (Oasis de Kharga). Remarques preliminaires.'· SHU.rin (rrimeslriel! d. I. S<xib~ fr"",,,ise d'.r",1e. m
G. ROOullT
BAGHAM IBN BAOORAH AL-~AWWAF. efe\"Cnth-cenllllY Cop! from Old Cairo/Bab)'1on and the nephew of Anba JiIjI. lMhop of MIsUah. His rau.e,- had connetlions with one 01 the influenl.ial peo'SOO&/lIles in the 00UI1 01. w Falimid caliph .... Muo~r (1035-1094). Fo.- 50me time he wao ~I'O' temponry with Pope CHIIJSlOIlOlllOS (lo,n-IOn). After M. convenioa to bJam :01 • twenty·lWO. he was re)e<:ud and diJOII(ned by boIh his paA:nu.. It happened thnufter lhiPbe dtcided 10 be rebapo tiled, 8taluse b1amk law pn:IhibiUl apostaoy .Dd inAku the penalty of dealh on !he .pasUlle, JOm~ of the monks of the Monasle". of AbU MaqArwhom he had mel during his solitude in the Church of Mi!thf,lI al·Mukhtuah for a few da)'$-advised him 10 accompo.ny tn~m to lhat mOlloaStery LO join it. BagMm rejecled Ine offer, for 1M: yearned 10 confe" Chri~t on the same spot wner'll he d~nled Him. lie ,h"n <.Iepaned from lhe monks and girded his ",..iSI with a girdle, ",hich dislingui$hed him lIS a wbmlsllv. Copt in accordance wilh lhe pl~c of
329
ibn a1·Khanib. He WIIlke arrtSIed him. When his £:oIher recrived the ~. he ;mDlcdi:oleIy offered a lar&e sum of money 10 • mend. a Muslim ..+.0 worbd in the caliph', coon, and en· trealal him to .. ~ his 50ft from death. But me Muslim frieod refused to inteMA: in this ddicate _Iter unie:ss the father convinced his 500 to feign madness. 50 that whIPn witnasa ""'"' broughl to him in prison to eumine his case. they wouJd confirm his insanilJ. Thus, he would DOl be considered responsible for what he had done. his life ~Id be ~""red, and he would be Ul free. des"ile the facI thai he was , Cop!. By coinc:idence. there wl6 In "nJOn a Syrian monk who undenook to coonsel him and explain 10 him thai he was "roceedin,toward martyrdom. BagMm, however, considered dealh in Christ', name as "sweeter Ihan honey:· In Ihis way, he slaned 10 yearn for martyrdom and to prefer II 10 life. When the Muslim proaeculon went 10 Baghim in pri",n, lhey Slarted to inlelTOplo him to verify his case. It b«ame e\'iden! '0 them that he """" 'homughly sane. In addition. he declared before lhem that Cop(tc Chrisllanity ..-.s the only true faith. Aoncording to fonnalilie$. the aovemor of Efol't senl th~ proseeulDn 10 the minisler to ",hom they submilled the caSot. and upbiMd to him the COlI' clusion!< Ihey JUCha! concerning lb&blm. In conformity wilh the lerm5 01 l.Iarnic law, whetbtr Sunnile 0.- Shi·'te. and in the lidIt 01. Bag. h1m·s confess>on. tlt.n-e ..... no ......, 10 ....oid sen· tencing him '0 death. mlnmer p ..... ordIPn for 'I)mar
w
n..
his "",""U1ion.
The HI~Y Of' THE rATllLUCKS by sAw'f1W5 IlL" ALMUOlFt"A' [~~ords in full the del.ails 01. w >to". 01. me mlII1yfdom of Ihis )'OlIn, CopI1,IlIIil his denal'ilalion. n.e F21imid aliph al·Mus~ir had o.-dered his body to be banded """" to his family to bu~ " ",-here\...,.,- they wa'>led. B~m·s &Ilher came Ihe Cbun:h of Mlkh611 .1·Mukhl::i..... and buried his son oouide iu door. WhlPn on the: Ihird day Anbi CnristodoulUI c.m~ from Dayr aI-Sham· to ttie church. he objected to Baih~rn's burial out· sid~ lhe church, u.ylng that ,he martyr should be interred wllhin Ih., church. When he OI'ened Ih~ coffin 10 killS Ihe manyr, h~ fO\Jnd Ihal hi. blood had not dried_ H~ dipped his finger inlO II and signe
I
~
_
330
BAHIJ
the body was imerred in the sanc'uary. which was dedicated to his name, SUBH' y, VOID
BAHtJ, •
small village inhabiTed solely by bedou· ins. with a weekly markeT, It is located weSI of Alexandria (Ihe la.sI railway station before Burj al· 'Amb) on the south ,h"re of Lake MaryO.t. The mounds of debris north of BaJ,ij (Kom Sahlj) cOntain cemmics of ,he laTe Period. Possibly this is to be identified wiTh The f"nft''' of PsammeTich I men,ioned by Herodotus. In tbe area of The cemeTery $Duth of the railway line there are Tmces "f a small settlement "f laTe anTiquiTy with the remains of a pillared structure thaT probabl}' can be idenTified as a church. During excaVaTions by ,he Egyptian Amiq' uities Organization in the spring of 1969 some buildings were found. as well as The remains of a wine press, The site is perhaps idemical with the ancient Philoxenite On lhe ""uTh sh<Jre (>f lake Mar· yilt. which is frequenTly mentioned in the miracle
stories of Saint Menas as the landing piau for pj). grim, traveling to ABO MlNA (Drescher. 1946, fols. 13.3, 27.1, 6). BIBLIOGRAPHY
Drescher, J.. cd. and 'rans. Apa Mena: A Sclution 01 Cop'ic Tex'. Relming to S,. Menas. Cairo, 1946, PETER GROSSMANN
BAHJ{/RAH, village in The Nag Hammadi district of Upper EgypT On The lefT bank of the Nile and the site of two monasteries, ,hat of Saint Bidab<'i, ,,"'hich is still in exisTence, and ThaT of Mar Jirjis. The first mention of the laner s..,mS To have been made by the Capuchin falhers ~Tais and Fran~ois in the sevemeemh ~enTUry. ~ir Text is reproduced by S. Sauneron (1973, p. 95).:lT was copied by J. de The..enot. lhen by J. Vansleb, .....ho could not go beyond Jirj<'i (1677, p. 413; 1678. p. 247). S. Clarke, in hi, index of the churches of Egypt. indi~ated T.....o churches dedicated to M;l.r Jirjis in Ihis region and STill extanl, no doubt corresponding 10 The monastery noticed by the ..\'em..,nrh·cenrury travelers. thaT of Bahju
Sauneron, S, vm~s .1 Mgende, d·Egypie. Cairo, 1973. Th. havels Mo".i'"r de Thil:'''OI, Eng. trans. LondQrl.I687. Vansleb, J. Nouvdle relation ~n fonne d. journal d'un vayage fail.~ Egypt< e~ 1671 el 1673. Paris. 1677, TnmslaTed as The P'eJ<~1 SI~t< of Egypt. London, 1678_
"r
RENt-GWRGES OJQUIN MAURICE MARTIN. S.!.
BAHNASA, AL_, modern name of the city ThaT was kno.....n in Greek as Ox}'rhynchus and in Coptic as Pemdje. The city is located on the western edge of the Nile Valley abooT 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Bani Mazar in the pro\"in~e of Miny<'i. AlThough al-Bahnas<'i is best known Today as The site of One of the larg""t finds of Greek papyri ever made (see OCX:YRHYNCHUS PAPVRI). the area has a long and ri~h ChrisTian tradiTion. Coptic-Arabic hagiographic literature mentions the city often as Ihe birthplace of various saints and the pJac," wheft' many martyrs died during the persecua"ns of m(). CLETIAN in tbe early founh cemury. The SVNHAR'ON indicated thaT al-Bahn~ .....as the seat of a bishop by the beginning of the fourth cemury, Monasticism also made an Can)' app""mnes on 10 sa)' that there .....ere some 5,000 monks wiThin the city and an even grealcr number in the surroonding monasTeries. Subject to The bish· op of the diocese were 10,000 monks and 20.000 nuns, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amdineau. E. La C;"graphle de l'Eg)'ple it I"<poque cop/<, pp. 9tl-93. Paris, 1393. Timm, S. Das chnsllich-loplische ),gyplen in ara_ bischer Zeit, VoL I. PI', 283-300. Wieshaden, 1984. RA1
BIBLlOCR",PHY
Clarke, S Chri.,!;an A"liquities in Ihe Nile Vall"y, Oxford, 1912.
BAJORl, SHAYKH IBRAHIM, AL. (17841860). noted khat professor who became Sha}'kh
BAKHANIS·TMOUSHONS
"'·111,,... in July 11147. H~ authoud """y won. on Islamioc: juriJprudenct. logic. and ADbic IBm""". as ...,~II as wwb ci .-eligioo..ls commmUory. H~ is noled for his resisulnce to 'Abbis I's au~",pu to aile all Copu from Ep;ypt. AI· &jQr1 bftame t,,", imam of I,,", Islamif; communlly (SJI_yAA ././s/4m) in the bnn reus of M\o. l]ammad Air• .-rip 11805-1849) and du.rin& the ""ncr of his .on Ibl"lhfm (11I491. as _1I as in the reiln of his Inndoon and successor 'A~ I (184911154). Durin, ~ rul.. of both 1rt1~1lUod 'Ah and (brihfm, the Copu enj:::oyW. _ Jm'l &al of infh....nc.. and Ottupkd principal JlO5t5 in the adntinlstfllllkm of 1M sw.. of Egypt. n"",bly m (;r>lInc.. and tlWl· tion. How"",r. with Ih.. accl:SSion of 'AbbI$. Ih.. silua· tion bepn 10 CMnie radically. n.., n.. w khedi,·.. ,. knoown to hne be~n an outspoken biiot. Besides beinl oul of humor wilh all of Ec1>t and havlnl no sympathy for Egypliall5, h....specially haled Chrislians and aim..d 10 rid II>.. .1:11.. of Ihem. He dismissed the French officials who had 1>«n engalw by hls grandfather. and was .....Irained from the wholeDle dismissal of Ihe Copt. from Ihe govern· ment beeau.., of their imponanc.. in Ihe financial ma<:hine'Y of th.. Slate. Dulinl his admin"lralion he one.. contemplaled ullllll all Copts from ~pl: to I.... Upper Sudan. But such a drtilic and massi"e enterprise could IlOC be und.-rtak..n "'ilhoul a rdigious f.~ (juristic consulWion) u.sued by the bigha:1 MtI$lim aulhori· ty. SN)ti1 Itnhim a1-Bajiiri. who was asked 10 is...... wch a ,,,"".•• rejected 'AbbU's scheme br sayin... "If )'OIJ IIlC
331
p. 222; Ramzl, 1%3. p. 1%). n.., buth eMablishm-enl of '~IJ$ is placm a' Tmoushom by both lhe Greek lOr>
,. POW' urvi,,, I"hislOi,.. d.. rE:CfPle cIuJri........ " /11', V". VI' .., VII' !lU;c1..s. M&nciro publ.it's par I... M.....bra ck b Missioo ard>eologique F.. ~ise au Caire 4. Paris, 1586-
Ame)i......u. E. .&.Iot!u"'
'''' Pam.
_ _ L.. Cb:¥;r-4Ip.....
th fE:et- " ripoqo.e c<>ple.
1193. 1'1'. 515-17. Coquin. R. G. -Un Compltnwnl ao.u .-ies saJ'lidiqu<:s de Pach6me: I.e ManU$Cril IFAO Copte 3. Bull..· lilf d.. rInsli'''' " .. d'ATC~ """lflfli.. 79 M
..
'ABo AL·R.ol;tI...
(I979),209~O.
"".is
HaIkin. F. Slmcri PlICltQMn Vii•• <;rllec"e. Subsidla
BAKHANIS·TMOUSHONS, villa.., silola"d on Ihe left bank 01 the Nile. in Ihe Nag Hamm~dl dislricl, aboul 4 miles (7 km) '0 the lIO...heul of FAIt$HC1J'. Th.. anei..nt Arabic spdlinl was MakMni£. onder which it is .. asy to ucogniu lhe Coptic nam.. Tmooshons. lhe Coptic a...icle T having been dro~d and lhe .Ir sound having evolved Into the Arabic kit", a Mvdopmem already percepllble in Ih. G..... k tran$Cliption Mouchon.is (Halkin. 1932, p, 462). Th...qui,·alenee of Ihe... name forms is .1t000ed by lhe Coplic·Arabic scalae (Monier. 1919.
Hag>ognphif;a 19. B~Is. 1932. Lefort. L T. "m Premiers monaslt.... pach6mi..ns: ExplolOuion l"l'01"'l'loique:' M"si<m 52 (1939):379-407. _ _. us Vies OOpl.5 d, 5.. J~, " .. clro", •. Bibliotheq"" du Museon 16. Louvain, 1943. Ram'l, M. AI.Q~m{/. al·/",hril{l /I .. 1·BUild "I·M;~,. ;yyah, VoL 2. pI. 4. Cairo, 1963. Munier, H. "'La Geographie de l'Egyplc d'apres l..s Iistes coples·a",bc,." 8"lleli" d.. la Sod"'. d·ar· clriologu ""pie 5 (1939):201-243,
REN£.GEOIl.CES COOoJ'N
•
332
BALDACHIN
BALDACHIN, originally.
~ ~~anovi' of
rkh ~ilk material ...pponed 01'1 lOu. 01'" sa columns. named &fIer the city of 8qtIdad ,,"'heo'e mis material _ madt. 11w old form of the natnl! Q;
Iww.
BaIdxco, from which ito 6rrivcd the dimi"uth'C MIddIX"'JtQ. Since the be:Jjnnin& al the sew:ntee'lIh cnllury, !his term had Men bormwed by «her Eu· ropun languales. F~lionaUy the baldachin serwd ... Ih" ftnblf:m of I'llnk of secular rulers and aplril,,",,1 dignitaries as well as ror the ";sual idemifi· cation and display of relies, inner ..."etum., and .1"'1"1I, It could be carried or erecled only for UK' on special occasions or be 11<'1 pennancnlly in •
hcd poshion.
It
is related to the ciborium and
dlfFe.,. from it in principle only in its lack of .lablli· ty. Int'Yitably the baldllchin appear> frequemly as a $U~ilule for il. BUI ...horeas the clborium W1IlI opc:n on all ";M$, the ~kl;oc:hin, ec le.n the bal· ebehin in most <:aW$ is simply calltd QmIWI. which denotn; " cupola and thus can"'" be di$tinl"iloMd from .... cibom",> or ~I~. BlBLIOC..-.,,"l'
KI .......r. T. "Uborium.'· RtIJlluiJ:n" fii~ IItllike ""d Christ~",,,,,, 3 (1931). col$. 68-86. Schramm. P. E. HUTsch"fm.ticJ,"," ""d StIJ"lbym. !>dik, Vol. 3. pp. 122ft", Stult83rt. 1956. PETER G~MANN
BALESTRI. GIUSEPPE (1866-1940), IUllian Coploloeist and • membu of the Auguslillian order,
kno"'l1 for hilo publiacion of !he Sahidic Iiol..,. of Ihc New TQW1>Cnl prescDlly in tilt Bol'Jirl M.-urn (S
He is
beg
\1"'"
BlBUOCU'UY VOII~.
1.·101.. "Giuseppe Salestri. coplOlogo e bibli$U." L.'''''~'''''ton rom""O, 29!3fJ April 19'10, 1', 3. MARTIN K.....1JS6
BALLANA KINGDOM AND CVLTURE. The breal
~~SH
in lhe
......nh ctlltury ...... the sip! for major popul;llion mo,..,mtOl$ in thc Nile' Vall.,.. Both N",bian-speakina tribes (.... "'1IllIAI'o~) and ~u.. lltIBU look pos. session of diffe..... t teniloric!i that hMl formerly been UDder th~ "''"' ol Kush. III !he &or nooh of NtlBlA the~ "J'PC*l"'ed • kind of hybrid cullu~ that combined some of the old traditions of Kush with new ill8ucnccs from GrCCO'Roman EaYPt. Ti>c McroRie ...,;u..... Ian,ua,ge' of Kush di;:.appt'ared. to be rq>1""'ed On a ...ry limited s<:a1e' by Gree'1t. When tl>c po:st·Kui!>;te culture of lo"''''r Nubia was first diS<:ove ....d by arch""ologisls early ;n the twentielh century. ;t "'M given lhe designation "XGroup" bU3u5e' of Unce,,.inly as 10 who the f\e'wcomers were. Some IlChoian identified lhe'm ",i,h the Slemmye people, ,oday ~nown as Bcja, ",ho are often mcmioncd in d..,.iealtexts, while OIhers preferred an ic disccsc border, ~, ... led lhal the Ballana people had been ...,bject to. very po",..,rful mona~hy. The lUngs and qUe'ens were buri~d in chamber lombs under great ea"hen lumuli, lOi:ether wilh an aMOn· \shing arra)' of lhelr sccumulated wealth all wdl ~ sacrificial animals and human relainers. 11Ie monu· al)' ritual ...... &enerally. lhough nOl absolutely. Mm· liar to ,hat followed by ,he earl"'r rulcB of Kush. and in panieular ,he &Ilana royal crown. mained ,h, bmiliar Kus.hite' e'mblem. of authority. n.. Ballana monarchy, at reflected in the I"O)'lOI 1Ombs. is bdicved to haw endured from about 350 In 3SO. n.. lings and meir .... bjc.cu cyidcndy Icepo. up the _Mil> ollhe old £ayplian deities, especial· Iy i.>U. "'CO !OOu&b Ef:ypt by Ihis time ....... officially O"isIian and lhe cull of lhe earlier deities had been ~ . Christi... ideas we", also be,;n· lIing to mab 5(ltnt htadway amoog Ihe Nubians. to j u . from thc VOt"'" tamps and OIher Chrislian paraphernalia found In the Ballana tombs. Very few textual re'COrds from the Ballana period have .urvi...d. There a ..... bowe.'er. lWO comple'e royal texts, both in highly ucentric Greek. found al Kalab.h.. and at OA~R t8RlM. One i. the victory proc· larnalion of King Sliko of the Nooatae and Ihe'Dlhc, 13 • letter that rnalees rmrence to the oame kin., Since Sillco appean to have been ..
I
DANA
10 have Ulended h.. rule over a ~nsiderable lerri. '<>c- co.....,rrio" \0 ChrUtianily ;" 1M sUm cenlul)'''' rKOI"dtd by John 01. Epbe.- (__ NUllIA, [VA.-.
424. Prin«lOn. NJ .. 1977. Emery. W. B. N,J,i"" r'''<J$MTe. London. 1948. _ EDpt in Nub;". pp. 232-47. l.onclon. I%S. Ki........ n. L P. "A Su~ of Nubian OriK\ns.'· Sud"" Hotel ""d Record. 29 (1931);47-02. _ " "Studies in 1M L'Iler HisleM')' of Nubia." U"i,·"..ity of Liwrpool MmQts of Arch"eoloty "nd 14mhrop%"" 24 (1937)'09-105. _ . ''The X.Group Enigma." In V"nished Civili. 'Dlum•• ed. E. Bacon. London, 1963. Monneret de Villard. U. SIO,i" dell.. Nubia ""'/la,,a, pp. 36*60. Orienl.llJia Christiana Anakocta 118.
Rome. 1938. Vantlnl. G. ChrlstidniJy '" Bologna. 1418t.
I},~
&ddn. pp. 24·32. WIUJA.IoI Y. AOAWS
BALU$, AL-. town IocaIed in the prorin<;e of Qed On the _ I t .ide of the Ni~ ahoolt } miles (5 bn) nonh-.. of 0U't- In Coptic documents the ..me of tM l..>.looC (Pallas). n." town ...... y have been 1M birthplace of Apa !'lO' the Coaf~. Although the SYIlU.O.RJOH for II &'l1Nh SOY' ~ _ !>om ;1'1 &I.'lis (also men-«! 10 lIS BalaW). "" Arabic _ r i p l (NlICional Ubrwy, hris, no. 154) _~thM .... was his a church of AI- Santno in binhplace. n.ere _ ....8al..... and Mudirn authon of tIw: Middle ActS often mention .. morta$lft)" in.the am. So...., SOIlrns call lhe monNtery Day<- Kahrn_ and O(Mrs Dayr MaRls. but It i. not known wtwoc monastery Ihls
&1'"
-
Am~linellU.
BALYANA, AL-, city in tM province of J~ in middle Egwt. 11 is kxated on the weu .ide of the Nile .-oughIy betWft'n .u.hmrm and Nag lbmmadi. Chrilrian·Anbic litel'lllll~ makes rew ufe~nU6 10 a1.BaIyani.. H.,..-noer, as indicated by 1M acCOOIllt of \he wuute of Patrian:h $H£H1IT1! I (1l511-8!O) wil!l the hc-etical "'""" of • bUhop fmm aI· &Iyan5.\he city was the tnt of .. lrisl>opric at ktit as early as \he middle of 1M I'Ilnth centu.,.. In the r1rventh emIliI)', Ma.rt, .. bW10p of al·BaI)'aD&, par' Iic~d in an ....-cnsful 1"\01 instigated by John, bishop of SaW. 10 depose tbe potria.rcll omsro~
Afric4, pp. 390-
BIIJUOGRAl'HY
E. lA Giagraplli. d. I'EOPle
eOpl'. Pl". 81-82. Paris. 1893. Timm, S. Das chris/liclt-I:op/isch. Aeple" i" dra· bise},.. Z.il, Vol. I. pp. 306-307. Wlelbaden. 1984. RANDALL STEWART
333
n.e city is
"'10 mentioned On tWO C"'veoton.....
From \he year 932 com" the I(>m""'one af Kynt Susinne....i>ose blltet i"sale ""115 from a1·Ba!yani (Stem. 1878. pp. 261f.). The filzwilliam M.....um in Cambridge preserves Ihe tombslo,,", of A~ Theadarus. son af Mo5e. a ptUbyler from al_&I)...n!. Th. in..,ription was made in 939 (Cl"Um. 19(14. p. 43, plate XXXVIII). B1BLlOCRAI'lI'i Am~lineau,
E. Ld G~""aphie d~ I'SOP" it l'ipo<j"~
t:ople. pp. 93-94. hris. 1893. Crum. W. E. "Coptic Craffiti, etc:' In Tht: 03irt:ion df Abyda•. N. M. A. Mu1'l'lly. pp. 38-43. Public.... tions of the Brilish School of A1cllKology in Egypt 9. I...ondon. 19Ool. Stem, L ''SahitDsche ll\tChrift.... JIll allen Denl;· malem:· ZtillCltri/1 /iJr AmIist:1ot: Sp.-at:1tt: IDU1 Al/t:mmukund~ 16 (1878):9-28. TimID, S. 0<1. t:ltriMlic/t.kQpl_1w AcPI~n in arabUdte, Uil, Vol. I, pp. 312-14, Wieshad..... 1984_ ~IWL Sn;wAllT
BANA, a cRy ;n the pnwlnce of ~ in the middle of II... Egyptian Delta, localed about 6 miles (9.5 km) 5DUl!l of Samannlid and J miles (5 kin) south of AbUsir Bani. In .y (Panau)_
Kynopoli.fBanl has I lon, ChriMian tradition. The city ha.< ha.d a bishop since al least as early as the finl quarteT of the founh century. In a Jist of bishops given to ATH~t<~SIUS In HS, M~UTIUS name. Bishop Herroaion "in Kyno and Bous!ri." (Munier. 1943. p. 3). Apparently the city .150 had an orthodox bishap at that lime. fot in .. document (naw loat. but quoled by Solomen) Athanasiu. wrote that a Bishop Harpoknllion of Kynopoli. attended the
134
BANA.WAN, AL-
Council of "ICA,EA in 325. This Kynopolis _ un· doubtedly .he cil)' in the Delta ouher lhaJ1the lO\o;n t. £00'" .he Coptic and Arlo1»c lisls of lhr panidpanlll in the coundl indicate .hat !he Kynopolis rqll'r$Cfl.ed by Bishop Adamanti.......... knc>-o." in Coplk • Kocis and in Arabic as a1-Qa)"S (Munier. 1~3, p. 4]. Around 459 BMop Marion
"t
ffiBUOGRAPHY
Aml!llneau. E. lA. (;Wp~ de l'EtYPie • rtpoqsoe cOPic, pp. 84-15. hris. 1893. Munier, H. R~iJ da li.ste~ iPuaJP41cs de rJ,lise coplc. Cairo. l~j_ TImm, S. o..s cltristli€lt--koplische AoPle" flO ",,,. /lis€her bit. pl. I . " lI8-24. Wiebeden, 1914. RA"o.ou. STtwAIIT
BANAw~. AL-, lOWJIlocaled illlhe province
'0""'.
there a", no wimesse< .0 Chri5lianily in the Nonetheless, the 1O><'ll aJlll'UfS in tho: medieYaI Coptk·!lnbic Iqi&lors a.nd in a list of Coptic bisft. optics. Historical IOUrcCS speak of a bi!ibop in the """." as e.....1y .. 1078....hen Bishop Mena fmm al·Bani"w. atlo..ded 1M synod in Cam. thaI c"'-" a successor to Patriarch CIialSTtIOOU.OS BIBUOCItA'HY
Amelln...... E. L.e G4Ofr1lpftie de rEgypte" Npoque COple, pp. 86-87, 349. Pam. 189). TImm, S. D"S cltrisdich.k<Jpfische A,ypren in "",. &sclte' Zeit, Vol. I. pp. 327-30. Wieobaden. 19&4. RA.'lDAU. STur;... T
BANI I:IASAN AND SPEOS ARTEMIDOS, two aroup$ of tombs
n...
n...
BANU AL·KANZ
mates that the colony of monks came to inslall itself in Speos Anemidos and the neighborhood at the beginning of the fifth century, by reason of the fonn of the cross<'s engra"ed on lhe walls, The installalions in the wadi are ""needy pre· served, with tra<:es of the external construe lions. It is difficult 10 decide whether they were used by cenobites or hermits. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1677. Translated as The Present Statt of Egypl. London. 1678.
RENE-GEORGES COQUtN MAURICE MAIlTlN, S.l,
BANI MURR. S.. Pilgrimages. BANI SUEF, capital of the province of Bani Suef
Badawy, A. "Les Premiel'$ ~tablissements chnhiens
dan. les anciennes tomb", d'Egyple." In Tome (:ommemo'lIli! du mill,h,ai.. de III Bibliolhtque plltriarcae d'Ale:
335
COQUIN MARTIN. S.l.
and situated on tbe west bank of the Nile about 22 miles (35 1=) south of the Fayyiim. Until the nine· teenth century. Bani Sud belonged to tbe ancient provinee of llJIHNAsA (Oxyrhynchust which was fumouS for its Coptic heritage, The origin of the name Bani Sud is difficult to trace, but Arab medieval geographers called it Banmasawa)'h and in the sixleenth century il became known as Bani Suwayf or Suef. Many old churches and mon....terie. are to be found in the immediate vicinity of Bani Suef, al· lhough documents do not anestto the exiSlence of an early bisbopric ;n the city ilself. N'>llelheless, in lhe twem;eth century Bani Suef became the Seat of a bishop. Il now has a eon'",nt and a church built on the site of an older church whose columns are still lying in sighl. A museum built in the mid· lwentieth cenlUry contains manuscripls, stones. and anifacts ITom Coptic lUins in the .urrounding area. BIBLIOGRAPHY
BANI KALB, village, today called Bani Majd!, sit· uated On the left bank of the Nile 3 miles (5 km) wesl of Manfahi! (nonh of ASYfJT). AI·MaqrlzI (1853, Vol. 2. p. SOO; 1845, pp. 42 [text], 101 [tmns.J) mentioned a monaste,)' there, uninhabited in hi, time (fifteenth century) bu! "'''''ing as a church for the Christians of Manful;;!. '!'fcording to him. il "'as consecraled t
Clarke. S. Chri,lian Anliquiri.s in Ihe NU. Valley. Oxford. 1912. Vansleb. 1. Nouvelle Relalion e" forme de ;ournal d'"" voyage fait m Eg:,ple en /672 tJ 1673. Paris.
Timm, S. nas christlich-koplische Agyplen in arabi5cher Zeit, Vol. 1, p. 336. Wi",baden, 1984. RAGAI MAKAR
BAN{J AL.KANZ (colloquially. Bani Kanz). origi· nally a warrior tribe of mixed Arab and BfJA ances· try. 1he)' established de facto control over the As· wan area in Fatimid times, and one of tbeir rulel'$ was rewarded with tbe litle Kanz al·Dawlab (treasure of lhe Slate) for his ser;-ice 10 tbe Fatimid caliph. From Iben On Ihe title was treated a..< hereditary by the ouccessive chie~ of tbe Ban'; al·Karl'. The Ayyubids inaugurated tbeir rule in Upper Egypl by driving oul tbe Banu al·Kanz. who retreat· ed into the most nonberly panion of Nubia. Here they amalgamated witb already se!lled Nubian eIe· ment, and in time adopted a Nubian dialect. They are tbe ancestol'$ of the KarlUZ Nubians of today (see NUB1ANS). In Nubia. the BanO al·Kanz establisbed a quasi·
336
BAPTISM: Origin, Features, and Administration of Baptism
independent Muslim principality within what was nominally the temtory of ,",ollA1t". The Kanz alDawlah, even though a Muslim, became a figure of importance within tbe Christian Nubian kingdom, and may even at times have held the traditional office of eparch of Nobatia. Eventually he and his family became allied by marriage with the ruling house of MAKOURlA itself, and it was through that connection that in 1323 the Kan. al·Dawlah suc· ceeded to the throne of the Christian kingdom. The Bano. al-!Can. had apparently I~t control of the Nubian throne again by 1365, and thereafter they reverted to their outlaw ways. They plundered Aswan and the surrounding districts repeatedly in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and were largely responsible for destroying the overland trade between Upper Egypt and 'AydHb on the Red Sea. They alw played a significant part in the weak· ening and final destruction of the Christian king· doms of Nubia, Their depredations ended only witb the imposition of Ottoman rule in Egypt and Nubia in the si~teenth century. No trace of their wanior tradition survives among the Kanuz Nubian. of to· day, who are peacefully resenled in Ihe area around Korn Ombo, BIBLIOGRAPHV
Adams, W. Y. Nubia, Corridor to Africa, pp. 524-31. Princeton, N.J" 1977. Hasan, Y, F, The Ar
BAPTISM. [This entry consiSt; of two article•. The first discusse, the origin·, fe
Origin, Features, and Admlnistratlon of Baptism Baptism is the sacrament by which the recipient i. regenerated through triple immersion in waler in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spiril, enters into union with Christ and the body of Ihe church. and receives the gift of the Holy Spirit. Baptism is regarded as the first and principal sacra· ment, withoU! which none of the other sacraments
can be administered. Its primary importance is manifest in the words of Jesus Christ "unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannol enter the kingdom of God" (In, 3:5), This ~crament was instituted by Christ following His Resurre<;:tion, when He said to the disciples, "All aUlhority in heaven and on earth has bee" given to me, Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" (MI, 28,1819), and, "He who believes and is baptized will be saved: but he who does not believe will be con' demned" (MI:, 16:16), Christ', words i"dicate the uni.'ersal nature of the sacrament of baptism and its prerequisite importance for salvation. Before Christ's institution of baptism as a sacra· ment, other baptismal 101ms had existed, such as that performed by John the Baptisl, which was D)' divine command (Mt. 21:25; MI:, 11:30), The disci· pies, too, used to baptize people during the life of Christ on earth, before His Resurrection and the fulfillment of divi"e ""'WID. However, in contrast with Christian baptism, canied out in accordance with Christ's teaching and recommendations, those earlier forms of baptism had no sacramental qualities. They were merely acts of immersion in water as an expression of repentance on the part of peni· lem Jews and their belief in the imminent fulfill· ment of the messianic hope and the coming of Christ. The sacmmem of Christian baptism, on the OIher hand, is administered in the name of the Fa· ther, the S<m, and the Holy Spirit, to all believers without distinction, for the purpose of penitence and the forgiveness of sins, and for the gift of the Holy Spirit. It is, furthennore, an expression of belief in Christ who has already come, while the earli· er baptism was nothing but a prdude to a fuller and more efficacious baptism by One greater than John and the disciples, One who would bapti.e with the H"ly Spirit (Mk. 1:8). This basic distinction between Christian baptism and earlier bapti.ms was clearly brought out in the wriling!' of the early lath en. According to Tertullian (c. 160~c, 220), "in lhe Acts of the Apostles, we find that men who had 'John's baptism: had not re· ceived the Holy Spirit. whom they knew not even by hearing. _ And so. 'the baptism of repentance' was dealt Wilh "" if it were a candidate for the remission and sanctification shortly about to foll<>w in Christ: for in that John used to preach 'baptism for the remission of si"": the declaration was made with reference to a future remission ... that repen· lance is antecedent, remission subsequent; and this
BAPTISM; Origin, Features, and Administration of Baptism
•
i. 'preparing the way'" (Tertullian, 011 Bapu.m), Similar interpretations permeate the writings of <>Iher Fathers, such as ATHANASttlS of Alexandria (c. 296-373) in the Treause 0" Mal/hew 3. CYRIL OF JERUSALEM (c. 315-386) in Catuhet;cal LUlU,e 3 and 4, and Augustine (354-430) in Epislle 51. The effect of baptism in purification. remission of sins. and spiritual regeneration makes it a" esse,,· tial. indispensable element ror salvatio", This inherent fealUre was also amply expounded by several of the falhers, such as Saint Justin Martyr (e, 100-c. 16S). Saint CLEMEN! of ALEXANDRIA (e. ISO-e. 215), Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (e. 315-386). Saint ElAStL mE (;Rt;AT (e, 330-379). and Saint John Chrys<>!ltom (e. 347-407), Baplism imparts the following graces to the bap" ti2M: (I) spiritual regeneralion. as explained by Christ to Nicodemus (In. );3-8); (2) purification and remission of .ins (Acts 2:38; I Pt. 3;21; Eph. 5:25-27; 1 Cor. 6:11); (3) meml:>ership in the one body of Christ (Gal. 3;26-29; I Cor. 12;13; Acts 2;41; Rom. 6;3-5); and (4) release from the puni,hment of sins (Mk. 16:16; TL 3:5-7; 1 Pt. 1:3.4). As ordained by Christ in teaching and put into practice through His baptism in Ihe waters of the Jordan, the visible element used in administering the sacrament of baptism has always been water. by trine immersion in the name of the three hyposta· ""s of the Holy Trinity. full immersion is symbolic of Christ's burial, hence Saint Paul'. words, "There' fore we are buried with Him by baptism into death, that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the glory of Ihe Father. even so we also should walk in newne.. of life. For if we have been planted together in the likeness of His death, we shall be also in the likeness of His resuneetion" (Rom. 6:4. 5). These principles receive ample attention in the writings of the church fathers. Once baptism is validl~ administered. it cannot be repeated, Hence the reafirmation in the NiceneConstantinopolitan Creed: "lI'e confess one baptism for the remission of sill$." A' repetition of the baptis· mal rite would therefore lie sacrilegious, for the following conside~tions, Since baplism is an act of spiritual birth, no one person can be born twice; in its symbolic nature and sacramental representation of Christ's death. burial. and resurrection. it should take place only once; according to the concept of baptism, it has an indelible, ineffaceable character on the -'Oul of lhe baptize
337
me'" is administered to Ihem on the grounds that the earlier baptism was null and void, Hence the stipulation of Apo$tolic Canon 47, "Let a bishop or pre.byter who shall baptize again one who has rightly receivesed, as despising the croSs and death of the L<:>rd. and not making'" di,tinction between the true priests and the false." The issue of rebaptism was one of lhe veJ<ed ques· lions that troubled the church in Ihe third century. giving rise 10 a prolonged and serious dispute be· tween Sai'" Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (d. 258). and Pope Stephen of Rome (254-257). The fonner maintained the urgency of rebaptism in cenain ca'es. the laner held that any baptism in the name of Cbrist or the three Persons of the Trinity should not be repeated. The Council of Carthage (255) ",led lhat heretic. and those whom they baptized had to be rebaplized. while those who had been baptized in the church but lap,ed were not to be baptized. According to Canon 19 of the first Council of NICAM (325): "Concerning the Paulianists who have flown for refuge 10 the Catholic church. it has been decreed thai they must by all means be rebap" tiud: and if any of them who in past time ha,'e been numbered among their clergy should be found blameless and without reproach, let them be rebaptized and ordained by the bishop of the Calholie c!lurch ..." (Th. CallOllJ of Ihe 318 Holy Fa· therJ). Likewise Canon 8 of the synod of Laodicea (between 343 and 381) decreed that: "Persons con· verted from Ihe heresy of lhose who are called Phrygians, even should they be among those reputed by them as dergymen. and even should they be called the very chiefest. are with all care to be both in.t",cted and baptized by Ihe bisbops and presby· ters of the church," The principle of the noniteration of bapti,m receives particular stress in the writings of John Chry. S06tom: "Bapti.m is a crus•. and 'our old man was crucified with Him' for we were made eonfonnable to the likeness of His death' [Rom. 6,5: Phil. 3:;0). and again. 'we were buried therefore ....'ith Him by baptism into death' [Rom. 6,4]. 'Wherefore as it is not po$Sible thaI Chri.t should be crucified a sec· and time, for tbat is to 'put Him to an open shame' [Heb. 6:6], 5Q neither is it possible to be baptized a second time" (Homilies all Hebrews 9.6). The authority to baptize was conferred by Christ to the apo$tles (Mt. 28:19) who, in tum, gave it to the bishops who succeeded them and to the pre.b}'· teTS. Deacon. and deaconesses who assist the bish-
340
BAPTISM, UTURGY OF
[name] art anointed in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, One God, [with] oil "f catechumens in the holy only catholic and apostolic church of Go
his prayer over him, saying: "Master, our Savior, the beneficent Lover of man, to Thee alone is this my.tel)' petfonned , , . we beseech Thee, enlighten the eyes of their understanding with the light of knowledge, , ,all traces of idolatry and unbelief cast out of their hean, Prepare their souls for the r"<'eption of Thy Holy Spirit. Let them be worthy of the new binh of the laver:' The priest takes the oil of joy or gladness and anoints the person to be baptized on his forehead, hi. hean, his anns, his back (opposite the hean), and in the middle of his two hand. in the sign of the cross, saying, "Thou [Name] an anointed with the oil of gladness, availing against all workings of the adverul)', untO thy grafting into the sweet olive tree of the holy catholic apmtolic chunh of God, Amen," The priest says the first prayer of laying on of hands' "Let them be sheep of the flock, and sons of Thy heavenly brid" chamber, and heirs of Thy imperishable and eternal kingdom." In a second prayer he asks that God may "open the eye. nf their hean, that they may be enlightened with the light of th" gospel of Thy kingdom, Let the angels of light have pan in their life, to save th"m from all attad's of the adversary and from all evil ;lSS3ults ' , , And make them sheep of the fold of Thy Christ,_ purified vessels, sons of the light, heil'! of Thy king· dom," Unction is perfonned thiny..ix times before the actual ,,",ptism, and the same number of times with the holy chrism immediately after baptism. There i. a strong symbolic reference to the fragrant oil that the woman pouTe
Sanctification of the Water of the Font The priest enters the baptislel)', takes the pure (unmixed) oil, and pours it into the font in the fonn of the cross, saying, "'n Ihe Name of the Father, Ihe
•
BAPTISM, LITURGY OF
Son and th~ Holy Spirit, on~ God, Blessed be God Ih~ Father almighty, Amen, Blessed b~ His only,be, gOllen Son, J~sus Christ, our lord, Amen, Bl=d be Ihe Holy Spirit, lhe Comfoner, Amen," He says inaudibly the prayer "Our Masler, call Thy senoants 10 Thy holy light. Mab Ihem worthy of this great grace of holy baptism," Then follo.....s the prayer of lhanksgiving, and he offe", Ihe inc~nse, The Pauline Epistle (Ti. 2:11: 3:7) is read, and th~ priest says Ihe prayer of Paul, beginning, "0 lord of knowledge and Dis""n:;er of wisdom, ' .. who in Th)' goodness didst call Paul who was once a perseculor to be a chosen v~ssel, elC," Then foJJoW$lhe Calholic Epis, tle (1 Jn, 5:5-13) and its prayer, beginning: "0 lord our God, who Ihrough Thy holy apostles didst reveal unto us Ihe nt).,;t~ry of the glorious Gospel of Thy Chri.I", ," The priesl says the prayer of absolUlion, address~d to the Father, beginning: "lord God Almighty, Ihe Healer of our souls, our bodies, and our spirits, elc," Acts 8:26-39 follows, and after this the T,i:;"g;o~, the intercession of Ihe Gospel, Ihe psalm·versicle (32:1-2), and the Gospel (In. 3:1-21). Then the seven great prayers are said: fo< th~ sick: for Imvele",; for the waters (sowings, or lh~ weal her): for Ihe ruler; for Ihe dead (those who have fallen asleep): fo< the offerings; and for th~ catechumens. The pri~st then prays on behalf of the persons 10 be baptized; "0 God of the prophets and lord of Ihe apostles, who didst proclaim Ihe coming of Thy Chrisl through Thy holy p
341
breaThes thric. upon th~ wat~r in the fonn of the cross, saying, "Sanctify this water and this oil that they may become a laver of th~ new birth, Am~n: unto et~mallife, Amen; a garm~n1 of incorruption, Amen; a grace of sonship, Amen; a renewing of the Holy Spirit, Amen,.,:' He seal. the water thrice with the cross, in the name of the Father and of The Son and of the Holy Spiril. The deac"n says, "Pray for pe!fect peace and love and the holy salutation of Ihe apostles:' The people say, "Through the int~rcessions of Ihe holy TheOlokos Mary, 0 lord, besTow upon us The forgiv.ness of our sins, The rest of the liturgy of bapti.m i. conducted with .arious interpositions by the deacon and ",,sponses from The congr~gaTion, The prieS! then takes the holy chrism and pours a little of it in the baptismal font Ihre~ times in the form of the cross, repeating what he previou.ly said in the course of the consecration of the unmixed oil. He alw says Ihe Alleluia and th~ following portions of the Psalms while stirring the water: Psalm 29:3, 4: 34:5, 11; 66:12; 51:7-10: 132:l3. Th~ ""ople .ing Psalm
150. AI Ihis point the deacon leads Ihe person 10 be baptized from the west and brings him to the ~asT again.t the font, to the left of Ihe pri"t, who ads him his name, and immerses him thrice, AI each immersion he ....i.es him up and brealhe. in his be•. At the finl immersion he says, "1 baptize th"" [Nam.J in the name of th~ Father," at the second immersion, "and of the Son," and at th. third immersion, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen," Then, taking th~ holy chrism and praying ove< it, saying, "lord, who alone an mighly, , , , bestow th~ Holy Spiril in the pouring ouT of the holy chrism, Let it be a living seal and a confinnation to Thy ser· vants," Th~n he anoints Ihe bapti,.ed ""non with the holy unclion thirty-six lime. in lhe .ign of th~ cross, during which he sa)'S, "Iu the name of the Father, and of Ihe Son, and of the Holy Spirit. An unction of th. gr.u:e of Ihe Holy Spirit, Am~n, An unction of a pledge of The kingdom of heav.n, Amen, An unction of a fellowship of life el~mal and immortal, Amen, A holy unclion of ChrisT our God, and an indissoluble seal, Amen, Thou [Nam~) art anointed with holy chrism in Ihe name of the Fath~r, and of the $on, and of the Holy Spiril. Amen," Then the priest lays his hand upon lhe bapTized pe<son and says, "May lhou be blessed with the blessing of The heavenly ones, and The blessing of lhe angels, , , ," He breathes o".r his face saying, "Receive the Holy Spirit, and be a pUlified vessel through Christ Jesus our lord, ,
342
AfI~r
BAPTISM OF CHRIST
thi$ pra~r. the priol dot,," him ;n a ,,'hile
pnnenl. ll'Iyin•. "A gannetU 01 life eternal and in· cOlTUpdble. Amen-" Then he SIl)'S a p")'ff. "Lord God Almighly ......bo commanded lhal Thy 5eI' vants be born through lhr: laver of the new hinh. and best_~ upon u....n fo..gNueS5 01 lheir lins. I~ prmcnl 01 incorTllpCion and lhe uae:e 01 IIOnship.... Ahe.....~ the baptind an: ckllhed with the "",I of Ihrir pm>enlS, and the ptiesl says • pno}'C:' ...'" Ihe cmv.ns and lhe Jird~, "Lord God ",Imishty•... who hast ~-ed crowns upon "Thy holy apostles, Thy prophets and Thy lnUt)'B ..•• do n-. apin bless liteM: erowns which "'C: ha,·e p~d to ~..... on Thy S'''''artll who reo cei~ed holy b:oplism. 1....1 Ihey may be unlO Ihem crowns 01 glOl)' arK! honour. Amen; crownS of ble$y servanlS, 0 God. in 1'1>y wisdom; giw lhem underuandinc in Thy kar. brin, them 10 manuily; bestow upon them the ..........1fdce of the lr1l(h: keep them undefiled in failh, Ihrough the inlf:~s oIlhe lady of us all. the Holy TheaIOW. the Vi"'n Mary. lhe bap1.ist for.",nner John. and alIlhe choir ollile salOIS. lhe prophetS. lhe apostle$. the manyn and lhe crossbea,..,rs. Amen," A un>que feature of Ihe Coptk baptilmal rile en· IUm Ihal tile waler. to ...hich a few drops of Ihe holy chrism have l>I'-en added, is properly dispo:sed of II Ihe end of the bapllomal service. The prieS! poun water ove. hi. hands in the fom, and wuhe~ its turroundings ." well as Ihe cross. Then he s.aya a prayer for the .dease of Ihe ...."te•. The prJ'II al· lows Ihe water to be drained away, either into Ihe ""ell beneath the fonl or dsewhen:, making sun: thai none of it is put 10 any other use. R
ha,,,,
LooHninJ or Ihe Girdle or !he Newly Bapllzecl This lIen'ice is performed richt daY" afte. hapti5In- The prieslla)'5 lhe pTa)'ff of thanbgMnc owr a basin comaini", some fresIl ,"aln and surrounded wim lighted candlea. Then he offen incense. and the Pauline Epistle (I Cor. 10:1-4) iI read. folJo,...ed by the Trisilpn,., the intere"",""" lD tM ~1. the psalm ,'Cnicle (32:1-1) and Ihe Co5pel (ML 3:1-6). AfIer this lhe priesl p..ys the three gn:al inlerces· sions (pmce. the bthen. and the con~tion). and the people recile the Crud and the Lord's Prayer_ The priesl IIl)'S the .~ution Pnl)Y:rs. makes lhe sian of tbe crodol Over Ihe water three limes while sayins:''One is Ihe Holy Falher, One is the Holy Son. One is the Holy Spiril. Amen," Then lhe peopl<: sin, Psalm ISO. After this the child is bathed in the water. and his girdle and baptismal robe are al.., waohed in it, before il is dispoliCd of ;n the sea, the river, or a fidd. BIBUOGR>\PHY
",,;oJ
u... ...
,!'OW
Burmeste•. 0, H. E. "The Ibptism.l Rite of Ihc Coptic Chun:h. a Critical Sludy." Bulletin ile /a SOci~l; il'arehio"'rie Cople II (1941):27-86. E,...us. B. T. A. The Ri,u of ,he Copt;e Church. Ihe Q.Ju of Baptism and Ihe (hd<:r of Matrimony. llanS. from Coptic manulCripts. London. 1888_ Pen::i,"'. H. R. £u:"rsou on Ihe Worship of Ihe E..r/y Church. I.. A &Iul Ubr"", of lire Niune ....d PosI-Nice..r Falhers. 2nd se'.. ed. P. Schaff and H. W"""'. Grand bpids. Mich.• 1956. William Sulaymln Qelidah. lUlilb a1--DUq<.ltryalt T.. '.,Iim al--1!M~l. ehaplo. 38-41. pp. 458-91. Cadro. 1979. .....ooIley. R. U. Coptic Ofjiru.....ndocL, 1930. y~ Salimah. Killb ./4.4·,1i' al-N..jis.h " ShIlT~ Tuqii§ ...·.. .,M'. . I...,uJlJ ..1-KartUalo. Vol. 2. pP_ 9-54. Cairo. 1909• ARCHII1SIIOf' BAswos
BAPTISM OF CHRIST. SU Cllri""'n Subje<:ls in Coptic An.
BAPTISTERY. See Architectur:ol Element. of Churches.
