AMBLYOPIA A M EDICAL D ICTIONARY , B IBLIOGRAPHY , AND A NNOTATED R ESEARCH G UIDE TO I NTERNET R E FERENCES
J AMES N. P ARKER , M.D. AND P HILIP M. P ARKER , P H .D., E DITORS
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ICON Health Publications ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, 4th Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Copyright 2004 by ICON Group International, Inc. Copyright 2004 by ICON Group International, Inc. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 4 5 3 2 1
Publisher, Health Care: Philip Parker, Ph.D. Editor(s): James Parker, M.D., Philip Parker, Ph.D. Publisher's note: The ideas, procedures, and suggestions contained in this book are not intended for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. As new medical or scientific information becomes available from academic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies may undergo changes. The authors, editors, and publisher have attempted to make the information in this book up to date and accurate in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of this book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised to always check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dosage and contraindications before prescribing any drug or pharmacological product. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs, herbal remedies, vitamins and supplements, alternative therapies, complementary therapies and medicines, and integrative medical treatments. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Parker, James N., 1961Parker, Philip M., 1960Amblyopia: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References / James N. Parker and Philip M. Parker, editors p. cm. Includes bibliographical references, glossary, and index. ISBN: 0-497-00053-9 1. Amblyopia-Popular works. I. Title.
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Disclaimer This publication is not intended to be used for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not engaging in the rendering of medical, psychological, financial, legal, or other professional services. References to any entity, product, service, or source of information that may be contained in this publication should not be considered an endorsement, either direct or implied, by the publisher, editors, or authors. ICON Group International, Inc., the editors, and the authors are not responsible for the content of any Web pages or publications referenced in this publication.
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Acknowledgements The collective knowledge generated from academic and applied research summarized in various references has been critical in the creation of this book which is best viewed as a comprehensive compilation and collection of information prepared by various official agencies which produce publications on amblyopia. Books in this series draw from various agencies and institutions associated with the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and in particular, the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), the Administration on Aging (AOA), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Healthcare Financing Administration (HCFA), the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Indian Health Service (IHS), the institutions of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Program Support Center (PSC), and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). In addition to these sources, information gathered from the National Library of Medicine, the United States Patent Office, the European Union, and their related organizations has been invaluable in the creation of this book. Some of the work represented was financially supported by the Research and Development Committee at INSEAD. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, special thanks are owed to Tiffany Freeman for her excellent editorial support.
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About the Editors James N. Parker, M.D. Dr. James N. Parker received his Bachelor of Science degree in Psychobiology from the University of California, Riverside and his M.D. from the University of California, San Diego. In addition to authoring numerous research publications, he has lectured at various academic institutions. Dr. Parker is the medical editor for health books by ICON Health Publications. Philip M. Parker, Ph.D. Philip M. Parker is the Eli Lilly Chair Professor of Innovation, Business and Society at INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France and Singapore). Dr. Parker has also been Professor at the University of California, San Diego and has taught courses at Harvard University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and UCLA. Dr. Parker is the associate editor for ICON Health Publications.
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About ICON Health Publications To discover more about ICON Health Publications, simply check with your preferred online booksellers, including Barnes&Noble.com and Amazon.com which currently carry all of our titles. Or, feel free to contact us directly for bulk purchases or institutional discounts: ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, Fourth Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Fax: 858-546-4341 Web site: www.icongrouponline.com/health
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Table of Contents FORWARD .......................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON AMBLYOPIA .............................................................................................. 3 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 3 Federally Funded Research on Amblyopia ..................................................................................... 3 The National Library of Medicine: PubMed ................................................................................ 40 CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND AMBLYOPIA..................................................................................... 77 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 77 Finding Nutrition Studies on Amblyopia.................................................................................... 77 Federal Resources on Nutrition ................................................................................................... 78 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 79 CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND AMBLYOPIA .............................................................. 81 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 81 National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.................................................. 81 Additional Web Resources ......................................................................................................... 101 General References ..................................................................................................................... 101 CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON AMBLYOPIA .............................................................................. 103 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 103 Dissertations on Amblyopia....................................................................................................... 103 Keeping Current ........................................................................................................................ 104 CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON AMBLYOPIA ......................................................................................... 105 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 105 Patents on Amblyopia ................................................................................................................ 105 Patent Applications on Amblyopia ............................................................................................ 110 Keeping Current ........................................................................................................................ 114 CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON AMBLYOPIA ............................................................................................. 117 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 117 Book Summaries: Online Booksellers......................................................................................... 117 The National Library of Medicine Book Index ........................................................................... 117 Chapters on Amblyopia.............................................................................................................. 118 CHAPTER 7. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON AMBLYOPIA ............................................................... 121 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 121 News Services and Press Releases.............................................................................................. 121 Academic Periodicals covering Amblyopia ................................................................................ 123 APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES .......................................................................................... 127 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 127 NIH Guidelines.......................................................................................................................... 127 NIH Databases........................................................................................................................... 129 Other Commercial Databases..................................................................................................... 131 APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES ............................................................................................... 133 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 133 Patient Guideline Sources.......................................................................................................... 133 Finding Associations.................................................................................................................. 135 APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES ................................................................................ 137 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 137 Preparation................................................................................................................................. 137 Finding a Local Medical Library................................................................................................ 137 Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada ................................................................................. 137 ONLINE GLOSSARIES................................................................................................................ 143 Online Dictionary Directories ................................................................................................... 144
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AMBLYOPIA DICTIONARY ...................................................................................................... 145 INDEX .............................................................................................................................................. 183
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FORWARD In March 2001, the National Institutes of Health issued the following warning: "The number of Web sites offering health-related resources grows every day. Many sites provide valuable information, while others may have information that is unreliable or misleading."1 Furthermore, because of the rapid increase in Internet-based information, many hours can be wasted searching, selecting, and printing. Since only the smallest fraction of information dealing with amblyopia is indexed in search engines, such as www.google.com or others, a non-systematic approach to Internet research can be not only time consuming, but also incomplete. This book was created for medical professionals, students, and members of the general public who want to know as much as possible about amblyopia, using the most advanced research tools available and spending the least amount of time doing so. In addition to offering a structured and comprehensive bibliography, the pages that follow will tell you where and how to find reliable information covering virtually all topics related to amblyopia, from the essentials to the most advanced areas of research. Public, academic, government, and peer-reviewed research studies are emphasized. Various abstracts are reproduced to give you some of the latest official information available to date on amblyopia. Abundant guidance is given on how to obtain free-of-charge primary research results via the Internet. While this book focuses on the field of medicine, when some sources provide access to non-medical information relating to amblyopia, these are noted in the text. E-book and electronic versions of this book are fully interactive with each of the Internet sites mentioned (clicking on a hyperlink automatically opens your browser to the site indicated). If you are using the hard copy version of this book, you can access a cited Web site by typing the provided Web address directly into your Internet browser. You may find it useful to refer to synonyms or related terms when accessing these Internet databases. NOTE: At the time of publication, the Web addresses were functional. However, some links may fail due to URL address changes, which is a common occurrence on the Internet. For readers unfamiliar with the Internet, detailed instructions are offered on how to access electronic resources. For readers unfamiliar with medical terminology, a comprehensive glossary is provided. For readers without access to Internet resources, a directory of medical libraries, that have or can locate references cited here, is given. We hope these resources will prove useful to the widest possible audience seeking information on amblyopia. The Editors
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From the NIH, National Cancer Institute (NCI): http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ten-things-to-know.
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CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON AMBLYOPIA Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to locate peer-reviewed references and studies on amblyopia.
Federally Funded Research on Amblyopia The U.S. Government supports a variety of research studies relating to amblyopia. These studies are tracked by the Office of Extramural Research at the National Institutes of Health.2 CRISP (Computerized Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects) is a searchable database of federally funded biomedical research projects conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. Search the CRISP Web site at http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/crisp_query.generate_screen. You will have the option to perform targeted searches by various criteria, including geography, date, and topics related to amblyopia. For most of the studies, the agencies reporting into CRISP provide summaries or abstracts. As opposed to clinical trial research using patients, many federally funded studies use animals or simulated models to explore amblyopia. The following is typical of the type of information found when searching the CRISP database for amblyopia: •
Project Title: A SYSTEM FOR STUDY OF PEDIATRIC VISUAL PATHWAYS Principal Investigator & Institution: Fulton, Anne B.; Associate Professor; Children's Hospital (Boston) Boston, Ma 021155737 Timing: Fiscal Year 2004; Project Start 01-APR-2004; Project End 31-MAR-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): A System for Study of the Pediatric Visual Pathways is requested by a group of Pediatric Ophthalmologists and Neonatal Neurologists. These
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Healthcare projects are funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and Office of Assistant Secretary of Health (OASH).