BAPTISTERY, CONSECRATION OF. Alie. the consecnlOon of", new church ..nd ilS altar. the
BAOT TREATY
bWloop.lOIelhtr with the clel'l3' and deacoN eanyi"l; el"l)!MS and lighled andles. pro<:eeds LO eonsee<1lle the hapli~a1 fonl. Then: ai"" twu ~flIion. of the =nseerallon lilu'¥Y. In the more widely ~d eeremuny Ihe bishop slartS wilh Ihe Prayer of Thanksjivin8' followed by a Pauline eplsde (Eph. 2:13. 3:12). The: deacons tins the TrijOli<m and a prio$t "'")'5 Ihe Inlerces.siofl of the Gospel. The G0spel readin&. pm::eded by l'sa1m 25:4. is (.Ilken from Jolm 3:1-17. lhe key vase brine OtrUl'S words to Nicodemus: "VnleS'! one is born anew, he cannot _ the kingdom of God" The Ihree GTtaI Inluee5$ions follow. namely. pnc:e. the chureh Iathel"$, and Ihe congrqa"ons. after which an .....,ile the erN.<:!. The bishop lhen readli Ihe baptismal pra)~. which has for ils Iheme Ibe regenerative power of baptism, The words of the prayer come from a I",nslalion of a Coptic and Arahic man ..",ript pre...nled by Palriarch CllUL v (1874-1927) 10 litoe hW>op of Salisbury, England, in 1898. The people r«ice the Lord'i Prayer. and the bish· op SOI)'S the al;o$oIutklns. Afterward he pours .....Ier into the fool from the jars preoiouoJy ..-I in the consecralion of the church. wash.,. il. and wipes il dry. while the deacons slng Pl'aIrn$ 26:1. 8: 26:4; and 43:3-4, He tak.", lhe chrism and sllPll he crosses. On its four sides and base .....ylnS. "We consecrate this font for Ihe name of SainI JOI1O lhe &p1isl in ehe name of the fatntr and Son and Holy Spiril."· A few psahJ15 are lhen read. Ihe fonl is covered. and Ihe bish<>p says lhe bmedkliolt. Once apin the people recile the Lord's Pn~r. after wltk.h the bishop. ckfwy. and deacons mum 10 the ch..rch 10 celdorale the liturgy. A second. lenflhjer version is pven ;n a copy of Ihe Eucholotion printed in Rome in 1762. II com· prises lhe following secl;O!l$:
l. ,,"en psalms: 122. 127. 2. three Old Teotamenl
L.JZ.
133. 134. 135, 136 prophecies: Genesis 28;10-22; Isaiah 1:16-27; F=kiel40:I-Z3 3. !'$aIm 117 and lh~ H)'rnn of 1M Golden CeMoel" 4. EpbOOM 4:1-10 S. I Pete>' 3:13-22 6. Acts of lhe Apostles 19: 1- 10 7. lhe TrU4pnt 8. Gospel ;nleROession alld lectiun: Manhew 17:'_~: John 5:1-18 ~. Kyrie ll~is(m (ten timet) 10.lhe Seven Greal Intercessions: \r;.~lers, ehe skk. the roler. Ih~ ,,"'Oller (or plants. /W fruit). th~ dormanlS, the ob!;>tiOf1$, and the l;llle<:hu-
-
II. Kyrie d~,- (a huDdR:d limes) 12. Ih~ Three Grea.1 Inttteessions: falbers. and COnllTCgations.
peac~.
343
ch..n;h
Th~n
follows th~ bapti.smaJ prayer and Ib~ subse· quent sections as mentioncd in the first ,'ersion of lhe cereJD()fly. 8IBUOGRA""Y
Hom.".. G. 7Jr~ .sc >ce /t.x rAe Co.t>ecrarioft of .. Cltw«h ..lid AI' kCDrdm, /0 IJu COfUle RI/t. lOOl(km. 1902.
BAQT TREATY. The Boq{ ",as a negotlaled Il&. lhe Umay>-ad goV<:mor of E,ypt. and lite Nu· bian king of IoIAKOIIUO- II """as concluded al DONllOL.\. in A.D. 632 1oI10..... ;DJ an unsuccessful Muslim at· tempi 10 ",bjuple lhe Nubian kint£lotn. The Nome kq{ Os presumed 10 be " communily of nalions al war wilh Islam) withoul inclucli"l; Ihem in I .... dltr oUs1
"me
"".ua1
344
BARAMON. At-
lOla. and to furnish an annual lribule of 360 sla>csIn al·Maqrtzfs len !he~ is no mention 01 any quid pro quo on lhr: pan of the EcJ>tiam. Doubts .... ve been caoso on !he aulhenlidly of a1Maqr1d's and olher laic >~ of !he 8<191...Tit· lCOI as they ........, S<'VftaI cenlunta alter the faa. lionele., a lctIer round at ~ IIlIllJ,t in 1972 a>l ..... kin, the an..uaI paymenl 01 .1"...". ..~..., harboring libo'ts. we..., pl'Olcding Ei;yplian fu,ilives, and wen: miSlreIllina £r:yplian merchants and diplomats. The One provision of 1M S"9!. as repcmed by al·Maqrtzf. Ihat appean 10 be c1urly anachronislic ...,lates to a m06<\.Ue al Oongol". There was certainly nO mos.que at Dongola in 632, or even 300 ~a", I.ler, when IBN SALIM Al.-ASWA.. I visited Ihe place, He and his followers were obliged 10 relire 10 lhe tksen 10 perform lhe sacritK:e of 'ld .1·... l,l1)~h. as he reponed in his KiNlb Akhb.. , ,,1·NIl/NIt (Reports 00 Nubia). Bt<:ause of its unusu:al prodslonl. Ihe Slalus of lbe S"qf was disputed by Muslim jurisu lhemselves. The an"",,1 pay""'01 <Jl slaves .... reprded by some as a kind of lIi""te, but mosl comme.....lors chaoxterized it as .. gift (h"dr,y"h}. The ll&JCCmenl Itself ...... SOrne'li...... desi,na..,d as • f"o,. or im· posed seulnncnl. bul in bel lhe Nubians had DOl beftI militarily defealed or Sllbiuplcd. Coft5eQuenl!y. ocher write", rej«.ed the 'erm .fU~, and reo ferTcd 10 lhe &.I/l' as a true.. (Ju.J.."ItJ Or QWlraliza. liocI (m,..,,'d,,·rUI). The Baqr ...,mained aI lease nollli,wly i.. force .... ......... than 6lXl yean. and il larse:ly .....pe:l the coune <Jl qyp~ubian reLalions In .he Middle "'goes. "'her its signing. the EcfpIians nt¥cr apin allempled lhe COII'JUt"l <Jl Makouria, although they clten complained <Jl !he Nubians' failure 10 abide by lhe lerms of the Irea.1y. In 83S the annual ~y. men. of ,laves had appa...,ntly not b«n met fur lourleen years, and the .. ewly i",lalied Caliph .1. MU'I~im sent an urgem demand thaI Ihe full af· re;>rs be made up, Such a demand was Iaor beyond Ihe resources of Ihe Nubian king Z:ach.ri.... and cOnst
"'mon.
""'''_y
year arrean were forgi''flI and !he Nubian quota of sb'"l"5 ..... made ~Ie e.'CIY three y~ i""<:ad <Jl every )'Car. Some minor ebanges were made in the prmisions of uchanet; among ocher thinI'. wine - S elctudcd hwn lhe £cypIiarI paymeOl. The of falimld role in EcYPt in 969 ...... :accompanied by a renewed demand for P"Y"""'t of Ibe IH/X. which ...... e\idenl!y once again in ;Or' rean.. This _ the ocea.ion k>r the famous dtpIomalic m....ion of Ibn SalIm a1-A$>o;an(. wbo wenl 10 OonlOb to present the fatimid dernnd dirnolly 10 the kin, of MaktJurla. His mission ,"""uhed in !he estabIishmenl of uceptionally cordial reialions belween the Nubia... and lhe Falimido. "",'Cn lhoud! the &!q! ~mcnt seems 10 han lapsea.. "'00 "",'Cnlu· ally obtained lhe Ihrone of Makouria for Ih..m· ...1>..".. with the accession <Jl a Muslim rukr al Dongola in 1323, the ...,quir"Cment <Jl the SIIq/ plymenl ...as fonnaIly dtcla.-..d 10 be aI an end.
ado""",
BIBUOCtlAJ'lfT Adams. W. Y. Nubi•. C otrid« 10 .(/ric., pp. 451 -58. PrincetOn, 1'0" 19n. Burctllan:h.l. L Trawu if, N..bUI.. pp. 511-16. Lon·
don, 11119. Forand, P. "Early M\.ISIim RelaUons ..i1h Nubia." Dulsl"", 48 (1971):111-21. Hinds. M., and H. SUkoul...... LeUer from the Gov· trnO<' <Jl Egypt 10 lhe Kin. 01 Nubia and Muqumo Conct1Tlinll Ec1>Iian-Nllbian Re1alion, in 1411 758:' In SI"d;. Ar4!>ic" 0" 's/"",i<;;•. ed. Wao!ad ~l-o..di. Beirul. 1981. Vanlini, G, ChriSli4nily in Ih~ Sud"". !'P, 65-70, Bologna. 1981. WIUJ....II Y. ADAMS
BARAM(JN. AL·, cily located In the Eg,)'J'Iian Del· ta about 6 milts (10 km) ""rlhUM of al·Man~r;oh
BAR HEBRAEUS
in the prorinu of Daqahlin-ah. The dry was a bi$h· oprk by 12$7 'h£ft Bishop Mlkhlo'l ofal-Baramfin ..... p«sent the ~ion of the hol., chrism (Municl". 1943. p. 34J,- A medlnalliol of dlurcloes in EcYPt indiClltes tIw there ...... ct..rch of aI·Malik MikId'l in aI-Banmlln ~. 1893, PI'. 578. 580).
<_
IlIBUOOllAl'KY
AmtHnn-u. E. LI GJ.Ofraphit d. /'Ep·ple i:t Npoq,,~ copu, p, 88. Pan.., 1893. Munier, H. Recuei! des IillU J.piscopa!cs de /"igli.c copu. Cairo. 1943, Timm, S. Das chrisllich.koptische Agyple>< in a.a· bischcr leit, Vol. I. J'I), 340-41. Wi...baden. 1984, RA'Iw.u.
SlEvo'."'"
BARARI, AL-. Sec Pilp;rn.ges.
BARDENHEWE.R. OTTO (1&51-1935). Gt:1' man ecclcsiankal ht'llon... lpKialiring in panislic SIudH:s. He """" born at MunicM.l ....·dl and cduo;at~ at Bonn and Wiinbufl. He leclURd OR ne,...is 01 both the Old U>ti Ihe New Tcswnenl at Munich and MUnsler. His one·volume PtllrolOfit (frelbul'll. 18<).4) appeared In numerous edilions and was tranolated inlO Enllish by T. J. Shahan (51. Lo1.II" 19(8), Later he publishl"d .. much more ex· lenslve work enlilled Ouch/chic dcr a/lkirchlichn Lilcratur (5 vol•. , FreibuJ'll. 1902-1932), This work ilthe mosl complele on Ihe SUbjecl to dale. Il deali ....ith the Gl"uk lil......IU'" &$SIXialed ...ith the church wher'S from AJeJUltldria in Volume 4 and Syrian literature in Volull'>eS 4 and 5. ~uoc~
J. ErirtM. ......,,'!;.... Quo &1'dmJte- •. 1931. AzlZ S. Ann.
Sic>ken~. F~bul"L
BAR HEBRAEUS (Ibn al··lbn), Onhodo>. S)..... an. born al Malaliyyah in 1226. His full name "''as Aht:l al·Fa",j JamAl al·Dln ibn Tlj al·Din H;l.rtin ibn Tilrn;l. al·Malali. He came from a famlly of Chri.li.n (not Jewish, as has $Ornelimes been maintained) orilin, He studied medicine and philooophy with his father. and lhen emigraled to Anlioch in 1243 after lhe Mongol inVlUlon, In 1244 he became a
345
_1<. and under the name 01 Grecoriots was CORMcralled bishop of Gubo. on 12 Sq::un>ber. 1246, and lhen bishop of Aleppo In 1252. In 1264. he became lfIyltri... (alRKCrator) 01 Cllicia al Sis (and hence hnd of the Eastern Jacobit",). He made hi$ home in Mo$ul. but oiIen joum~ to Tabrtz and ~ ghah. capital of the Mongol rorc .... ""here he ~ On 30 July 1286. The grealest thinker 011'" Syrian dlUn:h in the Middle A,aes, he composed numerous works in Syriac concernin, nearly every reliJious IOpic. He i. known in Arable for his Mukhlt1f.' T4rlkh al,D~w~1 (Shon HislOry of Ihe World), which ....11I published in Oxford in 1663 by E. Pococke wilh a latin translalion; il ...... f"ffdited and lranslated many tim... thernfter. This history. a risumJ. of his greal chronicle written in Syriac.....a5 compot.ed al the request of Muslim fChoIaB in one monlh'. time in 1285. shortl., before his death. II is divided inlo len ,...".. ages, heJinn.... ..,;u, the CI"CIIIit>n 01 the worid. endin& ..ith the dnill of the Mongo1 IIchan ~n (1m), and CO,...rinll the Me manuscripu shoWi thaI he W3S already known 10 the Copts of lhe founecnlh cenlury, In facl, a manuscript In Ihe Nalional library. Paris (Arab<: 296). which conlalns Ihe History of Ihe Dy..aslies. was copied by an anonymous Copt in lhe fo,.,necnlh cenlury, and the same may be said of a """"..",,ript in /he tao.... oziana, Ao....nce (Oriental 93). Laler. in 1693. Yolsuf ibn "Afin-ab. known by the name of QuzmAn. coped lhi5 same leat (NaliOTl· al Library, Paris, ADbe 299). Al the end of lhe ~teenlh cenlury, an anOflpDolls Cop! a110 made a copy of this lut for the Oricntalist Fourtt-.t; a fragment 0( Ihis copy IUrmes (Paris. Arabe &(9). Ai; the CIId of the eiFletnth cenlury, 5IiI1lnClthcr copy was made in EoPI by MlU06,1 a1~ (Munich. Arabic 311J,- Amnng the thiny-five rnan~ of this history !hIlS far Identified $OJ"l)C probably 00';' Raled in Cairo. bul Information aboul this; is lacking in lhe catalogs. &r Heh",eus' lilUl'lli~a1 work, Man~r"l a!.Aqd4s (Lamp of the Sanctuary), ..el1"J$ to have hetn un· known 10 the Copu before Ihe eighleenth cenlury. Howe,·er. it is allened LII lwo malluscripts al lhe Coptic Palriarchale in Cairo: (I) lhe Theoloi)' 3l? ISima)'kah, no. 4)4). copied ill 1199 Iry bolh lhe
346
BAR1AM AND YUWA.?AF
priest Jirjis al·hn1wj and by lbrthim AbU ,!,abl Ibn Sim'in al·Khaw1nkt and (2) the Theology 323, copied by the laner in Ig\3. BIBLIOGlIM'lfY Baumstark, A. G",ehiehle der syrlsehen Lilerau" ",11 "'"sehlu'j dor ehrl'llie/'·paliisli"enslseh." T.~Ie, pp. 312-20. Bonn, 1922. Kawerau, P. Das Chri.
BARUM AND YUWA~AF, a collection "f fables widely diffused in the Christian East; it is also known among Buddhists, Muslims, and Jews. In Arabic, these fables are found from the beginning of the ninth century. Other ruenslons or reworkings of the lost Arabk original are known. Two of these are in Georgian, and these ga"e rise to the Greek m"taphrastk .'e""ion. The early Christian Arabic ,'e""ion known to uS probably derives from the Greek, and was no doubt made in the e1e\'enth cemury. The earliest known manuscript of this ver· slon (Sinal Arabk 540) can be date Barliim or Barla'am al·Nasik Wa.Y""Ufa! In his Christian Arabic blblic.graphy, among lhe Coptic medieval v"Orks. Indeed, two founeen·th.century Arabic manu· script< of Coptic provenance attribute this novel to a cenain Yuhannli of Da.yr Mlir Mus:!.. This is probably the monastery mentioned by ABU AL-..AKARIM besid. Dahshur, opposite l;Iilwin, This might be the name of the Buthor of a reworking, or else simpl~' a Coptiution of Mekhite lraditlons that attribute this novel to Yul)anni of the Monaster~y of Saint Sahas, or to Yul)ann1 al·Dimashqi, or to Yu!:tannli of Mount Sinai. This question has not yet been stud· ied. The.. are at least three manuscripts gl.'ing this
attribution, all of them Coptic (Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo, History 41, Gmf, no. 566, Simaykah, no. 647, founeenth century; National Library, Paris, Arabe 271, also founeenth cemury; and Arabe 272, copied in 1643). In the seventeenth century another attribution to "a monk of the Mount of Ccthsemane" (al·hs· mliniITah) made its appearance among the Copts, This is found In thr.e manuscripts, all of Coptic origin (Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo, History 4, Graf, no. 5/>5, Simaykah, nO. 619, copied In 1605; Natl"nal Library, Paris, Arabe 273, copied In 1752 and restored in 1763; Ambe 274, copied In 1778). Other Arabic manuscripts of this nO"el are of Coptic pro"enance, witnessing to the diffusion of this teXl up to the modern period (Coptic Palriarchate, Cairo, History 42, Simaykah, no. 604, copied in the founeenth century or at the beginning of tbe fifteenth centu,y; Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo, Histo· ry 86, Simaykah, no. 669, fi""t text, dating un· known, but bequeathed to the patriarchate In 1814; Nationai Library. Paris, Ambe 4792, copied in the nineteenth century; Arabe 4891, copied in 1864). At the beginning of the twentieth c"ntury, two Copts, Wahbli. Bey and I;Iabib Jirjis, edited the only pub· lished Amble .'ersion. The Mekhites often illuminated the texl of this novel with numerous miniatures (see, for example, the Paris Arabe manuscripts 273 and 274, th" Vati· can Arabic manuscript 692. the Dayr al·Sha'Ir 953, etc.); we know of only one Illuminated Coptic manuscript, however (Coptic Patriarchale, Cairo, HistoI)' 19, Graf. no. 531, Slmaykah, no. 611. copied in the sixteenth century with some clumsy illumina· tions: "poorly designed pictures of people," accord· ing to SimaykahJ. Last, from the Arabic recension of the Copts, an Ethiopian translation was made, under Sars,,- Dengel (1563-1597), the work of 'Enb!kOm, or Habaqqliq, an Ethiopian of Yemenite origin, One of the manuscripts of this translation (British Library, London, Ethiopian 275), copied between 1746 and 1755, memlons Ba'¥wm;l. ibn Abi al-Faraj as the author of the Arabic rec"nslon, This person is othetwise unknown.
JlIJlUOGRAPHY Dodge, B, The flhrlSI of al·Nadfm. Vol. I, pp. 260, 359. N"w Yori<, 1970, Cimaret, D. "Traces et parallel.. du Kitab Bilawhar wa·Budasaf dans la tradition a.--abe" Bulle/in d',;-
BARSANUPHIANS
'udu orU..,,,lu 24 (1911):91-133. _ u livre de Bi/awlu.r e' Bi-dba' "10" I" wrsion "',,/>cc Umi>1/iDr,,~. Grnt:Va and Paris. 1911. _ "iljb Bil"wlo"r w,,·BiuI ed. ROo;ti Tajaddud. pp. Ill. 1&6. Tehl1lll. 1971. N..rallah. 1. HiS/off. d" _0>1<'''' lilll,.ire d,ntS n,,~ _""hue d" yo ,.., XX' .14... ...". y"wllf
"'oFJ,,"',.
BARNS,
JOHN
WINTOUR
BALDWIN
(191 2-1974), Brilish Egyptologist and papyrolo8Jsl. born in Bristol. He was educated at the Uni,'~rsity of 8rlltol and at O~ford, T""'re he ~lUdied under C. H, Roben. and B. Gunn_ He was a Lady Walli. Budte r~ar<:h fellow in qyptology at Unh'Cnlty Collel" Oxfonl (1945-1953). Ie<:turcr In pap)'l'O' lollY II Qdord (1953~1965), and professor ol Eml' 010cY at Od'Ord (1965-1974). He was ordained in thc Chureh of England in 1956. Althou&h he published compa""'i'ody litl~ in lhe Mid of Coptic studies. tm Slrcncrn by in his tcal'h· inl ol the bnsuagc and litenuurc.. Apan from his paprroJoPcal studies and articles, his In· clude T1o. ~...." OstrKDrl Sin"", (London, 1951); Frw. 1UImuH..... P",FYri (Oxford, 19.56): F(ntr Mutyrtlanu from "b Piupotll Mo'J"" COfJf/c Codi· (0, ...ith E. A. Raymond (Odon!.. 1973): and N", Ham_Ji Codocu: Gna Coptic ".",,, from dtt C.rIOfln"(e of Iht C_~, with C. M. Browne and J. C Shelton (I.eidI=n. olj?SI). He dH:d in O:lfotd.
at
wocru
0""
IlIBUOGRAPHY Davits. W. V. ··John Winlooir Baldwin &ms... Jour. ".'01 EIY",ion Archeology 60 (19H):243-46. Uoyd·Jones, H. Editorial Fortwwd. Journal of EfYPli." Atcha..ology 60 (197~):3. Mallu. E. "Rcy, luhn Winlour Baldwin Barns 19121974." Sullclin ac I" Soci,;ti d·archi%,i.. COpl~ 21 (1971-1973):219-n. "Ni!crologl~:' S"II.li" d' fa Sodll,; fr"'''fQj~.. d"gypIQIQgic 69 (1974):4. M. L BIUBI.lU
347
BARONIUS, CESARE (IH'-I607). ItIllian cc· c1csiastical. hia"lian and ...... rehman. He was cle....ed 10 IN card;na1aJ~ in 1596 and.tM nn:.1 ).... r. became prdcct of lhe Vallcan Ubnuy. He mis.sed becoming p<>pr beea,," 01 S~nis.h opposition. Hj, major ........, as a historian is 1Iv .....,umttual bul unfinished A",...ILf Eccluiasricl. H~ planned iI :as a complete chronol. . . .l ",cord oi the hmO<)" of lht Catholic chun:h. 8)' hil dcalh. M had rcxhed the yur 1198. and olll.." Iri~ 10 conlinu~ h~ work. th<>U«h unsucc~lly. In hillifclime. he publi$hed lwelve iolio-sizc volumel (Romc, 1581-1593). Tlwc work was ~t.-d by J. D. MAIW in thin)'"fiw: vol· urn~ (l.uc:ca. 17J'-1759). /II. ~ O'dilion (cd. A. n.c;".,r. 1364-ISBJ) ..·tlh all continuations (37 voIs., Bar-k·Duc and Paris. 1364-18S3) "'-as originally planncd in fil'ty .. glum... bul was n....er com· pleted. 83ronh.. rcproduccd num.. l'OIls txlen,iYe ...lections from tM original sollren. and ucerpts from the ,I"".. ICI appurt'd In F<ench, Italian. Gennan, Polish. and Arabic. Tills ambitious enterprise, howevOr', fcll shon of modern standards of research and was ralher dcfccli ... wMn it carne to Eastcrn Chri~tendom. Hc", his information was in· sufficient. ;IS he ....w thc cycnts from • Slricdy Romall Calholic poin. of view.
BIIlUOCAAPlIY
,Ii Soronio. Romc,
Cal~mio.
UTe
G. L.a viJ" •
~rifli tI~1 Cortl""",/~
Ce-
1901. Ubcro. G_ df:.. CUClfl! B........io. p"tI,.. ddt" uoria ~u;tc
BARSANUPHIANS, One of Kven! Alexandrian spliote:r groups of those Monophysllcs ...·100. because they had rejecled I"" communion of their pair,' arch. wen known as AC(plrQ/oi (hca
348
BARSANUPHIUS, SAINT
name was tI01 ~.. urmllS the Anchorite monk bul a pre.ender 10 the ~opaI rank. BIBUOGltAPtly
Neale. J. M- A HmO"! of Uw Holy &.Jl«>r CIu.ln::Ir: 17M 1'dm'UrWe of A1Lundrid, Vol. 2, pp. 131. London. 1!41.
n.
BAllSANUPHIUS, SAINT, lifth-sixth century aJlChorite. Although he is not mentioned m the Coptic: SYHAXAlOON,. Barsanuphius deserves a place of honor because of his OU.-nelinl holiness and the uceptiott,u inll....,nu ~ uerdwd in .he his.... ry 01 CIt""';an opirilualily. He _ of fcyplian ori,in, and his mother longue w... Coptic. We know nothin! of his youth or Iile until we ~nd him Il$ a hermit in .. rnonastuy founded near Oau .0.1 Ihe end of the ~fth century by Serid<». ·'The Orand Old Man." as he was called. never left hls cell and llIW nobody eJlcept Serid<:>s. who acted a.l his secretary. Barw-nuphius was only Ihe spirilual dlreclor of lhe monu of the community of Seridos and the superior but was aIsc consulted by a hoiIl of monks. priests, laymen, and t>ishops of the reJion. All these eJlchanles were carried OUI m wrilinl thl'O\lgh the intermediary of Serido5. who pasaed on Ihe req _ and replies. the Ialler heinl written down by him in Ornk.., the dicwion of the C ... nd Old Man or Ihe ··,uler <:flO" of &nanuphiU$. ,·the other Old Man:· John•• ~nnit ill • neishbonnl cell. About 8SO letters from this COllesponden«, col· lecled by a monk of the commwnlly. haw b«to prnerved and ........, published by N>oDdemus lhe ~ 1M. Vemce ill 1116. A loud many of these leIlers "'ere traD$laled into Ar"abOI: Ilnd Ceorpan. The c...dm of doe Mcmh. published in Cairo. l;'OMains Ionl cn...cts Jrom !hem. Mwitlple editions in Slavonic and Rt"si~ppeared in the eidlt<:enlh and nineleenth eer..uries. Thi. doa$ier of wndisputcd authenlic.i'1ls the only dOClUllenl of Ihia kind tha. inlonns us about the practice of $piritual direction in .nc:oen. monasli· clsm. Broo~t up on the Bible and lhe .poIhq:ma oll~ falhers. w1lieh he quoted constantly, &rsan· \lphius wall In
no'
B1Bt.IOGlUrHY
818,\01 .. _BAP1Ar'OY"IQY KAI lOANNOY. edN~ Hafiorita. Venice. 1816. Se<:ond ed-. Soterios N. SChoi..... Volos. 1960. Chitty. D. J. &r~"upJriuJ ."J loll". Qla.
BARSOM THE NAKED, SAINT. Numerou. sources assure us of &rs(l",·. hiatoricity and gi"" lIS " , m e delails of his life, He "'U hom to a well·lodo family in Cairo al an unSlated date. He losl his parelllS while he was young, IUld his malernal uncle became his guardian, When the uncle squandered his ward'. inherilance, BarsOm refused to take him to cotm. He bec.me aeeretary 10 lhe regent Shapr ai-Dun, widow of the sultan .1·Malik .l·!joili!). in 1250. (Christians were nol unusual in the adminastration.) When he decided 10 liw u a hermit he took up residence In a small, poomy caw !hal was inhabi.ed by a serpen•• The cave is still shown loeby in the Church of SainI Mereuriu. (AIIO SATFA"") ill Old Cairo. He lived .here for Iwenty)'Un (!he An· bic S~ ~ of fifteen years. and .he Ethiopian. of thiny.thfft), but when. period of oppoession of Christians arne. he climbed to the roof of the church. when: he remained. endurinr; then \:he <:'*1 and !he heat. This .._ reponed .., the clbef of poI""e of Cairo and """"""" Muslim lIUu-nies. for it was f
accordinA 10 the
Synuar-
ion. he remained less lhan • 1otietk. ""'hen he arne OUI. II ...." to take refuae In the monastery of DAY1I SHAHIIAM.. '0 the IOUlh of uiro. a monastery lhat ...... dedicaled to SoIinl Mercuriu. and received his name after his Oealh. Acconlin, '0:> the Ie>timony of Ibn al·SuqJ.1. Barsiim remained Ih",re for ~",:nteen years, from 1300,1I>1ng in a courtyard on a heap of dill.1 and ashes. Beca",~ he wore hardiy any garments, he was called ··Ihe Naked,·· He died on 5 Nasi ..... 1033/28 AUlusl ,",D. 1317, H", was buried in from of the door of Ihe church of monastery. Num",rou. miraclet were anributed to him. a. the Arabic life recounts.
I"'"
BASHMURIC REVOLTS
He was aready renowned. and the Mw.lim hlslon· an a1·MaqrtrJ mentions him in speaki", 0/ the Mon· _try of Sh.ahrAn (1M3. Vol. 2, p. 5(1). BlBUOGaAPHT
s.mu
Dudee. E. It.. W. TJu> llDtM af me of lit. Ellti· ."..." Chure/., " "'Ok. Cambriclce, 1921. Crum.. W. E.. HBanau.ma the Naked." hocudi"lS of 1M Soddy of Bibli.,.! Am.wl<>t1 29 (I9ice 33 (1976):330-31.
BARTALOMEWOS. Set Ethiopian Prelales. BASHSISR, • town in Egypt said by medl.val Muslim .uthon to be .be f<>r.runn.r of Nlff Awwal Bashblsh and. Niff Thanl Ba$hblsh, loc.ted In the Gharblyyah province. The HtS'TOllY OF THE PATRJARCH$ mentions Buhbl$b in passing as a geographical reference point. DlJrin, the patriarchate of lAClI,\RJ.,I.S (l(lO.410nl.• conAic. arose betwun the bishop of Tinah and the bishop of ~nUd 0'''' ...·hieh bWlopric coold rightfully cwm a1·Kom Sandara. ~cordin, 10 the lCCOIml, this place Lay between BashbIsh and. Shubrl DanWlah. It is uncenain ..'hether this Bashbish is the $llI'le cloy ken cI hrlhe Muslim
.......
IllBU00L\I'Hl'
J.typI.",
Tun... , S. Du cluiJJlicA-kJ>pliJ&M. ill ..,.•. uM' UJI, Vol. I. pp. 3S3-s.4. Wiesbaden. 1954. RJ.IIrlI.U 5nw.\1tT
.
BA$HMOR. AL-. an area
u..
Christianily in .rea suffered greally as' ~ll of &.shm"rites' fin;>! ~fe.t by lhe Arabs, bllt it was not qllllShed completely. aos .~idenced by Ihe Visil 01 • presbyter from al·Bashmur In C.lro around. 1200. Tlte uact boundaries of al·BashmQr 're lIneel' taln becaliM' th. medieval sources are dlt<:repam. The IIISTORY Of THIl 'ATIO.lARCHS says Wt the area was moSl easily accessible from Tida and Shubrl.
u..
_II
IIIIlUOCItAl"Kl' Mo.spero. J., and C. wie!. ''''UJri41U pour 5Urir.i hi ci<>v_phie de fEt:tJnc. Cairo. 191'-1919. Timm, s.. Dill chrW/i{:"~opriJdoc AcYPr... ill UIJbUc"u uil, Vol. I. pp. 3~-S6. w* d L'1l.19s.t. RJ.ND.u.L Sn:wAJ:T
Sou Ap;wnJu.
Em1>< in which .he
Christian inhitbitanl$ IVOIted '"Pins! AOO n.... in the .i,lllh and nimh centuries (see ~ c '-£. VOI.n).
This SIllement would place aJ·8ashmur in the northern Delta. just _th 0/ Lake Bwull..... .\110 SlUl;ITHE ARME!'llMl .........d thai in • Ia.er period at le.l the i"habillmS of aJ.8ashmur and lhe inhabitants 01 aJ·BashnW _re the same people. The u· lC1 Iocatioo of al-s.hnld ia fimilarly wscertain. but it :rppo:ars 10 have oonhwL'$t of Sakhi (Tlmm. 1984. p. 360). IllS l:lAWQot.I. SUoUd thll the Iakc in NaswiiIt was also called Bu!:laynol alBashmGr [m Maspen:> ap,d Wicl. 191.-1919, p. 16), sugestinl lhal. the region of lbe Bash.......-ites ...near NI!IW'UIt, thai is.. nonh of the cilies known today as DisUq and Kafr al-$ba)ldt. Abo al-Ftda. ......C'Ver. placed al'Bashmllr ~_n the IluJIt)'3! arm 01 the "'d. and AMmOn TlIlitJ (Uaspero and Win. p. 44). It is pos.!ible thai th.. boundanes cI .~Bashmur hav.. nOl been eOJ>lltant throuahou••he eemuri.... Perha.ps from til<: mid-eigh.h to the mid·ninth cen· t,,!)'. al·Bashmllr eneompas.secl the enlire marsh ...,. lion northeut 01 FU"""ah ...t.nding as far to the east as j"'1 north of Olklmll. Later it m.)" ha~. been limited to Ihe easlem pan of this are.., 1be name al·Bashmilr sllrvives in .his region as the name of. Nil. elUl.1 t.... t breaks off .oo...t •. S miles (7 km) 'll$( oJ. aJ·~lIrah b)' aJ·Salamlin .nd run& through the _ bee....." the Damictla ann of the N~e and Dikimis befuft emptyinr; inlO lhe: a1-sirw canal some H miks: (S-S km) _th of Daqahlah.
BASHMURIC. in
349
BASHMlJRIC REVOLTS. In lbe """nllh. riglllh. and ninlh ee...."rics Copu r~led " number of limes apinsl the A....blc .dmin"";tlion in differenl pans of E8YJ>t and were rapidly crush.d. Onl)" in lhe &shmuric region (sec IlMHMOIl. Al.-) were Copts able to • .,ist for a r.latively long period against repealed al1ackl of lhe Arable army by land and by sea and 10 inAie. hel'.')" losses on their op· Pl"e$$Ors while enduring lenl'hy lieges. Though AJ'llbic s:ecgraph.n are not consislent in lhcir delinealion of lhe boo-ders of al·Bashmur. i.
350
BASHMURIC REVOLTS
appears thai the Bashmurit... Ii~ed In tIM: ..... rshy ~ns that by near lhe: Mcdi.lemlnean COtiI in tIM: DOnlwm pan of lhe: Della he:IWttn the Rosella and Oamie..a branc..... of !be Nile close 10 !he !.aU of ldkil., The rep.n had a hmoq of tn..... nsiaence; throu&h the cencun... ill; inhabiwlu had revolted apins< their EcrJ>t.i.o.n. Rom.al1. and Byunline ...,.. len. Th;s _ .also the lasl rqion In Ec,ypc 10 PJ.b. mil 10 tIM: .......bs, yean mer !he ...,. of the country had been CCIfIUld De ....ly an by 1M army irI <:a$OO oIl"f:>'OlL Arabic hislorians ~ the B...hmuric uprit.inp .. a rnction 10 the bea"!t:fiscaJ. dl:m&nds placed On !he CopU, a "ie:w thai _ 10 ....·e ios..enced !he: concl~i01"l of quile '" ~w modem hlsl0rians.. How· ner, one can discern a. relationship Del\Oftn an incrnse in AJ"lIbie inlokJ"llllCC and !he ~inninll of the Bashmuri" revolts. On.. notel a di(fer",ce be· Iwun lhe anilude of Ihe BashmlJrites and lhe pas· .Jve acquie""e""e 01 O'lhtr Copts in the face of lhis llrowina inlolerance. The difficlJhy in defining the exacl limill of In. ",glon occlJpied by tb.. Bashmuritte rnakel It 1m· possible 10 date precisely the beginning of lhe se· rles of ~hmuric n:volts. The recorded and·Arab revolts thai were a reaction apinsl Ihe Ilrowinll
hardening of the "'.... bic policy from doe second part of the _nth eenc,,')' bqao 10 occur as early :u the close of ~I CtnIU')', firsl In the eastern pan of the Deha and later eJ.tendina 10 lhe whole Delta as wdl ... 10 Upper E(wt. Tho: topognpby of the Ba$hmuritt repon and doe reluctanC.. of the anny 10 opente then: ~t lhat tI>e ~u may h:ave begun in thir ..,..,. Def~ Ulttldlna 10 tl'>e l>t:ichbor· inl ....... of the o..luI. One lhoukl ano bear in mind thai il ....... io doe nonhern pan 01 the Della thai Byzantines landed fOI" a $hort tllr>e in 720. ..iOCh could "",an WI Ihe uta ..;os .already in agitation or even in open re-voh. Re-oll$ 8a~ up in !he lasl )'tat'S 01 lhe Umayoyads. perhaps because.he caliph Man>-tn could not 10lerate troIJble in £opt, his IIl$I otronlhold. sAwtlws t8N .u.... UOAIT..• pro.,;dea precious infonnalion aboul tbe dr;unalic last operation against lhe Basbmurit... befu.., lhe ani",,) of lhe Abbuids in Egypt. II .urn, lhal HaWloora. Marwin'l governor in ~t, had already failed 10 end Ihe revolt, in .pile of hi' repealed upeditions by land and by sea, When Marwin ani ..ed In Egypt 10 d<:a1 with the uprising ptnonally, he propo$ed an annistice. probably 10 con.olidate hll po6ltlon in front of the ad....ncing Abbasids, When Ihe Copu n:fused the lruly. Marwin joined the army he had broughl &om Dama.lCU$ 10 Ibe troops already fighting the Copts in Ef;ypc. As funhtr pressure upon the Copts, Hawlhara took O/A'!L 1(744-767). tl>e Coptic pl>Iriarch, """tag<:, tnnspontd him 10 Ralh.ld (ltoseIla). which ..... a &O"I'rnn>ent S1rot'1p,old. and mrtat· eotd to kill him if !he: ~lJric£s did not end lhe honifuioe!.- Far from beinl intimWbled "" this 'lip, !he Copts avtn~ Ie by not only alIadci~ !hot besiq;iog anny, ...nidt hU. 10 ~Ie its pooitioCoonlemcl. 'Ihe .....;. of the ~bha9d1 did DOl implUV't' the sllualion, the political ofuorder belwec:o them and lhe Umayyath encour...,ed ~'ol," by the CopIS and by the Arabic selders, Arabic hi$forian$ lpea1 about tht BashrUds (a conuption of BuhmlJnl.",), who joined the l't"<'OIt of 767. whkh flared up in d", Della. The expedilion senl by 'he governor Valid ibn !:Iiilern agairt$l Ihem w8$ def....c.d. his local high official. we'" killed, and Ihe anoy <etreated 10 al. FusU\1 (Old Cairo). In S30. Ihe caliph al,Ma'mQn,
•
BASIL THE GREAT
P*I1 of 1M ~l .. and in ~dria. bUI '"'"all helpless aplns•• he l\aYunuri,es. Afohln approached 1M patriarch and asked him w use his inftuel>ce 10 Slop tlw mol.... The pauiarclo avee! that had made lhe Bashmurites revolt. Some of lhem were deported 10 Iraq; olhe~ were senl to Syria and were sold as slaves in Dam,"""os. The anny destroyed and bumed Ihe entire area 10 wipe OUt all possibility of further Te"ol~~. Thus ended the last revolt olthe Copts in Egypl. Withoul any ",al pol.itical plan 0..- any national lead· e.-.hip. Wilhoul any orpnizcd anned force. and In 1hr fa<:e 01 a Siron&. eIlperienced anny. lhese spasrnodk re'·ol......'C.e an indication of dt:spente (OUraae. NOI only dKI .hey xhie~e nothl"8 but lhey dnined the rorce and pride of the Copu.. NOMtheless. Ih.ose ~Its an: imponanl lor Coplic history, as ohey lhed li"'l on the ebaDeler of the Coptic
_.
IlIBUOGUPHY
Abbot. N. nu K......"" "linn from AphrodiJo i" tit. onenliil Jl1Uilwl•. C~, 19J1l. Ariya. A. S. "Kibc.~ In £1IC1'C/,,~t:dUa nllS/.m, Vol. S. e; f.. van Donzel; B. 1Awit; aDd C. Pella!. PP!;,o-9S. New ed., ~iden, 19S5. Becker. C. Bei/Tilp ~, G
no.
Trinon. A. S. TM Cd/ifs
"nd
TIl."
351
N(}ft.Muslim SuI>-
jed Orlord. 1930. Wii5l.cnfeld. H. F_ Die Sllillltaltu _ .4rn,un ZeiJ C1u:lIift:n. G6ttingt:n. 1815-1876.
au
~,
MOO!
BASHRUDAT, AJ.... Su &sIIm"r. aJ·. BASHRUT. See Ibslllllur. aI·,
BASIL, SAINT, CANONS OF. See Canons of Saini Basil.
BASIL THE GREAT, archbishop of Cae.......a in Cappadocia (330-379). Basil supported the tradi· tion of ~TH~NASIUS in comlnulng the defense of or· lhodoxy againsl AIUAl'ltSM. particularly in Asia Minor. He .....a. an aCli," theologian, but was able (0 conned theological work with u.celic prn.ctice. Ba.il·. background and edllcalion ""'''' Hellenis· tic. The desc.ndant of a Iich and lon~imt: Chtistian family, he began hil studies ....ith fifteen years in ea.:sa""" in Cappadoc;". continued in Cons...ntinopie. and II>O'Hd 10 Athens in 351. Although Basil considered dassial lea.minC profane and lOok a cri.ica1 point or view loward I,. he made good use 01 his knowleda:~ of !he old ...Then and of the dar ..cal world. M a Christian. he ...... 1or1!1nl)61 an aw:e1ic and a monk. a founder of mOOllSlma ,,'1>0 pthrmd perlOllS of Ilk spirit around Mm. But lie al50 ~ invol~ed in church practice and chanoh poIit>C:S. became .. and in )70 an::hbisl\op of eaes. arca- Basil was n'"flOWMd S$ an eloquent ptea<:ber of ethia. He ooce visiled the rnonaM"ries of f.&ypt. ""here his prindpl<:s of a:sce'Iku,m and orthodox theology "'-e.e -.II actepleel aJona lhe Nile. M a ~h ...·e lind 8a5il's nam~ in Cop(k liltnl"re, ..Ilhough nol '~"'Y homily ...ansmilled uncle. his """'" is aUlhen· tk. A complete corpu. or Basil's works in C<>pIic tran,lation. docs nOl ",,15l.-a lfn.ation true in G.-ed: li(~r:a(ll'" as w"lI. s.,th tradititJm erroneou.· ly handed down 11", homilies of B""II under Ihe nam" of Basili<>s, I1lu.tr:ati~e of Basil's popularily in Egypl, th" homily on the w"dding of Cana of Pall;' arch Iknj;lmin I Incllld"s a quolation by Basil; Ihi. i. not yet ~crified. Some speci6c homil~ al1tibuted to Basil follow.
pash),.,...
352
BASIL THE GREAT
A homily on Noah's Ark (Valican Library, Codex Coplicu. 68, fol., 33-52'} is almosl certainly of Greek origin, but is nol found in Basil's Greek works and lacks Basilian theological viewpoinlS, AI· though this homily is exlarn in Coptic (Bohairic), Coplic rhetoric is missing, The author's view of the world points to a source in northern Syria and Mesopotamia about 550 to 600, Perhaps this homily came to Egypt _ia the Syrian colony, since Bohairic appean to be the original monslation. It waxes •trong in biblical and ethical exhortalions, AnOlher homily exists in Sahidic (two versions) about the generation according to the /lesh of Our lord Jesw Chml delivered on 29 Kiyahk. This i. attributed in Greek 10 JOHN CHRYSOSTOM and is dated about the fifth century, Another homily in Bohairic (Vatican library, Code" 58, fols, 178-94") ttealS the impor· lanl problem of fasting. The Greek origillal has been found in the Greek works 01 BasiL However, the Coptic (two manuscriplS exist) is an adaptalion and revision of the Greek original according to Egyplian requirements. Also, the bomilies on the subjects of the end of the world, Solomon's temple. and the paning of the b<>dy an
Greek church falhers most quoted in Coptic litera· lure. His complete works in Coptic are not yet known, but .urely the Egyptian. lran.lated di.-ectly his m",t popular Greek and Syrian homilies, or revised them, or translated them from existing revi· sion•. Those not known to b~ authenlic were probably tran.lated di<e<:tly from a Greek original lhat bears the marks of Basilian philosophy. Such works comprised biblical homilies, or catechelical admon· itions about ethic., or eulogies of ascelicism . Finally, we ~bould nOI forget thaI the greatesl part of the Basilian heritage in the Syrian language must have been lransmined to 1'.g)p1 through the Syrian colony, whose labors in this field must nol be undervalued, The An"plw,a of Saint Basil, whose best versions appear in Greek and Coptic in the Nile Valley, demonstrate also the popularity and renown of Basil in Egypl (see also AN,\PHORA OF SAIl" BAStL).
BIBUOGRAPHY Budge. E. A. W. Copric Homilies In Ih, Dioleel 01 Upper Egypl. londcm. 1910; New York, 1977. Campenhau.. n, H, FreiheIT von. Griuhiseh~ Kirch'nviil"" pp. 86-100. Urban·Blicber 14. Stuttgart, 1955. Capelle, D. B., O.s.B. "Le. Liturgies basiliennes el saint Basile," In U.. lemoin "rchaiqu~ de la Ii/ur· gie copt, d, S. Basile, ed, J. Doresse and Dom E. !..anne, pp. 45-74. Lou""in. 1960. Doresse. J., and D. I'.. Lanne. Un rJmoin arehaique de la IilUrgie copu de S. Basile. Bibliolheque du Muswn 47. Louvain, 1960. Hauschild, W. D. "Basilius von Citsarea," In Theologisch R,alenzyklopiid~, Vol, 5, pp, 301-313. Berlin and New York, 1980. Hebbelyncl:, A. and A. van Lant.choo!. Cadicu Coptiei V,,'ican!, Sarberini" ..i, Borgiani, Ross;" ..i, Vol. I. Valican City, 1937. Khalil, S., S.J, "La Version arabe du Basile alexan
BASIUCA
BASIUCA, a build;n. type of classical and mtd:i~ val arcMteclUn. 11M Non-Christian 8astlka In ancitnt Rome lbe basilica was a cowred. mostly ~tangubr. publi<: b\lildinl with C1Itrances _11y On llIe long sid", (one of the few exceptions b the famous basilica at Pompei). fr~urntly. and especially in the olde~ buHdinas, the outer walls arc C\'cn opened up into contin_s colonnanslrucled ...·i.h a sing!" na.-e. It was not ,"",!"ired dw .he na"" should be hicher thatI 1M side aisles, a1thouah camplcs ClIIl be found wIwu this is the case.. One oi the mquinmcnts oi the basilica was lhat h should be wi\.llbW: for comme«illl ""chanl"' and occasionaf judicial poouedinp. f'rom plOSSOllcs in anocimt litenatun that contain refe"'"<:e5 lO .he function <Jl the t-ilica (collKled by Ohr, I97J, pp. 1621£.), it "",erges thac it was designed primarily for the rnO'" prominent type of b\Jsiness activities. Thac is, it conccmtd above .11 the entrep.....eurs and veat merchants, whereas retaillradc took place in the shops and sl"lI. alona Ih" columned "reelS. To fulfill ilS funclion. the bumc. Iw:I 10 be spacious and 10 be l<xated at a cenlral and easily acce.sible position within the town, In this regard the area .round the fomm ....... panicularty suitable (Vitro,t· 1lS. S. 1.4).