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investigators currently have NIH supported studies of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), and strabismus and amblyopia. Investigations of the visual system in subjects with albinism and known genotypes are also planned in collaboration with Genetics. The equipment requested is for visual evoked potential (VEP), eye movement and fMRI studies, and will be used to investigate function of the pathways from the eye to the brain. The information gained about function of the visual pathways will complement current assessments of structure of the eye and brain. Additionally, this information will complement the behavioral (psychophysical) assessments of vision already in progress. In the proposed ROP and PVL research, the main hypothesis under test is that preterm injury to the architecture of the visual pathway in the eye (ROP) or the optic radiations (PVL) significantly alters the inputs to the visual areas of the brain. At the earliest ages, VEP responses to diffuse flash stimuli will be evaluated as predictors of visual and neurological development. Later in infancy, longitudinal VEP acuities in ROP and PVL subjects will be the basic data upon which analysis of plasticity of their developing visual systems will be evaluated. VEP studies of misrouting of the visual pathways will be conducted in subjects with symmetrical and asymmetrical PVL. The eye movement tracker will be used to characterize their nystagmus and to verify fixation during VEP testing. Furthermore, future fMRI studies are envisioned using patterned stimuli presented quadrant by quadrant, in older, cognitively intact subjects with PVL and visual field cuts, and their peers without field cuts. The large sample of term born infants, children and adults with strabismus and amblyopia, and their unaffected peers, will have VEP acuity measured in a cross-sectional design. Eye movements during fixation and voluntary saccades will be quantified. This information, along with the clinical data, will lay the foundation for future fMRI studies of the amblyopic deficit. Finally, in collaboration with Genetics, members of families with albinism and known tyrosinase genotype, will have VEP studies of visual pathway routing using flash stimuli in infancy and patterned stimuli at older ages. Selected adult members of the families with albinism will be studied using fMRI studies employing the rotating wedge stimulus of Wandell and careful control of eye position. With these studies as a whole, we expect to obtain new knowledge about the processes that govern vision and its development in these pediatric disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: AMBLYOPIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Chino, Yuzo M.; Professor of Visual Sciences; Basic Sciences; University of Houston 316 E Cullen Houston, Tx 772042015 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-1988; Project End 30-NOV-2003 Summary: The long-term objective of our research is to understand the rules that govern the normal and abnormal development of binocular functions in primates. The proposed experiments focus on how binocular conflicting signals early in life disrupt the development of functional binocular connections in the primate visual cortex. The proposed research builds on our previous work that has documented both the normal maturation of binocular connections in the primary visual cortex (V1) and the manner in which early discordant vision alters the development of binocular signal interactions. We will create models of strabismus in infant rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), many of which will have their monocular and binocular vision tested behaviorally prior to the neurophysiological experiments. Quantitative, single-unit recording techniques will be employed as our primary tool to explore the functional status of the visual cortex in anesthetized and paralyzed animals. Histochemical methods and optical imaging techniques will complement our standard neurophysiological experiments. The specific
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goals of the new research are to: 1) determine how the onset age of early strabismus affects the nature and severity of binocular deficits. 2) shed light on the neural mechanisms that underlie the high prevalence of binocular suppression in V1 in animals reared with strabismus. 3) investigate the hypothesis that sustained cortical suppression early in life may be a critical factor in the later emergence of amblyopia. 4) determine if V1 units in strabismic monkeys show a temporal-to- nasal bias in motion signal processing and if early binocular suppression in V1 plays a role in this asymmetry. Together, the proposed research will provide new insight into abnormal cortical events brought about by early discordant binocular visual experience. In humans, early onset strabismus severely disrupts vision development in a substantial proportion of infants in this country. Some of the experiments here are designed to test several new hypotheses that have been formulated based on our preliminary studies in monkeys and existing clinical data on binocular vision anomalies in strabismic humans. The results from the proposed research will hopefully have an impact on the development of effective strategies for the prevention and treatments of binocular vision disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: AMBLYOPIA IN ASTIGMATIC CHILDREN-DEVELOPMENT & TREATMENT Principal Investigator & Institution: Harvey, Erin M.; Ophthalmology; University of Arizona P O Box 3308 Tucson, Az 857223308 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 15-SEP-2000; Project End 31-JUL-2005 Summary: (Applicant's Abstract) Evidence from the scientific literature indicates that uncorrected astigmatism during childhood is associated with three types of amblyopia: (1) a difference in best-corrected acuity and contrast sensitivity for orthogonal gratings (meridional amblyopia or MA), (2) a difference in best-corrected acuity for orthogonally-oriented vernier acuity stimuli (also termed MA), and (3) a deficit in bestcorrected recognition (letter) acuity. These data suggest the presence of a sensitive period for the development of astigmatism-related amblyopia. However, only limited information is available concerning factors that influence the development and treatment of astigmatism-related amblyopia. The lack of research regarding astigmatism-related amblyopia is most likely due to the low prevalence of astigmatism in most populations of children. However, a high prevalence of large amounts of astigmatism and astigmatism-related amblyopia has been documented in members of the Tohono O'Odham grade-school children are not currently wearing eyeglass correction. The presence of this large sample of uncorrected highly astigmatic children provides a unique opportunity for the study of the development and treatment of astigmatism-related amblyopia. The goals of the present study are: (1) to characterize vision deficits associated with astigmatism-related amblyopia (through measurements of grating acuity, vernier acuity, recognition acuity, and contrast sensitivity), (2) to identify factors influencing the development of astigmatism-related amblyopia (e.g., factors such as amount and type of astigmatism), and (3) to determine age-specific effects of glasses intervention on astigmatism-related amblyopia. The proposed study will provide valuable clinical information regarding the development and treatment of astigmatism-related amblyopia. In addition, it will provide a valuable public health service to members of the Tohono O'Odham. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: BALTIMORE PEDIATRIC EYE SURVEY Principal Investigator & Institution: Tielsch, James M.; Professor; International Health; Johns Hopkins University 3400 N Charles St Baltimore, Md 21218 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2002; Project End 29-SEP-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): Over the past 20 years, major progress has been made in our understanding of the epidemiology and consequences of ocular disorders among older adults. A number of population-based studies in a variety of major ethnic groups in the United States have provided critical information for etiological research and planning for delivery of eye care services to this high risk population. The situation among children is much different. While extensive data exist on the visual status of the school age population through legislatively mandated vision testing programs in elementary schools, few such data exist in the United States regarding the frequency and severity of ocular disorders among preschool age children. We propose to address this lack of information by conducing a population-based prevalence survey of ocular disorders among children 6 months through 5 years in the communities of Northeast and Southeast Baltimore. Over 39,000 households in 31 census tracts will be screened in order to identify approximately 6800 eligible children. Assuming an 80% response to the examination, this will yield over 5,000 subjects for study. All families who agree to participate will receive an enrollment interview conducted by telephone or at their home. Children will then be transported to an examination facility set-up in their local community where a detailed eye examination will be conducted. The examination will include measurement of visual acuity, refraction, ocular motility and alignment. Subjects in whom abnormalities are discovered will be referred to their preferred source of pediatric eye care for clinical management. A subset of children diagnosed with ocular disorders will receive a confirming examination by a pediatric ophthalmologist at the Wilmer Institute of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. The analysis will focus on estimating the age and race-specific prevalence of ocular disorders in this group and on assessing the association of selected risk factors with the prevalence of these disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: BINOCULAR MATCHING AND DISPARITY VERGENCE. Principal Investigator & Institution: Stevenson, Scott; Vision Sciences; University of Houston 316 E Cullen Houston, Tx 772042015 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 10-APR-2001; Project End 31-MAR-2004 Summary: (adapted from applicant's abstract): Proper alignment of the eyes is essential for clear, single vision. Misalignment during early development can lead to amblyopia, a permanent visual impairment. Eye alignment during gaze changes is determined both by the anatomical organization of extraocular muscles and by the coordinated, visuallyguided control of those muscles. The detection and correction of alignment errors from binocular comparison of retinal images is referred to as Disparity Vergence, and has both reflexive and voluntary aspects. The reflexive component of disparity vergence corrects horizontal, vertical and cyclotorsional errors of alignment, while voluntary control is restricted to horizontal vergence. This project is concerned with the visual information processing that provides the basis for reflexive disparity vergence, as revealed by vertical vergence responses. Previous work by the Principal Investigator has shown that the vertical vergence controller can extract vertical disparity signals from dynamic random dot stereograms, but that vertical vergence is not influenced by visual attention or subject effort and often occurs without conscious awareness. These movements thus reflect visual processes that are binocular, most probably cortical, but
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pre-conscious. The experiments in this project provide a way to study processing at an intermediate stage of the visual system. These processes are central to the control of eye alignment, but cannot be studied with conventional psychophysical techniques because they do not necessarily contribute to visual perception. An eye tracking device is used to detect small changes in eye alignment made in response to imposed vertical image misalignment, allowing for measurement of the vergence system's sensitivity to a variety of image parameters. Proposed experiments will determine the role of contrast, spatial and temporal frequency, and visual feature type in the control of reflexive vergence eye movements. Measurements in subjects with abnormal binocularity will follow up on preliminary evidence that reflex vergence is intact in some cases of stereoblindness. Comparison to results from conventional psychophysical sensitivity measures will highlight differences between early (pre-conscious) and later (perceptual) visual processes. The long-term benefit of this research will be improvements in the diagnosis and treatment of binocular visual disorders of eye alignment and depth perception. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: BINOCULAR OBJECTIVE PEDIATRIC VISION SCREENING Principal Investigator & Institution: Horwitz, Larry S.; Ophthonix, Inc. 10455 Pacific Center Ct San Diego, Ca 92121 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUN-2002; Project End 30-APR-2003 Summary: (provided by applicant): The National Children's Eye Care Program has produced a mandate to screen the vision of all children by the age of four within the next ten years. This could dramatically effect the treatment of amblyopia and other child development problems, e.g., reading and learning. Vision anomalies are readily corrected at the infant and early adolescent ages. Thus, instruments are needed to provide the screening data such as: refraction/accommodation and strabismus. Ophthonix, Inc. has developed an enabling technology, the Vision Biometry Instrument (VBI), which provides the wavefront sensing, refraction/accommodation, strabismus, and acuity capability integrated into one instrument. The VBI will be inexpensive, easy to operate by non-medical personnel, have structural integrity and by compact and portable. Measurements require about a minute and require no cycloplegic drugs or medical professional. This SBIR proposal is to develop and validate prototype s of the VBI in cooperation with the Department of Psychological Optics of Schepens Research Institute. Accuracy and reproducibility of the VBI will be assessed on a small population of adult volunteers before clinical prototype development and extended clinical trial will be commenced in Phase II. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: COORDINATING CENTER: VISION IN PRESCHOOLERS Principal Investigator & Institution: Maguire, Maureen G.; Carolyn F. Jones Professor of Ophthalmol; Ophthalmology; University of Pennsylvania 3451 Walnut Street Philadelphia, Pa 19104 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2000; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: Vision disorders are the most prevalent class of handicapping conditions in childhood. Comprehensive eye examinations are recommended for preschool children because early detection increases the likelihood of effective treatment and allows for actions to decrease the negative impact of the disorders. However, less than 15 percent of all children receive an eye examination. Less than 20 percent of preschool children
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have some type of vision screening. The methods for vision screening vary tremendously and the effectiveness of the methods in appropriately identifying children has not been documented. Vision is Preschoolers (VIP) is a multi-center, prospective clinical study to evaluate candidate, screening tests for children aged 3 or 4 years. The screening tests are specifically targeted to identify children in need of further vision care for amblyopia, strabismus, or significant refractive error. The role of the Coordinating Center is to contribute to the success of VIP in fully evaluating the battery of screening tests through leadership, organization, communication, and facilitation of the execution of the study protocol. The Coordinating Center provides expertise on study design, statistical analysis, and data processing and management. The specific aims of the Coordinating Center to fulfill this role are: Work with the other members of the study group to further refine the study design; Create and maintain the study database through design of forms, data collection and processing, and data editing; Provide regular reports to all VIP centers and committees concerning study progress and performance; Provide interim and final statistical analysis of the accumulated data; Design and implement a full quality assurance program in conjunction with the Chairman's Office; Participate in the preparation of scientific presentations and reports. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: CORE GRANT FOR VISION RESEARCH Principal Investigator & Institution: Tyler, Christopher W.; Professor; Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute Research Institute San Francisco, Ca 94115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUL-1986; Project End 30-JUN-2006 Summary: The Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute is a private non-profit organization, founded to encourage a productive collaboration between the clinical and basic research communities. To further this objective, the Institutes incorporates visual scientists from diverse medical and scientific backgrounds: ophthalmology visual scientific backgrounds. In the past, research at this Institute was focused on topics related to strabismus and amblyopia (oculomoter processing, binocular vision, cortical development of t he visual pathways). While these research areas are still growing, other distinct specialties have emerged in recent years Vision in the aging eye, motion and long-range processing, analysis of retinal functioning, retinal development, object recognition and computer vision are among the new research interests. Given the small scale of Smith-Kettlewell, the proximity of the scientists, and their common research interests, collaboration among scientist is an important aspect of the research milieu. Principal Investigators share resources with little difficulty. For more than twenty years, the Core Grant has formed the central component of the most important shared research services, chiefly electronic hardware design and maintenance, and computer communication and support. The technical expertise of our electronic and computer services group greatly benefits the rapid development of new research agendas-a tremendous advantage for new principal investigators and postdoctoral fellows, and a major factor in our high productivity. The Computer Services Module has evolved from providing predominantly software services in the past to establishing central computer services, including Internet, email, data transfer, central back-up and Intranet capabilities. We therefore are requesting renewal of these valuable Core Facilities. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: CORRELATION AMONG RETINAL DIRECTIONALLY SELECTIVE CELLS Principal Investigator & Institution: Grzywacz, Norberto M.; Professor; Biomedical Engineering; University of Southern California 2250 Alcazar Street, Csc-219 Los Angeles, Ca 90033 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-1991; Project End 31-AUG-2006 Summary: (From the Applicant's Abstract): A central problem in visual neuroscience is the binding problem. How does the brain know that it has to bind the responses of neurons with small visual windows to obtain coherent pictures of large objects? One long-term goal of the proposed research is to elucidate the retinal mechanisms underlying visual binding. Three hypotheses for these mechanisms involve gap junctions between ganglion cells, and common cholinergic, glutamatergic, and GABAergic synapses. Four specific aims will test these hypotheses in directionally selective ganglion cells of turtles and rabbits, since evidence of long-contour binding exists for these cells: 1)This aim will test whether millisecond correlation could code long, moving contours by recording simultaneously from neighbor directionally sensitive cells with electrophysiological techniques. 2)The experiments here will use simultaneous electrophysiological recordings and pharmacology to test the GABA, acetylcholine, glutamate, and gap-junction hypotheses of retinal correlation. 3)Specific aim 3 will study whether long-range correlation takes place by mapping the population of directionally selective cells with live Ca2+fluorescence. 