III its int"rior. the basilica contained a podium mosUy k>c
353
~n-ent
only in the latin West in this fonn. Because Vitru..... -thou,h ;n a ~ry diffcrnlt C'OfII""1 -compare. the b.asllica 10 to-ealIed ~ian IIalIs {6. J. I-IOJ. atlemptS ha.." been made 10 deri\'e It from. the hYJlO5f)'le hall prnalent in phanonic temple arcllit...,tu..., $\lCh halls being in ...:nnl in""mees furnished with a raised middJ" section. Bul this is unconvincing, The ..... ha>-e in common only a very small ntcmal and even dispensable feature, ",hue... they do nQl eOrTe$pOnd "t "n in regard 10 Iheir general architeetu",,1 outline function (see H"eny. 1970, pp. 78-80). Genenl1y .peaklng. one incline. today IOWolrd the .....umplion thaI Ihe Gr«k Moa belorlged 10 Ihe forerunners of the Roman basilica. At any rate. II has the same funclion, and I10t infrequently ;oes baock to royal endow· menlS. An imponant link is pt'OVi
The adopIion of \he lO!rm "basill",," for the Ch.... rian ~ or worship Is all""w quile euly. In lIS cecle.i_ieal HnS(. the won! is r>evcnlteleu nOl rutricted to a p.nicula~ structural type. It is ...Iur • label of rank. and may refer to a Iongltudinal·p1an building as well as to .. eentr.o.l·plan structure. What Is important is Ihat It has to do with a 1"'1e, con· .picuous edifice, as a ",Ie. a c•• hed",], In the history of an and. in archaeol"l)/ the tenn basilica means a -ered by a wooden roof, and subdivided into sevcraI aisles (rnll'tly three or five). Cenaln North African basilieall an even Iarter num· twr cl aisles. The bz-eadt}, oi the nan normally ClIcecds by far tha., of lhe side aisles.. and II is a1so considerably lofti",r. SO as to provide room for a row <Jl windows, the cleracory, in the _ oi 1411 abm..., the coIonnada on each side. thus cleu of the rools of the fide ai$la. The roof <Jl the early CltriSlian basilica ill. lIS a RIle, a wooden yddlet-ck roof. In some l-eIioros whe... wood ...... scarce. a barrcl·v;suh roofing has been adopled at an early Stage. The ~ of the side aisles ate for the most I"'n built as .hed roofs, but they may also be COn· lirueted as flat 1'OOfs-pankularly i~ nl;on~ ,,"'hh liule ",infall 1lS, fo~ example, in Egypl. In gallery churches Ihe aisles often p
""Ill""
354
BASILICA
the ~uiremenl of kcq>inc the seus of the belie¥en apart. The nearury stain ue H... the 1l'IO$t pan located at the :short sides of the Pl.mhu, wbid, in Syria ~ 10 the de>'elopmenl of a kind of double lOWer facade. Olherwise the ...nlto is a kind 01 enlDnce hall, which ordirwily spans the lull width of lhe church and >'ery frequenLly optf1S oulward into a conlinuous series of colu.mn.. The nanhe~ abo ""Cun in the same fom> ""ith cen",d·plan edl·
lieu, The ritual cenler of Ihe ba.ilica. finally. ;5 the $~"Cluary al Ihe eastern end. It e~hibits a variety of design•. in accordance wilh lhe various lilurs.lc.1 ordinance' in the dlfFerenl parts of lhe Christian oikmmte". (world), In Ihe West and in Asia Minor. the basilica normally ends in a semidrc"lar ~pJe I....t a>: a rule ptolrudes from .he otherwise slralghl east ...;011 as a simple cylinder·shaped and ""casion· ally polygonally encased pan of lhe buildin•. In Et;ypt and Syria, the apse, from the- early fifth century onward, is flank" on both ,ides by 1"0 bteral chambers (1CK'llI1etallon of the MaID$. and COllSC' qU'e one or more aUks. A pseudolr3t1"'"JM ""cura whell .only the o:.ter1or profile of the basilica in fronl aps.e is e,umded, ..-hik ill the in.fI'rior only lite numboo:r of ....1es in Ihis pan is increased. as is the Ute ..;th the Leonidas Bal.ili· ca in Lecbaion at Corinih and the Ok! Church at Old Dongola. Besides ~ ..rialions in lhe design cl the basil· ica camed by Ihe Ceosraphlc.al posilion and hy diA'....nt local building lradition•. funher di~er· ,ences arise from lhe d'S1;ncl e>'olution of Ihe wil· ica In ea<:h regian, In Ihe Greek sphe,.." 8S well as in Syria (p ....umably by way of Constantinople). additional .ide cha~l. were requi d, Hen:. in Ihe •e,'enth or .ighth century, lhe called lemplon became fully e_bl\shed. Thi' is a higher rising
of""
""Cttn the upper lOne of which ",-as :lItu' by cur· tains. lIS on,inal funclion was 1(1 ~e ~ emphatically th. from the pan of the church where the laity stayed and 10 guard the acts performed in the sanctuary from !he "ir\o' of the helin-en. A similar dewlopmnl.l is 10 be recorded for almost the entire Etit. On the COnll'lry, in West· ern archile<:IU'" Ihe rqion of .he altar remains open and "isiblr. Notable here is the devclQpmenl of lhe Io..-er of Ihe basilic•. In Ihe EaSI the muhiplicatlon of .h.n led. furthermore. 10 are· markable e1aboralion of the ritual, The conslrucllon of ba.illcas came 10 an end in Easlern architecture al the beginni"a of Ih. Middle Byuonline period, around lhe middle of che tenth e.."tul}'. Before that dale the basilica had been lhe most .,..;desptfld ""'ilding type. despile the con· S11'1K11on or n.umel'Olll cenlm-plan IN!ific.... In the West the ~Ii.ca ...... used almost ....thou. ;nlem.opt;on unlil .he lime of lite Rn>ais.san~. OIorinl ,his lim., il under<1len. lC¥Cm modification. of S1)'1e. nonethelesl newr 10SI its specific shape• The question of the <>I'izim of the Chrislian basilt· ca is also Rill an ob5c..... one. Attemp1S ha.... been made 10 deri.... it from lite pagan martet basilica. from the columned .lretU CQrDR'I011 in Ihe East. Rnman Empire, or from the basilica·like throne hall. thaI can be found In some imperial palaces. Occasionally I .... Iheory Is abo advocated Ihal il was pre<:eded by a hl'»>oelhral Iype of building, Ihe socalled basilica discopul~. which was thoughc to he aue.ced in Salona
saDC'''''''''
r.cad.
""'t
BASIUCA
"",nicular SHUtt".... ')'P<' bul to 11.1' Chrislilln chureh as such. Accon:lioll 10 the suggestive conjecWre of A. von Gcrbut (l9S3, pp. 12911".), lhe name dem'CS from lhe m.agc of lhe early chureh bdwe the ol6cial acknovoiedgment of I.... Chm.lian rei,,· ion, ...-hen lhe lilWD ..... Slill celeb_eel in !he most pnlnhnc1lt room of a "",.. te house. This room l~ bol"l' mUn oorer from here. The Chrlsllan Sullie. In £CYP1 Com~red
wilh Ihe general shape 0111.1' basilica, ,t.. Efyp!iJln basiliCJI e"h.ibils cemin pKulillrllles. Heroe, as in Syrilo. a ""nClu:a.ry wi,h -'CVulll rooms and a 5Iralgtu "'all loward Ihe e""l is well establisl>ee>·.. r the happened 10 be particularly .... rrow (G«mmann. (97). pp. 167ft.). As repn:ls 11.1' ...bdh·lslon of .1... naoI, the £&yptian basilica contains «rUin peculiarities in II... design of tho: we:stnn .sa;Iion. Wh..reas In ,he ....... of the Christ~ world Ihe side aislQ conlinue as far ... the ~ .. nd of ,he basil'· ca. ;n E&YP< !hey art, with few CXcql,jons (Ull .IllSA). CO,' acq"ia the . ~ ~ of :an ambltl. lOry JOing around IhOff.ydn- Th~ oriJin of rJw return "i.... is probably 10 be """'&hI i... lhe demands e.Uled by Ibe galle')' enureh. Abo>~ the rf;turn aisl.. ,,-,.., a kil'ld of bridgc 1....1 connected lhe p1~rics 01 bolb sfdQ. so thai only" sin,le ~I.... ease was ,equjred. SuI>sequ~ntly, OO",.....r, the relum aisle could also be found in ehurdtcs Ihal surely were not furnished w;lh ,all..rics, For (I... locallon of ch.. ,allery Slairc.ase, Ihere is no Ii.cd rule, !lis frequenlly built as an ulernal addilion "I (I... llOulhwesl COmer of th,. basilloa. The walls of Ihe Eto'pl;"n basilica-will. Ihe .... cCplion of some ..dilices in Lower £aypt-ar.. provld..d wilh n.. merous niches, They are Ihc c.~
*"'"
355
of lhe ol1en .emarl<sbly ilrona wans of EtrPtiluI basilicas and should. II i«mS. be considered " pcculiarily of mud briek roMInK:liOfI. An 1Uri..", OC" """ only raroel)' in EfypIian _ilK.. NevntbclCS5. then- art ,",,,.. ptio.... 10 this in Abo Ml..... and al---Ashmiina)'Jl. In chI' nrl)' lI\CdicY:l! peliod. chat io, durin, Ibe lime the Arab oonquesl, die Em'? lian basilica al fint chanJed 'ffJ IIlde. The edifices. n...... rth.-lcss. bcc:ame sm:a.ll.... and ""'"' moGcsl in Ihrir design. In addition. In lhe seveC1uary. later .his pUSllg.. widened out inlO " fun room, Ihe khums. Since Ihe apse opening ilSelf, On Ihe other hand, k..pl ilS lradi.ional form as an arch spannin, iu full widlh, th.. arehltee'ural apportuni.y pre· sented ilSelf to combin.. bolh rooms imo Ihe O""r· riding form of the lriconch, wh.. reby a familiar idea from early Christian architecture came 10 be """ppliC the Ion.gl
1oI""",n,
IUBUOCllAPHV
Apol.lonj-Ghel1i, B. M, fI foro ~ I" ./Isilic.. >C\'Crirtn"
356
BASIUDES
Gartkiewi<:z, P. M, "New Outline of the Hislory of Nubian Chuc<:h Archit""lure.'· BH1/erin Amieke Beschaving 55 (1980):137-60. Gerkan, A. von. "Die profane Wld die kin;hliche Basilika." R;;mische Quartalschrift f~r chris/liche AiI..rlUmskunde und Kirchmgeschich/e 48 (1953):t29ff, Grossmann, P, "Die von Somers Clarke in Ober-An~in;\. enldecklen Kirchenbauten.'· Milleilungen des Deutschen An:hii%psche.. Ins/auts, Abtei/ung Ki:liro 24 (1%9):144-68. _ "Eine vergessene frUhchristliche Kin:he heim l.Ac
BASILIDES, second-century Alexandrian Gnostic teacher. According 10 Cll'.MENT OF AI.LXANDRlA (Stro· mala vii.106.4), Basilides taught in Alexandria dur· ing lhe reign of Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138- 161). ElISEBIUS OF CAESAREA gives the precise date of A.D, 132 (Jerome, 1846, cols. 619-20). He wmdd seem to he the earliest of the Ihree leading Gnostic leachers in Alexandria. The others were Valentinus (c. 140-160). and HEAAClLON (170- ISO). Basilides appears to ~e claimed Glanki..., "Pe· terl interpreter," as his Ipch.. (Clement Stromata vii.I06.4), which also poiins to an early date for his activilies, He and his oon; Isidore, were pnxligious workers. They are credit.d with compiling Ihe 6,.,,1 full·scale Christian commentary on any of the Gos· pels (perhaps Luke). Ihe ~nty·fou,..book Begetica (E.usebius Historia ecclesias/ka iv.7.7). In addition, they were responsible for works on Oriental prophecy, "The Exposition of the Prophet Pan:hor" (Clement Stromata vi.53.2): On Platonic philosophy, "On the [nseparable Soul";' on ethics; and on poe' try, They ranged widely over Iheology, theosophy, elhics, exegesis, and mysticism, seeking to celate
Christianity to the general religious experience of mankind. Unfonunalely, vel)' linle of Basilides' work h3S survived. Clement of Alexandria quotes from it ver· batim and must he preferred as a primary source. lrenaeus and Hippol),us, who also seek to rerut< him, faj] to agree, though in places Hippolytus stands n.arer to Clement's sources than does Icen· seus. H.gemonius, writing the Acta Archelai early in the fourth century, lends to overemph3Size the dualism in Basilides' syslem and relate il to that of Mani (AC/a Archelai 67.4). Both Hippolytus and Icertaeus agree thaI for Basilides, God was the origin of all IhinS"_ Accord· ing 10 lren"""", He was "unborn" (Adversus haereus 1.24.3)~ for Hippolytus, "God came from nothingness" (Refl
BASlLIDES
Jews clUC'ified Simoo of eyn,o~, ..,hI> had aorried the erosa, beliffioll him 10 bt J~ while '"'-'S, wi"ll Ihe rorm of Simon, stood by. J.ughing at oh<~ ~
key 10 this systtm was !hat each of the hish M;ties belie,-ed himself 10 be God .nd was i&JIon.nt of doe uiltence of the hea~ .boIoe his _"ll ~f<'. n-, Yah.......b tbouchl that he .... God .nd ruler of the .. n;"..,nor. and hn>a' had no am_r 10 the IIlaSa!C of "']valion pteacht:tinll this lDCSlIagC. UH~ .....:' Basilldcs dtclared (Cle.......1 Srr-rata iv.12.Be), "one ....... .......t of the will oC God 10 love ~ryth.inc." .nd hel\Ce could apprehend Ihe divine ~e. HOIOo-..... ~r, belief only in ,he lilcral or>C5SaJC oC the Gospels implied lhat such a belicv~r was atilt • dave of y.h....eh. T..... e religion ........ wholly $pirilUal, attuned to NO'Iied, ..... the result of lin. COI'll'esson may not haY<:' bttn grie¥otJ$ oll'enclen. but they potsased the c.apol(:io:y ....d the desire 10 ain-perhaps they wen= e>..... beinS ""nished r0.m commined in a pre>1OUS life. Manyniom cleansed lMm from all l\IiZl. E,,,n JQUO, .. the temptations ........-..d. poss~sd llIe pos:sibilitylo lin. lin« throug.tl his incamalion he ..... become man. Tbou&h C1emcat of Aleundria recoiled from lhese ideas .. "alhciscic'" (Slrom4u iv.12.as.I). they ~re lOunded on the conviction tIw God could noc be the ..uhoo- of t:vil. ~ accepled the P1alonIe: new of P'rovidencc: thliit in rIO St:nSt: coWd it be rQpoll$iblc forevil (SlrDmDttl iv.82_1). E"l1_ due. ntl>er, 10 the inlluence of Ihe arehons, chief or whom _ Yahweh. BasIIi6n W&$ th<: ftrst ChriMian IheoloPon 10 In· terpret the New Te-s.wnenl .H~gorically. PI;sto and Homer, lIS well as Paul. aid in lbe elucldallon of lhe divine eQagc contained in Ihe Gmpels, BasHldes reveal, himself as a thinker of bQldneSi and specu· lallve power. Though he may hav~ been innuenct:
357
ent for its understandi", of God could hardly be ,he real savin, relij:ioT> for mankind. If many of his ideas proved unac«plable 10 orthodo~ Chriscian... Ibsilides nonr:thclra hdped 10 frtt Chriscianity from SI.lbjec:tiotl 10 the Pf"""Jenl lIf'OCalyptic and millenarian conct'pll. He Ill'" thac a .. niven.a! religion must draw on tl>e ..i5dom of all mankind, and that if the end ..... a m)'llic:al faith, lhe ""y 10 thai eDd Ia)' ~ unclentandinc tl>e mr:so;agr of the Veal p1tiloosoPtel'5 ami poeIS. In partieu.1.u Pial<> aDd Homer. The emoersenu of an authentically gmlile Chriscianio:y ......" much to Builides. Basilidcs' views 1«... alrnt:loU cenainly to have inOuenced .....u ...ru.U5: and there arc reminiscences of his ideas, such as IIle ignonooce of Ihe Greal Archon (Yaltwdl) and crucifucion of a SU!:tstilUle for Christ. in $«q"d Tnati5t of the G'eat Seth. Isidore is mentioned in tl>e NaS Hantmadi Codex, lncWe IX. Much of tIM: GtlOiSlic view of the origins of creaticln. and ~n', relation 10 it and 10 God, may be said to have orilinaled .....ilh Basilides. He is pall of thc Alexandrian Jewish and Chri..ian philo· oophical l .... dition IIlal produced PHtLO, Valentinus . Clement. and Oll[(;"".
I""
BIBLlOORAI'HY Rkstcr, W. "Das Syslem des Ba5ilidcs." New Testoment SlUdi~. 9 (1961-1963):23)-5.5. cd. Die Gn<>Jis, trans. .... d cd. R. MeL Wil· son. vol. 1. OJdord. 1972, Hegcmonius. Act" A",~u.i, ed. H. Beeson. [);c g:riechi!IChcn christlichen SclIriftSl~ller doer e""'co drci Jalu10undttte 16. Leiptig. 1906. Hon, F. J. "8luilidQ.- In DeB I, PI'- 268-11.1tcpr. New Yort. 1974. Jerome_ S. H,,~•~",'hl; • f'ltnpnttltio Chro>tictle E.W:Ji; P_phili. In PL 27, col .. 34-676. Paris,
-=:::-
''''.
May. G. Sc/oi}pfun, ous Nidus. pp. 63-86. Berlin.
1978. NulenbcrJ. E. -Ba4ilidoes:' In T1t~he Real· ~>q,yl/cpmlie. Vol. 5. pp, 296-301. Berlin .nd New York. 1980. lM<:ussion in de~1 of Ibsilides' S)'5lcm.
Nautin. P. '·Us fragments de &silide sur fa _ffrance." In .uof/a"r-' offfm e" Iron"eur d~ H. C. ""ech, pp. 393-403. Part.. 1974. Quia"",l. G. "L'homme gtlOSli'l"": la doctrine de Basilid•. " E",,,()S J.. hrbuch 10 (1948):89-193. Robinson, J. M.. cd. Th~ Na, H"mmadi Lib,tlry. San Francisco. 1977. Waszink. J. H. "Basilides." In R.afl«ikon fii' Antike und Chri.unm.... Vol. l. cols. 1217-23. SlUllga". 1950. W. H. C. FP.END
358
BASIUOS
BASILIOS I. See Jerusalem. Coptic See of. BASILIOS II, archbishop of Jeruoalem (18181899). Basilios was born in the village of AI-J?abbah in the go.'emor,Ite of Qen~. When he was twenlyfive he entered the monastery of Saint Antony (D~H ~NB), Ate archbishop of JeTUSlllem was also COIl$idered head of Ihe monas· tery of Anba Basilios, He renovated the monastery, which is next to the Holy Sepulcher, and built a church and a building for the patriarchate, as well as mom:; for pilgrims and olher visitors. The monastery and Church of Saint George in Jerusalem "",re also restored. The archbishop took pains to preserve the church'. sacred obje<:t.s, espe,'ially in DAYR AL-SULTAN in Jerusalem, In Jaffa, he bought a large orchard where he built a church and monastery for Coptic visitors. He had many other churches built in differcnl places and restored others. He was well known for his charit<>ble nature and hi. concern far Ihe poor. He was renowned for hi. broad-mindedness, honeSly, good coumel, and love for the church and his people. Despile ill health, Basilios conlinued 10 look after his dioce"" and its people umil hi. death on 26 March 1899 at the age of eighty·two. He was buried in the bishops' shrine near the Coptic church Ihat he had buill in Jaffa. ARCHBISHOP BASIUOS
BASILIOS III,
archoi~hop of Jerusalem (?-1935).
Basilios carne from th1lOWll of Akltmim and became a monk at llAYR ANM ~NTUNIYOs before servo ing in Jerusalem. Wben, after the death of TlM011lEOS " Ihe diocese ..... as divided into IWO pans, he was app<>inled to Ihe newly created see of Jeruoalem, which con.isted of the governorates of the Canal, Sharqiyyah, and Sinai, plus Jerusalem itself. and changed his name from Jacob Amon)' to Basilio. Ill. He was consecraled archbishop in 1925. He remained archbishop for len yeats until his death on I Bashan. A.M. 1651. He is buried in the monastery of Saint Anlony in Jaffa next to Basilio. II. ARCHBlSHOI' BASILlOS
BASILIOS, ARCHIVE OF. The archive of Ba· .iliQ!;, pagarch of AphrodilO in the time of Governor Ourrah ibn Sharlk (698-722), is the largest and most notable of the collections of the early Arab period. Found at Kom I.hqaw in 1901. lhe papyri were acquired mainly by the British Museum, though substantial collections are in Paris (the Louvre), Tbilisi, Cairo, and Olher cities_ (The earlier archive from Aphrodito, tltat of Dioscoro!l, from the age of Justinian, was published by J. Maspero in Papyrus grtCS d'epoque byzantine, with further items in G,"~k Papyri in th~ Briti,h Mu,"um [hereafter P. Lond.], Vol. 5.) The majority, acquired by the British Museum in 1903, were published by H. 1_ Bell in Volume 4 of P. Lond. (also comaining the Coptic pieces, published by W. E. Crum). The purely Arabic texts were published by Becker in i 907 (hereafter P"'F); some of the Greek and Arabic texls repre.ent twO ve,-,;ion. of the same document (for instance, P, Lond. 1346 [l'AF IV]; 1349 (probably) Papyri Scno!l·Rci"hardt I; 1345-or more probably 1359 [PAF IIIJ). Basilios was the pagarch of Ihe pagarclty of which Aphrodilo was the administrati.'e center, The corre· spondence, which con.i.ts largely of lellers from Qurrah 10 Basilios (wrillen between 708 and 711), shed. much light both on the administration of the pagarchy in the twemy years around lhe lurn of Ihe eighth century and on Ihe general nature and prin· ciples of UmaY)'ad rule in relation !O the provincial population of Egypt and to the pro,'incial adminislration. BasiHos, though occupying Ihe same rank a. his conlemporary Papas, pagarclt of Apollono. AnO (ldfU), e,'idently enjo)'ed a more privileged .la· tu., for whereas the communications of the latter are with the dux of Ihe Thebaid or hi. tOpotu£I'_. (representative.). stationed al Anlinoopolis, Ihose of Basilio•• as preserved, are exclusively from Ourrah, Ihe govemor of Egypt, residing al al·Fu.!'\! (Old (aim). Whether the explanation of this pri,'i1eged correspondence lie. in the greater imponance of the pagarchy of Aphrodito, or in personal relalions between Basilios and high-ranking Egyptian offi. daIs, i. not clear, bul because of il we learn more aboul the policy of Ihe Umayy~d government from Ihis archive than fr
BASIUUS
min~
;admini5lnuor, more anxious for the ,"'elbre of his sub;ec'- than for Ihe welJ..Minl 01 hu oIIiei:ak (see panicobrly P. L:>nd. 1349, 13~, 1330. 1393 [repJbliMoed in full in 1.......<01 of £opf-" AreMol~ D 12 (1926):27511.); ;and, for:an Ilnbic uample,lhe strongly worded no. IV in Abbott's The K..m.1I P", pyrl; d, Hisll;>r1 of 1M PfIlridrr:h$. Vol. I, pc. 1. pp. 571£•• esp. p. 64. for IN host* Yiew). The direct link belween Basilios and \he authori· ties at a1·F,.;il (or, on oc:casion, A1e>;andria) ;s shown abooYe all by the facl that. in oddilion 10 the leiters ;and orders Ihat paswd from one 10 the other. all "'OIl;"', tasa.;and rxxtions required by the ,....emo. wen: oem 10 him directly, and the amir of the 11>ebaid ",as b~. In Ihe P~ art"hive, on Ihe od>er hand. all payments in money and requisitions in kind are centnolly collected at Antinoopotis :and forwarded by the amlr or hit represenlative. Basilios had a permatlent alenl al al· FUll,",! 10 whom hi. contributions wen: delivered, In IIddllion 10 Ihe lellers from Ourrah 10 Basillos (P. Lond. 13n·1407, and in olher collections), lhe archive include. a few ""!agia (P. l.<md. 1406· 11). accOUnt. end .el;!;Iers of the utm~1 importan<:e, drawn up for ~",,:al purposes. These cover all the many fonn. oIlaXalion applied by' the IOvemmem to the paprchy in lhis period: poll la>., bnd IIU, and numerous min<>r and CAlraordi....ry impgsU (P. L:>"'" 1412-M). 1l>e cOlTesp;>ndcoce also cOveTS a c~rxteri$lic nlnge 01 offi<:ial demands for labor. ers. notably c:aulkers. 10 be employed in the &hippreis at &b,-Ion and. panicularly, Clysma, and for work 011 llIe """" mosqut:S brina built at a1·F~, Jerusalctn. and ~ , IN Uma,,-ad capital. If IN ......rdlyof Aphrodilo <:an be reprded III IYPical. thcn: aD br .... doubc dw Et;ypt:ia.Il bbOI" ..-as heavily dra...... upon for tb6c major architcaural undmakinp ol the Uman'adl. In addilion then a~ ConiinUOUS and pres.sU\C demands for sp«od in Ihe pt'O"'i5ion of rnanl'O""= ~ in Ihe paymenl of uues -and it • quile clear WI Btiilios, like Papal 81 Apoll6nopol•• dnggrd h..is feet: • much. he dared on numerous occasionsATIOthe.....jor 5Ubject co..'Cred is the lrxing and ~Iist ... ion of fucllives who repeatedly m(Wed from p:ap.chy 10 pagarchy. The MUI'im aUlhoritles found it diflicuh to ·mp lrad of such h'lIili~es because of lheir conce.almenl and uther fUSt!S (sec Cadell, 19~7. no. 5......ith introduction). The c!"-llreSl guide 10 the .ludy of the COm pie> a~counlS (P. Lond, 1412ff.) ii in D. C. Dennett"! ConverS/O.l ~"d Ille Poll T~x in E~.ly Isl~m (C;,mbridge. Mass" 19~0: repro in Dennett's fsl~rnic T~ ..mi,,,,: Two SI"die.
359
[NC\lI· Yort:, 1'173]). The aUlhor shOW$ by an anal)"$i5 of the rele''atlt rqillers and by a <:ornparison with IN tenns ol IN capitulatio" (iYen in lhe Anb chronicle... and in JOt\r; Of tillUOtJ tlw !be principle applied _ one of IlMli1iidual 1I".ion. in the £ann of poIIla1 aIId land UU in particular. and nOl ol an 0>ffaI.l tribule bMed on a cenlral assasmenl. Dennen·, 5l\IoCly COlTKl$ ~ ac<: Bell's anide;n B~II1"'" 28 [1928F27&H.). BIBl.lOCttAI'HV
Abbot•. N. TIre Kurr<::ient onenlal Civilizalion 15. Chicalo, 1938. Becker. Z. F. "Arabi""he Papyri dcs Aphroditofun· d",,"· bilSellrilt fur Auyriolo,it 20 (1907):6-8-9". _ _. DtT 1.1.",. Vol. 2, pp, 245_68. Sirasbourg, 191 1.
Buder. A, J. The Ar~b ConqutM of EVPl, 2nd cd.. cd. P. M, F",scr. Oxford, 1978, Cadell. H. "Nouve.a\&x "",smenlS de b correspon· dance de Korrah ben Shenk..• RcchercJ.es de POl· pyroJ<>t:ic .. (1967):107-160. On pp. 142-50 i. :a daled list of ;lI1 Gtftk and Arabic papyri &om
"""".
Gtuk P..pyri ito 'M Britislt M...eu",. ed. F. C. Ken· yon and H. I. Bell. ~ vols, Londoo, 1893-1917. Grohmann. A. ArtdIk P.pyri i/o I"e £OpIUm Lib."ry. Vol. I. Cairo. 19~. P.. pyri rw5i.K:"" _d ~hcr 54lt11l1lun",n, cd. G. kroetdi. O. KruIJft", and P. JemOlcdt. S .... b.. Tdlis. 1925-1935; repro 1965, Some item. cOm· plele papyri In P. Lond., Vol. ... POl".,..... pea d·ipoq.. e hy,:... Ii~. cd. J. ,,"~, 3 vols. Cairo. 1911-19Ie. StJmme1lrudt ,necJ/lle:Mr l/,hI"dc" AoPr"". cd. F. hempe, F. Bilabel. and E. Kie 'ng. nos. I04S1-80. Slrasboul"J. Heidelbr.... and Wiesb:a. den. 1916-. VeroffCllll;";",,,,1f" .us de. Heidel1Hrger 1'.1')..... S
BASILIUS (Bey) (d. 1647), eldeSI of three oons
of Mu'allim Ghill who was killed by lbrihim Pasha, son "r MVl;lAMMAI) ·ALI. at lhe city of Zift:!.. Muhammad 'Ali appointed Basillus 10 su<:c«
360
BASIL OF OXYRHYNCHUS
"ver, 10 r«oncilc the GM.I' family, Ihe viceroy appointed the other brothers, Doss and Tu¥, 10 Iwo principal po.lS in the government administration, Basilius remained in charge of the general finances of Empt until his death in November 1847, MOUN1R SHOOCRI
BASIL OF OXYRHYNCHUS, sixth-centul}' amhor of the homily In Honor 01 Lo"gi"". (hegume. nOS of EN~roN), found complete in a codex now in New York (Pierponl Morgan Library, M 579, fob. 103-110, unpublished). According 10 Ihe title of the homily, Basil was bishop of Pemje (Ox)Thynchus). He delivered the homily on the occasion of lhe consecration of a church dedicated to !.ONOINUS in the Monaslery of Salamites On Mount Thone. No infonnalion concerning Basil can be gleaned from Ihe content of Ihe homily; Ihis is a powerful argument in favor of its authenticity, because works composed a posteriori during the period of the cy· CU'S usually contain elements of purported aulobi· ography. However, 'Iyli'lic crileria point 10 the per· iod of Damian (end of the .ixth cenlury) for Basil, as the struCiure of the encomium is .imilar to lhat of PSEUflO.'ISEmlUS of (liFT, In Htmor of O""ph,-;us; other Ihemes r«all the encomia of c()"ST~NTINe of AsyU!, tn HOIl()' of Alhanasiu" The homily begins wilh a eulogy to the virginily of Ihe ascetic life in the figure of John the Baptist. One of those who imitated the ...inl was l. the people to pay careful heed to Ihe commemoration. since Ihis allention i. a useful exercise of moral edificalion. In this conne.olion, the aUlhor cites Ih. example of Joshua in relation 10 Ihe life of Moses. Reference i' Ihen made to the miracles worked by l.
Goteher, J. B. ,',pophthegmala P"lmm. In cols, 71~440. Paris, 1864.
P{;
65,
TITO OllUlNl>r
BASIN AND EWER. See liturgical Ve.tmenl•.
BASSET, RENE (1855-t924), French Arabisl and speciali'l in Berber. He was born at Luneville. H. was dean of Ihe racuhe des Leitrcs of Algiers and a corresponding member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles·Lences. He died in Algeria. As editor, he published Ihe works of hi. friend Falher Charles Foucauld (G'ammar, 1908, 1922; Dicrionary, 1918-1921), and among olher works, he wrote Le' Documents "ral>cs sur I'expedition de Charle· magne en Espagne (l904) and Recherches ,ur fa religi{m de, BerN", (l910). His principal work is his edition of Ihe Coptic Syna:cai" aral>c-jacobire, PO 3, 13. 56,78, 84, and 100. which appeared beIween 1905 and 1928, 8181.10GRAI'HY Coignel, J. "Basset, Rene." In Dictionnaire d'hislOire et de geographic eccMsiasliqu,s, col. 1268. Paris, 1932. Furlani, J. "Basset, Rene." In Enciclopedia cattol· iea, pp. 984-85. Valinn City, 1949. FRANcoIs
GRAFFIN.
S.J,
BASTAH, city localed in the Eastern Delta jusl ,oulh of al-zaqihlq in Ihe province of Sharqi)'yah. In Egyptian the cilY was known as Per-Ba.tet (lhe domain of Bastet, the lion goddess). A powerful political center, Bas!"-h provided lhe kings of Ihe Twenty·second Dynasty (945-712 B.C.l and servc'd as Ihe capilal of the eighteenth Lower Egyptian nome during the lale Period (712-332 a,c,), The Greek historian Herodolu" writing in the fifth century, knew the city as 8<>ubastis and referred 10 il often, describing ib lemples and other 'ights, Allhe localion of the ancient Egyptian senle· mem, exca"alors have uncovered lemples of Bastel, Kel;, Hori. Pepy, AlUm. and Mihos. as well as lombs and cal cemeteries. Coptic source., which give Ihe name of Ihe cit)' as Bouasli or POURSI" record a long Christian tradi· tion for Ihe place. Athana.iu. memions Ihallhc city had a Melitian bishop as early as A.D. 325 (,',poiog,a Seamd" [1,71, in Athanas,us Werke, Vol. 2, p. 150). Other source, speak of orthodox bishops in Ihis ~arly period also (,ee Timm, 1984, p. 363), Bas!ah i. mentioned ohen in accounts of mart),rs from Ih. period bofore 640. l1Jc mart)T Shenule. who was imprisoned in Antinoopolis, came from Bas!ah (Hy>'ernal. 1886-1887, p. 100). Apa Apoli """ put 10 dealh there during Ihe governorship of Ptolemaios (see Evelyn_While, 1926, pp. 87-93). Given the area'. Chrislian tradilion it is .urprising
1iL
BATN AL-I;IAJAR
that &sl"h does not appear in the medie>al Coptic· Arabic scale•. but the city is included in a medieval list of Egwtian bishopric. (Munier, 1943, pp. 4754), and various bishop. of Bas!"h are attested. Bishop Pahom from &slah was present at the con· flict between Patriarch YOsAB I (830-849) and Mu· ~amrnad ibn 'Abd AllAh, where he took sides against the patriarch. In 1078. Bishop Gabriel of Bas!"h attended the synod at DAYR ANItA MAQAR in Wadi al-Natrun where CYRtl H (1078-1092) was.elected as the sixty-sevemh patriarch (Munier, 1943, p. 26). One of the three bishops who ordained John as bishop of Cairo in 1118 w;U John "'bishop of al-Khandaq:' and the see of Bas!"h assisted PMriarch "'ARK 1H (1167-1189) and Bi.hop John of Tamwayh in th. dedication of a church in al· BaslJitin.
Coptic tradition holds that Bas!"h was the 6rst stopping place in EIDPt of the family of Jesus on the fUGHT li'lm EGYt'T. When the inhabitants of Bas!"h would nol receive Jesus and Mary, the)' pitched their tent ottt..tde the city, where a spring was made to flow for them, Later the people of Bas!ah revered this spot. A church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built on the site in 1185. BIBUOGRAPHY
Amelineau, E. La Geographie de i'Egyp/e ~ Npoque coP/', p. 89, Paris, 1893, Alha"as;us Werke, .d. H,·G. Opitz. Berlin, 1934-. Baines. J., and J. M;\.lek. Alias of A"ci,,,t Egypl, pp. 174-75. New York, 1980. E.... l)'n-White, H. G. The Mo""sterie. of Ihe Wadi 'II Na/nm, pI. 1. New York, 1926_ Hyo'ernat, H. us ACMS du martyrs de I'E/:)'ple. Paris, 1886-1887. Munier, H. Ruueil des /ist.. 'pi.copal.. de NgHse cople. Cairo, 1943_ Timm, $, Das chrisr/ich_koptisc1le Jgypren in arabischer Zeil, pI. I, pp. 3li2-65. Wiesbaden, 1984,
.j
RAND~LL
STEWAIU
BATAN'(JN, AL_, a cit)' located some 10 mile. (16 km) south of Tanja in the province of al·Minu6yyah. It was known in Coptic times as Pathanon. AI·BamnOn was Ihe birthplace of Patriarch SHENUTE t (858-880) and the place to which the remains of the FOUY_Nt"E MARTYRS of Sectis were b
361
(Zoega, 1810, pp. 95-97). Muslim authors in the medieval period mention al·Batanun, but they give no infonnation about Christians or churche, in the town. There are today two churches in al-Batanun, one of Sarapammon, built around 1891, and one of the Virgin Mary_ BIBUOGRAPHY
Amelineau, E. L.a G,ographie de I'Egyple ~ 1"fXJque COple, pp. 306-307. Pari~, 1893. Timm, S. Christliche S@/en in AgypUn, p. 63. Wiesbaden, 1919. ___. Das chrisl!ich_kopti$che Agyplen in. arabi,· cher Zeil, pt. I, pp. 372-74. Wi",baden, 1984. Zoega, G. Calalogu5 codicum copticorum manuscriplarum qui i" Museo 80rgia,,0 Vel/Iris adserva"tur, Rome, 1810. RANDALL STEWART
BATN AL.I;IAlAR (belly of slon",), the name popularly given to an especially rock)' and inhOlipitable area of Nubia, extendinil southward for about 80 miles (120 km) from the Second Cataract of the Nile. Here the Nile flows through a denuded land· ~cape of granite outcrops and boulders, with very little floodplain on either side of the river. The ri,'e. channel itself is impeded b)' many small cataract" the best known of which are those of Scmna and Dal. Because of Ihese impediments, upriver and downriver navigation i. possible only at the peak of the Niie llood. The Ba!n al-l:Iajar had few, inhabitants or resources, but it was ,trategicall)' important because it lay on the frontier belween Lower and Upper Nubia. It se ....'ed for a long time as a banier both to the southward ""netration of Egwlians and to the northward movement of Nubian" and it was here that the pharaohs of the Twelfth D)'nasty built an imposing chain of frontier forti6calions. During the Middle Ages, the Ba!n al-Hajar lay within the terriIOr)' of NOBATR It was, however, a kind of economic frontier, fo. the region 10 the north was freely open to trade and ..1l1ement by Muslims, while to the south all trade w;U a roJ'31 monopoly. To enforce this policy there were two customs posts, one at Takoa at the lower end of the Ba!n al-Hajar and one at a place (the "up""r maqs"j near its upper end. After traveroing the Ba!n ,,1-l:Iajar, the tenth-century visitor IBN SAl.IM AL-,o.swA~1 wrote:
_
362
BAwlT: History
~
a.e lhe worst parts of Nubia whi~h I have seen, owi,,& to ,he difficulty and narrowness of the ground and the bliguina road. The river If ~ol$andy in~ br rapid iaIIs and prt;Kt· ins mounuins. so dmI it is precipiutN down ,he rocks. and is in ..,..... places no! abo.e fifty eubilS .....we from one bank '0 the ",hn-. "the eoo.lmry abounds ;" hish rnou.nlains. narrow p40SSa, and I"OIidlo aJo.., ",hich you cannoI pr«eed mounted. ... That mountam. are !he ~ron&f>olds of !he Nubian!. and them !he in}W,iunts of !he di:slrictl borde:ring on !he Muslim coonlry lake
amon,
~tult·
This tunc,ion as a rd'uge and ... n~tuary !:>oKame t'"en m~ fJgni(,.,an' in ,he dislurbed politktll and miliu.ry condilions of the later Middle As«- The..., was a rapid gro....'h of p<JIlulation. """"...,nll)' t1".... ing southward from the depreda,ions of Ihe IlAN!) AI,...... m In IAwer Nubia, and fo... ified selliemen.. as well as minialu,"" ~as
ru".
A number of ,he furtrt5S sites in ,he Sa!n a1'l;lajar ....-ere tllCavated in the period btIween 1960 and 1970. but .he "",ulls have not yet been published in detail. [See abo: Nubian Arch:aeolot;y, Medie>'al.) IIIIILlOGlUI'HY
Adams. W. Y. 11Ie University of Kentucky bca'oa· lions at Kulubnarti. 1%9:' In Ku_ uJld G". $en AU"llrabungen auf den In""ln Sunnani, Tangur und in Kulb 191>11-69." In K"~sr ,,~d Gesd.ichtr N..b;"ns in christl/cher Z,it, ed. E. Dinkler. Recklinghau.en. 1970. Mills, A. J, "The Archa.olOllkal Sun'ey from Gemal to Dal-P.epon on the 1965-1966 Season." Kush IS (l971)'200-210, Mills. A. J.. and H.·A. Nord.lrom. "The Archaeologi.
cal Sun'ey from Cenull '0 Dal. Prelimina')" Repor1 on .be s.:....,n 1964-6S."' K..:
".
w.w..... Y.
AnAlas
BAwtT.
[1his entry ~sius of lit",,, IIrriclu: History; An:hxoJocy. ArchiteCture. and Seulpcure; lind Paintings.]
HIIIOry The to",n of W-w1! is loaled btI...... "n Dayr\i! and Asyil!. The si.e is famous throuCh the acavaUons carriee history of C<.tplic a .... From !he numerous in""rip· .ions di,covered there. it ~ known Ihat it was dedi· caled '0 a Saint Apollo. who seem. 10 have been i15 founder, Unfortunalely, the lite"'ry witnesses-a life of Phif (or PH1B), companion and friend of Apolio (Orlandi and Campqnano, IIl7S). and Greek pa· pyri (Gascou. 1981. p. 220j-lpeak of an Apollo of anolher "",n"'tel)·. very nur at Tit\ois (Greek) or Til\ooh (Coptie). Other tuts speak or a Sainl Apol· 10 in the nome of Hermopolis MaE;na (wday ;>I a1JSIUIONAYN) bu. witl>ou. spedfying Ihe place. such as the "ISm..... MONACHOIl""" IN AEGl"P'fO, rela.ing a pilgrimage by the hennilS of EcYPt during Ihe winter of 39-'-39S. In .be CopIic hagmenlS Qi the life of PAUL Of' T-..H. it is related thai he visited an Apollo in this ...me relion (AmMineau, 11ll!1&95. pp. 7S9ft.). Finally. lhe $TfUlWI-lOH.. wttkh commernontft Pltib and his friend Apolk:> on 2S Blbah. speaks of a site called Jabal Ahliij. nt""U have so many eommon ekmenlS !hat it appears probable thai th~e _ an Apollo who had a friend and companion named Phib ....-1>0 diM ,,,'tnly yeaJS before tum. and another eompanion calle
BAwlr: Archaeology, Architectu~, and Swlpture
Phib and another monk named Anoup (Cledu. 1910). II is very difliotUll l<) delermine what kind 01 mono ascery Apo)Ilo iOunded, in view of lhe Ixl !hal only 5 perc_I of the .ile has betn ua..... ~ and 111001 il underwen' many ~ions belwccn the foundinl and u... abandonn>et1' of the monul:ery. It seems 100 much 10 allinn tlw lhc sile .. of PIoche>",ian char.ctc. with lOme 'iDdiridual lihertia" 01 an anc:horile I)Pe (Tal», 1%4. p. 185), fOI" lhe erea· 'OIIJoIII,hemsel_ haw de ...... II>1nued the e>.wence 01 eells ouuUk lhe IUJTo,ulding wall in the and the numer<>U'l iMCriplmns alle$l.ins lhe tull of "'poIlo. whith ;" always associaled ,.'ith ,hib and Anoup. are found only on lbe wallo of hemtiUCes In Middle lI/ld Upprr Egyp" at Wid! Sarjllh. 06y. aI· Bala·iulh. and u fa. a!l Isrul. bul never On ,he wall. of a monaslery known '0 have I>ccn Padwmian. II tlIe.don: JeCm~ more in confonn;ly wilh wh., is known of Ef;yplian monaslicism '0 ,hink Iha, Ihe $/XalleI",b1l5h· men,' is Ih., ,he hermits a.scmblcd ,here for ,he Eucharis' and a common meal, folluwed perhaps by an address from ,he falhe. of the monas'ery. no, every week bUI daily. as both Ihe Hi$lc,i" "'OHI>C/ro....'" and Ihe fraJ1M1l'" of lI... lifc of Paul ofTamrna clearly M>ow. If Ihe mo,,*,,ol S«m 10 ha,~ exisclcd al the bcJinnilll'
dew".
.,
Dun~Jtt.PHY
kMlineau, E. M......... ou:s pout sen';' o}l'lri""',e de I'£mfe d.,J,ie,,-. Pllris, Igu. C"-inal. E. FI.Ii,." ComplU ,.."dul de I'A ..."dt",ie des ins<:riptionl .r belies lellres (1904):517_26, _ _. £.e Mon".li"e n I" n'crapole de 8"",,;1. M.moir.. d. 1'[nSlilU' fr;",~ais d·...rcheologle ori· entlle 12,39. Cairo. 1904. 1916.
363
"!bouil." In Diclion""i.e d'
Archaeology, Ar<:hlteclure, and Sculpture "'rchlt«ture The archacotope.al .ue lies abou, 1.25 milts (2 km) """"' of the .illoose of Bl.wlllll\d about 17 mi1ca (U km) :oo\Ilh of a1-MhmitMyn. The ruins ~~ became known in the lase decade of lhe ninelcenth cenlury as a nsuh of p.hau: diuin" "'hen in''eSli· gal>Olll werc mad,. inlO lhe prl)\~nanc,. of obj<:cIs WI came inlO the at! Indc. Willt Ih,. limil~ task of um:O"crinl the buildings already v;s;b1e ;md also 6nding
364
BAWIT: Archaeology, Architecture. and Sculpture
in Cairo and the louvre in Paris (de Graviers, 1932, pp. 511£.). The excavato.... produced preliminary repoJ1S and paJ1ial publications of the excavation in which. howe"er. architecture and sculpture were largely neglected. OnI)' plans of the individual campaigns were published. There is nO overall plan recording all the excavated complexes (a hypotheti. cal attempt. inc"rrect in details, is To'l', 1981. pI. l). Since the soundings exposed only panial areas and the area of settlement was not systematically defined, we do not know the extent of the buildings. nOr can we ascertain whether the main concentration of the total complex was then found and excavated, In confonnity with the circumstances 01 these archaeological activities. there are for the monuments no datings assured by excavation data (stratigraphy. ceramic•. coins). Since building phases and even rebuildings. which ....·e can identify in many sections on the basis of old excavation photographs. were almost without exception not observed or even documented at the time. we have no dues as 10 the relative chronology of the complex. The oldest chronological infOlmation in situ (from the beginning of the eighth century) was contained in painted inscriptions (d. Krause and Wessel. 1966, cols. 570-71), They olfer. however, only a terminus ante quem for the layer of plaster. but certainly not a reliable approximate estimate for the building concerned. which may have been considerably older, rebuilt. or put to new use. h has now been .hown beyond any doubt through inscriptions in the buildings of Bawl! that the buildings excavated al that time belonged to the monastery of "'pa Apollo. and a few published papy. ri of the ninth century from Wwi! (Krause, 1956) give us detailed infonnation about the conditions and ~nancial transactions of that period in this monastery. The well-known "'all paintings. most of which probably date from Ihe .eventh and eighth centuries, were certainJ+produced for the monastery. , We cann"l, however. c'onclu
for church architecture (see below). The histol")' of early building in BaWl! (perhaps fouJ1h, fifth. and sixth centuries) has not yet been materially c1ari· fied. An investigation of this problem would be extremely valuable. Similarly. the decline of the monastery cannot be dated with ceJ1ainty. Estimates vary from the year 900 to the fourteenth century. In favor of a fairly early date for abandonment of the monastery is the fact that the Islamic authors of the Middle Ages knew the site but did not mention the monaste!)·.
Archlledure The excavation of the so-called South Church led 10 publication of a volume of plate' (Cna",inat, 191 t) but "nly a minimum of ",rinen information, No consideration was given to the fact that the architecture shows unusual featureS for a church building, that strong stylistic anomalies in the architectural sculpture found there cannot be denied. and that tile structure was accepted for decades as a homogeneous church building of the sixth century because of some column capitals modeled on im]>O't capital,. It has occasionally been c"nsidera· bly overvalued architectu"'lly (e.g.. the conjectured reconstruction of it as a domed basilica, untenable On static grounds alone, or the daim that it was the source of all the important architectural sculpture found in the surroundings of BaWl!). A critical examination of the excavation photo· graphs (Severin, 1977, pis. 32-38) has revealed that the structure went through two building phases, characterized by different wall·building techoiques. The older consists of ashlar work and the later of bricks. "r at least a brick base. The building .ec· tions of the earlier phase contain "riginal architec· tural sculpture. while those of the later phase show the insertion Or reconstruction of heterogeneous decoration. some of it reused piece' of work that ~t "lOry badly. It has not yet been possible to determine the function of the parts belonging 10 the older phase. At any rate. they need not have been part of a church building. The provisional anribution of the older building sections to the fourth century has in the meantime been corrected to a date in the fifth century (Severin. 1986; d, Effenberger. 1981, pp. 791£,), The rebuilding. in which the thoroughly makeshift architrtture of the South Church originated, must have been carried out at th. earliest in the late sixth or even the seventh century. Of the North Church. the excavators reponed
BAWIT: Archaeology, Architecture, and Sculpture
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Ex~a,.,.tion
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ofa room in th~ Nonh Church at B"""I· CI~dat Expedition, Rew,med /Fom MonastCTesN Ia de Mwit, Vol. I, by leon C!eda', Ca'm, [904_1906.
only that it lay to the north of the ..,.called South Church, was simpler in form, and had cruciform pillars, collunns, and a wooden 'CO~0STAS[S_ Sundried and humt bricks and limestone wece used as building materials. Re~ently the grol.tnd plan of the structuTe uncO"ered has been established on the basis of th1'ee old, unpublisbed cxca,'ation phOIOgraphs, In particular, it emerged that hen:, tOO, building phases wer" cleady to 00 distinguished in the af'Chite~,ura-1 remains, AI least the crudfo,m pillars in the transvrrse section and pans uf thc east ",all Jerive from an older COIlStruction of the pre-Islamic period, Tho., they are ,he cemains of an original chucch building on this site is improbable, In a later phas-:, chur~h architecture made its ap· pearance through additions and reconstruction, of brick wall work in eompartm"nL' alceady existing and through the introduction of reuoed base., ~ol· urnns, and "apitals; the old e'Ca"~lion unco"ered ,he ruin. of ,hi •. The com-ersion of the eady struc· tuc~ into a ~hurch can be dated at the earliesl to the eighth century, as the existence of a pmpec khii'us (mom ootween saneluary and noo<) shows Perhaps th~ North Church, buill into older archi· lectural remoin<, supe~d~d the Soulh Chu
365
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a wall that could be traced only in the northwest are ""veml small buildings_ Exca,'ation has revealed that many of th~m were joined together to make up an irregular complex. Inscriptions indicate thai some of them "",rc dwellings (Krause, 1966. col. 56\1). The buildings, deo;cribed as tomb ~hapels afte" the excavation by J, Cledat, were daimed to have been living quarte" proper by J, Maspero in 1913 (Maspero and Unmon, 1931-1943. Vol. 5), who poin.ed out .hat no burials had """n Found and thaI the fOnll of the b"ildings, the inscriptions, the iconography of the paintings, and the hoosehold goods found there spoke against their ha,'ing been used for intcrments, This is by no mCans Ihe final word on the subje~t_ It is beyond doubt that at the lime of the oldest dated inscriptions (beginning of ~ighlh centul}') the buildings were part of the Monastel}' of Apa Apollo and ,hat the South Church came into being in the form of a rebuilding, at the latcst in the """enth century, From the exca,-ation photographs of many parts of the scattcred building complexes_ extensi"e re~onstructions can 00 identified; this points to an architectural hiswI}' marxed by development and change. (An unfOl1l.t,,"tel)' arbitrary attempt to cia<sif)' one of the building ~omplexes inlo diffecent ph""",,s is in To'll, \981, ill 2.) We ought '0 indude in our reookoning the original structures in the area
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E.x<:a,-allon of Ihc passa~ bet" cen Ihc North and Sowh chocch,'~ at Ua"il R:epTinteJ !rem Mona-'Icres cl la Necropolc de Bawit. Vol. I. by J
of Ihe Soulh and North churd'es. Ihe functiu" of "hieh is n", }'el dear bUI which <:enainl,- "ere originally nol chureh buildings. Finall)'. one muSt not lose sight of the faci that only receml, the enure pklUre of .... YK APA J~IlEMl.\ll In le,'mS of loposraph... histolV, and art h"lon, had 10 be al· II"IO&t eOlOplttcly l"f"olo"tlen. Of buildins oper:a,ions in lhe area of 'he 10m of al leasl In 'he finh and siJclb cen'u~ ....'e kno.... nolhinl for eeruin Inll,nl. an:hile<:'u".] fOml. and func'ion). and ,n..,efou. for the tiTnC' bein~ should rule Otll roe;· \her &nl future confirmalion of 1M «M\nnuonaJ inlerpreuliofu nor the possiobih1'o of perhaps sur· prison. ne'O" InsightS (
81"1,.
kulplurc The limatone and ",'00<1 .!Culplore from 8ll.wfl (in the Coplic Museum in Cairo. the Lou"re in Paris, lhe Earlv Chrislian and Dylantine Colle<:tion in Eas' 8erlinl is ClI'rao.-dinarily rich and llylisUcally varied. There arc no finnly daled piec". \lany sculplures ...·ere indeed found in silu in ,he e"C;a,'a· lion, bul a fuiTly large pan of them "'cre reused in Ihe course of boilding, C:Sp<'ciallr in lhe Soulh Church, Hence. a. a ",I". w,' do not know for ",hal position or for whal of arcllile<:ture Ih'1' wcrc produced. The high fX,int of thi' local sculptore prodlX'tiun in lln,eslo"e ""as Ihe fifth cemury and tI,e fi~ haif of Ihe si~th cemu ...·. a_ in Saqqara. :lnd in nUlnj
'il'.
c"""" Ihe'" are quile IlSlonlshlngl\' closc similarities in 'he lypc< and fom,. of 'he sculptor<- produced at Ih" 1"'0 sh.... In lhe I;m"~lone 5C\llp'uT( of DawH. as in Saqqara in ,he ~lXIh cemu...·• there wa-e also imi'alioM of n'odem Con.,tanllnopolilan models (impost capilals. espedallv of lhe fold I,'P'-"). "'hieh in lhe partieular caw: of a fiaurlllh-c and ornamen· tal dttora.lM pillar comes close to being a di""" cor"on ohc whole. such pieces remain '-c"rare and >ooIatM. 1hcv ilt"C far OUlnumhercd bv lhe characteri5lic namples of a local and man.edh prn,incial pmduction. Taken ... a ,,-nol.-. the hmeSlone sculptures do no! re,.",.j a uIIIlonn IocaJ st,1c. The< fall in'o 5C'\eraJ grou~ ''''''I follow di~1 d3SSC5 of models. Quite unique afl' ,he wood sculpcUTCS of lU",i!. often wom of '-Crr IQOd qual ... l11e>' "ere rr>Oboobl) deri~ from bctw«n the fifth and mnth cenluries (RulSChnwKa,·a. 19M). but !beir dalin~ art' still influenced by OU'moded ,dcti and
'·et.