4)Finally, the last aim will test a prediction of the cholinergic hypothesis for correlation by measuring acetylcholine release following motion adaptation with high performance liquid chromatography. The study of binding may have important health relevance. Schizophrenia patients, for instance, cannot detect contours in tasks relying on long-range spatial interactions of orientational signals. And the integration of orientation information across space is impaired in amblyopia. Retinal binding defects may contribute to some of these integrative problems, but even if not, retinal strategies and mechanisms may shed light on mechanisms in other areas of the brain. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: CORTICAL MECHANISMS OF SPATIAL PATTERN VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Olzak, Lynn A.; Psychology; Miami University Oxford 500 E High St Oxford, Oh 45056 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-APR-2002; Project End 31-MAR-2005 Summary: (Provided by applicant): We propose to psychophysically investigate sensitivity regulation in early and intermediate-level cortical mechanisms of pattern vision. This proposal focuses on the role of spatially displaced, or contextual stimuli in the regulatory process. Spatial mechanisms in primary visual cortex have been previously characterized as sets of independent, parallel, linear filters. Physiological and psychophysical evidence now suggests that stimuli that do not directly excite a neuron can profoundly affect its sensitivity via indirect, nonlinear interactions. The proposed studies synthesize our own previous quantitative work on nonlinear sensitivity regulation in higher-level spatial mechanisms with recent psychophysical work on contextual influences on the perceptual appearance of modulated stimuli. We measure the ability to make fine discriminations between stimuli on the basis of orientation or spatial frequency, using both simple stimuli that isolate mechanisms akin to linear filters at Vi, and more complex stimuli designed to isolate higher-level pathways that are specialized to process each type of information. We measure how contextual stimuli
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affect sensitivity in the neurons mediating these tasks, and test whether existing models of sensitivity regulation (contrast gain control) can be extended to account for these effects. We test the hypothesis that properties of contextual stimuli (contrast, phase, spatial frequency, orientation) are critical to the interaction process at early levels of cortical processing. We test the hypothesis that sensitivity regulators operate at more than a single levels of processing, and that at higher levels, tuning is broader that at lower levels of processing. We further test the hypothesis that at higher levels of processing, contextual stimuli affecting sensitivity differs for the two tasks of spatial frequency and orientation. Finally, we test whether contextual influences depend upon figure-ground organization, and whether existing models that assume reciprocity of interactions are sufficient. These experiments will provide the empirical foundation and initial theoretical tests to advance our understanding of sensitivity regulation in pattern vision mechanisms. An understanding of these mechanisms, and the development of models of these mechanisms, is a necessary step in detecting and correcting visual deficits that disrupt pattern processing such as those found in strabismus and amblyopia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: CORTICAL PLANNING AND CONTROL OF SMOOTH PURSUIT Principal Investigator & Institution: Heinen, Stephen J.; Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute Research Institute San Francisco, Ca 94115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-MAR-1997; Project End 31-AUG-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): Smooth pursuit is a voluntary eye movement that is used to view objects as they move. Although physiologists have studied many aspects of voluntary saccade control, most work on the neural control of pursuit has treated this system as if it responds reflexively to retinal-image motion. The pursuit system of primates is a sophisticated ocular movement system that has evolved to allow it to predict when and where an object will move, and to decide whether or not to pursue that object. The focus of the current grant period is to understand how the cortical eye fields cooperate to control voluntary smooth pursuit eye movements. Aims are to: 1. Compare the strength of predictive and retinal-image signals used by the cortical eye fields to execute a pursuit eye movement 2. Determine how the cortical eye fields interact to cancel a pursuit movement. 3. Determine how the decision is made to execute or cancel a pursuit movement. The results of these experiments should contribute to our knowledge of how the cortex moves the eyes to effectively view moving objects in the natural scene. The results of this work should provide basic data to facilitate diagnosis and treatment of disorders of vision such as strabismus and amblyopia, and to develop prosthetic devices to aid people who suffer from these disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF BINOCULAR VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Birch, Eileen E.; Senior Research Scientist; Retina Foundation of the Southwest 9900 N Central Expy, Ste 400 Dallas, Tx 752310920 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JUN-1984; Project End 31-MAY-2008 Summary: (provided by applicant): Congenital and early onset binocular imbalance affect the visual maturation of 3-4% of U.S. infants. Even when treatment is successful in restoring clear media and good alignment, less than 1% of patients achieve normal stereoacuity and many develop amblyopia. During the previous grant period we established that minimizing the duration of misalignment in esotropic infants enhances
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binocular sensory outcomes. We will build on this work by assessing whether better binocular sensory outcomes are achieved with alignment before 6 months of age, if binocular sensory outcome is associated with long-term alignment and/or risk for amblyopia, if binocular sensory status at the onset of esotropia is predictive of longterm response to treatment, and whether surgical alignment of infantile esotropia places the infant at risk for accommodative esotropia. Our recent work with on nasal-temporal asymmetries in the motion VEP of patients with infantile esotropia has identified a close link between asymmetry and monofixation but the relationship with other asymmetries in eye movements and motion perception remain unclear. We will investigate relationships among asymmetries in motion VEP responses, OKN, motion perception, fusion, and stereopsis during normal maturation and in infantile and accommodative esotropia. These studies also will allow us to determine whether asymmetries precede or co-develop with tropia or whether they occur as a response to prolonged