UtSUOGIIAt'HV ChaMinal, E. Fowl/e. h Doo"ll. Vol 1 Memo;ccs publies pac k., memhres dc l'lnstilul fra,,~ai. d'Arch~'()logie orienlale du Caire 13. Cairo. 1911. Cledal. J. "Rccher<:hes sur lc k",n de Baooit." In Comp"",e"dus de I'Acod~",i. des ''''''ripllo''. el bellrs·IClfrcs. pp 525-46, Pari •. \"02. ___ NO""ella Ruhen:ha iI Bao"'1 (lloute'
BAWIT: Paintings
Palntlnp
Efypu): c"...P'W'.... 19OJ-1904. PI'- 517-26. Aea-
dmle des lns<:ripi0n5 <'1 BeIle5-Unres: Complei rep",," des shrIott:I; dr I'annh I~. Paris. 1904. ___ ··Ib...it:' In Diction".. ;'e d".....loi~. df'ilte_ et de liturxie, Vol 2, eols. lOJ-1SI. Paris. 1910. _ 14 .uo..
Crav;e". 1. de. "("""nwrt des ob~1$ C~" de b. Salle de Ibouit au Lou....'.·· RNUla di .. rc"-l~.. crUrl.._ 9 (193!):.50-I01. Krause. M. 1)tU Ap.a Apollo Klosttr t.lI 8II ...·it: UHI",. ...cI..",ge" u.. ~erofful/lichltr Un....d"" .. I) 8eilr.., i:U' Gest:hic!lle des ;;g)'ptischu .110".:11"''''$, Leip· ~IS,
1958.
Krau~.
M.. and K. W.....,1. "BawH." In ReDlluik"" tI" by.....Ii"itc/,... KWlJl. Vol. I, cols. 568-83.
Stuupn, 1966. Maspero. I., and E. DriOlon. Towillu uicuties IJ M~moirts I'lnathul fran~a"
8"ouil,
publiC. paT les membre, d. d'A
C.ire 59. Cairo, 1931-l943. Palanque. C. "bppon ...... I.,. recherd,,~s effectuo!eo • &.O\lil en 1903." Bul/elin de /"fltSlilul /Tan~<>is d'McUol"t" orient<>/e 5 (1906):1-21. Rutseho>oiscaya, M. H. C<>I<>I",..e Qf'$ Ix>i$ de /"EfYpfe Clip'" ("'ush du Louvre). Paris. 1980, St«rin, H. G. "Zur Stin 8oI",'il." Mille;' I..",.,.. des , series 8 nr. 41/2. Winba<;!.,n, 1984, Torp, H. Tlte Carwd Decora.tions of lite Nor/It ."d So~/It CIt,,/clt.,. 01 BiJ:wf(. Xolloquium lIber Spill' antlke und fr(lhmludaherlkhe Skulplur 2. VOl' lnogslute 1970, pp. 35-41. Main,.. 1972. _ "LA: M"nasthe cople de Baouit: Quelque. notes d'intro
x,,_
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HAIlS (OF.OIl.C SEVEll"
367
n.e <e:ltcnsi •.., pictorial decor at the Mo..-ery Gf 81,,1\ is distinaiv", ret diw~ in style. Yc~. tlt.. 81"1\ picwres do nu..iotain a diMinffiw cltulocter. Sina: tMn an multiple ponnoyalo ollh.. same Ide:a in •.no.... pi..... es at the site, one findo notable .... rialiom in st)'}e (c.r,., the p>up 01 Mary and Ib.. Aposl:lc:s benealh "'" Triumph of Cbm. (aedao, 191)1), oomJlllred Ii) ..... nthe.. eumplc:s of Ihls lhe_). Some Ih.-mc5 arc nURIi,.." In which case ",oc:uai~ scenes may be lined on.. wit.hln another ("'.1.• Ihe M~rc of lhe (nnoc",nlS): on ..... 0Ih.... hand. one :Ihe.- individual poses. AbrTCC'Ilon of the OIIlline. Tht: sc:cond $1)"" ..,id"M," a completely diflercm inlluelt«' that is no less Sfr0llC and indical.... a SO" of 8p;anline implantalion at Bj,,1!. II is und.-niably Ihc ,"ork of '"UY good B)"ZlInline palnl"" or lalenl' ed Coptic Sludems. The mon !)'pical lCe....-unfonun.tely .n i...lal· ed one-is that of Ihe pulle hunl. in ""i>kh Ihe clothing off"'rs proof of Byuontlne inA ....na:, While CIMaI thought he delKled Inc:rein a Persian inAuence. il can be mo~ simply explained as a ..... n$· mission of these c10lMng del.Us lhrough Ihe Byzan. tine occupation of EllYJll at AnTln<>opoli. in Ihe .ixlh and seventh century, as is evidenced by Ihe silk fabrics ......cavat..d the~. All doubt is excluded by tm long bJou... g.thered at Ihe waist over lighl-
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I f . paJllS, wilh ilS black bordtrs and «>n$istf'l\t cbrl·cr-n color highlightrd by bright refleclOon. 1M s.aom fl'lay bf said for dlf very MI'IlIOII>OUS composition found in dlc bodies and limbs 01 the .........n fi&ura and Ihc degant lonns of IIw p,.,,1Ies. H_'IOftI'", Ihc vaguenns 01 rm faelal featu.rn most Iikdy indir:a~ • Copf. many lima ~rd. dcsava IlH:ntlon. 11 consi3O of jw;~ fiaurft, IWO of them holdi"l a key. They stand hQidc Ihne ~r fipra _fd Oft .. cushiontd dinn N d«Onolrd banqlottlf. Onf of whom is facina front "'hile the OIMr tWO fbnk him in .. thru-qUinu Or profile pot.lIkm. The dnpc of the folds in lhc elolhinl,*nkularly in that of those seated-Os d(lsdy ~lat fd to thoe wcU-kOO\O'n drap.o common to Bytanline an in the iliJIth cfntury_ Hf~ apin. thf facfS lire impenonal. Fonunatdy, how_vcr, thf Inscription of Ihf namu-cod. InC Or dcsanding bnnchcs. all ueanfd. in KN and outlined in the fincsl; mannfr. 1hf rac~ of this ..yif...ith Ilw:ir diffunlt c ~ and beards. sbow tnOrc rcalistj,;, lnits. ,",c S«nfS of thf Triumph of Christ. whld> are mor<' conn:ntional•• appnor 00 belonl 10 this period. thf last st,lf is ont: in ....hkh convcntion ..... \>«0..... lhf rule, with M ..."Y bod~, folds of klcnti· cal clol~ln•. and faces that vary but re¥fal no at· lempl to ponray the actual person. Ornamentation follo.... ed the :<arne c¥Olution. A$ ....lth thf oculpture in reli.f, it \>ccamf more and mOrf "mechanical." Nonelhel.iJS. such omsmcnta· tion hu th. m.rit of providing frames to sCenes depktina human figuru• Introdutln, a 13nlastic clfmcnl unusual to such
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.wo
The Yllriely of wbj«\$ is enormous and co>-~rs a Iarze paI1 of Christian konognphy. Ho.-.cYeT. <'fro lain ... bjccts of pri..... importan<:c do not appear .all, such as the Passion, thc (:I'l)$S. the R~ (nO( ""'"'" in its ByzalUiM form of the De5cen1 of auisl inoo Hell). and lhe Asc::msion (nol to bf C<>nfused with the Triumph 01 auw, which appears ~ntly). NonahdI!M. thanks 10 1hc ocopc of 1hc monuments DOW ,""ca'~cd and thf considenlblc number of ~ brouaht 10 li:cht. 1hc sarnplina is «>mplelC cnouch 10 maltf such abKnas insignlficalli. <:<>Wltcrbabnccd as 1hc:y an: by !he: importantt givfn 00 lhf Triumph of Christ and, consequently. His humanil)' as _II as His diYinity. The subjoclS found at Bhil! may be cl.....lfifd moo two categories: Font. thoemft about Christian penonages. such as Chrisl, Mary.•lIjf'ls. prophcu, salnlS, and monks; .nd se<:ond. dcotontiw or symbolic thfmes, usually mfant for Htursifntai vatUf with a more or leIS prfcise sym. bolism.
a,
Chrtilian Puaonagef Chrlat. The icol>Olraphy of Chrnl is more impo<'tanl by lhf way il polU'll)'S God lhe Savior than by lhe variel)' or frcqufOCy of iu lISC. Chris,'s liff, on canh is dqriaM in • Cfnain number of see . Thou&h cadi an bf I«fI in only OIIf ....."p1f ( .... a few ,""clOptio'" 10 be considered laler). in discussing them. we annOt ...elude the pOMib-ilil)' that othcn may ~ bftn da.tmyr:d .,.. have nO( as yet bun dioc"""nd. Onoo seriq for ...-bich there is a ~ """"pH: ill fath calC" is !hal of 1hc clILIdhood of Christ. Found in Chapt:l S I, il jWlt;op !he: AnnunIOIly. the mas· ~ 0I1hc inf\lXfn\:S (Clfdal. 19004-1906, Vol. I, Pl'. 52.4-25. pi. .4). From the public lin of Ch"" there are Ihrcc scenes: the Baptism of Chrisl (found in I"'" wilting· Iy dilfnn>t uampln), tM Miracle at Cana. and the Lasl Supper. "Ow idcnlificaliol\ of tM Miracle a' Can.a in Wwl! is hypolhdical. Thf ftCavatOT, Clef· Ihd.... unlil Ih.re II fun~ef inquiry buod on a more thoroush doc:umfntatlon of Ihe history of this ex
BA.wIT: Paintings
painted blue and one rod. Thot rcpeIilion of Ibae iUIIphorar and thrir dillen!nc~ in color 5«... 10 bvor the idtntificalion with Cana. Thot richnoea 01 ~ elen>enfli IDaI uYe wrvived fro... th. ocent: would 5CaII 10 dale II from the sixlh cenlury. The las, Supper oc=p;ecJ I!le of the san~ ..,. of <M Souih. OIurcb. The phowvaphy 01 this 'UM now owanI is of t:.d quality. but i< does por. u.y tho! table a' ",ilkb Chris! is ocaIed. surrounded by HiI. apostk$. The poses
an!
*k
~"Y.
No Olher ponrayal. of Christ'. lite 00 eanh-1loOl His ...i.xles.. preachi... or <>iher ewents menlioned In the G<»peh, including !hole of the PU$iQnhave' been ...,vnled by the u~'tations. On the olher hand. CIlrUl in His ~eleslial glory Is portrayed al B'''''! In a number of eumples. Th<'Se are of 1_ Iypl:S, One Isolated and rdativdy .imple. and the other more daborale and ~omplex, The firsl i. characlerized by the pose of Chrill facing front, sining between an ea,le and an ox (chapel 26). Christ. beardless. holds the Holy Book On Hil left ann while poinling 10 II whh His ri,ht hand. The rather sumpl"""'" and cIailical style dates thif painllng 10 the sixth century. The ~oi>d type of thil. theme. euridwd with babIy the ~th etnlul'Y. The lICneral schen>;t of tJ>e upper zone compma. the sun and moon place in tbr corners, Christ enthroned beneaah them, fadng fronl, encln;:led by I 1IlIl1dorb. d... ""'Y he IUfJI)OIted by the four e.....• celical symbols and lbnked.by two archanllCls. 1_ \()CaJ wnll. or even by Ille four ....·angclis<S grouped lwO on each side. Christ, wlto may be pictured wilh or withOUI a beard, is holding Ihe Holy Book. The deuoU•• bov~ Christ io his glory ~y Vllry. The mandoria itsoel£. of a wid~r almond shape than usual. tends 10 a perfeel circl~. In the group found In chapel 11, some of the head.<-~ach framed In a medalljon-ar~ lhose of th~ eVlnplislic symbol,. with the head of a man replacing Ihal of a WOlNn. In Ihe lower zone of Ihi. scene. 1he cemral figure
369
is Mary, enthroned eilher ..i1h Or withoul the Holy Child or ehe standing whhoul the Child in an oranl poK' (Chapel 11, pl.• 1). The arouP5 of Iigwcs juJI. taposed abou< Iteo". auemenled on the sides by one or 1"''0 local ..unl5. are mOIl ceneraIl, the ;IIpO$Iles.. Superposina: two »ones whow ligures an: all ptaposed. and lacina fronl does noc ino:l5oe appaunl line of ~ralloo conceals a cloM relalionship between the fiau,e. of the lower zone, ..i>o myWc:aIly aah. ~, and the dnine inhabi....1 of !be upper one. Altha.".. il dia.i~w- the unhIy figures from allill IriUmphant in alarY, this ocene abolishes lhe restrictions of lime arid males Ihe Eternal all-imponanl. 11111; IranllCendence is undersea"'" in the scena wherein lhe sealed Virgin holds on her lap lhe Inbnt Jes.... who. in such Caiel. I. no< also piCtu~ in Hi. celestial exalta· tion. To lhesc ponrayals or Chrilt musl be added a medium·slzed medallion d~covered in lhe excava· lion. al B~wl! by the Coptic Museum of Cairo and now on display lhe,..,. He,.., ehrill" figure is a bust Aanked by IWO angels. ..... can be judged from the above. lhe pictorial iconography of Chrisl al Bawl\ is rich despile the above-mentioned I.e"nae. While rdlecling the ...,alily of sime as one indivisible enlity. Illis iconopaph, xems 10 emphasize Chrisl's human nal"re by portnying the cycle of His childhood and His hapIWn even as it shows His divini!)' .". insNing Oft the ~ of the Tm.mph ol ChriIL Mary. Apan from the scenes of the Chifdhood 01 Christ cycle-",tDch belana co the narnlm: gen"" and of which I!>en!' is but OIIC uample known al 8Iwt;-the ponraya.ls of Mary al this &ite e.....,,.,.,, he.- di_iDe onochcriIOOd and the homace paid !>n. A realism Iha< emplwlZ:!" 1he aolnnnity 01 thl. theme emerges from the c..locIOlro~.. (Mocher numog her child) found in a niche, wberr:iD Mary is erllhzoned but ... • bust ..-ith her ehild lying ~..isc. whom she nunoel II her ri&ht bfUll. The painting seems 10 beloog 10 the fihh or ....th cenlu·
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The essential element of sokmnity con[el'T'ed upon her by the restricled movement is generally evidel>Ced both by her eI11hronemenl and by lhe child seated facing fronl al her 1m side. There are some details, howev~r. which modify Ihis solemnity-notably. Ihe fia:u-re. added 10 the scene. Such additions mia:ht con,iJl of an archangel [allowed by a deacon at each side of Mary's throne Or a series of person_, .. In chapel 7.
370
BAWfT: Paintings
It is ali<> in Chapel 3 thai Mary. enthroned ..'ith Jl!SUS at her ~ being front, is Ranked by 1..'0 VO"Pll. ncl> 00" consisting of many jwt~ 6g-
\Ires Proc,..,dinB 10 tM ou~ edee of the scene. The 6ra tWO 6gwu an: sainlS """din&. crowned wi!h a two, holdilll in one hand a diadrm and in !he otlwr a staff that terminalcs in a red cross-b.-arin. disl<. 'lMn IioIlow two 10cal oainlS (of ...'bom one is named Apollo). propl>ets. and an archan&cl AllOlher BIber Late dcvelopmcrw: (ninth centu")', accordint 10 the figwn' clothina) KI$ Mary en· IhroMd between hw ....,Is, "",ell hold.", in his rich' h~d an incw5I" bunvr whiloe thoe rishe ann supportS an incenoc 00... Christ's imponance Is In· creased by the Iacl tha, He II Ka,ed in a small circular mandorla !hat Mary holds in ...... 1_ hands in fronl of her brt"". The slill moroe wlcrnn and cosrnlc role gi>"en to Ma"}'-elther enlhroned Or alone and s,andln, in an Ol":/.nt pose-appears in the scenes depic,;ng the Triumph of Christ. Holy Penonagn. The category of holy perso~.. g· es includes thoe ...int. and prophets of Ihe Old Tesla· ment and Christian sain... and monh. In chapel 12. ",ilhin a Inme bordered by garlands of vines and twisted mnlle. is a long line or prophets: Isaiah, Jererniah. Ezeled with ~ and wearinI a blnic htld in 1M lhoe ..m by a belt, c~ by a pallium at the UIouldoers and re"caU beneath its hem the boclO.... of ti&hl pulu and orna led sandals. Each holdina an unrolled tcmll IIpOIl which is inscribed a Jl*5" 5a&e from his woriL fl.etIlIttn HasPI and Zech.arlah then is iflSe:ru'd a 11<:...... of a bow-and-all"O\O' lion hum. lknea!h Ihis highlfrieae tloeff an: 6&ures reprae:ntin. the: Virtll<:S ("""IS). birds, marine animal$. and pulli (cb.-rubs). all of which ahemae.. and interlace wilh each otber..Th.es.e paineings. hi&hly col· ored and well dr;own. ".-obably da,e from tM bqin· ning of the monaMery. Also in this calegory are picrures of the youlh of David. The aposdes are nOl absem from BAwl!, for they are depicted around Mary in the lower regiltcr of the Triumph of Chrisi. Bue Ihey do nOl .Pl"'ar to h.ve been po"l":/.ycd individually, I>Ql even Peler or Paul. Apparenlly no OIle has as )'CI identified e;ttler lhe
peno....,. ..
piclures or sainlS' names amoog thooe figure. oft.... c"""",ed wi!h a luoIo and clothed in a long .....hi'e tunic who are: j""taopU.ed-frequendy at a threefounhs anllk-and wI>o$e lineup ,..,ca1ls me pr... c.essioDs of the martyrs of SainI Apollinaris at Ra•..,nna. ~ may I"'maps be ree~;..ed 1;$ Copts by their $ho" be:ards t.... lenninale in a gOOltte. The 0Il1y sainu th:at seem '0 haw been identified are VIC roll. PHOI~. and Stslnniol (aee: SAINTS. corne). Monks are ofIw ponraye:d. but ...,...., of th.em can n.eussarily be idtnl;fied .,.,..n when his name, pre_ ceded by the title Apa (FatMr), is mWlioned. for the oame name is r.. peated for dilJe:nen1 monb. Their dothln. COII";SIS primarily of a long lunic, a pallium, and sandab. The n....... of one monk has su,...",td on a panel conKnled .1 the Louvre, which idemifin Ih.. personag.. as 1IolENloS. who ....as once of the rn<>naslery of B''''I!. Cc"aln Ioca] sainlS (one of whom i. identified as Apollo) are placed ~tandin. on each side of Mary enlhroned. Angels, Arebnllela, and Demons. As i. panlcu, lad)' suitable in Ef;ypl, angels a"" to be found in all Iypes of scenes and omamentati"n, As in By>.antine aJ1. they form Ihe almost obligatory bodJ-guard of Mary. Oflen thty are: plclured in medallions as b .... ts crowMd ....ith haloea .nd may be recognized bolh by their ,hon haircut and bangs (a ".Joan of Arc" haiR:ul) and by the upper pari of their wings protruding in,o the regis,er above. n.ere are: some Uu\l.lloCCli in ...'hleh an angel iI. lhe: principal fi....,.., in a s.iogle ICe"". For example, the,.., is the ance:I standing and holding againsI his basom the n....,., Hebr...... Children of 8ab)-\on. who. rtduced 10 the du oflnbnll, raI against tlis cloak. OM also find!. tcena in which, al the left of a row of monks proceeding from the cefller, the,.., is an angd holding a ataft that lerminale$ io a c....... standing ber.w:en IIlIO of the -...onb.. who are also standin& and hoIdinl a Holy 8001<. Then: is. another scene with an an.... holding a disk in one band and a staff capped wilh a crow in lhe: other, lIanktd by monks 5l1ndins-onoe of whom is na......d Apallo_ neh canyinll a Holy Book. An angel, flying abo"" and behind Saine P!toibamrn<.Jn on horstbad, i. boIdin. a d..,ular cro....n rtildy to be placed on hi.
'"'"
The ehree great arehangel. also have their place in ehe chap.els of B1w1l. Saint Gabriel i. depiceed al Ihe right of Ihe Virgin M;>.ry in <.Jne of Ihe pictun:< of her as thoe Mother of God. Saine Michael and Saint Raphael are po"rayed elsewhere. Demons are tarely piclured, and only-so ie
BAWIT; Paintings
..,.,m.-benealh a .ymbolic personage, whether it be Ihe demones. Alaba.lria conquered by Saint Si,· i,mios Or those animal, thaI have traditionally been emblems of evil since pharaonic times: scorpion•. .erpent., crocodile•. ibis. and hippopotamuses. to which may be added the mummified owl depicted in the above·mentioned picture of Saim Si.innio•. Withoul exceplion, angelic figures-who may be identified by their deed<-wcar a long tunic "ith ,Ieeve•. which may be simple buT i. more often decorated. u,ually with 'Iripes descending from the shoulder. a border around the bern and up Ihe .ides. squares or small circles (om;c"ra) that de· .cend from tbe s/mulder, andlor laleral ornaments wilh an interior de.ign. either figurative or decora· tive. The demoness, on the other hand. has her upper torso bared, Ornamentation and Symbols With the exception of decorali.'e motifs found in archilecture using geometric designs or plams from nature as handed down from Hellenistic tradition, ornamentation may indicate sacred symbolism. In cenain cases, the symbolism is Christian. Plants. The acanthus is used profusely. as in the friezes and imerla<;ings Ihat are often inhabited by various creatures, One of these interlacing> alternates circles and lozenge., with the circle. containing the head of an angel or a saint (male or fe· male), while the lozenges enclose birds (sometime, a pea<;ockl along with froit. and plants. In the spac· es bet....... en the circles and lozenges there i, a baslet of fruil; in another chapel there are imerlacings containing buSls of the allegorical Virtues. cagles, puni, and marine animals alternating with ea<;h other. ln chapel .3 the ba.eboard is comp
371
positioning of poultry and garden birds. among which one may cite the peacock that inhabits the imerlacing> in chapel 18. The peacock. inherited from pharaonic times. succeeded Ihe phoeni. as a symbol of eternity. Thus, at Bawl! it has not left its nati"e habitat, though it appears in Hellenistic landscapes. The eagle-which in Coplic an is sometimes confused wilh the peacoc~ or dOH'-is well portrayed three times at mw"i1, alwa)'s facing from with wings outspread. It appea,.,. in chapd 12. where it ahernate. in the imerlacings with divers other objects; chapel 27, whe,.., a medallion hang,; from its neck; and chapel 32. ,""here it is given a rich necklace terminating in a metallic crescem from which hangs a flower-shaped cross. The eagle is holding in its beak a Coptic cross. A hind-shaped unicorn with front hoo""s hobbled takes shape near the monk. of chapel 17. The de· gance of the design and colors dates this scene to Ihe fifth or sixth cemury. 11 i. possible that it may already be a symbol of tbe Incarnation. A bow-and-arrow lion hum-highly colored, .et in a decor of mountain. near low plams and a pomegnmale tree-separate. the prophets Haggai and Zechariah in the Chapel of tile Prophets. The feline is turning its head in the direction whence came the arrow, which has pierced its righl eye and cranium, This may be an allusion to the freeing of Israel announced in Zedariab 11 ;3; "Hark, the roar of the lions. for the jungle of the Jordan is laid wasle!" The feline. though somewhat Sl}'lized, is skillfull)' drawn and posed. The same may be said for a bear with its tongue hanging out pla<;ed near a saint in chapel 17. The po.e indicates a realistic pon....yal, one carefully ob,erved and well drawn. To these scenes must be added the marine ani· mals that alternate with other subjects in some into erlacing,;. A beardless soldier. perhaps an infanlryman, is found in chapel 18. H. i. standing. clothed in a .hort tunic (,",'itn .Iee"". covering his ann, to the "ici.I), of which the upper pan-decorated on the shoulde,.,. and down the center by a colored stripe -recalls a BJ'2"ntine miltta')· uniform. The Vinues of Faith. Hope. Charity, Patience. and Ih. rest may be seen alternating with the other subjects noted above (eagle, pun;' marine animals) in an interlacing placed in a regist.r beneath Ihe row of prophets. At the Mona>;lery of Bawi1th. cross may be de· picted as such, with no symbolic ovenones. It may
372
BAYAD AL-N~RA
be Ibrc Roman cross upon a cruciform ~ , decorat~ ..ith simple interlacinp in the cmu· pioece. I'rom ....hich ban~ lwo lamps. One alto fincb lhe anAile crou. iUdf d<-coraled In the empty 5plOC' es wilh pn"Ciom 510ne0.. Finally. in chapel I. one IICClO the CJ'OA supponed br the bruch of a la.~1 lree. wbkh implia heroi.c <W'CI'1OOCI. The C1'Oef may also appear- M a Ouillian emblem on so~ ob;ects. Such is Ibrc caae of the Cotltic c..- found on vnlnIotnU or 00 the pieron: of a bro..... lamp. ee-trlc DNpa. II baxbooIrd of jw.~ squans endo5illg a lIowrrcl. each sq>a.I'1ll~ by in· lenecdng IozcngC5, has been ~ abo~ wilh ,.~
l'.
In the anond reception hall at et.... there was • rather high plinth about 4 reel (1.20 m) cO>iered whh approximately twenty colon:Sl!ible that the ani.t may have invented a new ornamentallon here. It can be dated to the .iJ01 what is P"'"hltp5 11'11' largest surviving ~1CC1ion of Coptic paintinp. BIBLlOGllAI'Hl'
Cha&inat. E. Fouilles il Baouir. Memoir"s pI.lblies par les membre$ dec ['IIl$Ihut fran~alt d'II",h!ologlee orientale 13. Cairo, 191I, CI~dat. J. "Re
rA£
U
......
M:aspcro, J. Fouill.s fAJ""i.s ir BfIOuit (nOtes taUn
and edited '" E. Drioton). Mtmoifft de 1'lnatilUl fran..a;" d'An:hiolo&i" orientale 59. Cairo, 19321943. Regnier
DlI BoolGUET, SJ.
BAYAD AL-NA$ARA. ~. l'ilarimages.
BAYAHU, AL-. Set Pilpimagcs.
BAYT AL."AJIN (Arabic. House ous.c foo- tM pc'eptIration of the WCllUISnC INtEAD. From the early Middle Ajr;ea a.yr o1-'Ai<" h... formed:an imponant "lnDalt of eftry dlurch co.... plex in Eg)'PL Occaaionall)' the room it. alao ~ scribed as "Btthlch"m~ (Bu~"r. 1%7. p. Ilf.). In accordMou wiIh Ita importance. the &ry, fil·'Apn usually lies close: to thee "ntrance 10 !he church, but it. only rsrtly ..,ru:alJ)' coon«ted with Ihe chun:h buildings.. As a ....le it Is a small smokec--black=ed. room cootainin, a Ut\llll ba.lnll <»"en. ""me stOt1lB" spac. lor wood for the fire, and thee C<juipment n«cssary for tl>.o bUinl procCM. BtBLlOGRAPHY Bunnester, O. H. E. T~. EOP/inn or Coptic CI"m:~. Cairo. 1967. Graf. G, Ve17.e;c~"is orablsc~cr kirchiichu Tumi"i, p. 77. Louvain, 1954.
BillA TRIBES
BAIT AL-NISA' (Arabic. House of tlte Women), an area within the church reserved for lhe women, which became usual only in modem church build· ings in Egypt. The practice was incorreclly dated to the tenlh century (in Buller. 1970. pp. 191f.) on lhe basis of a wrong assessmenl of the Mercurius church al DAYR ABD SAYFAYN. Where possible, it has its own entrance from the outside. Thus, in mo,.., recenl churches, the Bayt al-Nisd' takes o\'er lhe funclion of the galleries of lhe early Christian and medieval BASlUCA. There i' a fine example in the al.'Ad~~' church (sevemeemh-eighteenth cenlury) of Bani Adyio;l (south of Manfulut). in which the Bayt al·Nisll· lies wesl of the MOS proper and is separated from il by a wide arched opening with a lanke, and two lateral windows. The separate enlrance is on Ihe southern shon side. In the old church of DAYll ABO IJINNlS the Bayl a[·Nub.' was added on the soulh side of lhe church, where at the same time several large arched openings had to be cUi in the wall. In most cases the Bayt al·Ni~a' is separaled from the church area only by a wooden lattice, Thus in lhe lwo monasleries al Suhij lhe south conch looay serves as a B"yt a[·N;sii'. In lhe church of Dayr al-Naqlun the nonhern side aisle was "'I apart as a Bayt a[·N;sii'. BIBLIOGRAPHY
BUller, A. J. The Anc;ent Coptic Churches of Egypt. Vo], I. 2nd ed. Oxford, 1970. PETER
GROSSMANN
BElA TRIBES. The n"madic and warlike \leja tribes have occupied lhe Red Sea hills of Eg)pt and the Sudan since very early time•. In phara"nk days the lribes were known as the Medjay and were already regarded as a menace by the settled populati"os in lhe Nile Valley. O""'of lhe Emlian fron· lier fonresses built in Nub\,! during the Twe1hh Dynasty bore the name "Repelling the Medjay." Because of lheir fighting prowess, lhe nomads were sometimes recruiled to serve as mercenaries in the phamoh's palace guard. Later. under the name Blemmye, they are mentioned repeatedly in c1assi· cal lex!ll as the principal lhreat 10 Ptolemaic and Roman authority in NUBIA. as well as to the empire of KUSH. which lay 10 the south. Medieval Arabic texIS aiwaY" gi"e lhe name Beja ralher than Blemmye. The earliest of Ihese dale from the eighth century, and there a,.., a greal many rele,..,nces to lhe Bcja in documents from laler cen·
373
luries. Firslhand descriptions "f them and of their counlry we.e wrinen by tBN l;IAWQAL and by IBN S~UM AL-ASWI>NI. At one time there was some uncertainty as to whelhe. lhe Beja of medieval and modern limes could be positi\'e1y identified wilh lhe Blemmy" of classical texts. bul this has been resolved by documents recently found al QA$R IBRIM. in which the name is given as Blemmye in Coptic and as Reja in Arabic. Both in lale classical and in early medieval lexts lhe,.., are a number of reference. 10 Chrislianit)' among lhe Blemmye/Beja. Apparently lheir conver· sion \''';OS undenaken at the same lime as was thai of the Nubiaos (see NUBtA. EV~NGEU2.ATION OF) in lhe middle of lhe sixth century. When the missionary WNGINUS was on his way to conv.n the Nubian kiniloom of 'ALWA, he is reponed 10 have lraveled through the Slemmye count!)· under Ihe proteclion of the "king of the Blemm)'es" himself. However, the lransplant of Christianity evidently did nol flou... ish a.mong lhe nomads, who had no settled commu· nilies or permanent buildings. In the tenth century they were described by Ibn Salim as Ita\'ing no religion, while others described them as worshippees of idols or of lhe slars. Beginning in lhe ninth cenlury the Deja were increasingly interpenetrated by Arab migrants from the l;Iij<\z. who established a kind of feudal aristocracy among them. Through Ihis agency the Beja we,.., convened to Islam, and as soldiers of the new failh lhey became once again a menace to lhe set· tied populalions of Chrislian Nubia, as well as to Upper Eml. Beja attacks played a pan in the weal:· ening and final dissolulion of lhe medieval kingdom of MAKOUltl~. The,.., are four main Reja lribes today, the Bishar· in, Amara<. Hadendowa. and Bani "ArnIe. The first Ihree speak languages of Ihe Kushitic or Hamilic family. relaled to Galla and Somali. while Ihe Bani "Amlr haye adopted lhe Semitic Tigre language "f Eritrea. The 'Ababdah, a fihh group, have IOSI lheir indigenous language and speak only Arabic. bUl still retain a seose of Beja idenlity and hislory. [See 01"" Banllal-Kanz.] BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, W. Y. Nubia, Corridor 10 Africa, pp. S<>~60_ Prinuton. N.J., 1977. Burckhardl, J. L Travels in Nubi". pp. 503-51l. London, 1819. Kirwan, L. P. "Sludies in the !.aler History of Nubia." Un;veF5ity
374
BELL, HAROLD lORIS
MacMichael. H, A. A Wsrory of Ihe Ar~bs in Ihe Sud,,",, VoL 1. pp. 35-5\. l<>ndon, 19Z2, Paul, A, A Hiswry of Ihe Beia T,ib~s of Ihe S"dan, London, 1954, RevilloUl, E. "Memo ire sur les Blemmyes, :. prop"" d'une inscription copte." Memoi,es pres..,'i' POF divas savonts;' I'Acodb"ie d~.' i"s"'iplions et belles-lellr~s, Vol. 8, PI. 2, Ser. l. Paris, 1874. Second memolre sur les Blemmyes, d'apres Ie, inscription, dimotiques des Nub;ens_ Paris, 1887. Trimingham, 1. S, Islam in the Sudan, pp. 10-16. London, 1949. V.mini, G. Chn's,;onlry In I~e Sudon, pp. 91-102. Bologna, 1981. Woolley, C. L, and D. Randall-Maclver. Ka,anag, the Romano-Nubian Cemelery. University of Penn· syl"ania, Eg)'ptian Department of the Uni\'ersity MlJ$eum, E\'k1ey B. Coxe Junior Expedition to Nubia, Vol, 3, 1910. WIUJAM y, AnAMS
BELL, HAROLD IDRIS (1879-1967), English pioneer of papyrology. He entered the Department of Manuscripts of the British Museum in 1903 and relired in 1944 as keeper of the department. He was a member of many learned societies and academies and a fellow of the Brilish Academy and its presi· dent from 1946 to 1950. He published numerous Greek and some Coptic papyri and w.ole many im· portant articles about Egypt, His bibliography, corn· piled by 1. David Thorn,,", is in lournal of Eg)'pri,m Archaeology 40, 1954, pp, 3-6, and 53, 1967, pp. 139-40. BJBLlOGRAPHY
Skeal, T,·C, "Sir Harold ldris Bell." lou",ol of Egyplian Archoeology 53 (1967);131-39. M~RTlN KRilUSE
,.
BELLEROPHON :AND THE CHIMERA. See M)1hological Subjects in Coptit Art.
BELLS, See Metalwon, Coptic; Music, CoPlic: Musical Instruments_
BELTS, Su Costume, CiviL
BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES, COPTIC, societies sel up by voluntary organi'-ations, which
constitute an imponant element in the social fabric of Egypt. Their growing importance and the role they played were condudve to the creation of a Ministry of Social Affairs in 1952, with the express aim of supervising these societies, which multiplied throughout the country in both Muslim and Coptic communities. In 1930, the ministry issued a u,efuI guide unde. the title Directory 01 Soc!ol Soderl,s ond OrganjzOllons, which included Coptic associations and defin,d their functions. A d..cription of the most important aod effective organizations fol· lows. The oldest and still the most important of these societi.., founded in 1881, is the Benevolent Coptic Society, whose first pl"esident was Boutros GMli. Its achie"ements were detailed in a <eport issued on the occasion of its golden jubilee. Though initially il ""'S founded to help the needy of the communily, il developed into a huge organization by extending ilS projects 10 most field. of education and public health by the end of the nineteenth century. Apart from the establishment of schools and technical centers for both boys and girls, il was ultimately able to build its own hospital. Its role strongly moti· vated numerous emerging societies. Next in importance and seniority, the Tawfiq So· dely was founded in 1891, and its name, which means "l"econciliation," ,ignified an aim thaI wa.. essentially the cool"dination between the modem ,efonn tendencies with what was best in the older systems_ The societ}, distinguished itself in the es· tablishment of schoob run by a highly proficient faculty. Parallel 10 the educational endeavo., this society a!tended to cultural interests, first, through the establishmenl of a public library and, second, by the foundation of a printing press, which published man)' books. Ja",';yyOl al-Nosh'ah al·Qib{lyyoh, f<:>unded in 1896 at H~rit al·Saqqa)'fn in Cairo, had three main objectives; teaching the Coptic language, inculcating the principles of religion, and compiling a history of the Copts, The society also published an annual calendar giving the Coptic, Gregorian, and Hegira dates in three .cparate columns, and details of fast., feasts, and commemoration of saints, as weil as agricultur· 101 information related to seasonal crops, sowing, irrigation, and harvesting. Jam'IFot .4~diq~' a[·KiMb al..wuqadda., ,me of the most acti,," Coptic socielies, was founded in 1908 by Basili Bu\rtls, who devoled a great deal of hi. energ)' toward its development. He l"emained as its president until his death in 1921. A graduate of the Clerical College, he spent his early year'S as a
BENJAMIN I
ptet('~~
in the Copok clalrchu <Jl Sua, BahjUra/l, Ninyi, and Tan~ before sellli", down ... a 1eaCtM:~ of ~lip>uI studiu in !he Coptic CoIIq:e, ,... he~ he beeamt inltrested in !he N1'Vice 01 Coptic )'Otlth ....d lOundNI the afonn>elltioned sociefy. He tMn \Wcnt '0 England in Moly 1'110 '0 study Enclish acli... i,ies it> this sphere. 8u\R'S de~ a dosely knit orpnizalion with ,everal se<:retaries, commillteJ., OIudy cirdes, and a board of dircctot"$ to ""a,dt o\'er the fulfillm"nt 01 the religioU$ aims <Jf the liOCiety. In 19.32 summer ClmpinC I~ounds wtre provided On the .hores of Ihe Mediterr.tnean at Ihe Manderah seaside rcson, east of Alexandria, for socion:ligi0u5 galherings. In 1953 the society ...tablished ilS "",n Saint Mark's cloapel in $hub"", and a nOled educationist, I;IMq. Da.... d...... consecnled IS ilS pn..sl. The IOciety paid special anenlion lhe )'Otlng people livinC in the capital a ...-ay from home. and in ~ ... look can <Jl IIrl studoents rot- ""hom • special bf1I>Ch "'. .. ioutIded. Jam';y,.1 n . - I I ,.j.TIIW{Iq "'... founded '" Cairo it> 1908 by Tadrus MikhI.'Il .. a charitable orpI'U:ation 10 pro,ide ~ eduCll\ion 10 the poor. In 1909 it OIll the Community Council in implememinl its resoIUlio.... Amana ilS outslanding achienmenl.$ were the building of lhe se<:ond chu,.,h in Aleaan. dria (dedicaled 1<> the Virgin Mary), alaJ¥e hospital. a """;ng and necdle<:r.>ft Cen.cr fo~ girls, md lI1l e~t'lIC'Doary school
'0
.
~UOG~
t1/ ,.}·1(1..."/Iq ~Iy
Ditlm0n4 1%7.
J,J,;Je~
Dvurcry
of ~;1I1 Soci4tiu Ind
R~porI.
Cairo,
Orcllnhalioru.
n.e
R"Jionai Association 01 Sodeli... in Cairo. Published by the Min;,uy of Sociol Affairs. Cairo, 1970.
FIJ.u> M~t:.
BENJAMIN I, thinY'eia;hlh ~triarch <Jl the SC'~ of SainI Mark (612-061). He was born aboul 590 at
375
Banhii!. a vil.;n lhe prorince of Behcir.dt in lhe ~cm
Delta.
Btnjamin "'... undouboedly one of the 1Jrn.t$ patriarchs of !he Coptk chu~ch- He li,'cd Ihrotllh Ihe Irrmendous uphea>·al. <Jf the Fenian in'"JoSion (619-629) and the ...... 11 (o.'IQl.'EST OF EGYI'T in 6nll5tic rule within the complex of monastic scttlcmen~ bt:ucr known in the Lower Egyptian tradition. H~n', 100, Benpmin found his. spiritual mentor in all old holy man by the name of Theonas who vested him wi.h the le),e",,,, or rnana:slic garmenl. ThconlS also instructed him In .he \inucs of monaslicism-holiness, patience, Ind sclf-<:ontrol-as "'~U as in the study <Jl Ihe Holy SCrip.u...... ""hich indicates tltat he was DOt illilft' Ite. He is known 10 Ita"" concenlr.lted on and mtm<>rizod the Gospel of Saint John. Theonas presented his I'upil to ,he rei&nina palri· an:h. »ODROHICIIS, "'no had become awa~ of Ben· jamin's piety and ability. FoII_'ing a lradillon 01 th<: Coplic ch..n:h. Andronicus retained Benjamin In hi, ""","ice, ordained him as priest. and appoinl' ed him as his 1Wl'13nt, anticipating his possible succession to the patriarchate. The new position acquain.ed Benjamin with the conducl of church affal,.. as well as wllh the various e1emen!> of the community, who.e hi,h esteem he won. This paved the way for his election and succession 10 the patri, archate after the dealh of Andronicus. Unl, is known about the carly years of Ben· jamin's pontificale beyond the iuuanc~ of ~ncydj·
376
BENJAMIN I
cal. 10 fix lhe dale of Easter and 10 in"ruci the clergy in malten of doclrine. He managed to ~eer t"," chu~h out of the difficull ~riod of [he Persian iomosion. Though the origi...ts of the encyclicals of his rtil" were 1_, Benjamin is known 10 haw collected fi&een and ediled lhem in code!< form. In 631. Cynas, or Kyros, tlw Chalcedonian bishop of Pl!asis in lile Caucasus. was aFJX>inted by Emp'''' or Heracliu. bolh aa Melchlte patriarch of Eml and as prefect in command of the military forces or W Byzanline province. wilh explicit orden t. loot 10 ftisht from his new enemy, and ~ &om <Jesen montilef)' 10 monastery in order 10 foil h.. ptll'$tl;ng perwCUll>l'S. A ~ chapter of mereH..... penoeculion of all lhose who refused to declare recognition of the Chalce<\onian profeulon ...." as inaugumed_ It ........ at thil lime thai Benjamln'l brother, Mennao. joined !hit nail;'.., ,..,0. eh apin5l Cyno... Propmy of all clerics ""ho fot. lowed the nalion.aI pau;areh in flip was c0116sca1· cd and many churches were fon:ibly paos.sed 10 Mdchile hands. It ... as at this juncture thaI 'Amr ibn a1"A~ appeared with a relallvely small army on lhe frontien of Ec;ypti. The Arab CO~I of the ptmince began on 12 December 639, and the fonreu of Babylon Fell ;'110 ~ handl on 9 April 641. The in....ion of Ale:undlil. toolr. pIaoe on 17 September 64~. h is nOl known ... hether the Copts plaJCd an aoc1iYe role in lhe ;n'*lioon. What is certain is that they did not stand by the side of their Byzantine persecutors durina lhe war. In t..... meantime. 'Amr iHufli " saf....,ondud 10 Benjamin• .....0 seelJlS 10 have rdurned to lhe nl~ III " slow pal:e e1tm ... the end 01 60 or the becinnlng of 6«. Appart:1'tly Sanuoi.... (or Sbc.... te). lite ausuuaJ
conducted with di8nily, a s!lllalion that 'Amr did nOl find in the Alliin conquClt. 'Am. rCltored to fknjamin all the rilhIS that the Byzanlines had denied him, and recoln~ bim as the iOle rep.....-n· ~e 01 the EcYPtlan people. 1bc patriarch PD)ft fat- 'Amr. addressi,. him with admiralioft. The e ... counter . . . . full Success for the patriarch. Iknjamin ..et OUI 10 r=oyc lhe EcYPtian church by renewing the policies of One of hi. areat prede· . CCS50T'S, DAMIAN. He al.., bid lhe foundalions of an amicable ....wionship with t..... conquerors and 'Amr, who honortd lhe wPeople of the 8001<," Illthouch lhey -..e destined 10 struggle wilh eme~ ing dilliculties at later data.. Tlti:s ... true panly because of disunion bet....-een the Christians them. sel"Q, as IOII'>e pod~ 01 sectarians and Meld"tQ had sur,..ived the lomb conquest. However. Benja· min ""u able in Ihe long run to bring considerable unil)' to his church. Those ""ho had fted to Ihe Pcotapolis began to~, and the bisho~ such as Cyrus 01 Nikiou. and VICtor of Phiom.....fIo had ~ to Ute Cbakedonbn proles.slon, were penuaded 10 coone back 10 the mother church. It is said. however, that the Chalcedonian.....ere too nu· meroul. and thaI aome of them clung to their be· licfs, leaving a rift ...ithin the church, That fact pn>vOded some future islamic authoriilel ""itlt opponunities 10 SCI one faction Ipinst another in an dfon 10 ClJon financial benelilS &om the hard·
J'I"C'IS'ed
pop.>lation.
HOWClo"Cr, for the time beina.. litose same Islamic: authorllies were lalisfied wilh Benjamin's ellom to maintain law and order in lhe count!)'. He rigoromly applied his judicial functions e"en in a"cord, ance wiTh W Byzanline lepl system. The JMIriarelt made pontift<:al 'lisiutions 10 the dioc:QeS and 10 mc>na5Ieria, re5lorinl churches whcrew. restonlion . . . need
BENJAMIN II
subjects_ "'her a long and monumenLlI career, the patriarch passed the last two yea.. of his life stricken with severe illne... After suffering greatly, he died on 3 January 661. So deep was the impres.sion of his long reign on the minds of his contemporaries that the legend was circulated among them that not only did the angels carry hi' noble soul to huven but il was also e,coned by Saint Athanasius the Apostolic, Saint Severns of Antioch, and Saint Theadosius, These legends attest to hb immol"lal role in saving Egyptian onhodoxy. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brakmann, H. "Zum Pariser Fragmcnt angeblich d" koptiochen Patriarchen Agathon. Ein neues Blan der Vila Benjamin I." L. Museon 93 (198(1):299- 309. Coquin. R.-G. Livrt de 10 (;o"shrotion d" sone/unire de Beniorni", Bibliothcque d'Etudes Coptes 13. Cairo, 1975. Girgis Daoud Girgis, "Abba Benjamin the Coptic Patriarch in the 7th Century." In Nubia "1 Oriens
Chri"ianus: feslschrilr fur c, Dellel G, Muller >:Um 6IJ. Gebunslag, ed, P_ 0_ Schol. and R, Stem",,1. Tubingen, 1987, MUller, C. D. G. "Benjamin I. 38, Patriarch "on Alexandrien," Le M",<'on 69 (1956):313-40, _ "Neues tiber Benjamin I, 38. Patriar
___ Die iiornilie uber die Hochuir zu Kana ""d weilore S(;hriflen des PO/r;archen B'~iarnin I ,,"~ Altxandrien, Abhandlungen der Heidelberg" Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philowphisch·his· torisde Klasse, Heidelberg. 1968_ _~ __ "Der SLlnd der Forschungen tiber Benjamin I, den 38, Patriarchen von AleJ<3ndrien." Zeit-
•chrill der deUlS(;h.n rnorgen!iindischen G,sell· schall, Supplement 1 2 (1969):404-10, ___. C"-,,,d,,uge des christlich-islamischen 4J'pte~,
Vol. II, Dannstadt, 1·969_ ZOtenberg, H, "Memoire sut!ta chronique byzanti"e de Jean, h~qu, de Nikiou V," Journal Asialiq"e, ..,r, 7, no, 13 (1879):348-86, :C. DETLEF G. MI)l1ER
BENJAMIN II, eightY'Se<:ond patriarch of lhe See of Saint Mark (1327-1339). Benjamin's life before taking th, monastic vow is ullerly unknown he}'ond the fact mentioned b}' Ih, IllSTORY Of TilE PATIl.I· ARCHS that he was a native of the town of Dimiqnl:( south of Armant in Upper Ejopl. Apparentl~' his nomination was supponed by a prophecy of one of the greate't saints of the day, Before his death in
377
1320, BARSOM THE NAKED (al-')'1"n) from his solitary celi in the hills adjacent to Ihe city of Turah predicted the accession of the monk Benjamin. Thus, his selection and consecration found no oppo.;ition from the clergy or the laity, He was a contemporary of Sultan al-N~ir Mul)ammad ibn QaIAwiln (13101341), during his third tenure of Ih. Mamluk suiLlnate, wben the tempestuous wave of ""rsecution and pressures on the Copts began to subside. One faclor that helped the return to peaceful coexis· tence between the Muslims and Copt< wa< the advent of an embas5Y from the Ethiopian sovereign_ The ntonard pleaded on behalf 01 the Copts and requested permi..ion to let them rebuild and reo store their ruined churches. He threatened to de· stroy the Muslim mosques within his own kingdom if the Copts were not ,,!lowed to restore their churdes. Apparently al·N~ir responded to that
378
BESA
administration. "Ihe History record!; thai al-Nushu' was able to amass immense wealth and that he imposed many hardships on the Copts and abused their women, m,mks. and nuns. It is s.aid lhat the Lord punished him for lhese crimes. 1n fact, the Muslim source. and chroniclers such as a/·Maqlizl and Ibn J:Iajar aJ'AsqalAnI paint an eloquent picture of lhe downfall of aJ-Nushu'. He managed to infuriate the Mamluk amirs by his arrogance and hi. heavy-handedness to such an exlent lhat they worked hard to poison al_N~ir's mind against him. "Ihe sultan dismissed him from office and killed him and his family, while confiscating the ,ast wealth he had accumulated. As additional humiliation, hi. hody was buried in the Jewish cemetery in a shroud costing only four dirhams, However, his lomb ....'as guarded by officers for a week 10 prevent the mob whom aJ-Nusltu' bad oppressed from desecrating his remains and stealing lhem for burning in the open. The History 01 Ihe PlJtri,m:hs ascribe. this sorry ending to his unforgivahle trealmenl of lhe Copts, Although the History's biography of Benjamin is only len lines, the Islamic sources con lain numerOUS details on the evenl$ of his age, including the name. of many Copts ,,"'ho feigned apostasy to the Islamic faith. Benjamin II died after a reign of cantinuou. struggles lhat lasted eleven years, ",,'en months, and twenty-six days. He was buried in DAYR SH~HRAN, and the patriarchal see remained vacant for a year after his death. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lane-Poole, S. The Mohammadan D)'naslies. london, 1893; repro New Delhi, 1986. ___. Hislory of Eg)'pl ;n Ike Middle Age._ London.
1901. SlJ5HI
BESA,
y, U51B
0',
Mth-century monk and third abbot of the White Monastery (DAY!!, ANIlA SHINIiD~H), situated beside the ancient village of Atrlb in the region of Akhmlm, near Suh.1j. The lIl()nastery was founded by PJOL in the middle of lbe founh century, and Besa', imme6,
this i. the year of Besa'. succession as abbot of lhe White Monastery. From a fragment of a manuscript leaf now in the British Ubl
BETROTHAL CUSTOMS
offe...,d nothing more than a penal code to enable the individual to lead the good life. The ideal of fellowship and mutual advancement was alive in his communities. That his writing. contain hardly any ...,Ie...,nce. to the doctrinal controve",ie. of his day may. at least in part, be accounted for by the predominantly pastoral concentS displayed in them. All his writings ue in the $;>hidic dialect with the ""ception of the Ufo of Shenut•. which. in its en· tirety. has been preserved in Bohairic but which no doubt was compood originally in Sahidic. Besa's style is difficult to characterize. It is largely condi. tioned by the subject mailer of hi, writings. In the Ufe of Sh."ute. he adopts the conventional style of the panegyric: in his moral exbonation, be is often formal, stilted, and diffuse. Sometimes. however. when a problem engages his keen personal interest, hia style become. vivid and p"",uasive. It is perhaps inevitable that the figure of ShenUle should dwarf that of his successor. Nevenhe1e.., this fact ought nOl to blind uS to the many positive qualities of Be",. In his writings. he occasionally accuses himself 01 weaknes., but it is clear that, in order to fulfill his manifold duties, this had to be overcome. Hi. humility and utter sincerity shine through all his writings, and his moral earnestness and saintliness must have done much to strengthen the roots of monasticism and to encournge its,
_h.
BJBLlOCIlAPHY
Cauwenbergh, p, van. Etude "" /e5 mo;"es d'Egypl" pp. 137ff, Paris. 1914. Kuhn. K. H. "A Fifth Century Egyplian Abbo!." )O!Arn.,/ uf Th%gie.,/ Studies 5 (1954):36-48, 174-137; 6 (1955):35-48. _ _. ed. /Alle.s and Sermon, of Bun. Tex!u,. In CSCO 157, ScriplOTeS Copliei 21. Louvain. 1956. _ _, ed. uners .,nd SermmlS uf Besa. VerMo. In CSCO 158, ScriptOTeS Co~ei 22. Louvain, 1956. Leipoldt, 1.. ed. Sin"thii vil~ bol",;riee, TeX!US, In CSCO 41. Scriplores Coptici 1. Louvain, 19'06. Wiesmann, H. Sinmhii vila,bohairic~. Ver
379
general B.l.StUDES. comes in and, ripping his dothes off. goes to the emperor 10 reproach him aJld to confess himself a failhful Christian. The lexl ends here. It is odd that Besam<>n is not mentioned in the other Passion. belonging to Ihe same Basilidian cyde. BIBLlOG5tAI'HY
Till, W. C. Koptische Heiligen. und Marryrer!egend"n. Vol. 1. Orientalia Christiana Analecta 102. Rome. 1935. TlTO OltUNot
BESSARION. SAINT, foonh-century anchorile. According to the short serie, of apolhegms attributed 10 Bessarion in Ihe alphabetical collection of the AI'OPHTHEGMATA PUllUM. the saim (festal date. 25 Misr;l) was a contemporary of JOHN OF LYCOPOU:S, He lived, therefo...,. for at least pan of his life. in the second half of the fourth century. at SCEn" He had a disciple called Doulas, who depicted his master as a powerful thaumaturgisl who cured Ihe po5' sessed. walked on the waler. made seawater drinka· ble. and could even stop tbe sun in its course. But Bessarion was also a great ascetic, capable of going fony days wilhout rest and praying in an upright posilion for weeks at a lime, He was, above all. eager for humility and judged himself Ihe mool guilty of sinners. The last apothegm of the series presents Bessar· ion as one of Cod's perpetual wanderers. setding nowhere, but according to the best witnesses, it really refers to anOlher anchorite. one named Sera· pion, It is also to the laller Ihal should he anributed the famous anecdote of the little gospel Ihat the anchorite always carried ",'ilh him and with .....hich he finally paned for the benefit of the poor, Bessarion is men/ioned in Ihe Alexandrian SYN.vtAltJON. BIBLlOC5tAPHY
Cotelier. J. 8., ed, Ap<Jphthegmaw Parrum. In PG 65. pp, 137-44, Paris. 1864. G~baut. S. Synaxaire ~thiopien. In PO 9, pp. 392~ 95. Paris. 1907ff. luciEN REGNAULT
BESAMON, SAINT, a manyr of Ihe Basilidian CYC\.£. Of his Passion there is only one Sahidic frag· ment left. which can be "'I at the beginning of the work (TIll, 1935, pp. 42-48). The text begins with Ihe advice 1<. DlOCl.E.TlAN to begin the persecution. 111<" advice is accepted and Diodelian proclaims his &mous edict. A boy named Sesamon, son of the
BETROTHAL CUSTOMS. In limes past it was both the duty and the right of the parents 10 choose a Spollse for their child. Today it is only required that they gram their approval 10 the malch,
380
BIBLE, COPTIC VERSION
The Coptic betrothal ccrcmony conloiSls of .wo e~PIS: ,he engagement and the offic~ bc1.ochaL The enpg.emr:nt (shllbLJo) tabs place when, after the couple ha!! obtained parental appro.'al '0 ",-rd, the full.tre groom ~ ....ith his parenl5 10 the home 0( Inc briok.(o-be and pnsntlS her wilh • Cl" 01 some value. belittinl:; his 6nancial situation. This is • privaoI... family meeUna. and " simple mnI is un..~. There is no rdipous c..rel1'lOft)'. and Utt eTlplemen. may be rn.,kCil at any time. The official betrothal has " relipus character, and ill _led", .he church in " fonnal proc:~.. re, wlli<:h CUI be brok.. n only by ilS int..noentlon. For .hls ceremony Ih.. hom.. of lbe futur.. bride .. pily deco....led wi.h small Rap ....d colorful strings of lichu OCHSide "nd many flowers Inside, Befoore com· mendng wilh lk prayers, the priesl mUSt Il5CCnain In writing ,hat there a.e no le,,,1 obstaclos to th. marriage by c~k;ng ,h. mutual agree"""n, be· 'we..n lhe couple. th. compatibility of their ages, and the Sil.e of the dowry to b. paid by the fiallct. This custom is gradually disappearing. The da'e for the wedding ceremony is gen..rally se, a, this time, providing tha, th.. "",-,pi.. hav.. ruched legal ago (..Igh'...." yean for ,he boy, sixt..en yun for the girl). Havin, ,hus e>tablished ,ho ,""rrillg.. contract, ,he plic$t da,es the document and has it slgn..d by all panies invol ...... as ......11 as cet'aln notabl ..
.....
Then .....0 wedding rings of told or diamQnds ue wnopped. "long wnh the _ddin, crowns, in a w"it. wilthat "'ill c.,.·..r th.. h..ads of the couple on their ",'edd.ing day. The pries, reads the COntract. bl~ the couple thcoe times ...ilh "is crosa. a"" reciteS the Ux'd's Pra.ytt in CO""""" with all those ~t. Not. turn;"! .o",-..nt the East and buin, his hnd. he says th.. Pn)"eT of Thanksii'ing. a"" oIlen "'I' incense, ",fUk the choir of deacons sines 10 .he aoct:ompanilDtn~ of triandos .nd cymbal... After al'V'op>i,m I~ from th.. Epistlfs, c;o.. pels. and I'$aIms. the priest recites the three pnlytrs of inltrcession, the Cretd., and three special pnyers for.he i)eu'OIhal cnntrac.!. Once apln he recil~ the Lord's Prayer. and $Ily$ another pra)'er o.'er the _-at Then ",kinS one of.he weddinl rinp, h.. phc, es it upon .he right hand of the future bridegroom. .....0. in tum. takes the o,her rinS and places it upon the righ, hand of hiJ brid.... o,he. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burmester, O. H. E. The tJgyP/;lln 0' Copll, Chu.ch. pp, 13111. Cairo, 1967. C£IlU W,SSA W,t,SSO'
BIBLE. COPTIC VERSION, Se.. Old Testa· ment. Cop.ic TlVlS1atlon of; New Te$lJllTlen•• (;Qptic v.."Sions_
BIBLE MANUSCRlPTS, GREEK, The Hebrew text of lhe Old TCSlllUl'nt "'as translated into Creek. The /..rna of ArislltOlJ ~ a 1qenI rook O"er thi~ G......k t....nslatlop lIS Holy Scripture. and Later it formed tnc basi. for lhe translation of tht Old Testament books inlo COl'tic (see 01.0 TESTAMfJolT. COl'll" ""'''$U.rn)NJ OF TN!!). The gr.. at pa",hment manuscript< of the founh or fifth century. wrill..n in unclals-,he codices Sinaitkus. Vaticanu., Alcxandrinus. and Ephraemi Syri ,es"riptus~contain. wilh various lacuna., the Greek Old and No", Testaments and some apocry· phal wrilinp. StHi old..r are the papyrus codices of th.. Septuagint thaI "'ere found in EIDl't (plac.. of discov..l)' unknown) and are now in the Bodmer and CheSl.. r Beally libraries, They dat.. from be· tween the first hair 01 the second .entul)' (Numbers and Deut..ronomy) and Lhe founh century. The Bodmer ....oary (see 8Q[»lER PAPYRI) has lbe major pan or th.. l'salter. dadng from the thirdflounh eel\tu..,.. The Chesler Beauy Ubrary has a grea.tt number of Old Testament books (...... CKESIU BUoTTT Bf&uc.u 'APYU): Genesis in two incomplel. copies. Numben.. Oeulft'Onoony. Isaiah. .Jeremiah, E2eOd, EAher. Daniel. and Ecclesiasles. The copies of ee. esis, ~ incomplete, are especially impom.n. because the book is miaing in the .odices Sinaiti· cus and Vatic.....U5, All 0( these manuscript< are of great value for the I.~.ual history of the Sepl..agin. fsee 81BLE TFJIT. !!GVmAN). To these w .. INI)' add the HA>l8URG PAPYlU)S. It is unknown be.... this manu· script ...., disco~red. OOl it was nn..n aboul 400. It cont..im the Sons 0( Solomon In Greek and Coptic, and also Ecdesiaslcs In both lan",ages, "'hile it presenl< only the Copcic version of tbe lamenta· tion. of Jeremiah, The Coptic translations are writ· t.n in the Old Fayyumlc dIalect. All edition b). Dichncr appeared in 1989). The Greek·Coptic bilin",al manuscript. of the Old Testam.. nt (Na,ol. "Griechisch·kopti.che Bilin' guen ... ,'. PI'. 246f1',) are als.o important for lhe history of the tal. Throuah ,he allegorical interpre·
BIBLE TEXT, EGYPTIAN
Iation of SCts in wriling follow~d, al Ih~ latest, after the middle of Ihe Ihird (,,"lUI)', Anlony of Kom~ (b. 251/252) heard a reading from Matth~w 19 in hi. home (hun::h about 272. Since he did not know Greek, Ihe reading must have been in Coptic. Despite the translation of the N~w Testament into the Coptic diale(ts, further Gr""k manuscripts were copied in Egypt. as is .OOwn by the maouscriplS found th~u (,un'~y in Aland, 1976; and Aland and Aland, pp. lIMit). A papyrus fragment (pII) containing John 18'31-33 and 37-38 (sec Aland and Aland, p. 109) was written as early as abolll 125, som~ lhirty yea,.." after the presumed date of lhe Fourth Gospel. The New Testament papyri, espNOially lhe excellently pr"",rved GTee" manuscripl.$ that Te3.(hed the Ch""ter Beatty coll«tion in 1931)-1931, and lhose lhal lal~r w~re adde
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aland, K. KUT"Ilicfasste LiSle der griechisehen Hand. «;hrilten des Neuen Testaments. A~it~n zur n~ll-
381
lestamemlichen Textforschung 1. Berlin, 1963. ___. Die griechische" Handsehrifte" des Neuen
und Ergiinwngen cur "Kurti!,efassten Liste," Malerialien wr neutestamcm/iehen Handsehriftcnkundc, Vol. 1. Arneiten TeSlamen/s~Kor,"ktur",
ZUT Neutestamentlichen Texlforschung 3. Berlin, 1969.
___. Repertorium der griuhischen chris/lichen Pa""ri, Vol. 1. Berlin, 1976. Aland, K, and B. Aland. Der Text des Neuen TeSlament<. Stuttgart, 1982, Di~bner, B. J. Hamburg... Pap')'rus Bil. I. Die ai/test. amemliehen Texte des Papyrus bili"guis J du Staats- und UniversitiJtsbibliothek Hamburg. Gene· va, 1989. Kenyon, F. G. The CheSler Beatl)' BiMical Papyri, Vol,. 1-3 and supplement. London, 1933-1937, _ _, The Text 17! the Gruk Bib/e, 3rd e
sehrif' lur iigyp/ische Sprod.. tmd A/tenumskunde III (1984):138~64. Treu, K "Griechisch.koptische Bilinguen des Neuen Testaments." In Koptologi
KRAUSE
BIBLE TEXT, EGYPTIAN, a group of Gre~k biblical lexts originating in Ale~andria> the site of the famous CATECHETICAL SCHOOL wheu Coplic and Gr~ek theologians were busy with Christian r~Ji giow; sludies, undoubtedly including texts of lh~ Bible. 11 was h~re lhal ORIGEN compiled his f.lInous He.apla (see HEXAPlA AND TETRAPlA), and surely thi. tradition pel'listed at that school in th~ early cenlurie. of Christianity. it is possible that its scholars collected all available te~ts of lh~ Old and New
382
BIBUCAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Abraham and Isaac
Tntameo15 for srudy:and collaJion of some lulhor· IzN ,-en;"n•• as is "",idenl l'mm the CHESTOt BE.\TTY ,...".........here emendations prow Ih.. Iho:re "'. research :l$SO(:iat~ with lheir labor. The won on the £cyplian lat _ probably atcdoeral~ dwi,,& lhe episcopale olllESYOIIUS. All £&ypIlan bishop and biblical scholar. ,,'hc>se ...-cension 01 the Gospels is cited by Saint J~. H."",hiu.. " ... martymcl in 311. tlollO rears before ColUWlline I es. It is . _ n t....1 Constan. line oc*m1 the preparalion of filly coples of the Bible for di.uibu!ion among lhe Christison churches of Ihe empire. ibest: _Ie made al AJu.andril or Caesarea or both, though Alexandria. with its con· centralion of th~O$"ians al 1M Calechetical School, apP"ars 10 hne been the nalural cenler for handling thl$ lIS•. Of the ConSlanline Bibles. four somewhat incomplete text. have survived, all On vellum (;Other than papyrus. These ere Ihe CODEX \'ATK:~r;us. the CODEX stNAlncus, Ihe CODEX AL£XA>l. t>llI>lUS, and lhe CODEX Effilt,o.EMI nil. Toamer wilh lhe earl;"r Coptic papyri comprilina the Chester !kIlly Collection and the IlODtoII!II .An'.... these c
Alld~/
A2IZ S. Ann
BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART. fTJr-e Ie"" ~bfbl>c_1 udt;.c/t" ".,.., dnip"us .tJ>. f«:ts 11lk." from ,he 0/11 Tat"","",/; ...b;etts from the New Tes,,,,,,Cl' .re tfO"pod with the ClrrUri"" ...b!«ts "." ",-Itoh {u. ClltuS11AN SlIBJB:TS Iii cornc
--
Bib/ic,,' ."biec," "'e (., frOugh Iht)' .... "'" as /teque"r as they ",e, 1<>' ",",,,,pI., ill Ih. Rom." c"l"combs, Coptic ",J ..",. ph"Jiy. Chr;s/i"n J"ble~l5. ,,,Ihor seiectively chc"", ""d "Iw c.rI"i.. the",e. 0' fit",•• of par"" origi" Ih"l h,,~. been ,i~e .. Christi"" ime'p'''I"tio" (."" MYTHQUX;ICAl,. SU8JECTS lr< COI"TlC ART).
This etllry CO"S/SIS ollh. 101l0wi"B sho" articles by dilf".'" a"fha..:
Abraham and llUC Adam aDd Eve Dilniel in lhe ticn'. Den David u the Court or Saul
, ....
D<mo~
.....
'n.e
BIBUOCIlAI'HY
finepn, J. Usftl from IN
London, 1932. ~IU. C. H. Tlte 8ibl,e
PUI, 2nd ed.
I"rincet.on. 1950. GTepll)', C. R. C."on don. 1933-1951. ___ "Hesy<:hiu!l and the Texl of 1M New Testamenl." In Cinqllanle"aln de I'Ecok bibliq_ u "",IJioJogique fr">
Three Hebn..... in the FuTDa<:e Ollou 01.1 TUS._'" Sllb;ect. "re de,,1t wilh i" OIh" Dlltiu IU folll1WS: Adam and be In Eden (sec AlIT A.'lD ARCHtTECT\II.E, ~)
Job (set: lUllMt..,oTlON) MO!IeI (sec Il.Ll,IMlNAnOfl)j
Abratu.m and Isaac The JlO'" of 1M ~lrian;:h Abraham, who wa$ willinE 10 $atrifice his cherlshed JOn, Isaac, in <>be. dience 10 Go
BIBUCAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Abraham and Isaac
Nmaining detaib ~nrrrspond 10 lilt _nlials of W known iconOl"'Phr of lilt scnIt, ,"'I>kl> ani! P1Cllt'S'ed by lOme unidenrifiable tracn On tile ri&ht. This possibility, a> well ... the Ioc:f,lion of tMs munl in a quaner consisti~ of housn anribuled 10 Cllrislian epoch (He:m><:, 1923, p. 2.5, n. S), wrifin tile kkntificat>on of the licure ... Abraham, The Ilnur scyIe pbcn this paintinl In the founh
m..
«nlUt)'.
Abnloam and ' - " otan
in reHd" in a niche l.IOder a broten pt'd,ment originally l'rom IlI*Ya At" JU.OIWi at SaqqaJa atId now in !he Coptic MlI5<"uno, Cairo. Two sequ.,nces of ""roll plIllen>l wilh ~Iiud leaves ~on""rge loward " .,entral SUlTOUndec! by a leafy crown. The two 6&u~ .~ full·face, At th., lop left. !he hand of Cod I>olds Nel: \he ",ised right arm of Ab...h.am wielding the knik """ne Abraham', len hand 8raws lu.ac's head by !he hair. Isaac s1ighdy bends hi' knus, The ram, whkh Cod proYided as" ,ubsthutt -""'rilice, stands in profile under the diyim hand "nd tht patriarch', upraised snn, A good study of Ihis pitc., by J. LAi· bovllch locales it. perhaps a lilde too prtclsely. In the middle of the fifth century by ~ason of lhe special aspect of the pediment (Leibovit~h, 1940). The ,ymmclry of the composition, as wtll as the lifelike proponioll5 of the figures and tM nalural· iom of lhe .,."etaI clements. suggest a date al the bc&inninl of the «nlury. La-ina ....de JI05SibJ., .,umpln that may haY< been destroyed, the theme reappeara much Iaol.". in two woven slee"" bands of the ninth cenlury. One belonp to !he Hiw>ric Museum of Te:xliln in Lyons and is in ncdlcnt eonditiom. n", other, in tJw Coope, He..tn Museum. New yon. has 1 _ dweado in the center. SOe'Obat to the detriment of Abraham and \he nm. Both bands tJw cora· pkte 1«nC. They come &om the sanw model and ha.... tlw same composilioo. 1.0 the Cooper-Hewitt piece. for example. tJw ~ lilh • yellow ochre square. which is 6at11:ed by two paneh decODled witll red ~rossbIItS bearing .. f1owr:r or a bircl, Ihe spread.out hal>es of fIo..,en. a.nd borden of (Wer" lappinl Iea>es. In boIh blonds COJlIic lellen are IUltcred ncar the heads of Ab..-hiorn slld lsue, ..me of them forming pan of the men', I'l&mCl.. BollI bands exhibit fc:oturl:S charactotri$tic of the ninth century-crossbars. spread Ro"''''l'halves. SyinC·lhulIle lines of unbleached lhread, borders of overlapping leaves, and the defective transcription of the nameS (0.. Bourguet, 1%4, pp. 26-30, sec. oul
.,rou;.
u-
n In painting. Ab...ham and Isn.ac appear aSaln in
383
the "",till (sanctuary) of the ancienlchllJ"Ch of DAnt MolB.\. A....'!"tHn"OS Mar the Reel Sn. (Pianko1l, 19S8, PI'- 156-59, pl. I). This muno! matches anal ,ymboIism rebting
10 the ElIcharist. The le"",no! atliwele of Abraham is the same as in the prec;eclin. CMmplcs.. but his head b haloed, and he is clothed In a ionll deronted tunic with sleeves, caudtt a.I the _lsi by a grffn &iJdle. With his right band he hold.o the halr of the kneelinc baac:. ...t.ose head is IUmcd baelward. Wilh hls left hand he pnpaores to pierce him with a long dagger. The style, no doubt InJIucnced by By.zantium, which still maintained SOme cOnta<:15 with tlIe Fal;mids, who RIled EIJ1II in lhe Icntll 10 twelfth century, may place this paintinl a.I the end of the t""'Clfth century. In a wooden panel !rem the Fatlmid period the scene appears in relief. Abraham Is represented in profile, with his le8' apan, He is clothed in a long robe with pleats; his haloed head Ii turned boIck· ward and upward toward that of • winged angel, who appcan in the upper left cOrner. He rums hi. bacl: to a tree whO$e folia&< shehers a ram set in profile above the patriarch and hii 500. The latter is II~Iched on an allar, and hill father is preparing to cut his throal. The reproduction of Abraham', c10thinl and the undulatlons of the foliage are fairly characleristic of the Coptic woodwor. of the period (8ccl.:wiIh. 1963, BO. l~. and R ~ . 1986, nos. 35S-S8). Varicly ~d fidelity clearly ma'" lIIis panel which dou cmlit to the oripnality of Coptic an dcno..., 10 lIS Ii..... period.
IIlllllUOGlUPtIY
,,.,.
Beckwith, J. Coptic Sc.. /pt>
Bourpet. P. du. MlUh NIUioto"1 d.. lAowrc. CaM· q .... gic Copt« 14 (1950-1951), (Cairo, 19S6):151-63. Rutscho.....,;caya. M.·H, CIII"/OiuC des bois de /'EfYPu cople. Pam. 1986. PIERRIl DU BOIIR(;UET. S.J.
384
BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Adam and Eve
Adam and Eve ..,..., "on' of Adam and E\"C. lhe prOloparnlU. .. ho _ .... ..,.pdled from Garden of F.dom tOod~DC" 10 Go Li,·i"l." In lho.> .....h-e"n,ul)' Chapel of P.,..c". bolh Adam .nd E,"C. hid",. lhcir" nakdne.s "ilh ,heir hands, "and nul '0 ,"" T..,., of K"""kd~. around .. h'ch "inds th" ....-pent· I"mpl"'. A l"nlh-eenluN painlin. from Urnm mlBanlk:'1 ;n I"" Fani:im now;n I.... COPllC \Iu.scum. Cairo. pt"CS"nls 1"0 .pi""",," from Ih" biblical talc, In Ihc first. on Ihc righl. "car a IU.'urian! tree u"der ,,·hieh animal. take sheher. Adam and Evc, nude and una"named. are ca'ing Ihc forbidden fl'uil. In Ihe olher. on the left, Itdam lifl3 a" "eeusing arm IOward E,e, Bolh of Ihem, asham«l of Iheil' n"dily. c(",,,r Ihem..,I"". with \'ine lea\cs. Finally, in Da}'r Apa Apullo ., IM""I, in Chapel 28... lone man i. e.UL't! "Our Father Adam" (CIl:
I""
,hem",
BIBUOCRAPIIY C~dal.
J U mcmISleu rl I. "tcropolr dr Saouil. Cairo. 1904 Grabar. A. .\jOlTf\T;lIm. Ilk".. Sur I" c ..ltr de> rr·
...,,,,,s
liquu el /"", r"tiue" an1iq,,~ 2: Jronou"plu" Pans. 19% Sirna-yuh, M Gutde _ .... lre du M",u caple ef drs p..,,<·tp
",Ii.. .
Daniel In Ihe Lien's Den Accord;n,lo II>c book of Oa.n;"l. Daniel. a dc>'OUI J"... at ,he- Bab-Ionian "Dun 0( Sebuchadnazar, '5 C2SI ;n,o a lion's dc-n f... ttis failh. This the...., ~ms to ha.,..,. been illmua,ed ".",Iy in Copci<' an. The' m",,' ancienl ponDl"'!. dalin. from Ihe founh ""n· lury. is a patnlin, fn>m the Chapel oJ lhe E.wdus al al·8:lgawlil lIere Daniel is pic'ur.,.) standin. },.,. l",,,.n t"'O lions and pra~;ng: tWO cemuries laler Ih" san,c .ubjccI ",as painl.,.) in t"" Chapel of Peate. also al .1·Da~a\\'11. The theme lhen seems to di,a"""ar from "ainti".. (Acc"rdin~ to H, G. Evd)'n·Whil", Ih" subject W;~' depicted at nAY'" ~~HA .\!AQAR in ",AnI AL-NATRC.... , bm J, Lno~ questions Ihis identiflCalion [Le.oy, 1982, pp, 45 and 78].) l<.one· thde$S the prophet is evoked in eha",,1 19 in Da,,' All" Apollo al 8.1..1!. alongside the nameS of ,he Th....., Hebl'eu." in .he F..m""". anOlhcr e"iw.;l" from Ih" book of Damel (Cledal. 19(4). Danid is also found m SCull', ..'" and in Ih.. mi· nor arK Two ,e1ie&. ~m I"" ..ory. each from a diff..,.en, aspc<:1. In I"" on.. , Dan..... a h"roic nod" or,tnl (pr.t'in. Ii,.....,). IS ...rrounded Jr, Iwo hons Ihra,min, h,m jaw. ppinIJ. fangs sharpened. and claws baored. The sec"" is fr.tmed '" pilla... caned In lithl ...,Iid and '" d ~ nod ., lilt' heiahl ""m's be" Th.. ..,.,ond ...,Iid. in lilt' RO\711 MUSC'ums of An and Hoston'. 8"""",15, adopt. a ,.,...., clasiSical ;c~ptn' H....e ,he p.,...;n. Daniel "'''.rs a IradillClllaI Middle Eaolem costume: "tuU)'flJ..s fda.e fillln. trou""rs). boou. a b..h.-d lunic. a l\ov.·;nl cloak held b, a &bu1a. and a small conical cap The lions. completelv subdued. arc licking the feet of Ihe man IhC) should ha,"C d<:. ,'ourc-d. Th" COmposilion occupies Ihc cellleT of a nicl><: ..nder a pedimcm d<:cor.u«l ...,th plan" "nd ""..cock<. H~ i. . .1,·le atld technique this .... lid is ,..,lmod 10 works of ,hc fifth and cen'uriC!' (Rassarl,Debt:!'ih, 1976, PI'. 20-21), A l!lird relief. from lhe <e"cnlh cenlury, in Ihe Coplic Mu""um. Cairu. links thes<: Iwu carlier rcpresentation" Dan. iel. dres..," In n Mi,ldle blSlern <""tume. rai«'\; h,s arm.: the lion on Ihe lefl rcalll up threateningl} "hi1e the one on ,he right places his muzz)" on lhe
",th
of.""
.,.,1,
Adam and E"e, Temh cemut'.-, ComICS)' Copti<; Muse· ",to,
Cairo.
BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Demons
I~I
cllM hero (Elfcnbc:rger-. 1975. no. 51), A ~imibr Kene is depicted on No,<> piKeI: in wood duinJ from lhe fifth century in Ihe Sote Mw.eum or Berlin: a com!> from .o.KHM1.. (Ellenberger, 1975, 1>0, '5). and a bam Of" girder pnflapI from (Bacia...,.. 1978, 1>0. 1.U. p. 16.2). On thor beam lhe I>rro and lhe lions--se:oled on their ha1ncha and ..rnc:hi,. their heads lO\oo'ard Daniel_an U11 a",...y frolll Nl archit«tunl beclground. On an i\'OlJ pyx or thor si~th cerllulJ (in the Dumbanon Oaks CoIlec· tion. Washinpll1, D.C.), the lion's dm " "'"Qtrd loy lWO low brid _lis before ..i1Kh the lions ani' cl"OIlchina: (&da...,., 1978, no. l.n. p. 158). Daniel, simply dressed. lifuI h.. anII$ tOWard hn~en while an anee! app""",hes, clooing the "-Jlh of Ihe lion on Ihe ""I ".ilh his hand.
Bi",,,
385
brothers by Samuel, Somu.l'~ ehoke of Da,-id, Saul equipping David lor bailIe. David con&onling Goli· ath. Da,id ..Iaying Goliath. Da"id p1.-yina the I)Te before Saul on his throne, who th~lcns him ",i.h a jaW'lin, David and his friend JOnathllll, and Da,-id at the hewe nf the prirsI Ahimel«h. The SI)'1r of the 'wo KlS of sut;«u is pr:n::eptibly di~rftlL The pa.lnli".s of the iaobted epi50des are more richly deeooated and their 6gura more ""Ttlp" tuousIy clolhrd than thoto! in the deconui,.., ...,ries.. T1>ry appear to be earlier .han the s.eries. pa.sibly from the sixth cen....lJ. Sewnl indicuions, il>Clud· ing the beards of lhoSot ......ehlnl David's lighl with Goliatll and the sketchy ChanlCler of me design, SlIagest a dale in the ,,"ven.1I o' ei&hth cenlury. BIBUOCa"PHY
David at the Court or Saul The early history of Da.id. the shepherd boy eho· sen by the prophet $;lmuel to be ~ing, the hero who ~iIled the giant Goliath and played the harp for King Saul, is tCtld in Firs! Samuel. The appea",nce of David in SCenes from Ihis period of his life in wall r-inlinJS in several eltapds at Da)T Apa Apollo al Bi...i! "'Jr$U that he ....'as so honored al olher liles in Egypt, llllhouSh no e,~den.ce hai sul'iW!d. lte was Imporn"'t in Chrislian iconocraphy as both an anc:CSlOr or Christ and a prefiguralion of ChriiL ),I_cr, it is possible lhal the Coptic rntriclion 01 his story to II.. JOUlh ....... I...pired by ill aoaJocy at comain points to thor soory of Joseph at lhe coon of pharaoh. BoIh youths.. It>.- ~ .... p1e, Sotl'-N a ruler and \O<erc savio:>n of wir people, and both prdi",re'i.d Ceoen photoJnophed Or Ide... tified from ,-arious detaik pcesent lwo isobted epi. sodes and a deconuiw: . . . , . In one isolated e-pisodr, in Chapel 34, Saul Is lho:vwn In pro6le• ...,alnl upon a .hrone. and David appears as an inlerpme.- of dra.... (ClnJat, 1916, pI. U), In another, ,n Cha~112, [)ovid appean as a cupbearer holding two amphorae under an imita· tion Q",o",I,,,,,, (arched cdl in a ca~comb) (Cled.at. pis. 6 and 9). The deeo....t;'·. series runS at middle height on the walls of Chapel 3 (CIM"t. t904. PI'. 10-20). It Is • fri.ze consisting of 2o-inch (SO em) i-quares altcrn.tlng between scenes and decorative areas di.ided into four lin~ed swastikM, The scenes are episodes from the story of David: the reje<:'ion of D.vid's
Cltdat, J. Le MonoSI~ •• el 1« "tcropole de BOO";I, Memoires des Membres de l'lnstitul fran ""i. d'Archeoiogie orientale, Vol. 12 (1904) and VoL 19 (1916). PIERRE Dll BouRGIIET, S.l.
Demons Maleyoleni "pirilS, O'f demons, had great Impor· tance in ancient Eel'! and in lhe litenlture or the CopIic monas.eries. E... n aceounlin. lor lite deotruclioo of so much Coplic an. one would think that demons $hould ha"e left n-aces in ",·hat ..... su".....,d 0< l>een ·eT, ~ extr......ly nl~. Apart fmm the"",", than doo.obIful a:ntiMatlon of a demo<> with a child In a mural in Chapel t1 of Da)T "Po. Apollo at 8.1""", (CWdat, 1904.....1. 2, lase. 2. pl. 46 and p. 78), there was In the same chapel (pl. 55) a freoco in ",'hieh. amid m"lfIc symbols, SainI Sisinnios. piclured. ... a Byz&lltine horseman. pins 10 the ground the whitC1kipned ~e demon Alabaslria- He also PUIS 10 IIIahI a kind of "';nred sirfl', de5cribcd as "labastria·s daughleT, and finally a centaur hoIdinl a I>ook, Tlt.e!ie I.... figures also recalilhe race of demons, lhe siren "by her setpent's U1i1 and the centaur becaus. tht d.mon .ho""ed himself to Saint ANTONY 1"ttt GRUT in that form as cd by Sa;nt Jerome (d. Jerome. 1898. p. 4). The... 3re. however, represematlons of malevol"n, figures ""ith dark skin. who may ha,·c some connec· tion with demons, ;n SOme portrayals of the story of the patriaTch J~ph (see below). Examples are some temh-GCntury leXlile d«Qralions~o.i>ic",l"
386
BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Jonah
(circles) pt'I"h.ps fu~ cU5hiollf, and d ..", (bands fnami"l 1M from opening) and 5ke¥e bands fur prmenu-and min~ po..in,inp IUCh .. lhal of the 0cu.1eUCh of the Se~, whkh ponnoys JoIeph ball' 50kt 10 the hhmadMs by his jeaklu. ~ CKiWnr:CI, 1937-19J8, pp. 266-68), Possibly lhe rwity of demo,," ift Coptic .n ...... due W oupenlitious br of their ;ma&'!'...'hie" could have bern eatried oYer from pharaonic 10 Christian lima. The imlh....... The darlt color of th~ maIevolen' ligures in lhe lu,i"" .nd minialures may be reI_cd 10 'he faCt Ihal Ihe black color given 10 d.mons in other Jl'l1U of Ihe Chrislian """,,Id was prob:ably of COJIIi<: 0 .... gin, II mUSI have been ch'l"1Ictelislic of polilic". relialous precul"S(>~ in Ille pharaonic period lran~ fonned inlO Chrislian demons. Indeed, Ihere Is eve.,. reason Ihink Ihal Coplic monastic SIOriU were lhe vehicle for this iconographic delail, in Ihe West as well as in the East. In such slorie. Ihe demon i. pe-<sistenlly pn:scnlcd as '",he linle black Eihiopian" 01 man: .imply eiThtr as "tile Iinle Ethiopian" or "fbe black one." No other ~ril" lion In early ChrUtiall lilera'u~ Or K:OIlO8raphy specifies the color ofllle demon's skin. 1'l>f! expresaion. "the bbck one" .nd "lhe Ethiopian" (and its synonym "the Nubiao") 10 back '0 deseriptions of lhe wic.ked god Seth, .Ssod.led wi'h lIIe desen and sterility. in \'arious E(ypIian writinp 01 the f'loIeTnltic period. A c"TIe ...·as laid upon Seth by hamlik r in 660 H.C. 10 destroy cY'l'n Inlo !he hcMy places any impulse oIlhc black people of Nu· bia. ...no hod killed his fuhtr, 10 IIS«TWI aptn the throne of pharoah. This curse _ applied to lIIe des«ndan1S of !be Nubian kinp of the Twornl)-.fititt fly...!)'. The ~~ WCl"e passed on Ihrough 'lOrieS of lhe CUSl<>IDS, monaslic: rules, and liftS of lIIe Coptic monks, indtuUn,; tales of fTequent pmag· ing of Iheir m.....rnies by ,he nomadIC B1emmycs (see w. TIIIBfS). who Came nonh from Nubia by w.y of the desert. Thus 'he black color usoclalcd ,,"';Ih J>COllle ... darrtajlinll 10 monastic life In £trypl cO\&ld nOC bul paoli imo Ihe ge-neral lconOfll"lphy of Ihe demons who opposed manllSlic asceticism in Ihe wider CbriOlian world.
'0
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cltdal, J, I.o Mo~~sr~re et I~ ~teropol! tie 8000111. Mbnoires de l'lnslilul fran~.is d'ArcMologie ori· enlale 12 (1904).
Du Bourr;u~" P, "L'ori&in~ phanoonique d'W\ di:tail dam !'icOllosraphie chre.Jenne.: La Pe.au noi..., du d&non." In Procutli.f" of lite XXVII/Jr 1,,1071", tian..I COIt('UJ of OrWot./ws. Ann Arbor, Mich.
B-1'} A"3US1 1961, ed. Om;' Sinol " al. Wiabaden, 1911. J~1Vme (Euoebius Hinotlymus). "'VIC dt Sa.iDI hul "d<;m lhtfw~JiI)' Jownud 01 the Warlt<.r". 11ISIit.. ~ I (l9J7-19)8)".266-68. H
Plfll:J.f. DU BoulI.GUET. SJ.
Jonah Acconling 10 ,he book of Jonah, Ihe proph.... Jo:>nah lries '0 csc:ape God's command '0 pleach Iepenta nee in Nineveh by goins 10 Ra. bOIl he is Ihrown overboard in a SIOnn as • bealel of bad luck and s,""llowed by a a~aT fish. Aftel three day. h~ is coughed up and evenlually carries oul hi. mission. Appanntiy Coptlc 1conoal"1lphy uses nOlhing of lIIe Jonah story exceptlhal he was TCguTgilated bl' a sea crealure. The theme appears in fINO works in the Lou.-re Museum, Paris-. decorative high-relid from lIIe SOUlhcrn church 01 Dayr AJI'I Apollo of the fifth or six'" century and ,,"" laleral panel <Ji a hanging made of an uncu' ~It fabric dating from lI"e ninth cenlUly. III this pm'" Jonah rises vrnically, '" an anitude of pra)'ff. from the IIKIllth of the sea creature in the ~ of a CMlOr oil planl. The fish mentioned in the Bible hen: lakes the form 01 thoe Utos. • ..,. c...... 'u~ a:i¥Cn I...... foo-epaws and 5OmClimes I.... U<$, which the Greeb uW, from the tifth century -.c. 10 pi<;cllte "CC\accans" and. espeeially whales. 1bac lwo reatll
the Chr"fi~n Egyptla" from Ihe late A,u;q"e to the Middle Agn Cambridge. Mas... and London. 1978. Bourguet. P. du "Deu. pi~ce. cople. de la fin de la periode ommeY)-ade:' R~ .."e d" Lt>"vre et d~. M,,· ues de France 19.2 (1969):101-2. PIERRE lTU BouRGIJ1IT. SJ.
BI8L1CAl SUBJECTS IN COPTIC I\RT: Joseph
387
Jonah delh'ered from the ... hale Mnulh Ihe lU''P''n1ine Iree. Un>el>tone, 1lA.... 1! Sixlh un,u')·. Heighl: 3Xm. COuJ'1eS1 Lou~,t Muu",". P..,U.
Joseph The $tOIV of Ja;cph...... of the p"'''i.a~h Jacob. ...1>0 ....-as IoOId intO da"ery bv hit; jealous brothers bu, ~ 10 bvor "ith th", EcPtiall pharaoh and fed hi> hunpv people, is told in Genesis ]7. II is lhe DIlI~ b;bbcal ,he-me that is ...idely depic:led In Copbe .n-on about fifty IapeSUy ....... menl$ on CoptIC 1U.ules (\',kan, 1979. pp. IDSI' note 4; Uboi:r«· 1967. no. aJ; WeittJnarl, 1979. 1'10. 411; add 'l.utnh. 1978)_ Thus almost all ,he Jaracr lUUseum eolleclioons of Coplie ICrlitu (>« Tf.xnu.s, lCO~T OP COPTIC) possess one or more p~u rq>roduc,nl pic:tl>1"eS from the $tory of J06<'ph, "The theme .ppnrs on the different form$ or lhe trimmina of tunics of lale antiquity: elt' piellU"tS depiets th", follo....ing; (I) ph.raoh·. dre.ms, whleh a. a nIl", w",re pre.cnted ill a cem,.al med.llion, while Ihe eight o,her epi""dc.. nm around Ihis med.llion eilhe. c1ock""i~ or emuller clockwise; (2) aoove Ih.. c..mer, the picltlre of Jacob. ,,'1>0 sits on a splendid bed and sends Joseph 10 his brothers: (3) Joseph meeting ,hem in the field
".l:a\o... .
al Siehem (Vikan, 1979. p 106, n 'I); (4) Joseph cast inlO a ,,·.. ll (Vibn. 1979. p, 106. n Ill. notes an ~p1e in ... hieh J06t'Ph is d.......n nul of.he ...-ell); (S) Jooq>h's brothers djppittt his coat ;n the blood of a sbup,teT'Cd JO'It. aJthoodt the- lhooglll 'M lhe brod>ers "ish 10 murder Jooq>h. ",no IS small >UK! has • nImbus. probabh pl",'S so""' part io lhe poetu"' (on nal comrae\;on of scene, (e,@.. scenes I. 2. 3, ~) indic.te lhm the ori@in of Ihese illustrations ;s to be .OUllhl !l01 in lexlile a11 but in book illustrat;on. On the hasi, or an exact .nal}'~is of the indh'idual scenes. G, Vilan ha. ,hown that the Coptic f1lbl'ics drew on ,he Sir Robert COllon manusc,ipt .....,he"'.. tm, Joseph ..cnes
""n.
388
BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN
corTic
,\RT: The Three Hebrews
In
Ihe Furnace
StOry of Jmeph. Tapestry, Ninth-lenth century. Hdgbl: 26.5 cm.; w;d'h: 2R ,m COl/ru.'" I'l<,hki" MU5€"'~, M05CO><'.
on 'he Lens silk lcx'ile did not (WeilZmann, 1979, no. 413). This relalionship al lhe same time pro· vide5 a proof thaI lh~ Co{{on rnanlISCl';pl is of Egyp' lian origin. The fuCI lhal lhe illustration, in th~ Coplic manuscript are limit~d 10 Genes;, 37 is s1i1l • problem, which is probably connected Wilh 1he assessment of lhc figu,"" of Joseph, His Egyplian career, for nampl~ i' nol further ""presented (We;l,.mann, 197~, p. 462; Vikan, 1976, pp. 99 and lOa, wilh n. 62), although admil1edly the chapler is ;n literary terms also a sel£.contained hlock belween Genesis 36 and 38. The original "'quence of ",ene, was altered in manifold ways. oflen .Imo" beyon'l re~ognition, b~' lb" omission of indi,'idual s~ene, or figures, This is especially obscn-able on lb. sleeve band., on which lhe mirror·image arrangement of ;ndi,idllal elements slil! plays a spedal role, (Problem. in det"il ar.. perhaps also 1echnically co"dilio"ed. nmndy, by lhe lIse of w~a";ng slen,il.; d, Nauenb, 1978, pp. 158/).
BlBUOl;RM'HY
Lil:>ere~·K}b"lo,'", M.
Die alren Web.. am Nil.
Prague, 1967 Naucrth, C. "Die Jos.ef,gcschiehle auf k()pli.chcn Stoffe"."' Enchoria 8, 2 (1978):15l-59. Vilan, C. l/Iu.