abnormal visual experience. The identification of the mVEP as an objective measure of monofixation during the previous grant period has set the stage for a series of studies that will address whether suppression is present at the earliest stages of esotropia, whether amblyopia develops in response to unequal suppression, and how suppression changes in response to treatment. The addition of a new paradigm, VEP dichoptic masking, will enhance the scope of these studies. Studies of the maturation of positional acuity in normal infants and pediatric patients with amblyopia will employ a broader range of positional tasks will be used to investigate the relationship between short-range and long-range deficits, the relationship between such deficits and recognition acuity deficits by which amblyopia is defined. In addition, we will continue working to build a battery of sensory tests for clinical trial outcome measures and for individual clinical assessment. These studies will help to define the necessary and sufficient conditions for the development of normal binocular vision and enhance treatment outcomes of pediatric patients. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY OF THE VISUAL SYSTEM Principal Investigator & Institution: Stryker, Michael P.; Professor; Physiology; University of California San Francisco 500 Parnassus Ave San Francisco, Ca 941222747 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-DEC-1978; Project End 31-MAR-2004 Summary: This application proposes neurophysiological and neuroanatomical studies to elucidate the mechanisms by which patterns of neural activity guide the development and plasticity of the mammalian visual cortex. Our previous research has shown that spontaneous neural activity in the visual system is required for the development of ocular dominance columns in the primary visual cortex, an event that begins in utero in man and higher primates. These findings suggest that abnormalities in the spontaneous patterns of neural activity may be a hitherto unsuspected cause of birth defects. Our most recent work has demonstrated that some forms of amblyopia, a visual disorder affecting nearly 2% of American children, take place in primates without plasticity of the anatomical ocular dominance columns; while anatomical plasticity of the geniculocortical afferents in response to altered activity can be is remarkably rapid during a critical period in development. In addition to providing insight into the mechanisms of cortical plasticity in development, the studies proposed should aid in the provision of a rational basis to the therapy for amblyopia. The major goal of the proposed studies is to reveal the mechanisms underlying the plasticity of geniculocortical afferents and the formation of ocular dominance columns in cat visual cortex. These afferents lose nearly half of their arbor in as little as 6 days of occlusion of
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vision in one eye during the critical period. We will first determine the shortest period of monocular occlusion necessary for such anatomical plasticity, and we will relate the new findings, using Phaseolus lectin to reconstruct the arbors of individual geniculocortical afferents, to the findings with bulk labeling of the entire geniculocortical afferent projection serving one eye. We will then investigate the afferent plasticity that underlies the recovery of vision produced by reverse monocular occlusion following brief initial deprivation, and the failure of this recovery when the reverse occlusion follows more prolonged initial deprivation. We will complete our ongoing investigation of the anatomical basis for the reverse plasticity of ocular dominance when cortical cells are pharmacologically inhibited, and will investigate the changes in arbors of the geniculocortical afferents that accompany this plasticity. We will examine the distribution of molecules associated with synaptic function on identified geniculocortical afferent arbors in order to discover the earliest steps in the plasticity of this system. We will finally carry out a series of combined physiological/biochemical studies to evaluate the role of several candidate mediators of synaptic plasticity in the developing ocular dominance columns of the visual cortex, including nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, calcium calmodulin kinase, and metabotropic glutamate receptors. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL FUNCTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Kiorpes, Lynne; Associate Professor; Center for Neural Science; New York University 15 Washington Place New York, Ny 10003 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-1985; Project End 31-DEC-2003 Summary: Our goal is to characterize the biological basis of the visual deficits in amblyopia, a developmental disorder of CNS origin. Human amblyopes have many visual abnormalities, ranging from local spatial interactions to deficits in global form and motion perception. We will measure these deficits psychophysically in macaque monkeys made amblyopic by artificial strabismus or anisometropia in early life, and then study these monkeys in neurophysiological and neuroanatomical experiments to establish the basis of their altered vision. To explore local spatial interactions, we will study the effects of flanking targets on contrast detection and alignment thresholds for well-localized stimuli, and compare the range of spatial interaction for normal observers and amblyopes. To explore longer-range perceptual effects, we will study the ability of normal and amblyopic monkeys to extract coherent features and forms from fields of randomly arrayed targets, and measure large-scale alignment acuity using collinear targets. To understand the development of pattern vision, we will also study the performance of normal infant monkeys on these feature detection tasks. To probe mechanisms of global visual integration, we will study the ability of amblyopic monkeys to utilize global form and motion cues in random-dot motion discrimination, and in Glass pattern discrimination. Some spatial localization and feature integration deficits in amblyopes may depend on the disruption of local and long-range horizontal connections in primary visual cortex, VI, while others may reflect changes in neural organization in extrastriate areas. We will conduct initial neurophysiological and neuroanatomical experiments in areas V1 and V2 of the amblyopic monkeys to explore these changes; later work may involve higher cortical areas. Physiological measurements will determine the range and scope of lateral spatial interactions in cortical receptive fields, and will explore the sensitivity of cortical neurons to long-range form and motion cues. Anatomical studies will visualize and analyze the structure of intra- and inter-areal connections thought to underlie lateral interaction and integration.