Ephraem's Life of Jo~eph ,wd the Romance at I,,· Jeph and ASe'leth. U"pubIishcd dis<, Princelon, 1976. . __ , "'Joseph konogmphy on Copli, Texliles."' Gesta 18, 1 (1979):99-107. Weit,mann, K. Age 01 Spiriwal"y. ,,,,,log of lhe exhibition at the Metropolitan "·Ill,eum of An. 19 No,"eml:>er 1977 10 12 F.bruary 1978. New York. 1979. Cl.'.U{)IA NAUERTII
The Three Heb..ews in the Fll..nace The SlOt)' of 1he lhree )'oung Hebrew, in the fur· naCe, """'~limcs ~all~d lhe Three Hoi" Child,,'n, is
BIBUCAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: The Three Hebrews
told in lhe book of Daniel in the Sepluaginl and in the Apocrypha to lhe Bible. Exiles in Bab}'lonia, they were thrown imo a fiery furnace by the Baby' Ionian king Nebuchadnezzar for refusing lo worship an idol, but, prai.ing God, lhey were rescued by an angel. Their name. in Babylonian are Abednego, Shadl7lch. and Meshach (Azariah. Hananiah. and Mishael in Hebrew), The theme "f lhe three y"ung men i. abundanlly illuStraled from lhe eartiest pee angel side by side. The three Hebrews raiSE lheir anllS in lhe altitude of pl7lyer_ They are dressed in Panhian co.tume. con.isting of a knee· length tunic with puffed slee>-e. closed at lhe wriSl and lied al lhe waist; trousers; and a chlamys (cloak), faslened on lhe right shoulder by a cla
In
the Furnace
389
The lh<e" Hebrews are equally called to mind in the Chapel of Peace at al-Bagawill, be.ide a .hth· centu!), mural .howing Daniel in the lion.' den (.ee above). Some allegorical figure., carrying their name in Greek, allude lO various episodes in lhe life of the prophet; among lhem eukht ("'proyer") recall. the song whi<·h lhe young men addressed to God. In a .ixth·century drawing, from a pri"ate house in Wadi Sarjah, now in the Brili.h Museum, Lon· don, the lhree Hebrews stand in lhe middle of a group of haloed bUSlS in the posture of prayer amid flame' that thC)' tromple down, In an effort 10 cOnvey mo,'emem and pe~peclive, their bodi~ are seen from the from, while the faces are .hovm in three-quaners view. Their gaze converge. on a small halo~d figure, wearing lunic and mande and with bare feet, ""ho stands above lhem. His left arm i. raised to waist level. while his right hand holds the long rod with which he is quenching the flame•. The inscription angelo, leave. no doubt as lo h,. idemity. All three Hebrews wear tunics caught at the waist and swelling over lrousers; the chlamys, fastened under the neck, is slirred by the wind, which will calm the f1ame_ Dn their head, the}' wear Phrygian caps, and their feet are shod ""ith ,lip]JC'rs. The theme also appeared in DHR APA JEREMtAH on the e;lS1 wall of cell F, \0 the left of lhe niche. This mum!' from the seventh century, no longer exiSl', In the early twentielh century, color had already disappeared and no more <emained of the piclure of the lhree Hebre",s lhan an oudine in red and black (Quibell, 1906). Ne>'enheless the 'Cene remains legible; the three young men standing dose together raise their arm', They art dressed in Panhian coslume, tunic falling to the knees wilh lhree flaps, according 10 Ouibell', drawing, long lrou",,"', chlamy, hdd by a heavy brooch fixed on lhe chest. The curls that frame their young and beardless faces do not seem to be toppe
39<1
BUll
01 this apar1n>enl was peculiar to il: for example. a ;....~Ied c....... stand< on a dais fnmed by columns and hanpnp- Ac<:ordinll '0 QuihoeU. "There were ,races of human figures S1andilll arno.... 60........ ,heft an inscription 01 Sain...· names and beyond them 00 a white groo.nd jwI the na.rne5 ~ (Nebuchadneuar) and ~ (slave), evideDtly a descripl:ion oIa ",,'One ",'hlcb has dhappeared. ~ ....nen the buurusa ...-en: bulll~ (Ouibefl, 1908. p. 11). I'erhapa ;1 ...·as a picIW'e 01 the )'0'1"1 men beinll: ftunc inlO the furnao:e ,mded by a da,~, in the presence 01 Nebuchadna·
g,.
~th·cen,ury Dayr Apa Apollo aI
1'he iconography of a
pein'inll aOOniinll Room .JO of Mwf! is unique. An ""Ilt'l holds in his bosom Ihree small figures clad in tunics and wean", boou. The Idea of punishment has completely diu.ppeared, The an· lei Is lining up those ",'hom he Iw. juSt snatched from ,heir tonnentor. This va,unt iconography mlRht be uplained by the importance accorded to the iaving angel in the valley of the Nile in the ChriSIian era. From SOme centuries later comes the paimlng in the nonh u.nctuary of Dayr Anbl In Ihe Widl al·Napun described by H. G. Evelyn-White, "In the space at the nonh end of lhe easl ",... 11 are tun !he upper pans of four li!UI'e$ ralher less tJwt life size, 50 se~I)' scan-ed and battered dial it is hopeless to descnbe them .... The identity of IhlSC fiCURS is estabJished by inscriptions ~led In ...hite on the red border a"""" the seeM' the first is labelled Ananias. ". Ihe founh Misael •• " the IttOnd and third are ulC.dooe Aurias and. proba. bly. Micl.ad" (E.,..,Iyn·White. 3. 1933. p. 10». In 0.)'1'" Anbi Anp:in;,u., the n\lmerou.s painli!>&s_ _ 01 !hem da10d with certainty 10 tile first half 01 the thirtttntll cennuy-then is one in the choir dlaI lIICco:m:linl 10 J. LeI"O)' '""Presents the theme of !be ~:1tebrews. Today ills scarcely ""lib"". bu1 one can ..ilil di.5linl"ish IIw anael. boldinl in his ripl hand a long sWf ... hic" PMSft in Ironl of the three )'OUI>« men. All are d.ad in a tunK wilh a mantle fastened: IIol !he neck. On .he ground and a~ lhe figures one can make OUt leaping
!ion; witll his tight hand he bolds in frolll of the you", men the rod "'·i.... ""hlch he has al1led the
.=
Two funher pieces dne-rve mCl1tion, a11hough iIrictIy ~g one <:annCII calilhem Coptic. BoIh the Murano rrory in the NaIionaI Museum 01 Ita· YMllla and the icl>fl 01 the H ~ in the Mo.--!ery of SIIilll Catherine. Mwr>I Sinai, shan the ic.... IIoOIrapby 01 the ~ic worb cUd lIbo>-e. Th\.lS. apart from lhe rq>resentalions at al· Bap"''iI and Bl~. _ can demornttale a Iazge degree of unity in the icollOgraphy of the thrft Hebre;,;s. n.e-y are pra}ing, their arms raUed to heaYC'll. and tile an~l. JOlllelimes in the ml
Maq',
arnon,
"m~
At DAYIl .o.NM BOlA. the same theme appean Oil a p;r.inlinl of Ihe eighleenth cenlUl)'. Desphe Its ,ecent date. this piclure corre=sponds to the ancient pattern, lhe th,ee Hebrews. represenled as oralllS, are prolected by the angeL who Sll.ndlI al lheir nlht; he stretches his left wing ove' tbeir heads. while his rilhl wing. folded. closes ofllhe compos;·
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Evolyn-White, H. G. Tile Mo"u'eries gf lire w"di'" N"rrun. Pan 3: Tile A,clli/e<:r..n ,,"d Archeology. Ne... York. 19B. IL""" J. "L.e Programme d6conIlif de 1'lOgfise de Saint·Antolne du dne-rt de fa, mer- .-ouge." Bulk· tin de /·Irutit.. r tr""f.is d'.,cllEoJocie orktrl"lc 16 (191&):«7_79. Meinardus, O. ''The XVlllth Cenl\lry WalJ-Pain,ings in the ChuI"Ch of SI. Pa1.II. The 1beban. Dair Anba Bula. &/110/;" de kl lDCi~1i d'.,diolop Cople 19 (1961-1968); pubfuhed in 1910;181-97_ Ouibell. J. E. Exc• ...nons ./ s.qq.,. /906_1907. Cairo. 1908. Rassart-Dtbeflh, M. "w Trois hebr-ew< dam Ia foumaisc .w.,1·an paibhrflien. Ico~hit:· Byvuolitnl 48 (1978):430-SS. H
~
RA$.WIT.0EBaG1l
BUU. !He Jabal Khashm al-Qu'ud.
BILABEL, FRIEDRICH (1S88-I94$).
Gennan
papyrologist, He was a profenor at Heidelberg and edited nearly ISO papyri. Including Coptic and A",· bi~ papyri. publlshln8 Griuhische. kopri,che u"d ar~lnsche TUle t ... ReUtion .."d relig;osen Lilerat..r b., AgypleltS SpaIlA;I. with A. Grohmann (Heidel· berg, 1934) ant:! lwei U.~ .."de" ~." dom bi$Cho(.
BIMIN
Uchm ..t'Chiv von P"nopoli. in Agyplen (Heidelberg, 1935). He also wrole many articles on Coptic oslraca (see AegyplUs 2, 1921, pp. 586-88, and 13, 1933. pp. 555-(2). BIBLIOGRAPKY
Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Who Was Who In EgyplOlogy. wodon. 1972. Preau". C. "Friedrich Bilabe]." Ch,oniq"e d'Egyple 23 (1948):247-50, MAR.T1N KR.Ausl!
Bll.A-D, lown io Egypl, tho localion of which is now unknown. The SYNAXARlOK under Ihe com· men>oralion of lhe martyr Anbi Bajl1sh on 26 TUbah. stales that Bajiish. a weallhy man. was from ... place to the north of Bilarl. Arianu•• Ihe Byzantine governor in Anlinoopolis. imerrogat.d and tortured Bajll.sh, who was ev.ntually martyred near Salml1n, "'esl of limi. in lhe districi of the city of Tkow. E. Amelineau theori~s that Ihe Bilad mentioned in this account may be Ihe modern Biud ai-Mal in the province of QinA in Upper Egypt (1893, p. 1(0). '!his identification, however. is unlenahle .ince the orthography of the two place names is different and because Bil;\d al-Mal is Mt aUesled before the nineteenth century. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amelineau, E. L.o Gtog'aphie de rEOPle ~ "iptX/"e Caple, p. 100. Paris, 1893, Timm, S. Vas chrisllich·koplische Agyplen in arabisehe' leil. pt.!. pp. 391-92, Wiesbaden. 1984. RANDALL S'rnWART
BILBEIS,
city in the province of Sharqiyyah locat-
ed at tho junction of the ~tern Des.ert and the
Delta about 30 miles (48 km) northeasl of Cairo. Though Bilbei. is seldom memioned in Greelt and Lalin sources from the Roman-Byzantine era. it is apparent that the city exi.ted prior to the ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT in 641 and that it had a bi,hop .. early as lhe sev.nth century. The name of the city appears often in Coptic scales. which is an indication of an older tradition. Bilbei. also occun in the li,ts of Egyptian bi.hopric. (Munier, 1943. pp. 47. 54. (3). The firsl bishop in Bilbeis whooe name we know was Apa Abraham. The Coptic ac· counl of the FORTY·NINE MARTYRS of $cetis stales Ihat Abraham soughl the remains of the martyrs when
391
they lay in Ihe cave of Piamoun. From Ihis slory one un reasonably "",,ume Ihal Abraham. who was a contemporary of John. Hegumenos of Seetis. was bi.hop in lbe pre-Arabic period (d_ Evelyn-White, 1932, pp. 270-71). Another Abraham who served as bishop of Bilbeis was pruent at the synod held in Cairo in 744 to choose KIIA'IL I as palriarch. Under Ihe direction of King Arnalrich of Jerusalem, the Crusaders look Bilbeis in 1168. and some Copu lost their lives in the baUles. However. by the fourteenth century. Ihe city was once again Ihe .eal of a Coptic bishop. There is also evidence 10 .uggest Ihal Bilbeis h<>a'lled a Chrislian wriling school al Ihe beginning of lhe fourteenlh century. Coptic tradition says thai Bilbe" was one of Ihe 'lopping places of tho family of J.sus during Ihe FU(;HT INTO
E<;YPT,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amelineau. E. La Giographie de I'Egypte a /'ipoque COpl•• pp. 333-35. Paris. 1893. Evelyn·White, H. The Mon4Sleriu of Ihe Wadi 'n Nalrnn, pt. 2. The Hislory of Ihe Monasleries of Nilno ,wd of Scelis. New York, 1932. Munier, H. Recueil de.Ii.lu episcopales de NglI.e cople. Cairo. 1943. Timm. $, Christ/irhe Sial/en in Agyplen. p. 64. Wiesbaden, 1979. ___ Dos chri.s/lkJt-kopllsche Agyplen In .rabisch" 2eil. pt. I, pp. 401_406, Wie.baden. 1984. RANDALL SrnwART
DIUAy,
town localed in the Egyptian Delta aboul 5 miles (8 Itm) soulh of al-Ma~l1rah in the Daqahliyyah province. Bilj;ly taltes its place in Christian history as the birthplace of the manyr DICS who was killed during Ihe reign of Ihe emperor Maximian (Rossi, 1893). BIBUOGRAPHY
Amelineau. E. L" Giographk de I'Egyple a I'epoq"e COple, pp. 100-101. ParU. 1893. Rossi, F. Un nuova codice COplO tiel museo Egizio di Torino. pp, 3-136. Rome. 1893. Timm. S. Do. christlich-kopt"rh, Agyplen in .,abiseh" leil, pl. 4, pp. 1886~87. Wiesbaden, 1988. RAND~U. STEWART
DIMIN. Su
Pamin, Saint.
392
BIRMAo
BIRMA, lO",n located
in the Egyptian Df:lta aboul
7 miles (II bn) north~ of Tania in Ihe Jl'I'O"ince
of GMtbi"..... Ahhough Binni is lisle In Clllinian-Anbi<: lileran<.e and "0 bOslIop foo- lhe plllee Is allesled in a1l]" """ra. The earliesl. menl.... of Blrmlo in C<>pric.An.bOc: lite,.,.lUn Is &5 a aeo....pbical rmrenu poinl for the place ,,'here the am;. ai·JuyUih ~ed the Kurds in 1077. Fallureh MATlllEW' (1371-1409) had Ihe .elics of Saini George !hal were ,..,,,,,,.,.,ed in Binni brou&lu to IMn ""BA ~..O"II. of lhbmun in !he F.yyQm. In 1424, PIIlIriareh GABItIEl. v (1409- 1427) return«! ,he reli" to Binni (Viaud. 1919. p. 30). Birmt h.. two Coptic churchK. both of which are dedic.led 10 Saim Gemg•. One of !he&'" church. e& W3S buill in 1206 and later abandoned: Ihe other Wllll er.cled in 1611 (Viaud. p. 30). BIBI.IOGRAPHV Am~lineau,
E. LQ G~ograph;e de I'e,yptc " I·'pcq". cop'e. pp. 101-102. 1'30';$, 1893, Munie'. H. Rec"eil de$ /;$Ie$ ipiscopa/u de /'Igliu Caple. Cairo, 1943. Timm. S. D<.$ ch-ull;ch·loptiJ<:he ,lop,.... i .. arabi· ..,h..r z"u. pi. I. pp. 407-409. Wiesbaden, 1984. Viaud, G. l.a Nlerinagu cOplu .... Ef)'pte, From ,he notf$ of Jacob MU)'SOOr. C.im. 1919. R.ulDAU. STVO'ur
BIRTH RITES AND CUSTOMS. Binh prac. ticK m f&ypI are based on *"Cierll. lime-bono.-ed ctISIO<m, and although they ha"e tended to disappea.- - I urban d"",llen. ape<;ially ,in<;" the t....... ,ieth ccnlllry. u...,. an Hill maintained &5 _sly &5 ......... in rural sociel)'. An up«lant ""O~ ~.es l1luch .lIemion from Illox abou' her. as lhey ......k 10 $au./y h.... ....ery cravilllll for cenain Ioock. for il is believed lhal !hey mi&lu o!h.. rwise appear on the bod)' of !he newborn. Another pr~erI' belief ;, lhat whatevlCT com... into Ihe prospec'ive mother's view will Inllu· enc.. Ihe unoorn child. and thus die Is careful '0 surround herself with lovely ~ilhll. ~lerrinl 10 look up<m 'hose who ar.. distini"i~hed by their physical beauly or social prcslig... Among people of mo
birth. During the rony days of confinement followinr: !he birth (pl"&Clice
In the country. the pIaceft,a .nd umbilical cord are r;ivcn particular .u.... don. for it is bdie",d dw they proccet the moI.her and ........ long 1m. to the dlid (5CC' Blackman. 1916). Tlleir ;mportna1>U may be trao:orIto pl>anoonlc Ec>1M. where. special priesl wouJd h;n.", cared lOr lite royal placenta (Ayroul. 11'52).
Because prqn.ncy .nd childbirth ha,.., left the new moo...... euremely ....m and $U$Cep1ible 10 infeclion. th...., anendlnl ber take precautions to help her regain slreng,h and 10 proIect hcr from all evil- On ,he Ihird day .fter lhe binh. d>e is purged "ith caslor oil. and then she must lilerally large he.....lf in order to restOre her health and acti,ate Ih., mamm.1')' Il.nds. Funher, in order to spare h". any ."xiely 'hal could cern im.. rmediar· i... for e,il. for eumple, If lhey have ju.a returned from • buri.l. or h.ve ,he pIolm. of their hands and soles of Ih";r feet CO\.. ~ ",';m henna. or if they haw: juH httn circumcised. or are _aring Iique BOld pi...,.... precious Slones. Or park. H r. ~ld evil befall the rec (Ayn>U1. 19S2. pp. 121-22), and thus barren MH11en pay many mils 10 neatby necropoliu:s and !be Cairn Museum. The Cop'ic Ceremony of Ihe Sevenlh Day is ceIebraled ..... eD daY' after ,be binh of a cllild and ., lU<ended by women only. II \$ a Talher comple~ evenl Ihal .equires much prepanllion. 'The prec-eding evenlnl the family in.tall$. in the bedroom of the mOlher and Child. a largo winnow· ing $ie,e, a monar, a knife, an, and _I'. There is a lray near lbe ba· by's pillow upon wh;~h se"en ilem, have been placed to corre$pOnd 10 lhe $even days jusl p..." wh
grot.'
BISHOP
anemisia oc inc~~. and saiL On lh~ ...heat ruts an "" lNot is .0 ~ cook.... Ih," nut day and olI~ 10 iOme.one ad,'lUlc.... in yean. This is.o ~nsure 1M child', lonF'ily. NQ~' an: .. W>l.ch. inkstand. and pu for a boy. oc sc'->rs. a thimble. needle, and rhread a girl. The m\dv.iJc Come! abou. no<>n. As ,hoe suoesa arriYe. they slip c a luse .~...,.om child. for il i, consider~d '0 be ,he mOS' benefic~nl. HoldIng th~ baby in her ann•. ,he midwife tak~s Ih~ 'Tly Wilh i,s .even item. and .callers Ih~se con· l,"nlS throughout the house. She i, fonow~d by the mOlher, dOlhed in white, wilh a bra:O~ns heT fac~ while formulalin, wishes of 10nSe'>'ity for .he Il~wborn. The pa""nlJ of 'M new mo,her send Mr cakes ook'"
roc
Mugh#! io lhe ~Iished dtinl: ofF~red to any ,"'i1or
....ho calls to con,mub.e
th~
new mothe•.
BI.UOC.....,HY A)TOUI. H. H. FeU..1u "'Ec>JHt, Cairo. 1952. Bb.:kn\an. A. M. ''Jhe PIlanoh's Plaoo,...,... and tht Moon God Khons." J"",..at 0/ EDptia" hchtobD J. oeries 1 (1916), B1acbnan. W. S. ~s f
''''.
lMoe. W. E. hi Ace.,.."t 0( the 101.0" ntl C,u/OmS of tlu Mori.lI.l. 2nd London. New York. and Mdboum~. 1'90. Leeder. S. H. Itfons of lite PhtJrtJohs. Lon· don. 1918_ Was.sef. C~ W. Pr..riqu.J rit.. ~fler ct ..time"ttJius J~ Copt..... Cairo, 1971.
Ctles WtSl;A WASSEf
'0
'''S
393
BISADAH. Sa hoY,
BISHOP, a derg)'man oi 1M highe.t urder, senior in r;Inl to pries'5 and deacons. TM CopIic lerm (episwposj and ,he ATlbic (....quI) are deri,'ed from the G!"ed< and Latin ,,,,rsIon5 (episkop<>" ~pi."us). ",·hich. etymologically. mean "~rseer:' Bishops are SucctSSOn to tht .posIl~ and. from tht hio'orical point of lIiew. II~ ~pisc~e is a conrinualion of "'~ apos.oIate. 11le 1"asI0rai Episdes by down in ... me deoil .he ~uisil~ qualities of • penon wonlly of be;n, I &ood biohop (I Tim. 3:1-7; Ti. 1:7-10), whkh CUI he summarized ... foDows. {I> A$ God'. Sleward. a btshop midi be above repr<>Kh. (2) As SUI\! Paul's suec,.....,.-. he muR he .. compeunl teacM', able to npound the true ChrUtian doclri~, ha,ina a twofold duly: to fill the £ailhfu.I ilh 7.fll. and 10 rtfute the argum~nlS of diose -hco hold unorthodo~ vi«p of Alexandria at the age of lWenty-Ihre~, (2) A candid.t~ should a1l"'""-dy
ror
394
BISHOP
~ oro.ined priest and pmloprie5l (Connolly. 1919. chap, 3, p. 24)_
SeI"Uon of Bhhops
11M:
stipubtes Uwc uTWlimOl.lll appr1)'lal c( lhe .,...... fplion of the chosm pnwn, ~ COOl' WlJonJ '" rite Holy Ap"'JJleJ also SCl"ftSa Uw !he peqon w be ord.ined bishop "is '0 be chown br IIw: whole ~, "ii<>, ~II Iw: if, named and lippI"OYed. 1ft til., people ..-mille with 1M Jlft'byIery hd bi$hops thai"" ~t. on the I..onl',
N
ConHcraUOII of Blabops Accordill' 10 the Didouc4/U. the collteCration of a bWoop should rake Dbce on a Sunday aI Ih., ca. thedral, In !he p
ouglll not 10 be bilhop •• ,~ (Cummings, 1951, p. 110). 8e:£or., the senice of lhe consecr.uion s1arU, !he eandKble is IISkd 10 ""blicl,. affirm his adherence 10 the onhodo>. lailh, ,he churcb 1a,,"S, Ute ClLIIO... 01 the councils 01 Nic:aea, OONST "TUOOI'I.E. and EI'lfESIJS. . . . .'ell as the other CO\Joci He Mould abo declare his comoant rndinns 10 safquard th., doc. lrines and rites of the Copcic onbod<>.. church, 10 care for and proIec1 lhe COIlareption, and submit 10 !be chun:h and her II..... n..,n, followinll W rnding from !he Ac:1$ of w Apos.Iles. !he elabon", ceremony continues, indud. inC the foIl""';n. fntu~s: layJlIll-on of hands; holding the divine Cos.pels open upon his head; makinK the sign of Ihe croat ,hrlu and living him his e<;o. cle$""'Iical name: clOlhinl him with lhe ~ I vestments; partuinll of Holy Communion: ,emm'in.lhe new bishop's whhe ves,menls, and clothing him Wilh his black ones: and en'l1.l5tin.the episcopal .taff and crO$S 10 him, white the congn:gation chan" "Worthy, worthy, worthy."' Before lhe newly consecraten arvund the church. He then stands ou'. side 1he SU>C1Ua»' booo,..... his head, wh.iIe the other bishops SW>d inside, and be&ln the Jl
""""
"We herft,y enlhrone him who has by divine grace been cons«l"llIe
BISHOP, CONSECRATION OF
Functions and Duties As the main spiritual leader of the diocese, the bishop assumes the responsibility of teaching and preaching in conformity with the exhortation of Saint Paul (1 Tim. 3:2: 4:11, 13. 15, In). and in 2 TImothy 4:2. "Preach the word. be urgent in season and out of !leason. convince, rebuke. and exhon. be unfailing in ~tience and in teaching." The Didasca· lia also urges the bishop to pay particular allention to the interpretation of the so:riptures and the teaching of his people (chap, 3). The bishop ordains priest. and deacons in .0.<;' cordan.e with the needs of the church after careful consideration: "Do not be hasty in the laying on of hands" (1 Tim. 5:22). Canon 9 of the Council of Antioch (341) states the following: ", .. For each bishop has authority o,'er his own parish, both to manage it with the piety which is incumbent on every one, and to make provision for the whole district which is dependent on his city; to ordain presbyters and deacons; and to ..ule everything with judgmem.'· The bishop .upe....ises and comrols the clergy and administers discipline, "Let tbe elders who rule well be considered wonhy of double honor. especially those who laOOr in preaching and teaching.. , , Never admit any charge against an elder e.cept on the e"idence of two or three witnesses.... In the presence of God and of Christ JeMlS and of the elecl angels I charge yau to keep these rules without fa.'or, doing nothing from partiality" (l Tim. 5:17, 19. 21). The nUla.calia specifies Monday for the hearing of grievances and passing judgments in diocesan disputes (chap, 8). The Crm'titutians of the Holy Apostles makes similar provision" "Let your judicatures be held on the second day of the week, that if any controvef$Y arise about your sentence. having an interval till the sabbat!i"bl"0u may be able to set the cOlllro\'ersy right, and tb reduce those to peace who have the contests one with another against the Lord'. day." The bishop consecrates ~hurches, altars. vessel. needed for the liturgy, and the Holy Chrism. The bishop pmvides for the needs of the clergy and the deacons, as well as of the poor, the widows, and the orphans in his diocese. The bishop manages church finances: "Let the bishop have the ~are of ecclesiastical revenues and let him administer them ;OS in the presence of God." Likewise. "We ordain tbat the bishop have authority over the goods of the ~hurch: for if he is to be
395
entrusted with the predous souls of men. much more ought he to give direction. about good•. that they all be distributed to those in walll. according to his authority, by the presbytef$ and deacons, and be used for their support with reverence." BIBUOGRAPHY
Cummings, D, The R~dder. Chicago. 1957. Habib Jirjis. Asrar aJ-Kanisah al-Sab-ah. 2nd ed" pp. 216-19,223.224. Cairo. 1950. Ibn SibA' YI1~ann6 ibn Abl Zakarly~. Ki1tJ.b al·lawha· rah al-Nafisah fl 'Viii", al.Ka"lsah, e
BISHOP. CONSECRATION OF. In lhe event of a bishopric becoming vacant as a result of the death of its bishop or for other reasons, a su~cessor is nominaled by the clergy and congregation, and his name is submilted to the patriarch. tOg'Cthcr with a tC$timoniai called a deed of election, The patriarch refers this testimonial to the Holy Synod (see HNOD, HOLY) for approval, after which a date is set for the ceremony of the new bish"p's consecration. This takes place on a Sunday and is usually held at the cathedral church of the patriarchate In Cairo. Clothing wllh the Schema On the eve of the consecration. a service is held durin, which the nominee is given an ecclesiastical name and is clothed with the ",hema. unless he has already been vested with it at the outset of his monastic life. The s~hema is a long plailed leather girdle ad<>med with cmSses and is worn crosswise Over Ihe chest and the back as a .ymbol of striCI austerity and asceticism. At the stan of Ihe proceedings. a further verifica· tion of the unanimous agreement of the clergy and congregation on the ~hoice of the nominee is car· ried out by the patriarch or his deputy. With the bish"p-elecl .tanding in from of all. they are asked three times if they consider him t" be the right man, one who is ca~ble of sh"uldering the serio,," responsibilities of the bishopri~. Thi. is done in fulfillment of the .tipulation laid down in the Con· stilulw~s of Ihe Holy Apas/les:
396
BISHOP, CONSECRATION OF
And let 'he principal of ,1M, bist>ope . . lhe pr~ bylery and people wbe.lM,r this be .he penon whom .hey desire for ,heir m1er. And if 'hey p'''' their consent. let him;a.sk Further whellX'.. he has a IJOOd tnlimony from all men &i 10 hi5 worthi. _ for so gre;>' and &Iorious an au'!Iori.y: w~bcr all things relating .0 his pie!)' God be richl; whed>C'r ~Ke "",,"aI'ds men has been oburw:er do accordillllO Inllh. and no, 1CC0rdini '0 p.-~e1icc. witness he i. wch a one. lei !hem the !hinl time. M bdore G:>d !he judae. anel Christ. me Holy Chos, boein, also pusenl. as ...·ell as all me holy and mini$ler1"1 spin.., ad< again .... hether he be 'nlly wonhy of thl, mini..ry••ha. so "in ,he mO\llh of 'wo Dr ,hree witnesses ~~ry ...-ard may be: eouobliohed:' And if they agree ,he lItiro,ime .hat he I. worthy. leI Ihem all be demanded ,heir \/OCe: and when ,hey all ttl,'C il willingly. lei them be heard.
.owarns
,ha,
Pledge The bi,hop..,lec' ,hen reads a solemn pledge I8.ken before Almigh,y God. ,he invi'ible Head of lhe Church: lhe ~red allll.r; me palriarch. bishops. and prubyle,",; ,he membcT'l of.he Holy Synod; and lhe people, in which he undertakes .0 uphold .he 0'" Ihodo. faith 10 .he lasl brnth and obey Ihe canon. of ,he holy apo:>!ille< and lhe ecumenical «>Uncil. of NICAEO (J25). COr<¥r.v
'0
al council. and me holy bwn of .he church; safcguud lhe riles, doclrines, and .radillons oflhc Coptic Qnhodo. Church; 10 Ina! all the II>Cmben of his ..risft ";!h jI.J$tioce and wit"""l bia$ 01 fa'Vl>r. not condemnin,: anyone "" MAnay bul affordi"l him an opportunity 10 prove his InlOOCetlce: 10 «>& ,;nue 10 Icad all ascetic life. n_r tTeali"l the chun:h uwu as his _"II; and 10 5l.Ibmit to the Alp«m.e authority of~ church. >utell In His H... lincu, the pope and patriarch of the Sec of Sain. Mark. and in me Holy Sp>od When the bishop-efect h.. read lhe pl..d&e. hi5 epiKopal VCSlments receiYC Ihe 'I8n of lite crnss. and hi. nr:w ecclesiastical m.me Is announced. Sunday Procession In lhe course of lhe celebration of Ihe Di~ine Lilu'1)' on the lollowing Sunday momina. and ;m· media,ely aher Ihe reading. from the ACI5 and ,he SYNHAJUON, the bishops. clergy. and deacon. go to
where the bishOj)'Clec' is a",ailinc- 1bey bring him Into the ca,hedralln an Imp"""';..e proce;sion. cal' rying c........ and lIab,ed candln and chanting in Coplic: !he h)mn beJinninc- '"The o..ly-bcgC' pope asks 1hc archdeacon or a pri51 .0 read me deed of eIec'ion.
Dftd
or Election
This ,estimonial is addrc5SCd by ,he clergy and congregation of Ihe ,·acan. bishopric In the pope. beginning wilh lite honorific title< of the successor '0 lhe Ih",ne of Sain. Marl<. II describes the $Or· """ful .l<>'e of the pari,h after Ihe depart"re of iI-_ bishop and the evenlual choice of .. monk of a certain monastery 10 ~11 the vacancy. he being filled w;,h "inue and piety. a man who has forsakeo the world. a good leacher. eagcr.o lislen '0 Ihe Gospel of Trulh. The pope de!Cends from ,he throne and .lands al Ihe allll.r. facing eas'ward. With the bi'hop' SUI' ro.",ding him. he offers Ince"",, and says Ihe Pr.iyer of Incense. while the bishop-ciccI knttls a, me aI· ~.
Petilions The archdeacon says the following prlitions, after each of ilich lite conVCption respoMs by ",,)'inc
the ..\)
cINc'"
I. "A1mi&hty Cod. wbo an in hca,'co, _ heseech ~, hear .... and have mercy upon ........ 2. "Pray for the puce 0/. the One Holy Calholic ApostoIK Church.3. "Pray lor !he li~ and salety 0/. our Father the Pauiarch. Abbi (name). and all thc bishops. the clergy, and ,he ChriSl·!oving CDnIl'qlaOOn." 4. "Pray for thc for&j,·enes.s of our $i... and delivery from all tribulation." s. "Pray 10 Cod. to bl~ Hi, inhcrilan<:e ;mel ha,~ mercy upon His peol'l~ •• hrough the intercession of the Blessed T'hlOlok05, Saint MMk. and aillhe ",,;n..:· 6. "We be.sc«:h T1tce. Lord•• end Thine Holy Spiril upon thl. eletl sen'an, of Thine [name]:'
The cong~ga.iort lays the Kyrie de;son fifty I;me<.
BISHOP. CONSECRATION OF
I..-yllll-on or Hands
1M bishops lay
lMi~
hands upon ..... bishopelecl'l Ihoulden ""d llnt\3.. Then, facina; the wesl, 1M pope pny$, "God Almighty, Lord of aU, fOUrce of all "'e!'CY and c:omlort. ... Thou art He wtto didst redeem .. ",ith Thy Blood••.. Gralll Thy 5eI"\1&111 (namellrace I<> !rind and 10 l<><¥e. Ghe him ""'sdom I<> shepbc:rd Th)' Bock in purity and ;..uioce. for Thine illhe p"""'e~ and !he glory...iU1 Thy Good fillher and u.. Holy Spiril. nOW and fooeO'U". Amen." He plKft his r1&h1 hand upon Ihe bilhop-elech
fon:head. until Ute arc:hdeac:on has "n>slted sayinl !he fol.lowing pronouncement: "May the Oi"ine grace ","iocll nuke< good all inadeq\dCy. heals all infirmity. and provida fo~ the Holy Church of God, come upon enamel Ihe se\Va1ll of Cod. the prlesl. and mo~k of the monastery of [name] in Ihe place of [Mme} whom lhe Lord hath taken umO Him. Let uS all pray. beseeching God 10 granl him the Brace of the Hoi)' Splril," All Ihen say the Xyrie e1eiso~. looklng lowsrd the aha~, Ihe patriar<:h says this pnyer: "Yes. Lord. make him wonhy of rhe episcopal olIice. 10 ..,rve Thy Name ann <Ji Thy Saints. IhrtH.lJh lhe mercic of Thy Only-bego1lm Son. our Lord Jau.. Ch~. wilh whom and the Holy Spiril Thou .., b ~ now and forenr. Amen." He loob toward the ""e!il and placn his ri&hl hand upon Ute bishop-elecl'l llnod. The bishops lay lheir .... nds IIJ'O'I'I his ...... and. lhe pop.- ..eeilleS the I'l'lII)"'" of Laymc_ ol Hands:
Maller. Lord God, the AJm~, Father of our Lord.. God and Savior J.....,. Olrisl. ""b;) has neither beJinnilll nor end ... wtIo cho'elleth in the ~ and Ioob upon 1M lowly ... do now pour Thy Holy Sp;rit "'hidt Thou hm gramed 10 Thy pun: apo$Lles. &i.e.~e same crace 10 Thy IC'tvanr (.... me], whom Thou hasl cJ>oo;en bishop. that he may shepherd Thy holy flock, and becollle unl<> Thff • blameless ..,...·eT. and pray unto Thy coodneSll day and nighl.... Give uniO him through Thy Chrisl lhe .....thorily 10 £o... i"" sin5 accordinl 10 the commandmem of Thy oniy. begouen Son. Jewi ChriSI OUr Lord. 10 ordain cle'llY. to 1005<: all ecclesiastic.l bonds, 10 conte· cnle new chu~che. and allan, and aerve Thee without blame. all the daY' of hi. life, with put"(!. holy bloodl .... sacrifices. Fill him. Lord. w;lh Ihe g....ce. of the Holy Splrh. snont him the grace of healing and teaching,
397
thaI he may becortM: a &ood IUjd" to thost who go asttay. a li&ht 10 thoee who ......I.k in darkness and siD. a lear:hu 10 the iCRorani. disclosing the won:! of lruth righlly, following !he eumple of the Truo: Sbephml. our Lord Jaus ChriY. ~ 10 Lay down his liff: for his sMep ... duu he may stand. with boldncso before Thy a-.ome throne. 1ooIrina; 1Orvo....-d I<> lhe put reward wt.ioch Thou halt ~ for lhooe who labor for 1M preaching of the Goopd. Then the pope tums to the eas'. tow:ard the a1IaT, and OOIUinues, MLook upon \.IS. Lord, and upon our minisl')", and purify uS from all defilemenl. Send from above upon Thy se ......nl [bishop's name] Thy grace <Ji high prie:'ilhood. that he may be wonhy dtrough Thy good pleasure to .hq>hcnl Thy Bod: withouI blame. fur Thou an merdful and. worthy of honor and wonhip. Falher. Son. and Holy Spirit. now and fon:"e~." Turning to the west. the p<:>pe ,i,ns lhe head of the bishop with his IhUlllb Ihree lime•. saying, "We ordain you [name} bishop in Ihe holy chorch of Ihe Christ·lovinl city e>f [name] and its nOllle. in the Name of the Falher and the Son and lhe Holy Spiril." Hcre rhe bi.hop " helped on wllh lhe episcopal "eSlmen"- while the ~ says. "Glo')" anly Carholioc and Apoou:oIic Church_ Bleacd be the Lord God forever. Amen." He makes the !iiV' <Ji the cross Ihree timn ",..th h .. thumb OVeT the head of lhe bishop. sayine. "We ordain [name], eleee of God, bishop in lhe One. Holy, 10dissoIubk CIru...,h of the UftSftn and. U''inI God, n£ the O>rist-lo..rn, cit)· of (name] and iU noll'><:. unl<> the cIory and hanOI" ollhe Name <Ji the Holy Trin.. !y. 10 the peace and editOcation <Ji lhe Ho/)' CItu...,h. n.. archdeacon reads a few lIlOl"e petitions. and the pope $lOy> anoUtcr prayer of thanug;'ina; and returns I<> IUs throne. Al Ihis poinl. the celclmotion <Ji the on"ne U!U'llY Is rdlImed. and. the Pauline episl;le is n:ad from Hebrews .:H and 5:6. followed by the TriM.pn. the Inlercession of lhe: Goopd. Ihe ~l n:adinl. and th~ rest of the anal'b;)ra. The pope admini5ters the communion 10 tM n~w bisJJop. giVC5 him the b",alh of the Holy Spiril, places his righl hand upon his head. sa)'ing, "Worthy, wonhy. wonhy. bishop [name] of Ih~ cily of [name} and ilS nome." His Iilurgical vestments a", changed fur his black cassock. and Ihe pope hands him his cro.i.. and cron, M
398
BISHOP, TRANSLATION OF
Epbcopal Exhortatioo Fmall" !he fJOPI!' &li.,cn a stnnon known .. Ihc episcopal C<>mmlUlo:hnenl. """ch II a compendium oJ pilliUpu ol.inue and godIinC!lS culled from !he H~ T~ft1 10 sen'e as ~ina for the I>CW bi:lJ'Iop. as sec.. from the folknrting ~
Be always humble. quiet. conlented and merciful. and ncv.... lose your ~imir)'. Eachew the ~ of mon~, and be kind 10 o~ v.i
BurmtSler, O. K. E. The Emritl" or Copeic CltNrdJ, pp. 166-73. Caim, 1967. Ibn Sibil' Y~ ibn Abo Zabrfyi.. XiUb ./,)...... MraJt fI1.f{.~ /I ...,..... "I-Xa,,1J#4, loci Vihilr Ma"fllr. pp. 122-25. 'Caim, 1902. T....M. into LMin .. "'etiosil Mmr"rila tk JCj~"tiil ~cck.Jill#il:u by Vlncenlio Mi5IriI]. Caim. 1966. ARCH'ISItO~
BMtuos
BISHOP, TRANSLATION OF, the transfn· ence of a bishop from Ihe see for ....hlch he w;U eonse<:Ialed 10 some other diocese. Thl. pracUce I. forbidden by Canon 15 of lhe Council of NIC~f.A (325), which stales, "On account 01" the lIreat dillur· banee and discords Ihal occur. it Is d«reed that the
pbc~
contIwy 10 lh.e Canon, muM be ....holly done a_y; so thai oolher bW>op. ~. nor deKon wI] pass from dty 10 city. And if any one after thi5 dec-= <:I.lh.e hoi)' and Synod Wll attempl all)' !ilJCh thine. or continue in all]' such eounc, his proccedinp .haI1 be ullcrly ..,id, and he shall be restored 10 lh.e Church ior whOch he ...... onbined bishop or pnsbyter.~ This prohibition is based "" thoe assumplion that monsIation II l\IOIIvated by ambition....·hich is detrimental 10 the proper <:Irpni:w:ion « the vari· ous clturch parUhcs, boll> bite and smau. Saint ATIWlASIUS (326-373) coodemned the pra<;< lice of abandoni", one'l parish as tantamoun. 10 di..,r-ce on the pan of lhe bishop, siner his parish is his spouse. n,., founcenth AposlOli<;a1 Canon allo..... Itte translali<M'l of bishops only for valid ",awns: "A bishop is nol 10 be a110~ 10 leave his own p.o.rish, and pass over into anolher. although he may be pressed by m.ny to do $C), unless there be .ome proper cau.., conSlrainini him, IS If he can confer oorne grealer bene6t upon the persons of thai place in th" word of godliness. And Ihi. mUSI be done not of his own accord. but by the judgment of many bi.hops. and II their eames, exhortalion."· On mi. basil.. Alexandnu woa lnlDdatod from the bishopric <:I. Cappadocia 10 Jel'\laalem, an episode commemo.... ed in lhe Coptic Synaorion on 12 BanunUdah and I eanomhi. and mentioned by various church hislorian.. Canon 21 of the Council <:I. Antioch (341) decrees that "a bishop may not be lI'atlSbted frnm one paT' iah to ar>otI>er, eidler intn>ding himself of his own suggcnion. or UI\du compulsion by the people. or by a>nMBinl <:I. the bishopa. but be shall remain in 1M CbW'Ch 10 ...'hieh he was allOlled by God from the her;inllifl&, and sftall IlOI be translated from ii, acconline to .be decl"ft IOl1'1ltrly passed ....
"eat
--
GItEGOU or NAI.L\NZtIS (329-38') WIlS comec...ud againsl his will in 312 as pries! 10 the see of Sasima,
• small village in Cappadocia. Nevcrthe-lesa. be remained in Na>;ianws as a ."ffrapn 10 help his . the•• the- bishop of Nubnzu•. until the I.IU . dealh in 374. GrellOf)' Ihen retired 10 Seleu<:b, but he Wa!l called 10 CQnllantinople in 379 10 .uppon the adherenlS to the Hlcene bith. who had nellher paslor nor ehurch. During Ihe Council of Con.tan. Iinopl". he ""as appointed bishop of Constanllnopl". The E~lian and Macedonlan bl.hops ""hQ altend· ed Ihe council dispuled .he .-alidi!}' of his appoint· menl. He resignt
BISHOPS, BIOGRAPHIES OF
nah, I will give myself for the ...lvation of our ship [the church]. though I am an innocent of the ",onn. Let the lot fall upon me and c...t me int" the sea.... I reluctantly ascended the episcopal chair and gladly I now come down," (Schaff, 1891. Vol. 2, pp. 918-19). PROCLUS (d. 446 or 447). patriarch of Constantino· pie, was consecrated bishop of Cyzicus, but the people lhere refused to receive him, so he remained in Constantinople ... a much-admired preacher. In 434 he was enthroned by the bishops at Constantinople, and the scruples felt about translation had been removed by the leiters of Cd.,.tine, bishop of Rome. 10 CYRtL I of Alexandria (412-444). 10m. Of ANTIOCH, and Rufus of Thessalonica on the subject of transiation (ibid" p. 175). Proclus then sent both to C)'ril of Ale~andria and John of Antioch lhe usual synodical letters announcing his appointment. both of whom approve:. impatient with the lack of supervision. clamored for a bishop of their own and for the appointment of Sidelius. Siderius was accordingly consecrated, No penni..ion was received from the pope of Aluandlia. and only a single bishop could
399
be found to officiate. conmuy to the ApOSTolic Cartart., which command that a bishop be ordain~d preferably by three bishops but at least by two. But these were the times of th~ Anans (see ARIANtSM), and th~ majority of the people were heretics, Thus, in view of the immense utility of the appointment, Pope Athanallius overlooked its irregularily, cOll$id· ~ring that in such perilous time. Ihe laws could not alwaY" be closely observed. and shortly afterward, he promoted Siderius to the metropolitan see of Ptolema~.
Pope K/lA']L I (744-767), said, "Sword I)r he Or casting to lions or exile or capti";ty,-the.e are things that troubl~ me not; but I will not enrer into what is not lawful. nOr incur my own excommunicalion. which I subscribed with my own hand and initiated, to the effect thai no bishop shall become patriarch. For the excellent fathers excommunicat· ed him who shall take a degree in the hierarchy by the help or favour of the government." The only ;nslanc<'S of translation In the Coptic Church are Ihe translation and prom(llion of Kht'll. bi.hop of Fuwwah, to the metropolitan see of Ethiopia by Pope JOHN VI (1189-1216); and the transla· tion and promotion of CHRISTOOOULOS 1JI. bishop of Jerusalem. 10 the metropolitan see of Ethiopia by Pope PETER VI (1718-1726). In the twentieth century th~ Caplic church has cOIl1inu~d to adhere to that cuslom, with the eJ
Heide, K. J. von. "Not~ •." In A Select Library of th. Nice". and Post·Nkene Fathers of tile Christia" Church, ser, 2, VoL 14, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace. Grand Rapids, Mich.. 1950. Schaff. P. Hi'/ory 0/ the Christiart Church: Nice". and Post·Nkene Christia"ity. VoL 2, pp. 918-19. Edinburgh, 1891. EMILE MAJID. ISHAQ
BISHOPRIC.
See Eparchy.
BISHOPS, BIOGRAPHIES OF, The anciem Iite1'llry Ionn of the biography was taken over by the Christians, all is shown by the Panegyricus on Con·
400
BISHOPS, CORRESPONDENCE OF
the C~I by Eu5dJius IlJld Jerome's De rim iIIltllriOtts. From the founh century on, the live! of oainl$ such as the Vir" C)'Pri.. lli of Pontius • nd the Vir.. .411l....n of Arnan.ius "'n"e at the ct'i>" ter of Christian btogtaphy_ The "tltt wort., " mill· lure of btocnPhY and encomium, had a considuable intlumu in Coptic lilCr.otun, wtIh ~'I"" emphotsis on the elcn>ltnl of culOC· ~ docsiI'" riom of thae wo.-b ~-.uy bet"fl'n el>COlllium .nd NI, and occaoiooally the). lin: abo called poJile;' (Abodel Sa)'ed. 1984, pp. 2nlL). The finl $IIbjecu of bio&r.ophies or "ncomla "''CO"e manyn: and !hen ..--oks. follo..ed by bishops. For u.ampl". an "ncomium On .wN::AllU5. BISHOP OF TI((MI. is MCrib..uiareh. In ...., early lounh century. Archbishop AI· uandcr I. ninele""lh patriarch. had rcponedly ""rln"n an ell<'omium on his predcc~r rtTu. ! of Aluandria. $Cventeenth plllriarch (iU Krause. 1979. lip. 110 and nn. 171!.: funhe. e.amples al pp. .~nline
710-15),
In the $tventh century. when Coptic literary worb were inneasingly wrillen in Coptic and no lonltT transilled from Cruk into Co,:>tic, a blogno· phy of Bishop Pisemius 01 Qi~ was ",rinen. This has been pt'UCrvcd in the Sahidic and Bohairic dialecu and in Arabic translalions (Ab the cootenl of the biognophy. IpIJl from '-aNtions in 1""lIh, agrees word for ......rd. The Bohairic "",.. lion reponedly was wriuen by Bi~ Moses, ...., SUCCl!S!lOr of Pi..,ntius .. bishop of Oif!; the Sahidlc, by 1M priC$l John, I discipk of PUenlius. The lon.· er Arable tl'llnsialion is $.IIid 10 hi"" been comJXl$Cd by Tbcodorus of Sect... ....ith ~l
""thors
BIBLlOGRll.PHY Abdel Sa)1:!d. C. C. U"lu.ucIlU"8~" til d~" Te~Ie" /lb
GcrsIingcr, H. "Bio&nophi~:' In R~"lkxik,," lur AIlI' i1. Vol L Stult,gan, 1985. Mum .. KaAU'iE
BISHOPS, CORRESPONDENCE OF.
Tht
inhoobiunu of Christian E01't reveal a dclil!ht in wriling. 00 rar 1$ tM, "en: able 10 write. Many InlJIS&<'liom, C'SJ'eCiaily I~ of lqal content. were fi.ed in ",riUen form. Among lhe papyri and Mtraca found in numerous "rchi~i and deriving from the anliquiliei trade, Ihere are leuen from bishops to the failhful of lheir dioceses. and from Christians to their bishop<. It "'as one of Ihe duties cf the bisht>p to ha,.., the Easter leller from tlte patriarch cr Ale.andria !'Cad in lhe churches of hii diocese_ A ccmpanion piece te> an Ea.;ler leller, fre>m Ihe diocese of Hermonlhis. is preserved in Ute Brilish Museum (PapylU~ XCI; Crum. 1905, no. 46-4). The bi~hop, nM mentiooed by name. writes Ihat he has sent the arehpric51 ApI K)".... ",ilh the hoi)" EaslC'r letter of the palriarch. in order that it may he read in the churches of D.i"m". TIlerc mU$l ha~", bun simil&; lellen> in 11'B" numbC1'5 from all Ihe Ec-ptian bw."",.
Tbe COtTcspondence of tWO bishops from .he silIm and ..,...,nlh ccnluriQ in Upper ~'JlI parriculari)" ~'CS (Q be mentioned. Bishop Abraham of HermonthiJ AlIraham, "'bo rnidcd in the lIM>IIISlCf)' of Phoi· bammon, sillwed ncar o;c...... ,...101 numerous lei' Ie,." to the ChriJtians of his dioe~. both d"ric:aI. and lay. He abo rccei,-ed l~n,," from Ihese pcnoll$ (114 ....T ilings are del" .....ith in Knwse, 1956. Vol. 1). Part of the c~ndenc~ ........ found by lhe escaVl'or E. Naville in lhoe cou..,... of pulling do"n Ih" Pboiha.mmon monastel}" dunn. lhe cxcaY:Otion of lite temples of Halshepsut and Thutmosc III a' DAYI. Al lW1R1, be.un by Ih~ Eg,ypl E>.ploJ1l,lion Fund in 1893. Whi~ !Ome of the COlTC,p<>Tldence reached Ihe museums e>f Cairo and London, anoth· er pan. comprising mQre than 300 le~ts, was thrown on Ihe eXClvalion rubbish heaps, and was ne>t found until the )'Carsloilowina 1922. durin8 Ihe jnspection of Nlville's dumps b)' Ihe Metropolilan M""",,um of An. The discov~l}" was dj,'ided hetween
BISHOPS, CORRESPONDENCE OF
museums in Cairo and New York. [n 1959-1960 the Metropolilan Museum $Old these le,ts and olhers 10 Columbia University (Schiller, 1976, p, (04), [n addition, lex," were found during the excavation of Coptic monasleries buill into pharaonic ~mples or anchorite setdements. Some reached museums via Ihe anliquities lrade in Luxor. Only SOme of the texIS ha,'e heen published. While 114 texIS from this correspondence were known in 1956, since then the number h3$ grown 10 aboul 200, The existence of a large number of other writings, no longer eXlalll, can be inferred from the lexlS lhat recapimlate the early history of tnmsacli(ms. For example, in Crum's Coplic Os· """~ (CO 30) we road, "After I entroaled wu, you ordained me a deacon at Ihe monastery of the holy Apa vietor." Since the bishop himself, on the e,'i· dence of his testament, could not wrile, he employed four scribes. It has become evident that for many tranoactions there were set forms, inlO which only Ihe relevam personal and place narnes had 10 be inserted. This coOTespondence, the most comprehensi"e and best-proserved Gn ostraca, shows the activity of an Upper Egyptian bishop around 600. It includes lexlS on Ihe ordination of deacons and priests (see OIlOINAll0N, CLERICAl.. and CLD.lCAL INSTIUJCTION) as wen as documents relating to appoinlment to of. 6ce. For these documents of appoilllmem Ihere was also a set fonn, in which clergy, for the moSl part deacons, were named as titular heads of churches (and monasteries). The lask of the.e lilular heads was 10 watch for or prevenl any negligence and to instruci Iheir subordinales, thai they mighl walk in the fear of God. The disobedient among clergy and laity were 10 be excluded from communion (see EXCOMMUIICATlON), umil they came l
401
essary for the celebration are inspected and blessed by Ihe bishop, and he insists on the mixing of water and wine for the chalice in the Correci proportions, as laid down by the falhers. Anyone who adds mOre water is threatened, together with all his household, with exclusion from communion. Anyone who does nol comply with a commi"ion 10 administer communion is excluded from communion (CO 53) or from the clergy (Winlock et al. [Ep.] 154; CO 485), The bishop also makes provision for other sacra· menl-" baptism, which takes place th,..., limes a year in Djeme (Papyri und O$tr~ca i~ SI~af5mu5eum [BP) 12501). and marriage, 10 whieh four circular lellers are devoted. These repetitions show thai there evidently were often infringements againstlhe marriage laws. He quotes Luke 16:18 (CO 72) and emphasize.s thai only when Ihere is unchastit)' can a woman be divorced from her husband. Anyone offending is excluded from communion (CO 72), In a further Jeller (CO 73) Ihe bishop reilerates his posilion on marriage, and names various relalions of kinship that stand in the Wa}' of a marriage, such as maniage 10 a niece and to brother.;- or sisters·in· law, which is forbidden in the church canons. The bishop also inlervenes on behalf of poor people who were badly lreated, Such an occurrence (CO 71) is the occasion of a circular letter, in which he compare. Ihe culprits to the e,'ildoers of Ihe Old and New Testamenll! aod excludes them from communion. He uses almost Ihe same wording in another circular (Jernstedl, no. 80), which is concerned with the hindering of poor men in their 6shing. Again excnmmunication is Ihreateoed, The bishop is al$O active in the exercise of his judicial power, AUDIENTI~ EPISCOPAUS, as peacemaker and mediator. He allemr>1S 10 senle a dispule (BP 8727) and to mediate between two parties (CO 49). In cases of disobedience and offenses against Christian conducl, both laity and clergy are excommunicated by him 3$ well as by the tilulars of churches and monasteries. Clergv who are disobedient or offend against the church canons are deprived of their rank Villages aod monasteries are threatened with imposition of lhe INT~ROICT, The bishop evi_ dently encouraged the lradition ¢f burying Ihe dead as mummies (see lduldld'ncAnoN), for he commis.ioned a man 10 buy bands, which were emplo}'ed for the wrapping of the dead, and shroud$. Bishop Pisenllus of Coptos Thi. bishop, who came from the ranks of the monks, did nol gO"em his diocese from a mO"as-
402
BISHOPS, PORTRAITS OF
lery ex~epl during the PERSIAN INVASION OF EGYPT. The """r~e of his correspondence, now chiefly in Ihe Louvre, is unknown. In contl"a$1 with lhose of Bishop Abraham. most of the letlers are written on papyrus, Only a small pan of the corresponden~e has been preMrved, for oft,," leu.rs of lhe bishop. mention"d in answers by lho.., addressed. have nol survived. The correspondence is concerned-like thai of Ab...ham_with questions of ordination, problems of adminiMralion of Ihe clergy. frequently discussed problems of betrolhal and marriage. care of the poor, adminislration of juslice, and uclusion from communion or from Ihe clergy. III addition. a number of conlemporary bishops in neighboring dioces· e, arc named in his correspondence-for instance, Bishop Antonius of Ape and Bishop Pisrael of Kus (OIls). who jointly inve'ligaled the complainlS against a cieri." and Bi.hop Horame of IdfU. The Iwo ..,Is of correspondence complement One anOlher, and skelch a piclure of church relalion· ships in UpPer Egypl in Ihe sixth and ..,venth cen· luries such as has nol yct been provided for other c"nturies and other region. of Egypt. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Crum. W. E. Coplk OJ/'ac", London. 1'lO2.
___. C"lalogue of Ihe Coplic M""USCr;pls ;" Ihe British Museum, London, 1903, ___. The MOnaSMI)' 0/ Epiphaniu. "I Thebes. pt. I, pp. 223-31. New York, 1926. Jerosledt, P. Koplskije Tehl)' Gosudarslvennogo M,,· teya lsobrazile1nykh ]skusstvimen; A. S. p,.,hki"a. Moscow and Uningrad. 1939. Krause. M. "Apa Abraham von Hermonthi., Ein oberligyptischer Bis<:llOf urn 600." 2 vols. Doclor' al di.... Berlin, 1956. ___ "Die Kirchenvisitationsurkund"n. Ein neues Formular in der Korrespondenz des Bis~hofs Abraham von Hennonlhi•." MeroitictJ 12
(1990),223-36.
.10
Re"iIlout. E. ''Textes copt"s. Extraits de la corres· pondanc" de St. Pesu'mhius. eveque de Coptos. el de plu.ieurs documents analogues (juridiques au economiques)."· Rev"e 'gyptologique 9 (1900):133 -77; 10 (1902):34-47. &hiller, A. A. "A Chedl,.t of COplic Documents and Letters."' Bullelin of Ihe Americ"" Society 0/ Popyrologisls 13 (1976),99-123. Till. W. Dol,erung "nd Prosopographie der koplis· chen Urku"den au. Thelu". pp. 168ff. Vienna, 1%2. Winlock, H. E.; W, E, Crum; and H. G. Evelyn. While. Mon",,'ery 0/ Epipho"ius. New York. 1926. MARTIN KRA1!SE
BISHOPS, PORTRAITS OF.
From a period unknown 10 us.•he bishop possessed Ihe righl 10 a ponra;l. The Monophysile bishop John of Eph"sus (c. S07-S86) givcs detailed infonnalion about Ihis in his Church History. extant only panly in Syriac (ed. E. W. Brooks. CSCO 105, 106). According to John. port...i.. of Ihe new bi.hop were hung in the churches of hi. diocese after his accession 10 office. Such a ponrait of Bishop ABRAIII.M OF HER.MOPITHtS has sun.ived, This often·,..,produced work (see Krause, p. 108 and n. 19) passed, through Ihe amiq' uilies lrade, into Ihe possession of the "arly Chrislian and ByzanTine """'tion of Ihe State Museum in East Berlin. Ii shows the bu.t of Ihe bishop, depicted full face......ilh ,101" and the Bible. The head is surrounded by a nimbus, and the inscriplion "Bish· op Apa Abraham" i. written in venical lines 10 right and left beside it. Investigalion. have led to Ihe conclusion Ihat the ponrail probably came from a small basilica .....esl of Ihe greal arcade of Ihe lu~or temple ......hich Grebaut excavated in 1893. and nOI from BAwIT. as was form"r1y Ihoughl and slill i. often claimed. In this excavation, part of the church tre3SU,.., was oIso found, and this likewise bears Ihe name of Ih" bishop, The ponrail was painted be£<>re 600. probably about 590. From Nubia, which was under Ihe jurisdiction of Ihe archbishop of Ale>andria and Ihus belonged to Ihe Coplic church. severnl bishops' portrnitll have .urvived, mOSI of them in Ihe episcopal calh<:dral of UROS. the ancient Pachol"a$ (sec Jakobielski, 1982), In contn5t wilh Ihe portrail of Ihe bishop of Her· momhis, which i. paimed on a boaid and represent. the bust of Ihe bishop, Ihe bishop,' portraits from Faras are painted on th" walls of Ih" cburch (see the plan in Jakobielski. 1982. ill, no. 3), and show Ihe bishop in his enlirety. In addilion. th" bishop i. often protecte
BLESSING
bishopI. In addition ...... V"~$On" of l1IVly bish· OPS ",lVi\'e and PO'" the e,- bishop MutOi (810· 826) 00" ChaeI I (826-827). ",-nile dte Itllell pan""';l .-..U a bishop _ on the list of biIhopI and daled 10 the thinetnth or fowteI'ndt .,,,,nl1...,. (Jug. bielskl. 1982. p. 01). From Ihe .kin colo. of the bWloc.p$ pon."yed.. we ca>I deduce lhei~ ethnic origin. Alongside bishops wiIh a light .kin .,.,10'....·hieh points 10 origin from F.8YPt. Ihere are some with a dart.e~ .,.,mpluion, which indicalCi an origin in NubUo. BIBUOGRAPHY
Go1lOWlki, T. "Rcmarques su. I'iconographie de I'b~ue de 'Rivergate Church.''' In Mtl,mge' offe.t, • K~d... im: Mil:h"lowsH Wanaw. 1966. Jakobielskl. S. A Hiel V. Ephc:M>o.H In Luik&l fUr ~ u"d Kircloc. 2nd eel. Vol. S. col. 1010. fl"riburJ im Bmspu. 1960.
B".i.
N
,,,ttl
403
47. pp. 15-16 [AntIMe IUIJ; vol. 78. p_ 18 [Latin tramblionD. and his relia an kepi in Shibin aI· ~ in the pnninc", 01 Oab,.\>. and J>OI in ~h11 al-Qanki•• as aas,.,c read (Mru!:lin.,.u, 1893. pp. 432-33). A!'1:Iad1111 a misr'odinc 01 Cnf (Gra!. 1951, p. 111. last line).nd does not e>tiM. Bist1ra!t'$ _n .. a .,oIl~ 01. m~ poems in very simple literary Arabi<':, saptetM. and. of moral contmL The scyie recalls thai 01. eenain boob of the Bible (Proverbs. &:elQiasliau. Cle.). The lim poem or m~,,1o (U'eatise nr dllcOUf'Sle) suggeus lhat the author ...... a monk. Accordin8 10 Cnf, dte collection emnains 149 poe....; $boolh S&)'!l !Ie\-"eJlty. 1bex interesUna ponn$ are n(lll yet edited. One manuscript from a public libnry conWninI Ihis collcction of poems (Coptic htriarchate. Cairo, Theology 290; Gm. no. 533; Simaykah. no. 3D) was copied in March 1709. It h", III foliOi with eleven lines per fu!io (21 " 16 em). The verses are wrinen afte. the manner of prose. The.... a~e 6ve other privately owned manuscripts, all in Cairo. Two we bought in Cairo by Shath before 1928. The firsl as 8iven the code 1025 and is al present in the po$Ieuion of hi. family; it was copied in 1135 on commission frQn, the 105th palria~ch • .IOHN "VII (1726-114$). The secde and is now lost. The three: other Cairo manuscripu rne1uioned in th., FiJrris (indo or cauloV or Sbalh belonged ..,. opectively to 'AIx\ al·Mas!h ~I\> al·8MamUsi atMa$·... dl. a _lI·k"'-"ll hieroP"lOllk; Murqus Jirjis. the boobeller ....ho edited many aneienl AnbicCoptic: tens; and Maul Ttodrus. llRCIIher Coptic bookseller in Cairo. BIBUOCIlAPHY Am~lincau. E. La c~;, d,
BISORAH AL-I,IARlRI. littl.,..m--n righl«nthcenlUf)' author. The _u$ripu give him tlte lide of " • • which is ..... a1Iy applied 10 bilhops.. and more- rve-Iy to monks in the sevenleenth .,entlll)'. His nam., is given in a11.the manu>cripuln Ihe folTll Bist1rah. ",hich al lim glance S\lf!geitl the reading BasUrah. G. Gm (1934) COtTCCU thi$ 10 BiWlwrah or Pistauros, whel-eas P. Sb.toth (1939) simply transcribes il as B;l$$O\lnth. ACTually, lhe rOITll Pistaur"Oi and ilS modifications (....hlch correspond 10 ~11b .... hen Arabized) are ab.enl tTom Ihe5YNAXARJON, although Ihe name Bist.awnlll is aneSl, ed 10 in Ihe modern period (nineteenth and Iwenll· eth cenlums). Howeve., Saint B;"ilrah is commem· oraled on 9 Till in the Synaurion (d. fo'J'"l, vol.
J'ED'f'" a
l'ipoqu~
cople. Puis. 1193. (Oral. G- C,mdoeue d, ",,,,,..JCril• • ntbu ehrinen. CO>l5cn>U .... C"ire, p. 200 (no. 3S5). Vatican City, 193ot.
Sbatb, P. Bibli
BLEMMYE.
s"
~Ja
Tribes,
BLESSING. Jesw Christ blessed with both. hands. when he tool< Ihe children In his anns, laying his
404
BODMER, MARTIN
hands upon IMm (MI<. 10:16): ",hen he asc:n>ded into J...a'<en, lie lifted up his hands and bles<ed lhe apo6l1... (Lk. 24:50. 51). The .opostolic IndiOons an sikm aboul • panicular .....noer with ,,-bieb Jo:ws Chrisl b1~ the people. In the COpli~ church Ihe prieSU have uscd se,'eral varianls for exlending the benediction. The hltSs' ing with the Index finger of the I1ghl hand Is • typical CoptiC praclice. For Ihe Copts, lhe one fin· ger ""presents Ihe unily dlhe Holy Trinily and the unity of ,he na,ures of the person of Jesus ChrUt as formula,ed br the lirst Ihree ecumenical councils (325, lSI, 431). Moreover, on Mourn Sinai, the twO w.ku of the lesti..... ny wen: wrillcn ...ith the finccr of God (EI. }I:IS. Dt. 9:10). and it is Dr m., finger of God that demons an: c:asl oul ILk. 11:20). T.....-ard the end 01 the lWelfth Centul)', the blessing with ,he inda linger heame • contro¥cr$lal lhco~cal ~ bel"'ttn IoIUJ.OlJS IBN QAloo'llAR. who, for the sake of ecclesiastical \lnion. allempled 10 introduce the bl....ing wilh two finge". as Ihe Mel, ~hite. do, and MIKHA·lI.. bishop of Dolmielu., The belief was llul lhe etemallrulh of the Holy Trinity is ex{>ttSSCd by the th,..,., joints of one fingu, the facl thal One joint ends in lhe fingernail heilll • ~t n:mlnder of the inc:una,lon of one of Ihe IItn:-o divine pcnoII'" 1l>e same arguments Jo:r the usc 01_ finller lor the b1CMiI'll wen: ao,..-n bles.sin& "'\lit the inde>: and middle linger. Coplic prieosts ",plain the mode of using two fintel'$ for tlte blcssina by rd'crrina 10 lite I"''' natures of Jesus Christ, wlti~h "...,. nevenlteJ.oM. part of one hand. TIte bl ....lng with three fingers. symbolidng the Holy Trinily, wa5 the COmmOn bl....ing from the fO\lrth century in 1M Easlern and Western churches. T....o pnoctlcco a..., known. The thumb, inck., IUId middle ling"" are .... lendCil for the blei.sin, lI$ Jiipula1ed by Pope
Inn<>oCCI\I III of Rorn.e (I 198-1215). 01' the blessoi"l i5 CIte~ ..lIh Ihe Indc:o;, middle, and small fil'ller while the I.... mb and Ihe founh finller arc joined 1~t1tcr, symbolizinl the myslery of the Holy Trinity and lhe two natures of Jesus ehtisl. The hCI thaI Ihis manner of blesslng is also used by Ihe Copts is evidem from the k:onographical representalions showing Jesus Christ ....ilh Ihe th...,e, linger blessing in the altar-domes of Ihe Church of the Holy Vlflln in BibllOn al·DI....j, the Church of SailllS Se'lius and Bacd...s, ancI the Church of the Holy Vi'lln In Old (:aim. Over lite ""nturie$ the Copts hayc adopted """"cral modes I() extend lbe blcssln&BIBl..IOGlUP1lY
AssfaIg, J. Di.< o.-a".III8 ~ ~~Urt"tm. Fin a/us tu"rrUclotJ HanJb",,1o arT loptistlom Kin:Ju_ Publicalion d\l Centn: d'l:1udcs orientales de Ia cus'
lode de Tern:-Sainte. Cairo, 1955, BUller. A, Tlrt A"ci..u Coptic Churches of ElYpl, Oxford, 1884. Feh...,nba~h, E. "Bl;nir (manihe de)." Diu;rmnaire d'ardololOfie d,rl-tienne et lil"""e, VoL 2. I, pp. 740-58. Paris. 1910. Graf, G. Em Rclomtve.-storn. 1923. Mcinardus. 0, ·'Ocr Scg~ Christi im ko9tischcn Alta.rziborium. ~ Arch", fIl. litu.,;-'Wt... sch"ftl9 (1978):106-13. Ono F..... MFJNARlIU5
BODMER, MARTIN (lS99-1971), SwiM collec· lor and ma~ of l"uen;, Bodmer WlU the founder in 1919 of. library of world lilerature. Bibliolheca Bodmniana. li~ in Zijri.ch and frolll 1951 in Geoc+ va. Shanly befon: his death. the library won public recognilion and the rights of a pm,ale illSlitution (Foundation t.b,nin Bodmer). The library loday holds about 160,000 ~O/UmQ. II inclutln 300 man· lJSCripu. 6S papyri on the E&YPt1an Book 0'- !he Dead. Greek and Coptic biblical tUIS, classical and early Chrislian lUIS, 270 incunabula, includinl " Gutenbera Bible. and 2,000 aUlOsraPhs. II conlains ...Iuable collection. of Shakespea...,. Goelhe. and Zurich and Heidelberg sludie., In 1921, Bodmer established the Goufried Keller Prize for literary worb. still awarded """'1' other ycar. In 1929 he slaned publlc.tlon of the lilerary rnagwne Corolla, which he orpnizcd and edited Iog<:the~ with Her·
BONE AND IVORY CARVING, COPTIC
ben $I~Mr unlil 1943. This journal made possible numerous conlaCtS wilta bmous ,,"bon. In Gn>eY3 he ...., Yiu pres~nt or the IntC'matio~ Commit. tC'e the Rd Cf"OS.S. He received bono,,!)" dq:rtts from the univ"nitieo of Frankfurt am Main, a..m, ...d c..n"''ll. His 11'I05' important publications an Eme BibIiotMJ: d" Weltlil"",rwr{Ziitich, 1')47) and V.n.rionu UUPl nDtlQ W,hlil""ttul (Frankfun. 19S9}.
or
BODMER PAPYRI. Sr, Appl'ndi~
BOESER, PIETER ADRlAAN ART (18581915). Dutch E,yptoIogiM and Coplo!osist. He stud· ied qyplololl)' in Berlin und". Adolf EkMAN and at LeipIil under Georg sreJNOOJ.f1', He laught al ,he Unh'el'$;ty of Leiti· KIu~ ""d ltOptiKhe", Z.il: Besd"eib,,~t de, aDPI;' KIse~ 5<>""",1..", de. Nied"IJ."disflu" Rei"hsm.....um.s der Altrt/iimu in Lride" (7 .-ols" 1915). BIBUOGILU'HY
Dawson, W. R.. and E. P. Uphill
WIo<> Wu
405
Society of Jesus ....-as suppttiSt:d in Belgium. Their activities wc:re raumed in 1837. when funher .... ~ pkmtnl$ to lhr Acl" $Ot"'''fOn<m ......,n: publi5hed in the A"~ue de 5/. P""I de Thibes (A""lul. BoII'1.1uli""Q ..4 [1926]). and U"e vie i"Uit, d. 51. I'"wm""i,,, (A""lur" BolIQ~di"~,, S6 (1927]).
Jg,..,
J,,,"
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cross. F. l. "Bollandist$," In ODCC, p. IS3, o.,lehale, H. A t,avrrs trois siieles: L'oeuv,e des BoIlt",distes, J6/S-/9/5, BIU"",b. 1920. Thi$ appeared in English as The Wo,k ,,' Ike Bolia ..di", Through Thr.. C.~tu,ilJ. Princelon. 1922. Kamm"rer, W. A Coptic Bib/iot,,,phy. Ann ArOO,. Mkh.. 1950; rcpr. New York. 1%9. PffleQ. P. L 'oeuv" dlJ SoI/tmdilIeS. Academie roy-ale
Who ill
EDP~.
Lnndon. 1972. Kammerer. w. compo A Copflt: Biblio(nlplty. AIln Arbor. 19SO: re,>t. Nn.- Yon.. 1964. AZIZ S. AnYA
SOHAIRIC. &e
~\
or
BOLUNDISTS, societ}· Jesuit b.lhen n;lmed .ner JOhn ...an Boll..nd (1596-1665), .......0 fouoded it On lhe bam of a plan concd\"ed by Hetiben Rosweydr (1569-1629), ....'Ito did nol li,'e to """ it malerialile, The pi .... called fur the ~mbJing and publlcallon of a unive"",1 reg"'te. of the Jives oaints from all possible original sourceS. The ou,· cOme of the labo/5 of ,u<'cessi,'" g"n"ralions of Rol· landi$ts Wll$ publkltion of a multivolume work en· titled ~CTA SAIiCTOIlUM ($till in progress), The WQrk of ,he 8ollondi,IS was .uspcnded in 1773, ....'hen Ihe
or
BONE AND IVORY CARVING, COPTIC. Following the lead of Aluandrlan an. and """,,urrend,. with its decline II the close of the ""'enth cen,u')'. lhc Copts made euensi"" u.se either 01 i,'OI)' or of bont as a .... terial appropriate for sculp' Jure in relief. When. in its brsinninp. Coplk an s.ill depended on Alo:andrian art. Htl1eniilic .hecnes were fn:. q"",nl:: G.-etlo: sods or goddesses. nereid... pulli. and w.ncen male and female.....·hO$C proportions in Coptic an were often sacrificed to a <:ot1""m 10 Ii.. the """,ntial fraturcs. In addition. lechnie;tl elements like spindle whorl. and \>obbin. were oh"n ado<-ned with interesting li"", or small drd.,. marked with a poi", at the cen",r, th" lin.,. being traced hy ind.ion. The heads of hairpins were Clno"d to rep""'''''' a human head or male or fe· male busl. a bird, • fruit. or an Imphr>ra in propor· tional. ,mall dimensions, Wlrhout any pretension '0
406
BONE AND IVORY CARVING, COPTIC
Inls1le in,~n•. a ~e quantity of nalTO"" and fIa, human fiForn. "i!hooJt .,..... or "ilh Slump' of and lhe f<::uu= 01. lelv in varin..., museums• ...-presentin, .... b;eclS lueh as a P:ttlhian hOt'S"man. a dog pursuin, a hare. and birds race '0 bc~. Ther<: au aJ", Christian subjccu such as a slanding angd clolh~d in a long IUnic Wilh uccnding b~nds rising from Ihe bow,.., (Wultf, 19'09, pI. 20), or a haloed Sail'll George, wilh a round head. full·fac~ on a ho..., in profil~. from tile Mamlu. period (Wullf. 1909. no. 1613) and an unequalttioo .•hl- ,lems of ",hich usually rm<: in inlerlacing work from a ''as<: ag.Unsl the vertical rectangular backp'OUnd. " ,,-hole emlul;on of Sl\le can be
amt'
rrom
""BOn'
Fiau.... of a saint holdin, a cross. Hone.
COl
Copl'~ \Iu..,um, CoirQ.
ob,erv~d h~r •.
Comb depicting a warrior saint in a mandorla sup' pot1ed by t"o angels. h'ory, Founh cenlury. Co,m~sy COpl;C M"s~u",. Coiro.
fronl Ihe nMur:.l!sm inspired by the Coplic .to"~ r.,liefs of {riel<:S lhl ro.e in liers in· side or outsid~ churches as at a.'wIT. 1<> a mechan· ical design of lh~ se,."nlh 10 the eighlh ccn'l.Iri"s, in lh~ lou",~ or in the MuSok des Beaux An. in Lyon..
BOOKBINDING
407
,,·erie. Konigliche Mu_n "" Berlin. Berlin. ,." PIUU D\; 8Ol.'IlCl."ET,
SJ,
BOOKB1NDING. Tlte ..odo fomu'-sheel. of malerial "Tiuen on boIh sidQ and an..,hed OIl one etl8c-C2JI><' in,o me lITOUnd ,he bepnninr of the Christian era and l..- II", foo,u'lh "emu", had. suprrsnIed.he ""mil. AJdw:o.tglo evldeno:e of In.. slruc'un> of the "ode" bookblock and ......-..... m,.,hodo; ~T' ';,'es in man~ urI",r manUS'-'npos.• h.. founh cet1lu· rv p....·ides Ients. four pagCS) for lbcse earliesl papyrus "ooi"ts wcre: Cui from lOlls. Ih" heigh. of ,he page hy '"ic" i,s b,e:uhh. producing a r""'ant"lar fonna.; .he """are shape of many pan:hmenl Coptic Cross Inlaid ",ith ivo,y. o"lail alx",c Ihc $
tn combs ""ilh a handle, ellhey Ins-:nt"d bel"" . .,n ''''0 SelS of '''''Ih or commandin~ a sinsJc row of ,hem, 1M inlermedial')' or principal part may ha,c be-en omamenlt,d in relief ,,-i.h Ihe same SUbjcclS Ihal ha.e bN!n menlioned in regard '0 liotgc of iDl...-bt:inC 'ines s!artS From lhe basr and. ~rIJ the fronl ~"'~ of ''''0 liom pbcrd bock to bock. nsel ab",... Ihr head of each animal, lIe~D1ed 11)' the space .hat ..,commodal"" the handle There are abo ,..,me spec......... of cylindriul bo:les CUI from a .....id pirc.. of malnial, "uh a CO\'U faslened bY a piece '.\ m..... t The bod" ".., "",,,red "'nh rehefs I....,ing a double row rA in'et"Ixinl vi"" b""ch"", be''''""n Iwo borders rA flow. ems; a, ''Uiou:! places a bird prch al Ihcm (Vk'.... na and Alben Museum, London. 1l6-18M) AnOlhcr e.. ample Is a nal case "ilh slide·bars ""h Falim'd .'e~c,al decoralion.
--
Stab -in&- d<'ri'ed h-orn 1M blOdil1& of "'OOdcn tahlets. Dr"..-,,,, "OIU'es>' I""" G,u,.~IJ.
J.IlR'.'OGRAPHY
Beckwilh, J, Coplic Sculpt",,, )(X)-!J(I(), l-ondon, 1%3. Enrly Chris/;n" u"d BYl,,"'i"e An Walters Art Gal. lery, Ibltimore, 1947, ",ulff, 0, Allchri5l1ich. u"J ",i/Mlal/erli"h" SdJ.
Sln~le qui,e ""winll. ~"IJ,
Dr""""1 "o,m"s}' Ja"" G"'",,.
408
BOOKBINDING
Chain stitch Sl'wing. fidd.
Dr~",ing
co"rM'y
J~"e
Crun-
codices ..... diewed by the $hApe oflhe skin. !'a&i' nation. iol.iacion. qul...,~. pridun,. and ....1· int _ .... fn:quenily wed at an early da<e. but qui..., II>llUup ...... ilTeJUbr. and the arnn,emem of pages wilh like surfxe £a,c,ing like ...... intermittenl. Vuianlll of bookblock makeup were- a ~ngle qui..., of sheets plied one on anooher and folded in !he middle. mulliple quiTC5 formed by pl~ing folded sheelll one ...tlhin anotha. and oc:caslon.ally quir,." of single ,heets folded indi,idually. These qui"", had 10 be &lUK:hed to each other sequential·
" Slab
Sl'wing, in which the needle went Ihrough the lea" ... at a right angle to their plane and sllghlly in from Ihe spine edge. resembled the _'ing of
~
w
tablets waf plObably I......,ly lied, as the tablets had to be. allovo' the booIt to ~n 1111 tht _y back. Sev>in, through the fold "'... usually done ",itlI. two sepanote needles and threads. Indi"'dually folded ~ we..., stab sewn; sin,le qui,..", were ,..,...,n willi 1"'0 ";ngle wlclles of lealller or cord; multiple quires _re sewn wilh two .....nole cllains of $Iilehes. Although a wooden board. wh!loul book· blocks /I...., thooght to be early. most murth-century board. consisted of layer$ of waste papyrus carlon"age (paper boards) pasted inside leather Cove"" to stiffen them. The bookblod was either sewn through the outer co,..,r <>r to a liplne llnlng of leather or part:hmen.l. ",hieh adM...,d 10 il. In lOme
'l"W
Cover coml"'nents. Dra...·ings ~eld.
eO~F1e'Y J~"e
Cr.w"
'0
BOOK OF EPACT
cases lWO P"oP\NS boards, double lhe "<:$ of the bookblock _r<: of· len ~ed do"... IMide lhe """.... 10 reinfon,e I~ allllCh........" Goal or ~in, USI.IalIy tan. bnJ,o,n, or dart red. . . . U$Cd for CO\~ng. Man. founh..,,,nlur, (Vl"'fS. suclt ... 1'''1 Hlunmadi codK:es and lhe Bodmer I"lopy-ri. had one or mOre lIaps ""lcooins from a f(lle eJcc and '•.-ere fastened "i,1t an endr· dinl!hon, and onall 'irs. In I"'" S'"llt 10 ri&hlh ""nluries. ""rh I«hniquel' conlinued in u~. "'illt lhe addllion of dOlh ~pine lin,np. lOt"ill/lal1 along lhe fold. and board allach, men' ll-' numerOUS lealh.". longu<:!l laced lhrough wooderl board•. Methods of faslening wen: daborale U5C
I"'"
Sitmple.; of c<".-cr d<::silln
O"..-;"r eQlm"N
409
JQ"~
Gn",,~ld.
,he,..,
" binding from lhe "all Hammadi llb""1' V'a""n;: Jane GreOllfield.
."",,.5\'
BIBUOGRAJ'HY Cockerell. D. '-n,,, nenlopmenl of Bookbindins Methods, Coptic InAutoce:' p,., l.Jbr",.. 4 (19321170-90_ ~r. R.. ed. P"J»7NS ~r XliII, AC1"-f du Apdde hequ"•• Pi"TTe. Je"" e' Jude I.... uodu<:lion, p. 7 lfasrenings) and p 8 (SpI"" hn· in&> ~ne, .... 1961 _ P.T''''' Bodmer XXIll. E.ui". XLVII. 1.LXlil. 21 ..,hwlUiu" Inuoduclion, pp- 8 IS (l\apf and &$I 'n..). Lamacoo, C. T. ~E.arh· Bocl;,.l.indinl from a COP'Ie MOnaSlcn" The LilJrr,1)' 4 (1939-19-l-Oj:214 ·33. 'C1~rscn. T C "Earl)' Islamic Bookbin
t,..,., £vi''''''
.
RobInson. J M. ''!'he ConSln'c'ion of lhe Nag Hamrnadi Codices:' In lOs...,.. '''' th~ N", II"",· ",aa; TUI •• <:
BOOK OF EPACT, lrealise on lhe calculalion of lhe da,e of Easler attribute
Codex co"c" decoraled "jlh geomelrical mOlifs, Leather. C""rl"'Y C.",,,,n M"$e"''' of I.•",h." Offen/><>.h.
410
BOOK OF EPACT
pall'im>h of Ale.ulldria (1119_231). We shall n,omine the a11libutioll ill liglll of the historical. liturg'i. cal. and Utenry Arabic tradition, of the Middle
......
Hl$Cor1all TradllloD
11M: hlswrian Sa1d IaN AL&tnIO. Mckhite pam. lll'Ch of Alaandria (933-'MO). tells U5 in h., His"".,• ..At this period. Oeme".,u,," the pal~h of Alexan· drilo. wt'OIe 10 Appi..,. bishop of Jnusalem, 10 MD· im..." patria"'h of Anlioch. and to VIClor, p"lriarch of Rome. conccmin& the ""kublion of lhe Eal.ter of Christians and their fast, [so as 10 know) ho'" 10 ""kulale lhem from the PaMo,-er of Ihe Jews. Nu· muous boob and e~istles _re compo.ed on Ihis subject. until the Eastcr of ChriSt;"f\S "'~ fi~ed. ;1$ is done loday." According to A. Harnack (11I9J. Vol, I. p, 330), Ihis ~ller was written in Ihe )ur 202. St",n,dy enwih MW!RtJS IElri Al.-MlJOAfI'A' makes no mention of Ihi, leller in hi, Hislory of II,. P~lri. '''chs. fio_ver. Ihe Copts' Arabic SYNAXARION. composed at the beginning of the Ihineenth centu. ry, mention. il Iwice, on 11 Babah and 10 HatuT. For 12 Bibah we read. This
The fenny for 10 Hat~ reads: When OUr Father Demetrius was made patri· anh. he .... a ~ ...·ho knew Mi!heT "'ThinS nor boob. God illuminaled hOs in'felle<:1 by d;v;nfe pace ... and he compo5ed Ihe c.lc"b,ion of fel'" acl whferdJy the fast and lhe ReloUrre<:lion are worked OUI. He composed it in Coptic .nd Gree~ and Ihen lent. copy to our Falher Victor, pope of Rome, one 10 OUr Falher Maxill'lOll. p8lri.rch of Antioch, and one 10 our Father AppiOlI in Jerusalem, When his letter reached the three sees, Our Falher Vic lor. pope of Rome, Judged wtal was sent 10 him to be excellenl, and it • ""Iiim great joy. He summoned fourteen lumed bi
.00 • number oJ. wise pri<$ts. Hfe read the calculation to lhem; they approved it. ac"'"J'Ud it. and mac:Lr a .....,e number of copies oJ. il whkh tbry sent to !he othfer epi:scopal sees. HoJ)' Lenl and the glorious .tauer "-fere if\Sli'u!ed as they are
_.
UtW'JfCllI Tradition The folIo..i ... S.f"m (pnce) is ... ng in ~ CopIk lilurtr on me rea.,1 of Saint Demetrius;
Hail III Demetrius, ....ho ordfcred abstinence from drink, .lId organized bstinl from foods for Ihe filly days! Had Ihis not b«a under lhe inspi...lion oll"e Spirit who reveals, how could il have been po<Ssible to discover and I1nd lhe computation oflhe periods of lime call..,l epaet, Haillo you, 0 priests. be Ihanked and prlbed for having come wilh diligence and wilhout delay 10 the meetinSl'llCe of the 8S$
Uterary Tradition In hOs hisl:ory of Anbic Christian lilenture. G. ~ ""'ntiorls no.......t. anributed 10 Demetrius. palriarch of A~.undria. despile lhe fad he bad llirndy m.,n,ioned lWO of his "'Orb in his C"t.om,..., u/ l1Ie ChriJtilln h
...1.... Demetrius is attributed .u'honltip of a work en,;' lied Ifisllb of-Abuq!I, (Calculalion of the Ep3ct). deKribed as ""a treali&e on chronoiOlY. w;lI> tabln for lhe finding of £asler and other etdesiastkal f.S1~ vaJ, and commemorations," and ror Ihe Passover of lhe Jews. Tit" lexl is IS yet unpubli.hed. bul il was lranslated into English by Ge'lIl1e Sohby from a manuscript in his personal posse.,ion. In actual facl. Demelriu" name .p»'l.n only loward Ihe end. There are at le"'l lhree manu..:ripts of IhL~ text . in Birmingham (Millg.na Christiln Arabic 11. daled
BOOK OF THOMAS THE CONTENDER
IS99): In the Coptic J>atriarch.ale, Cairo (HislOt')' 60, eitl,,~mh century); ""d in the Gc:oTge Sohby Collec:tion. Cairo (1768), The Birmingham rnamueripl is mnltioncd in Graf5 G~idoJt dt, cltro,lic/lt" v~Jttn til.,..,... (Vol. 4. p. 159). I.. 16304 mt """"JI"'Dtd ownel'" of a fine ......". serip! of the BooI: 0/ EPIIC' of al-As':ad ibn aJ..•.u.aJ dated I July US4 (Vatic3,. Library, Arabie lSI) wrote in a iorL& aIoss on folio Ill. that II Dayr aJ..8anm6s there was a man"""ript: entitled KitU, d.£4i/il (11M: Remainde.) of tht Book of ~t composed by the Patriarcb Demetrius of Aleundria. This mayor may nol "" the ....me book as .he one diK~ here. The 800k of EpKt was tral"Odaled ITom "rabic i.. lO Elhiopian 8t 81' unknown date. M, Cllalne ""ri'es. ·"We 1IOme1;mes find auribult:d to huiareh Demetrius a treaC~ of compulation known .... B~~, I!a.~b. This work is e~piicilly aunhuted 10 him in the Bri'ish MUlot"m manU$(:npl Or. 8IS." He men· tions It:n O. 110 Ethiopian manuscripls of lhe same texl that Uo nOt credil Demetrius and explains. ··The name B~~'If(J.$~b me...n. 'The Ocean of Com· putadon,' h is the lranslalion of an Arabic title "'hic:h has become the title to de.ignatr any composition
tife.",.".
In a II'IIIrlUlCripc in ~ Patriarcllate, Cairo (Theolou BO). there is 00ef tesl enlitled "Corol· I:ary conctn>ina: the blessed New Year. the day of the year 0 .. ,,-hieh i1 occurs'· (fols. 93b-~b). This may be an cUracl from the '!iJiJb "f·,4b..qfl. This tnl is mtnt!o...,d in Graf (Vol. I, p. 3S4. no. 8). unde, .he n...me of Demotrius, patriarch of Antioch, whereas lhe manuscript al1ributes it tQ Deml:1rius of Alexandria. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Armllah, I. CAIAlog"e de> ""'""$<'ril$ de Cha1er, Jounieh.1936-1937.
411
Chaine. M. l.a cluonol",;e du temp. cltdtiens de I'Etyplt U Ih l'Ellliopit-. Paris. 1925. Gr.of. G- C"'~t de "'''''''SCN'' a,• • chdJitrls roouervh "" Cilia. Slutfi e T$i )4. V.... ican Cily. 193~.
Harnack, A. GtKIt"ltle de. ",ltcJrriSilkhor I.i,,,,,uo bis EM.d/W.s.. 2 woIs.. In 4. Leipzi.. 1893- 1904. $;unit. K. ''Ce que I'on sa;t de fa ·Mr
B"ntt'"
KJt.wL SAMII..
s. J.
BOOK OF THOMAS THE CONTENDER, seventh and I""ltraclale in Coly .randaled from the Greek; ,he edRencot of the text is t>theTwUoe lUlalt$e
ewptl Aceo"',,,,
412
BOOTS
poeveel on .,arth in his """ di"ine ~on. 10 Ill/Ill bolh H., ~d His >;l)1ngs were anibble 10 s.elecl aposlla in a foon unclOU<>n anthropo!op:al (body/"""") than C09Ilic (lhe above/below).. ... mo.., Ippn>prilole dc:$lJnation M lhe doctrit>e of Ibis WOI"k is ChrislianC.. edj wisdom with ascellc applicalion. Finally. il is clear that th., Boo« of TIwootu tM Co~t.,.dcr displaya ...., marb of I "'
mat ""'"
BIBUOCltAmy
Kirchner. D.• et at.• '{)as Buch des Thoma<s: Oi.e siebent.. ScMfi a"" Nag·H..mmadi·Kodell II eingdeilet. uJ\d iiI:w~ \'Om Berliner ArbeiISkreis fUr kopa~h-pO$liche Schrift..,:· n.eo1oriMlte Lirn"tltryirun, Hl2 (1977):793~804. Schenke. H.·M.·'T1le Bocdt oiThomas (NHC 11.7): A Re,ision of I Pxu~1 EpWle of Jaoob Ibe Contn>m: BMl,.. ,'n HOft/JM, of Iloben Ml:L W.-z-t. eeL "- H. B. Lopn and A. J. M. Wnlderbum. Edin·
hurch. 1983. Tume., J. D...... New Link io lhe Syrian Judas """,mas Tradition:' In Esuys .... Nq Hturmuuli ,.. HOllO", of Alu"nd... 8OJ,1i,. Nag Hammaodi Studies J. Leiden. 1972. ___ The BooJr. of Thom". ,h.. C'''''end", "."., Codu II o/th" C"/ro Gnostic Lilt,,,ry /Tum N"I H" ...m"d; rCG 11. 7): The Cop,ic rut ·",,'th T,,,mJ... lion. /nlrodul:lio" ""d Cllmme"ta'Y' Revi.ed lexl and 1",... lalion. Missoula. Mont. 1975. ___. "The Book of Thom8ll the Contender:' In Th.. Nag Hamm"di Lib,,,'Y i" E"glish, ed, J. M. Robinron. San Francisco, 1977. ___. "The Book of Thomas Ihe Contender: Introduclion, EdIted Coptic T.... Fre.h EniH.h Tntn5Latino. Critical ApparatUI to ... 11 Oth.,r Edition.:' In Ntig H"",,,,,,di Codu II. 7: Tog"llter wi/h )(Jl1. 2". Brilish Uh."", One",,,I. '916(1) and Papyri Oxyrhy..chus /. 65', 655. Wilh contribution. by mall)' schoLa.... eel. B. Layton. n... Coplic Gnostk Library. eel. with Entlish IBn&.. iotroduc:tion. and notes.. Leiden. 1938.
BOOTS. See Coslume. Chi!.
BORGlA, STEFANO (1731-1804). Italian prd. ale and prefect of Ihe Con&R'illio de I'rupotganda F">de. He possnsed .. collection of Egypl:ian ant;q"iI~
and Coptic manuscriplllha, formed the bas.. of the coll..ction in lhe Naples MU5CUm catalogued in G. Zoega's
C"I"logNs cOOleN"" Copli(;O
"'''''1'-
S<'rip/orum qui i" Muuo 8<>'1;',"0 velltris ads..",,, ... 1m (Rom". 1810; repro Leiptlg. 1903). DIDUOGItAPHY
Sauget. J,·M. "Inlroduction hislorique et n"l"" bibHographique. au caillogue de Zoi'gl." I.e Mus,o" 85 (1972):25-63. MA..TlN KRAUSE
BOULE
BORSAI. ILONA..
S~~
Music. Coplic: Musical In-
"'""n.,nl5.
BOULE. toooo'tl coundl
in .Egypl durin, Roman
domiNtion. One of th., features that K'I £cypI apan froIlI OIlla' koman provinc.". ..... the KanilJ of towns (In 1M IepJ ... nsc of the term) and lhe pecu' liar staW$ of the _tropolN. !he nome OIpitals, 'flM, wIer. tile-rally .. 11lOtbC'<- citie!l.~ ..·hiJe- includlne: IhC' dnlpadon polis (dly). were in bet diIJer=t fn:>m the- Cr«k potu as well as &om the Roman .....nkipiu... (town) at least as far as thrir lepI status was C01lC.,med. The E&YPtian ..,~lPOpOIu did nOl enjoy the paraphC'malia lh., traditional Gruk pol.. had pratr'VC'd ewn In the period of the Roman empire. llDIOlIl th.,m IhC' lown council (boul.,). one of lhe 1\'10$I Importllnt and lypi<;al pt>/is InsliMions (see GU£l( TOWNS H< ECTrT). Nor did the al.,nei." of I"" ~lan ..,.,"opolis ha,'., adminl'lrativ., competence over l"e nOme temlot)'. BUI lhe Greek cili." 01 Emt (Plolemais, Antinoopolis) wore t".,re to remind I"" cilizens of the nome capitals of lhelr Inferior Slatus and of the desl....bilily of a chanle. This chan,e Came about in 200 ..·.. en tN: emperor &ptlmlus St,-tn1S not only COflCeded lh., boul., to A\e.u:ldri& bul upgr;oded the nome capitals by Il1Inllnl them Ihe bo"k as well (£Or th., "hrono&<>ttY. s« ........is. 1981. pp. 78£.; for the boul., of Alellandria. seC' GIl.£n 1'0"'1<6 I" EGYPT). 'The reasons for this move are nOl on record. and Ylrioos upbfWions can he thouaht: of. As for 1M p1eiequisites of lhis c.bange, we an!! on finroer 1J000nd: lhe ,..e,ropoku, lonl conside~ '"villa,es" (i"",...) by Roman law. had ;n fact fulfilled in 1M p&SI many functions of llrbtn cenlen, lh.. -'I desotniina; lhe label ...."ropdi<. b«auK 1My "'t'ff the political. economic. social. am:! relJajow focus of their 't:SPC"'IivC' "0..-.. The pp bet..'ftn the no_ capil-llls and lhe ~...,k "ilies 01 Ef).... had lone been D>l.........-ed as many m.,lropo!ilOI least so und"r lhe inOuence of the metropolitan elile. the IYrrmasial class. which ....as or prolesud 10 be of Creek st<)Ck. NOlwill!stanc!inlthe Kcretion of honor and presIiI". the crulion of the m"tropolitan boule proved al ben a mbed blessing. The boule had no l.,gisla, tive author!!y; lIS activity was restricted to routine bu$;ness and 10 lhe admlnislrallv. handllng of the requiremenls lmp<>sed by the cenlnd $lale authori· ties. Financial wpel'\'ision and the collection of tax·
413
eo were among the: bo-I.,·s q n annbul;"1\$. A$ a rule. memben of th., boule (!>owl.,,,ta'l ........ nOi trained officials. a factor that, under the "...,..-aiIir,1 conditions. partly accounted lhe bil,,", of the ltot,,/e as :an adm;ni$:I.... unil (this aspect is S\TflSed by Bowman. 1971. p. 12M.). We do no! know ..-hether all me""J"C>kis had the ""me !lumber of "-kill.; (probably II<M). DOl' do ..., knoo,o,' the "xacl number of """,I.,..,.; in any giv· en IfItlrOpolis (perhoops 100 In Oxyth]TIChlUJ- Upon enlnonce into the bo>n«a....). II amOUllled 10 10.000 drachmae. clearly an irnportanl sum only lhe weahhioesl among the melropol;\al'IS could afrord. Mentben!lip in lne boule was for tife; ;IS prni. dencJ was timiled 10 One year. Boule"la; normally were male adull•• btll l"U !ilual!on cluonl':"d when the lradual reduction of l"e boulnolic class made il desirable 10 include women and to retain "old of lheir property for public $trvice ($te Ih~ nd half of the lI.in:! century (foreign ",-..no. lISUrpalioDs. economic difficuhies). muni<;;pa1 mag. Iwxies became a heary burden WI Nined many of !heir holden aJSd pfO"Obd abandonment of functions. family. and 10"'
ti'·.,
ror
414
BOURGUET, PIERRE DU, S,J,
in o~r to r~ie....,!10..... of the I""emment officials of 1M .uponsibilil)" for local adminislnl1ion- ~ In Byumine 1J&)1Jl. lhe boule"l"i (ao;l....1 memo bers ollhe bc.rle) and tht po/iM"omeJfoi (c..rion and abo<».., all til IU coUec:' lion. Tbeir a<:elrlly encompao.sc<) and lheir influ· 'Once On public affa.irs in Byzanline £cpt (oee (;as. <:ou far a difterrnl ri.....· aboUI lhe Q,Am). 818UOGltArHV
Bow........ A. K. 71u: Town C",,,"cUs of Rom"Jf EVp', American Studies in PapyroI"IY 1L Toromo, 1971. This II; !he SWldanl Wive bibliocraphy of eame.. re-
_h. _ _ "Papyri and Roman Impoerial History. 196075:' Ja.o",,,/o( Rom~Jf StutJiu 66 (1976):153-73. J>nw.Bear, M. "Les Arcm~cs du c~ll municipal d'Hennoupolis Magna." In Am de' XlIII Con' . .USO inlenl.;iDndf~ .. pl>piroloPt, \'01. 3, pJr. 807-813. Naples. 1984. Intereui..S for the co..· t>KQon among alhlelicism, memben.bip in Ihe /oo«le. and fel~liun5 betwten HennopoJis and Ibl! OUl$ide "'Grld. nOl Ieasi wilb Rome and ehe 1m· perial coun. GaKou. J. "Us G.....
_ _ The Citi~l of lhe Easltrn Roma" Pro~i... cu, 2nd ed., esp, pp, 327-48. Oxford. 1971. I.llJlellUllnd, J. L'ildmi"istrario" civile de ['E,yp/e de
/'""""emen' de DiQcUlie.. _I" ,",ilIlion d.. dioc~~ {184-3811. Contribution .I N,..de des ."pport:> en· trIO I"EDPfe 10' /'Entpiu • I., fin d" Iffe el " .. IVe ~de_ Br\U;$C:1s, 1964. Lewis, N. "Notuiooes Lecemis:' Bunesi" of lite Americ"" Soc;e" of p"pryolot;isu 19 (1982):71-
".
-C-~ life in EDP' U..der Rom"" Ibok, pp. 36-64. O:dord, 19A1. Rouillard, G. L'AJlmini#ootitl" civik de rEDP'e b,.. ....ti>le. 2nd ed, pp. 62-74. Paris. 1928. W~ •• E. P. '"The .8-1'; and eM Nominalion 10 Ihe in liq.. e e' C<>ple, ed, P. W. Pcslman, pp. 62114. Papyrolosica Lugduno-Blo,,,,·.. 23. Leiden, 1985. Work, K, A............ _ fJtNA~." Llil5ChriJl lu. p"pymlo,ie .. na Epr,."plrik 30 (1978):239-44.
"",r..,
HEINZ HfJSEN
BOURGUET, PIERRE DU, S.J, (1910-1988), professor of Egyptian and of Coptic for mOre lha" lhlny yea... al lhe Inslllu, calhollque de Paris, where he al$ll ",,,'ed as director of lhe School of "'",,;enl Oriental Lal'\fluBgCS. In addition, he was profeS5Of of palw'(:h"",lian, Coptic, and Byzantine an and arehaeolor;y a' lhe Eo::ole du Lolu","" for approximalel)' lWe:nly }'nfS. A dud curator III Ihe Lot...re In Ihe De:panmenl of I'.g)..,.ian Anliquilies. he ,,-as in charKe of the collertion$ 100- !he Coptic and pbanlonic I..ov>..,r Epoch periods, and, foo- a eenain time, lhe paleoChnman and Byun'ine collections .....-e:ll In Eg)..,. he tramecl widely to ~n and .-.. alike. He puticipaled ill tile excnation> III UUlA and To
He published in ..........." fielda, and wroIe grammars of !he IWO $IagelI of ancient EcYptian and a crammar of Sabidic Copric. He U5ed lhe latter, which rnnains unpublished, _ a tool in his teaching. He published widely in all lhe a!:>ow,..menlinned disciplines. A selnlfil bibllog:r:o.phy of his wrilings ;r>cludes: e"t"foKue d" ~'off.. eop'" (M..de d.. wuvrej, Pa.. is, 1964; and L'''rI cople, Paris, 1968; lran:
BOURIANT, URBAIN (1849-1903), French Etoplc>logi'l and CopIol"jisl. H. was horn in Neve.... "'fte. he became interested in Egyptology, he
BOUTROS GHALI
$,,,died under Gaston N.O&UO and b«:am~ an ori&!tW member of Ihe Mislion uchColopque mn(ai:le du Cair~ in lUI. He: was appoin'M "",~n' con~n'alor 01 1M BuUq MoH.t:I1D"I in 1883 and ~.....ed .., direclOl" of 1M MiMion a>chWlogique from 1&.16 1898. H~ diM at Vann"" HOI it....., an liRed in A Copli-c S;W..",.,pIIy (Kammerer. 19500, 1969).
,..,.i]
Bouriant. p, "Noli« sur Urbain 8out'iant:' Ru..ril d~ T,........, 26 (1904):29-32 (bibliocnphy). o.",'SOn, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Who Wu WIIo m EfY1'kXot:l. 36·1. London, 1912_ Kamn"O<'fW, W., compo A Capric Bibliogtaphy, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950; repro N~' York. 1969. .ut~
BOIJTROS CHALI
S. Any..
(1846-1910), Capllc itat~'·
man. lie wi'S bom in Kimin.al-'Arm, a vlllag~ in th~ provinc~ af Bani Sue£. His fath~r, the I\~ward of th~ ~stat~ of Prince Mus~ n<,1il, brOlher af Khe· di~ Isma'il. first,ent him 10 the palriarchal $Chool, which had recently been founde personally to ha"e sull~r«l &om 1M discrirnin_ion thtn ........ panl in favor of non·Ef;ypti.ans. such as TURs and Orcassians. On eompJetinl his studies. he became a leacbeT at tIN: palriarct.1 school, beaded by YA'Q/)B HAIOIlAH It... AYlAIl. who ...- bt.... 10 publish a hislory of 1M Copts. In th~ ma.n~, Boutrus abo altended d-.KS • the School 01 Lan~ founded by !U&'ah u·Ta\:.14:i..-i. !it bqa.n wori
415
English, French, and EaYPUan. ..... formed. tIN: Egyptian bein. R.i)'k Pasha.. His assi$tant ..... Bouuw Ghill. 1lle Reporr OIl the Land Tu "'. . ~ted 10 the commission by Boulros 011 IS February IS8O; il is .. thorouah Sludy oJ. tIN: I'I'OP"ItJ
oJ. thrtt
dd~n,
..., '" """-
In ISII. Boutrus Chill ",-as appoinled undl:nec· rewy oJ. Slate for justi«, a plXilion that he occu· pied for ....... lve ynn.. Durin, his ~"". the rr:orpnizalion of thor judicgJ s)'>lt'" Pma~ l'rovirKiai couns. district couns. and a coun of appeal ......'" established. JUSlk:~ becamt secu1a· rized. In 1893 he became min;"" of finance" and in 1895 h~ \025 appointed minister of foreign affairs. all office thai he held for fifteen yean ulltil his death. Tht main line$ of his policy remailltd uo· changed: 10 pre,..n.., tIN: 1~lltlm8le authority of Iht khedive in face of the BRITISH OCCUPATION: to rt'duct lht impact of the unavoidable cllUhes bet""""n tht on~ and the oth~r; and, al th~ SlIme lim~, to moderni~ the country by ~ndowlng h with a libe",1 parliamtnt;lry rtllim~. in ocder to r~mOve Ihe p""text for occupation. Tht Anglo-Eg;)1l1ian millta')' campaign tnded with the dd'tat «the Sudanese' and thor signing. on 19 January Ig99, oJ. an av«mWt bel>veCn Etol't and England establishinl a condominium or joint autborilJ over the lerTilory. Bout.... was criticized 0\.." this issw::, but it had the "nani_ apprm'101 of the mtmbers oJ. lhe cabinet. f&ypt could not ignort the di$proponion 01 lon:es ",-bile ilS .,....." territory was under Joreian OCC\IpMion. II "'.... pr0bably the best that could be done in the: circumU&n<:os. AI leasa., it assured lhe n.lure Or pnwnUng Engbnd from .-ming toU1 $Oftreilnty a¥tr th..
...
"'
Khed\.e 'A!>bis II came 10 power ill January 1892, and be Y:>On found himself al odds ...ith the British. II became nect5$Bry 10 reduct: friction beI",«n ltgitimate lWlhorily and the power of Iht occupying: forc~, and, at the sam~ lime. 10 pro1~cl Ih~ ,..,I~r apinst th~ th,..,al of dethronement. In Ihe pursuil of Ihe-e airnto, Bou,ros Chill mow..d much resourcefuln..", but he sometimn became involved in initiat;,'e, tha! Wtre acutely criticiud, ",-,en though lh~ir final PUI"])05e .... as c1~arly to preserve the dy"asly_ In 1906. :as acting miniSI~r of jU~lic.. in the abo ..,nct of lhe minister abroad, he wlU called upon to pre-idt over the coun appoim~d to judge th~ Dinshawi)' case_ On a snootlng lrip In 1906, a group of
416
BOXES AND CASKETS
Briti5h office... had accidentally shot Ihe wife of a local official al Dinshaway, During Ihe a!templed escape, two British office ... and several Egyplians ",ere wounded or killed. Four of the Egyplians were hanged and four semenced 10 life imprisonmenl, The resl were Aogged and given prison 'enns, as well (King, 1984, pp, 260-61), Boulros GMll la' bored .'ery hard 10 reduce the number of Ihe accused and lhe harshness of the sentences, but Egyptian public opinion binerly Tepreached him fOT having accepted lhe leadership over Ihis courI, In NO\'embeT 1908, Boulros GhAll was appoimed presidem of Ihe Council of Minislers, despite Brilish objeclions. His firsl move"""" 10 try 10 I",nsfunn the prerogali.'es of lhe Consullative Assembly and IUTTI it inlO a lrue parliamem, before which Ihe minisleTS would be responsible. However, lhe na· lionali51 press, which had been unleashed ap.insl him al the lime, dro"e him in 1909 10 reinstale lhe 188l law of Sherif Pasha lhal pUI re.trictions on lhe pres.<. Wilh the agreemenl of Ihe Brilish, he submilted 10 the as""mbly the propoS;l.1 for a fOrly·year exlen· sion of Ihe Suez Canal Company concession. The prestige oflhe assembly would Ihus be enhanced by having Ihe opponunily 10 discuss the proposal. The refusal of the proposal by Ihe assembly would bring aboul a final dedsion wilhoul running Ihe risk of a polilical cri.is. The proposal was, in facl, rejecled by Ibe assembly Ihree months laler. On 21 February 1910, a month after submitting lhe proposal 10 lhe assembly, Boutros was assassinated by a nalionalisl. Hi. death sparked serious quarrels between Copts and Muslims, lasting lhroughout the yea... before World War L ConcoTd and a nalional consensUS were reached only when lhe Wafd parly c"me 10 power. BoUlros GhAlJ look an aClive intereSI in Coptic affairs. He cooperaled in establishing Ihe firsl COMMU· NllY COt:NCIL in 1874. 11!.t1883, he obtained a khedi· vial decree de",iling lhe ;organization and Ihe com· petence of Ihe council He had many conOielS wilh Ihe clergy and Palna",h,'CYRIL v (1874-1927) concerning lay parlieipalion in the administralion of Ihe church properlies.
BRAZIER. Su Melalwork, Coptic. BRECCIA, A. EVARISTO (1876-1967), Italian arc~logisl.
Brecda was direclor of the GraecO" Roman Museum in Alexandria from 1904101931. He was made professor of classical antiquity and epigraphy al Pi.a in 1932 and professoT of ancienl hislory lhree years Ialer. He look pari in many e~· cavations in Egypl, of which lhe ANTII.;oOPOLIS exca· valion, which he recorded in aLe prime richerche ilaliane ad Antinoe" (Aegyptus 18, 1938, pp. 285318), is especially worthy of mention. His ,ignili· canl works include "D'un ~dilice d'epoque Chreli· enne a e/·Dekhela el l'emplacement du Ennalon" (Bul/
Barocas, C. "Brecda, Evaristo." In Di:/(>t1arW biografieo degli lro.li~ni, VoL 14, pp. 91-93. Rome, 1972. Calderini, A, "A. Evarislo Breccia," AegyplUs 46 (1966):293-96. MARTIN
KRAUSE
BRIGHTMAN, FRANK EDWARD (18561932), Brilish lilurgisi. He was lihrarian of Pusey House and Inen a fellow of Magdalen College al Oxford. He is known above all for his Liturgies E~st ern ~t1d Western, Vol. I, Ea.tern Lilu,gies (Oxford, 1896). The second ,'olume ne''''T appeared. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bale, H. N. "F. E. Brighlman." Proceedings of Ih, British Academy 19 (1933):345-50, REN£-GEORGES COQtIl~'
BRITISH ISLES, COPTIC INFLUENCES IN THE. In Ihe early Middle Ages, lhe 6fth lolhe BOXES AND CASKETS. Su B¢ne and Ivory Carving, Coplic; WoodwoTk, Coplic.
ninth century, Ireland and England were open to monastic inOuence. from Coplic Egypl; lhe Irish, and 10 a leslit:r exlent the Anglo-Saxons, responded favorably. There is no proof lhal any individual
•
BRITISH ISLES. COPTIC INFLUENCES IN THE
Cope ever came imo conuct with any indiftd....l Anclo-Suora or Irishman. nO~ is tha"
Welle.-n Continental Monasdcl5m Kllowlcdi:c of the Coptic mono of E()l"l and their -)'5 reached lhe West wouP Greek chuKh· men, .. ho usually bvored the more atroc:tu~d discipline of lhe Western chuKh. Even "'riten and d'UKh dilniuria such as the palrian:h A1lW'lASt05 I preferred monu to be obedienl 10 hieran:hkal au' lhont)'; and when they praised the eremllk: (soil· tal)'l life. lhey did so in an idcaliJ:inl way. as some· thing wonderful in the day, of the primilive chllrch. Other Grcelts. such M Saint BAStL THE GIlf.AT, stronl' Iy crltlclud the hennits and emphasi~ed episcopal Authority Over Ihe monks. The coniervarive ecciesiMtic. of the WCSt shared the Greek view. 11>ey were .koplical of henniu and Fearful of ",-.nderina ho./y men .....no pined popular adulation. GrcJOrY of Tours ;n II", ,iJth cenlul)' tells or • Gaul who ",,,,,heel to be • stylite but "''as talked of hia pillar by lite local clergy. who reminded him thaI he was In Gaul, DOC S}....... and !hac he wotold freeu in winter. I1$s amOiKnc btll mooc ~ Is Sulpjci.... 5eYerus' 6lih<enlury Life of Manin of Toon.. ..ttich tdb how Saint /.br'Iln·s ernnitic life cndca..,d him 10 the people but oItendcd the hieran;hy. ..+>o.-d his ascetic rruonnen and IJlJ'CllraJlce 10 ~ his elev.uion 10 the epis. Copale. a1thoush they did not su<:ceed. In the Western clwrch. m<>nUtic:iso'n increased. but ....... Uy;l ..... of the cenobilic (communal) nth· er lhan Ihe e..,milic type had close connections ....h bishops. Bishoops _~ mquen.ll)' chosen from the rinks of monks. In the filih centllry. for exam· ple. lhe isbnd monaMery of Lerins oft the cOtii 01 _them France was ,,;nually a seminal)' for Gallic bishops. Ambn:>s
.wi..
aIJ'
417
Roman, he bvored ... orderly monutic en";.-onment with a 5e1 of oIlice. that demanded rcspeclrqanlJcu of "'!IM one mi&ht think of the offic.,. bo1de.--and ctWljKi.tiOP ~ the monks and tbe local bishop. who had authority (n-"'" them.. Although he ilCknow~ the e:dSleJICe of soocl ....... mils. Bcntdicl really had no place fur 1bcm in 1m system. He prdeTTed monks to be uDder tht control cL ilI1 abbot. and he A ~ the Roman ,inut of stabiliuu. en.-isioninc thaz a monk would spend his life in Oft"' mortaIle:ry. He had no 1IX for the wandering monks who fi&u~ in the II'O<>SI primili•.., E()-pIi.an accounts. MOllulld..... In 1.... land and England This preference for a disciplined. organized monaslicism ..,fleeled lhe fOCie\)' of the Western empire with iu la'1le urhan communilies and strong. often poIilically minded bisltops. aut ""lten Chrisli. anilY reached Ireland in the fifth century. it en· coutl!ered a completely different """iely. one in ""hich the typical Western Christian culture had lit· tie rele''ance_ A rdillon tltal gre"" up in a warm. Mediterra.neall. IIrnan. classical. lite"'te environ· ment was now emelinc a chilly. Atlantic. """,1. ba.... barian. t>Ollliterate en'ironm.... L When the Ang» Sa.<.ons conquered mosl of SOtlthem Brilain in Ihe 6fth and sixth centuries, they crealed a similar world on that idand. These condition' were made fur monasticism, and they ~"i6ed tbe prim;li'.., F.£)ptian fonns. The lrisll had no cnOes, .nd while some Anglos..~ lOOk ow:r Romll.llO>Bri'isIt cities. most lived in rural area>. The episcopacy ..... an urban institution, but monWkiJlII...ttlc:h had bqun as a flight from the ciliel..... run! and filled ...",11 in EnVand and Ireland As barbarians (WI is. DOncbssical pcoople$). the 1ri5h and ~isb li''Cd in heroic 50cieIies dllu .... oed. a man's individual qualilOes more than the of· 6<:e he held. Tbcir heroes. 5
Finally. the Irish ant! Enllish we'" convens Wilh alltlte .ell of convens. The centuri...·old Chnstian religion "'"i'S as new 10 lhem ln the eariy Middle Ages M il had heen 10 lite Jews and Romans in the aposlolic age. This teal fount! Its oUllet nOI in lhe lives of members of the Mottled euabli.hmentoot in
418
BRITISH ISLES. COPTIC INFLUENCES IN THE
the liws of thox ..·Ito ga~e all for thelr blth, the
m~'" Tbtse facll>l"5 combined .0 ",.,ke the Irish and EngJiUo rccepIive 10 EcptiaJ! mo~icisJn. panic... (arty 1Iw. of the deKn's heroic ,.... Eventually the tOfTW"IiDtion of both the Irish and EnclW. ChUfCh. a eliminated !.his influtnce. bul for SOfO" yean iI was .. poeenl and creatn't~. In Irdand. Alhanasi...• Life 0{ was kD0v0ll in lal:in ttaMlatkm. • _Jerome's probably lictiliou$ life 01 PaW..... omer Egyptian henoiL The Scyfnp of I~ (DesuIJ F-.h.r• ..-as lnlnSI.ued from Creel: inlO Lalin by the Spaniard Martin of B",p in the .lxlh century. Contacts bel-..n Spain and Ireland wen '11""'11 in lhe
An"""
early Middle Ages. and the Irish were bmiliaT ...ilh the &ryin,S.
The llreal Irish monastic ...ints were, like Saint AN. TON~, origin~J1y henni'" who were forced by popu· lar pressure to accept disdples. for example, Saint Kevin of Clendalough. Uke Antony. bUI unlike Ben· edici. Ihey ..... re fond of ....andering. and th.re arou In Ireland a funo of "I'irituality called tile pererri"mio pro Christo. a u"'andcring for Christ." Th. lrie;h lhou!:hl lhal ne," to man~Tdom. voluntary e~. He "'lOS lhe greatest sacrifice One COOJId malte. Abra· ham had left Urof the Chaldees.u God'a call. sc> the pnclice !tad .. biblical foundation. Bolh Saini C~ lumba and Saint Columbanus wenl InlO "",,ile in the ainh and seventh cenluries. When Saint Adamn.... ""fOIe Ihe life of Columba in the _nth CenIUT)'. he llO' only Presnlted lhe saini in Antony's mold but aho include
deRination. To slresi lhe Ec-plian panllels. lhe anonymous ..uthor ~n has Brend.on meet Paul lhe HermiL TIM, QillfltlO the da.m is .. S)'TJIboIk _urn 10 the ""tu~ ...'Oriel of lhe Garden of Edw from the world of human brinas- This is .. plUffiinenl theme iIIlrls), ha~phy. in ...ilio;h Ihe Imh hennits Ihot wilh rwure. and many of theiT mindes iIIV'ol\ot the ....imals wilh ....hieh mer 11\" 10 peace. That lirem!)' lIlotifs eatend bqond the hagiogno. pity. Recent Kholanhip h.a.s ntablished Iha1 ntaIly biblical apocrypha ...·ere In Coptic cinob_ some "'ere known only in tllesc circles-and man. II$CrIpu of mew le~15 date 10 the fourth and ~fIh centuries.....hen the hlenrchical church ........ con· demning lheir uM:. Manin McNamano ' - demonstrated 1 1 Ihe lri~ knew and U!led a great man)' apocryph includin8 IIOme known only from E£ypt:. II is vinually impossible Ihat the Irish had direct access 10 Coplic ....orks. but it i. certain that the)' did kno.... and aPPCeciall! th¢$e works far more than other Western peoples, Visionary and apocalyptic book! ,,"'ere especially popular with them.
In,,,,,,..,
Irish Arl Artistic deo.ices and mQlifs also domon5l"l1e the contacts of the Irish "'ith Coptic influence. The cirded Irish cmss may dcri,~ from lhe ancien' E0!>lian ra" symbol. whieh had bet-<> Iurned into a Crt al I~ by IN: fifth century. a5 .. Coptic manuscripl in the PieI-ponl Morpn Ubrary in N.,.,.. Vorl,.J>ows ((;.67. p. 215). The famous "Virgin and Child with An... h~ iii_ration 01> folio 7v of the illuminated Irish manuacripl the Book of Kells has been sftown by F. Henry (1963) 10 be relalcd to .. Coptic man"""ripl. Henry abo points out ..u the use of red dots 5lItTOI.Indil'll .. fisure in order 10 illuminate il. a praclice uSoCd in sn'tta.lln"n manu· !iCr1pU. is of Coptic ori&in. Por,,;oits of Clui:sl in some Irish .....nuscripl$ and on llish Slone Cn>5$t$ bear WOOl resemblance 10 ponralts of Osiris. Irish church ""'""c also .00..'1 Coptic inlluence. "The Irish uoed .... nd bells, lid did the Copl$ in lhe sixlh c.ntury. bul lhe resl of Ihe Ew.oIern chu
BRITISH OCCUPATION OF EGYPT
Ul.Iic.. M the Romans .,,~Iiud .soulMrn En·
gland, Ihoy ncntu.al.ly came in.o conlK' and ~. .ion ""i1h the 1rW!. who had heen e>'anselWng NOT1m.mhria. A. the Synod of Whilby in 664.• he NOT1h"mbrian kina Oswy d..,ided for lhe 1l.0TlWI poany and p>anut.eW that the AnsIo-Sa>.OfI ch"nh _ld he the ordered. stable ...,Lil)' SO familiar in the West. Indeed. Bede himself .... a Ben«llclinoe.. Bul lhe ~oIficial~ triumph of Roman views ""as I>Ot a triumpb of the heart. and old way$ penis.cd for a "'hile longer. One of Bede'. heron "-as Sslinl Culhben. a cnoobilic monk of .he M'~lh cen.ury ""ho left I'lis communily '0 become a hemtit. He li~ed on a d~ island. built a wall around him· telf SO high .hal he c(MIld oee only the ~y, bauled with demon•. aOO perlonned mi....c!n Wi.h ",ild animals. Only lale in lifo """" he impos«l upon 10 accept a bilohoprlc, an office Ite ....d pre>''ouMy reo fused (Hislori" ecde.i"Slic" 4.27-29). CUlhlac was a monk al Replon in the sevenlh cenlury bUI left 10 beeome a hennil on a manhy island, where he pracliced strict asceticism. Hi. bi· ogntphe,. Felix, in his Life of Cuthlac (chap. 30). ~ys Ihat demons lried to lempt him by offering \0 leach him the way of life of "Ihose reno"'ned monks who dwelt in E'.gypI:' On anolher occasion Guthlac routed 50me demOM by IT<:;ting Psalm 67:2 '0 litem, lhe same .......e SainI Anlony of EIYP' had ~ (chap. 14). The famous Rulhwdl Cross, a lara;e stone cross thM eontains verses ITom IItc poem '''Tho Dream of Ihe Rootl·· has represenl.Btiom of An.ony and Paul e"V""ed upon i•. The patti!;ubn ...laie 10 sutface mdeo>«, but lhe Coptic spIri. lived on pasI the Sp><>d of Whilby. Bede ... a ~ fIoh>ees the heroism and ind....idualil)' that also dlataclerlzed .he desm fad~n (HislnriJI e""'si"'rica S.12): This man "lOS livcn a onOre $CCluded dwdli ... in ,he mOI\ll$~ry. $0 thai he cDtlld dewoce himself more fuely 10 the M'rv>ce of his MUer in "nb,oun pray.:T. And since .his place m,nth on the bionk of a river. he often "oed 10 ~nler II for severe bodily penance. and plunge repeatedly ~ ~ath Ihe wal~' ",hile he recited psalm, and prayers for :u long as he could end"re I., sland· inll mOlionless wilh Ihe waler up 10 his loins and romellmes to his n<:<:k. When he returned to sho.... he never rcmo~ed his dril'Pinli. chilly gat' "",nlS, but lei them warm and dry on his body, And in winter, when the half-broken cakes of iu _rc swirling a ...... nd him whkh h., had broken
419
'0 make a place .0 ....nd aOO dip himself in the tho:tse "'be saw him used .0 say: ~Brother Drycthdm ... ,it is wonderful how you can manajte 10 hear 5UCh biller cold." To which he, being • man of simploe d1spoait and ..... f·restrMn •• would reply simply: '·1 ha known it colder_~
_t....-.
8lIJUOCllAntV
Henry. F. L'N1 ;,/",,114;•. Vol. l. Paris. 1963. Kelly. J. F. T. ·1ltc DeKrt Falhers .. Models for thc Jolone of the Wesr." In God lind Ch"rily, cd. F. D. Costa. pp. 55_74. Brookline, Mass., 197<1. ___ '1be Gallic Resistance .0 Eastern Asce.i· cism.'· S",dit> P"rriSriCIl 18 (1982):S06~ 51 O. McNamara. M. The Apot;rypluo in l1te trish Church. Dublin. 1975. Ritner, R. "Egyptian. in Ireland: A Ques.ion of Coplic Peregrinations." Rice U";"fr$;ty St~dies 62. no. 2 (1975):65_87, Rousseau, P. "The Spiril"al Authorily of Ihe 'Monk· Bishops': Easlern ElemenlS in Some Western Hagiograph)' of Ihe Fo"nh and Fifth Centuries," Jounlill of Theological Srudiu. n,s.. 22 (1971):380 -419. Stevenson. J. "ASoCent Th......lIh Ihe Heavens, from EgypI t<> 1...land.'· C",.,bridge Med;"'va[ Celric St"dus S (1983):21-35. J. F. T. KEiLY
BRITISH OCCUPATION OF EGYPT. WMn the BriLish occupied EfypI in 1882, lite Copt< '""... no! p1ayina any acln.. role in £cypIlan political life. 'Ibo liberal ,,;nl of the nalionallil move........ t. which dn'tlopal unde~ the In8\>t'1'1(e 01 Cluislian Syrian ilrtmi&ranu. did noc include CClp'Iic names. The. p<-..e11<:C 01 Copu in !:be EiJlptian army .... '00 recenl to be of polilical 1'e'1cvan«- Although EJ.un.pear> ..... re... 01 the .il1M' ta>d 10 iden.ify Kenophob;" <"'S of the Itaf'l.li, or Christians. meOlioninl Syrians, G.-..eu, and Brilish victims bul no Copts in Ihis comnl £. L BUlcher (11197), who echoes the Bri.ish aUilude. seeing in Ihe riots Qf 1882 an argumenl 10 occupy Egypt in order to secure European Inleresls. wriles .hal possible harm could ha~e come 10 Ihe Copts had the British oot inlervened al Ihe right time by occupying lhe CQUnl".., In facl. lhe ... was no real antagonism between the Copl:s and Ihe 'Urlhl movement, which was di-
420
BRITISH OCCUPATION OF EGYPT
reeled fint apimt TurIrish and Cire...ian ~lemenlS in the Efyplian army and I....,.. apinsl Europnon inlervenlion in Egyptian politics. II is e~ ~ned !hal JOme Copts supported 'lhiIbl. 'UribI, Ilo>o._, could nol .u>p flInalic elements !'rom beinl in...,lwd ill his remh... faccor ~ ",ost him dle 1)ll1poom)' of Christian Syrians who lim iIUppOned him. The Copl:Ic: ~h and <>!her Coptic: _ble$ w~ a.mona the si&ners of a petition add.-d CO KhediV'P'ian land aristocncy, they rame to en101 greac econotnIc: advanlap under British nale. The Coptic PreM....... W.l.... (founded In 1871) and Mi¥ (lOunded in 1895). Sl~y supported the Brit· iah occupation in splle of.j>cir eOll$tan! ailicWn about unbir lreatmC1ll of !he Btirish loward the COpi$ in lhe civil sem"'e_ n.e Srilish lried 10 di· minish Ihe tradilional CoptIC: monopoly On ecnain p""ts In order 10 culti\'ale ao image of blm_ toward lhe Muslim majority. In 1896 a Cop.;", cIeleption presenlcO a list of claima 10 lhe lovemment and 10 Lord Cromer, ask· InC fQr equal lre.almenl with Ihe MU'llims In Ihe d\'il service; for Sunday [0 be th", holiday lor Ihe courts: for cal"'chism for Copt.s in public schools; and for more opportunilies occupy high sovern' menl posl$.
'0
The Coptic presll 1l00d in loW oppm;llon 10 Ihe National pul)' of M"flab Umil, althou#t the pany included Copu. Mip orpnized • petition $igned by rnembeB of Ihe Coptic: communhy 10 P",U~"I lIDy chaoge in the pollli<:al situation that could Introduce _ chantea. This petition ...... mel with opposition from nationalist Copot:a suppnnen ol the National patty. f"ro9osals 10 found .. Coptic p;u-. Iy were also made. but they did n« pre>'ail ~ secular .endrnciQ \O'ithln 1M Coptic eommunil)'. A crisis between the Coptic and lh.e Nalionalist prea bunt oul aitCl" "J.W"I.OIt, In ilS ~ the Britiah occupation of EcYPt, deKribed the M_ lim conq_ of Egypt as beln, as oppressi"", as an)' mh.,.. conqU<:sL "The chid" cOilor of tJl-Lnri', the pa~r of me National party. reacled wlIh " highly iO$Ulling and provocali~ anicle aplnst the Copts. 8e<:ause lhe aUlhor of lhe article. 'Abd aI··AzI. UWlsh .... as of Tunilli.n ori,in. Ihe Copts wet'C coo· firmed in their animosity IOward pan· Islam. For many modem EiYPlian hiSlorians, Ihe conAiel between Ihe Copt.s and Muslims at Ihe begin· ning of the \Wentielh cenlury Was a rCiult of the British policy of divide and rule. The nominalion of BoUlros Gllall as prime miniSter...." due 10 his efficiency in repre..,ntin, Ihe Brilish as well as Ihe khedi...e's inte,,"lI. both of which were supported by many 1>I..."hlO5 as well. The assassinalion of Bou· lro!I Chili by a Muslim panisan of 1Iw Nati,,"",1 party brougIu Coptic-Muslim rebllom 10 a new crisis. Boutrns Chill "'1$ II;Cusec! by Ille Copts of nOl havina ~ himself 10 Coptic inlCn$l$ "'hile he ..-as In JO'"'I'mme1ll. In Asy!l!. the city with the ~ cont=ltnUon of Copu in EcYPt. Coplic: naubks decided 10 hold .. congress 10 Slreu again thrir demands 10 the g:o-'CT1\meol. 1O"ft"OlDCJ\1 feared lroubIe in As,Q! and asked hlr\arcll cn.n. v 10 inll'n'CnC and pl<>p(*: another location. bul rtri....... 1he governmenl OOr the .-triarcb himself manaced 10 .....y the Cop!$. 1bey hdd • _1l'aIIcnded ""O&T'"SI' in March 1911 here they demanded • ehaol" in the election Ia II;CO"tding: 10 ..hat they ~h was Inadequale rep-esenl8olioJ'. and they req~ lhe makini of Sunday. holiday fur the Copts. In his repon of 1911. the Brilish Hl&h Com· mlssionar EJdon Gorst heavily crilicized the Coplic congress. which he said Will oqanized by a minority of Iich land owners, He emphasize
..w
ro.-
n.e
BRITISH OCCUPATION OF EGYPT
10 him, more CopTic influence. as demanded, would make the Copts more unpopular. He accused the Copts of interpreting British impartiality hetween Copts and Muslim. as prejudicial to lhe Copts. According 10 official statistics of the lime. Ihe CoptIl held 69 percent of tlte posts in tlte minimy of interior, 44 percent in the ministry of post and railway, 30 percent in the mini.tty of justice, and 14 percent in Ihe minislT)' of culture. According to Coptic estimates, they c<>rnrolled 19 percent of the EgypTian economy while they made up only 7 per· cem of the population. After tlte Coptic congres.. publi.:;; opinion turned again.t the Copts. The European pre", of Egypt /1$ well as part of lite British press supported the Cop' tic claims. From the Muslim point of view, the Cop' tic .uppon of the British and the success of lite Protestant missionary activity among the COplS since the Brilish occupalion gave enough re""on for mistrusling the Copts: and e,'en Ihough official Brilish policy did nol favor Ihe Copts, Ihe missions crea~d a common ground bet""een British and Copts, encouraging the Copts in anti-Islamic tendencies, The missionary aclivity also played an importanl role in Ihe relations belween the community and ils patriarch and clergy, 'Ole palriarch, Cyril V, sa"" foreign inlerference as the reason for Ihe troubles he was having with the communily as it asked for Jay represemalion in the Community Council for the rule of Coptic affairs, This conflicl wem "" far as requesting removal of the palriarch from lhe chainnanship of the council in 1893 and the subsli· tution of anOlher church prelale in Ihat po,ition_ In Ihis conflict, Ihe Brilish sympalhized ""ilh the refonners. ln 1911 the Egyptian Congress of Heliop& lis was held as a reaction to the Coptic Congress and to answer Ihe Coplic
421
in Egyptian nalionalism slowly opened the door for Ihe integrotion of the Copts into lhe national movement. 'Ole newspaper a/·Jaridah became Ihe nucle· us for the Ummah Party, one of whose members was SA'!) ZA(;Hl-Ol. A/·Jorfdoh expressed a nationalism based on an Egyptian idenlity sepamte from pan-lslam, and managed to win Coptic sympathies. When Ihe 1919 revolution against the Brilish took place, it included at! classes and groups of Egyp· tians, regardless of religion. One may say that Ihe main achievemem of this revolution was the total national unity of COplS and Muslims around Sa'd Zaghlo.l and his Wafd pal1y. The emblem of Ihis revolution was, in facl, a crescent enclosing a CrOM. The nOminalion of a Copt, Yiisuf Wahbah, as prime minister during Ihe boycott of Ihe Milner Commission's visit 10 Egypt in 1919 was con· dcmned by the Coptic communily as a Brilish in· lrigue 10 embarrass Ihe Muslims, who would fear being accuS«! of religious fanaticism if Ihey opposed the Wahbah governmenl Sa'd Zaghlo.l succeeded in attracting Coptic en· Ihusiasm for his Wafd. Three Copts accompanied him to Paris, and Copts as well as Muslims were exiled and put in jail during the Wafd slruggle for independence. One }'ear bef"re Ihe British proclaimed Egypl a British protectorale in 1913, a new law for the Leg' islalive Assembly reserved four seats among ",,'en· leen for the CoptS, among Olher ethnic and professional groups. The Copts were Ihus represented as a minorily, blll nol as part of Ihe professional groups of enginecrs or merchants. This law reflecled British views and traded concessions granted to European stales for the proteclion of foreigner:<> in ~vpt with Ihe privilege to proteci the minorities of Egypl. Lord Cromer regarded Egypt as a conglomeralion of different groups withoul a national bond or a national identity and felt that the representalive bodi.. should be constiluted accordingly, In their dedaralion of 1922 of Egyplian indcpendence, the British reserved for Ihemselves four dauses, some of which granled them Ihe right to protect foreigners and minorilies in £gypl. Thcse clauses were rejecte. Since Islam would be the stale religion, a legally
422
BRUCE, JAMES
$eCureel nrp~nwion would male up for ineon· ,'enieno;u nused by this fact. Since snenI Europe;o.n coonn;,c, were adopIing such ~trnS 10 5«U~ ,he rlPu of their minorilies, mil; measu~ would not be IUcO'J'lional. This >dea was rejK1ed by most poIilical as ""II as inlcll«lual ponnr!"nia. Sa'd bchl(l] feh !hal "ithin a par!.iarJ).,nt only political a!'JUllWn15 should rule. M_ of the Copu also rejecled special trtalmenl for 1M Cop", as bet", i... compatibk ...nh 1M $O.... 'eigllly 0I~. No ~. raI
Behrenl·Abouscif. D. Die KOplen in tI.. IIgypliwhe" Cele/lschall. Freiburg im Brei.gau. 19'2. Blunt. W, S, Secr..1 History olth.. E"Slish Occupa· rio" of Elj'pl. london. 1%1. Butcher. E. L Th.. Srory of Ih' Church of £Cpr. London. 1891. Crn...... r. Lonl. Modem Egypl. London. 1905. Miknail. k. Copts a"d Mudims U"d.., Brirish Con' troI. London. 1911. MUl;uommad Sayyic! KIUnI. aJ·Ad1 der H....· tal. rubin,.,.,. 1912.
BRUCE, JAMES {l1lO-l1941. Sco
ant
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dawson, W. R.. and E, P. Uphill. Who Was Who itt Egypralogy. p. 41. London. 1912.
MacD.-nnOI, v_ n .. Boob of J~u "nd Ihe U..,ill..d Tut m Ih.. Bruce Codex. NlO& Hamma
BRUGSCH,
KARL
HEINRICH
FERDINAND
(lJ21~1894). G.-rman
Ea>l'loiogist. He became profnsor al GCittinltC" In 186J and di.tttor cf the ScbooI of £f;ypwloc in Cain:> in 1870. wortm,; in all fi.-Ids of EcYJItoIos;y as .......1 as in Coptology. He' rounded I"," jcM.rmal ~hri/l til. dgyplu<:/te Spraene "nJ AI,......mskunde. In 1861. In 1881 be "'25 gi""n Ihe litle pasha by Ihe ",ling Ithedive because of his conlril)tlliOQl 10 EcPtology. BIBLlQGRAI'KY
B",pe-h, H. F. K. lid" LeN" " ..d m.i" Wa"d.rn. Berlin, 1891. Dawson. W, R.• and E, p, Uphill, Who Was Who in Egyplology. London. 1912. Erman, A, "Heinrich B",pch." Zei'jeh,i!1 /ii, ~g}'p" ,!
BUDGE, ERNEST
WALLIS
ALFRED THOMPSON
(IJ51~19H). El>glish
.Ec>pto!ocist. Cop-
tologist. and Orientalist. H.. became a S1Udem al Christ CoII'1!'". Cambrici&.-. where he lUe..lled in lbe study of many a..dent cultures. In 1191 h. became keeper of t.hc DO'panmen' of E,ypIian and Assyrian Anliquities at the British Mu..e\>m. a post be I>.-Id until 1924. Budg.- "''f:n' 10 Ea>pt. lhe Su
BOLUS AL-BOSHI
eomlums by Th~odoslus Archbishop of Alexandria, S~verus Patriarch af Anrioch, and Eustathius Bishop at Tra'~, Captie T~xts with Extracts from Arabic and Erhiapic V~ysions, edited with ttllnslation, London, 1894; The Earliest Known Copric Psalter, the text in the dialect of Upper Egypt, edited from the unique papyrus codex Oriental 5000 in the British Muse' urn, London, 1898; The Egypti"n Sudan, Its History and Monuments, 2 vols" London, 1907; Coptic Hom· ilies in the Dia/ocr at Upper Egypr, edited from the papyrus codex Oriental 5001 in the British Muse· urn, London, 1910; Coptic Blbli"a/ T_xts in the Dialect of Upper Egypt, London, 1912; Coptic Apocrypha In the Dlal~ct of Upper Egypt, edited with English translalion, London, 1913; Coptic Martyr. doms In Ih Dialect of Uppe, Egypt, edited with English translation, London, 1914; M!sallaneous Coptif: TUI5 in Ihe Dia/eel 01 Upp~r Egypt, edited with English translatiQn., London, 1915 (for contents, see Coptic Bibliography, p. 32, no. 716); Egyptian TaJes and Romances: Pagan, Chris/Ian and Mus· lim, English translation, London, 1931; Stories of the Holy Fath~" ' , . of the Desuts of Egypt Between 250 & 4()() A.D, Ciycit~r Compiled by AtJMnasius, Pal/ad!us, Jerome and Others, Oxford, 1934; Th, Wit and Wisdom of the Chislian Fathers of Egypl, the Syriac version
E. A. W. By Nile and Tigris (autobi<Jgraphi· call, 2 VQI., London, 1920, Dawson, W. B" and E. p, Uphill. Who Was Who in Egyptology, London, 1972. Kammerer, W" cQmp. A Copt!c Bibliography. Ann Mor, Mien.. 1950; repr~tJew York, 1969. Smith, S, "Budge. Sir (Er~est Alfred Thumpson) Wallis." Dicllonary of Nallonal Biography, p. 121. LondQn and Oxford, 1931~194(). Thumpson, C- "Emest Alh-ed Wallis Budge," Jou!'> nal of Egyptian Archaeology 21 (1935):68, whi"" include. a pal1rait. Aw:S. ATtYA
, OilLUS AL-OUSHi (Paul of Bush), an Arab regarded as one of the most significant personalities in the Coptic hierarchy during the Middle Ages. There is no precise information about his bil1h date
423
or his secular life as a young man before he took the monastic vow. It is p<JS.ible that he was !>om between 1170 and 1175. This conjecture is based on the fact that PQpe JOHN \'t mentioned him as a possible successo< in 1216, and it is known that no patriarch of the Coptic church could be nominated before the age of forty, ThAYR AND.'. 1<01.4) in Ihe Eastern Desert "ias located, it is certain thai he did not enron ;n either of these mQnastic institutions. He probably joined the mono astery Qf Anba :>am,:ril of Qalarnun in the FayyUrn province, which was within easy reach of Bush and where he resideeen vacant for nearly twenty years, durin~ which moSt of the hishops had died, and lheir s~ats had lQ be fiiled. This proved to be the new patriarch's opponunity 10 offer these episcopal seats to the highest bidders in order to collect as much money as possihle by applying the ,hartimiyy" ah (simony-see CHEtRO'IONt~) to enable him to pay hi. own promised bribe tu the Muslim administration. Cyril III actually filled lony episcQpal vacan· cies in simoniacal fashion, which irrilated both the clergy and the congregation. As " re.ult, it was decided l
424
BOLUS AL-HABIS, SAINT
In fact 8ulou aI·BUsh; is r"membe«d more for his "'ridnp ihlon lor hi. posi.ion <JrigiLancoe In tM p...·larcNlIe of Cyril III. Of his su""'i~inl wrilloeo _ria. I"" eodic:es haw: been known 10 e..at. !NIi.... Iy in manUKript in numemw; Tq>OSitorill$. and only a roew t-oe been published. Of u-e. his ri&bl miMe record of a dispulallon with Cyril ibn La'llaq in the l'Oyal pre" encoe of Sultan al·lOmil (1218-1238). AccOrdinllO the Hi.wry "Ilhe Palriarchs. the Melchile palriarch Nicholas ll$ wen as !he '"Iema (Muslim learned jur· i,a) a\lended Ihis dispulalion. th<: itlbJe<:1 of which Is unknown. Thoe Iasl m.c.... ble and preciK dale in SUlu.·a life ..... the year 1240. during whieh Ihe I)nod that C<)ll.",ned in lhe Citadel of Cairo under dte su...·oeU· lance of Ihe ".....im adminisU'l1lt1on ~ .hal 8Valchdol lit the .-trian:.hate. II is noll known how lon, hoe ouupioed thaI pDilillon, bOll ...., must assume .lDt his death OCOlrnG Ii....., after Ih,u )-ear. AcC<)l"din, 10 lhe aVJoilllbk he must !oa''e roemalMd a prloesl thfOO.lJhouI his ccclesiasl>cal c:are« unlil the JOUr 1240, ,.,hen ~"'3:> elented In the epiocopale nl MOfr (al·~WJ. known 10 be lhe IOOSl imponan. of all the E&rJ>t.iaft ~ H~ life end«l in Ihis Cll~il)'. thoush it is impossible 10 proddoe a p~ eiK da.e for his dealh.
'wo
""""'ft.
DlBuoCRAPHY
Samir. K. Maql/tlh {I ,,/·r..lhlllh __ ~I·r"i.JJ"d ...... $jl.>~al "I-Masl~jyy"h. Zouk Mibi!. 1933. Azrz S. !lTIYA
81'JLUS AL-I:IA8IS, SAINT, a Coptic monk and .. ne.... manyr" of lhe Ihin~ntn cenlury. BOlus al· l;labb (Paul the Solitary) appean in lhe Islamic·
Anlbie sources as harioa de.cended from a respect· able Coptic: family of scrihoes in Cairo_ MlkJa-~. as M "21 known prior 10 tatlna the monasllc '"0"1'5, vas hiJnsell" utib (scriboe Or secretary). Durina the niDI' of the Ayyubid sullllJ' ai-Malik al·SiJiJ:! Najm al-Din A)')'lIb and th<: ... hana Shajar aI·Dun". hoe sened in the iltMe chancdlery in Syria. In the n:ir:n of the Mamluk sullllJ' a1·Mu~1ZZ Aybak ",·TurunninJ. Mikhl'11 _ ~ 10 Cairn. Thereaher he len his d.,;] C.1"«1"" 10 be<:ome :II moo'As a monk. hoe tl!Ceh'oed Ihe name BU!w; (Paul). He spent hi. life from thai Ii.... in a cave in the: Red MOUDWo (aI·Jabal aI·Al;ImarJ. near !:IiI........ south of Cairo. Th~ relreal did not &lOP him from C<)nlaCU; wilh the world as a moendicanl monk. Biilus I,,*.-eled widoe'yln Upper and I.ow<:r Eg)'pI. Besides offerinll people lho: reti,>ous and moralislic Ie"",". of hi. prie.t1y profeujon. BUlus pro~id«! them wilh concrde ass;'la.. ce. Regardle.. of a per_ son's religious allegiance, he .upponed Ih",e in need and paid Iheir debls. He rreed prisoners who were held for deb! or unpaid fine•. He e,'en .e!lled immense .....te imp<.l5ts for ","'hole communilies. Wboen Ihe DhimmlJ (non·Mush,,": Copts and Jews) in Upper Egypl "",roe unable 10 pay illegal finaneial pIic: anaJ)'R of lhe period. made the comment thai A1-l;Iabia achle>-oed aslonished. the people of A1eundria. ~ The dimu of SUI ...', C1Ireer occurred in 1265 when he _ d communitia <J Copll and Jows in Cairo from immin""l dlsMter. The Copts "-ere blamed for reducl"l Iwy·three I>ouoes in aI·Bali· Ii)yah 1'll:, E•..,n lhe Coptic: palriarch JOH!ol ~1J was dnoued to the iKl!:no:. When the commander of Ihe Egyplian anny submitted a plea fur lbeir live5, Ihe sultan vas pe..... ~tkd 10 spare his viclim< in relum for a bea")' fino:. Bulus ca.me forth with 11M: whole amounl and paid It on 11M: "",1_ The wllan al.~ihlr Bayballl oftl!:n mingled with ~i ••ubjecls in disguise. and, of coullle. became ap' prenen.h·... of the popularily of Bulus, Ukewi,e Ihe I"q~~a·. lhe I.lamic spirilual aUlhorilie. and legal scholars, felt Ihrealened by Blllu•. In panicular. th" I"qaha' of Alexandria iei'll formal opinions con-
ror
''''''ha.
BURIAL RITES AND PRACTICES
demnin@ BUlus 10 death and submitted a plea for his e~eculion to the sultan in Cairo. The sulUln summoned BUlus to the citadel. of· fered him food and lodK;ng. and asked him to reo veal the source of his money. Bulus refused to dis· close his seo:ret, and insisted on continuinK 10 use his acquired wealth for the ,..,Iief of the poor and needy. Bulus may have discovered the treasure hid· den by the Fatimid caliph al-l;Iakim bi·Amr·AIl1h (996-1021) in the Red Mountain. Bulus practiced passive resistance to formal Slale repression. But the Mamluk rulers did not tolerale anything prejudicial to the power of the Islamic state. either from lhe rebel Muslim 'ul_rna (schol· ars) or from the Arab tribes. let alone the Coptic community. Bulus was condemned 10 death and executed. The memory of his life and work survi.'ed for centuries aher his dealh. Five hundred years later, the Muslim writer Ibn al··lmad al'l:IanbaH reiterated his story in his eight·volume biographical dictionary. BIBLlOGR"-PHY
Ibn ShAkir al·KulUbL FawM al·Wafay(ll. 5 vols., ed. Il)siln Abbas. Bei",t. 1973-1974. $tJBHl Y. L\BlB
BUQAYRAH
AL-RASHIDI
THE
DEA.
CON. See History of the Patriarchs.
BUQTUR. See
BORAH,
Vidor.
older name of the 1O,,"'n now known as Kafr al·Banilth, in Ihe G~rbiyyah province. The town is located in the northeast , p; | 