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The results should clarify the nature and basis of the visual abnormalities in amblyopia, and also illuminate higher-level visual processing in normal individuals. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: DEVELOPMENTAL REGULATION OF GLUTAMATE RECEPTOR FUNCTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Constantine-Paton, Martha C.; Professor of Biology; Biology; Massachusetts Institute of Technology Room E19-750 Cambridge, Ma 02139 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 08-AUG-1994; Project End 30-JUN-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): The long-term objective of this proposal is to understand mechanisms of visual system plasticity. Such knowledge may prove vital to the prevention of amblyopia and the loss of stereopsis as well as to the restoration of vision following trauma or stroke. Visual system synaptic plasticity involves the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptor (NR), which is scaffolded by proteins that also interact with other glutamate receptors. A recent hypothesis is that two distinct protein complexes, consisting of NRs with different subunit compositions, NRscaffolding proteins (MAGUKs), and signaling proteins, are trafficked differently in response to visual system activity and mediate distinct glutamate-induced changes at developing synapses: an early system carries NRs enriched in the NR2B subunit and associated trafficking and signaling molecules; in response to light and eye- opening (EO), this system is replaced by a scaffolding complex with a different trafficking system and carrying NR2A-enriched NRs. To test this hypothesis, the proposed experiments focus on the superficial visual layers of the superior colliculus, which allow electrophysiological studies of changes in glutamate receptor function and synaptic refinement as well as biochemical studies of changes in synaptic protein complexes that may underlie these physiological changes. Specific Aim I is to use coimmunoprecipitation experiments to determine if the postulated receptor-MAGUKtrafficking complexes exist in vivo when they are proposed to act in synaptic competition and refinement. Specific Aim II is to determine if specific responses to EO are tightly linked to high dendritic levels of PSD-95. PSD-95 is the MAGUK protein that scaffolds the mature NR complex and that translocates to synaptic regions in response to EO. Anatomical studies will determine if new currents induced by EO are a consequence of dendritic sprouting, which has been associated with PSD-95-bound proteins. Whole-cell patch-clamping will test for a tight correlation between dendritic PSD-95 and refinement by asking if refinement is lost once PSD-95 is reduced to pre-EO levels after eye re-closure. Specific Aim III is to use NR2A knock-out and PSD-95 knockout mice to attempt to directly test the hypothesis that the PSD-95/NR complex is critical to synaptic refinement and to glutamate current changes that occur in response to EO. Specific Aim IV is to construct a hybrid NR2B/NR2A NR subunit that will allow a determination of the extent to which the biological roles of PSD-95 depend on its ability to localize specific NRs at the synapse as opposed to its ability to stimulate PSD95-mediated signal transduction. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF ADULT VISUAL CORTEX--ROLE OF NO Principal Investigator & Institution: Friedlander, Michael J.; Professor and Chairperson; Neurobiology; University of Alabama at Birmingham Uab Station Birmingham, Al 35294 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUL-1984; Project End 30-NOV-2003
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Summary: (Adapted from applicant's abstract): The visual areas of the cerebral cortex of humans and other mammals are known to be highly susceptible to environmental factors during critical periods of postnatal development. Thus, various types of peripheral insult such as unequal binocular vision due to ptosis, congenital cataracts, unequal ammetropia or strabismus in addition to traumatic injury or eye infection during postnatal development can lead to permanent deficits in cortical processing of retinal output. The adult visual cortex was thought to be less susceptible to peripheral effects and less able to functionally reorganize in an adaptive way. However, recent evidence suggests that the adult visual cortex is capable of functional reorganization-both transient and permanent. A recently discovered molecule, nitric oxide (NO), that is made by neurons in the adult visual cortex, has been suggested to play a role in modulating the efficiency of chemical synaptic communication. We have previously demonstrated that up-regulation of the brain's endogenous NO-synthesis in the adult feline primary visual cortex amplifies the visual responses and enhances signal detection by individual neurons in response to suprathreshold visual stimuli presented monocularly. However, the effects of NO on binocular integration and threshold sensitivity are not known. Moreover, nothing is known regarding the potential capacity for NO to modulate response in monocularly visually derived animals (a model for amblyopia in human). Thus, we plan to investigate in quantitative fashion, the effects of endogenously synthesized NO on monocular contrast response functions, contrast threshold, response reliability, and binocular integration by individual neurons in the normal adult and amblyoptic monocularly deprived cat. To accomplish this, we will drifting randomly, interleaved sine-wave grating stimuli in conjunction with multibarrel iontophoresis of endogenous NO up-and/or down-regulating compounds and extracellular single-unit recording to locally modify the NO environment in cortex while evaluating cells' visual responses. We will also utilize a new family of fluorescent dyes that detect NO production from neurons in vitro to characterize their functional properties and anatomical relationship to ocular dominance column (in normal adult cats and rats and monocularly visually deprived cats), in vitro. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF VISUAL CORTICAL CIRCUITS Principal Investigator & Institution: Hirsch, Judith A.; Professor; Biological Sciences; University of Southern California 2250 Alcazar Street, Csc-219 Los Angeles, Ca 90033 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUL-1993; Project End 30-JUN-2004 Summary: (Adapted From The Applicant's Abstract): How does the synaptic physiology of the cortical microcircuit regulate signal detection in striate cortical neurons? To approach this broad issue we analyze the synaptic basis of neuronal response structures at successive cortical stages and the connections that convey information from one cortical level to the next. The work is made possible by the advance of whole-cell recording in vivo, a technique that gives a highly resolved view of the postsynaptic events evoked during vision and allows intracellular staining of single neurons. AIM 1) The push-pull model of the simple receptive field holds that signals of reverse contrast have the opposite effect: bright stimuli presented to an on subregion evoke firing, whereas dark ones reduce activity. Two mechanisms have been proposed to account for the pull. One is passive withdrawal of excitation from the thalamus; the other is pharmacological analyses of the visual response. Further, we will determine if the pushpull model fully accounts for the spatial distribution of excitation and inhibition in the simple receptive field and if it predicts orientation tuning. AIM 2) Why do many complex cells respond poorly to the same stimuli that drive simple cells well? Our
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hypothesis is that the successive cortical stages employ different sets of synaptic mechanisms to regulate stimulus selectivity. If true, then complex cells that receive direct thalamic input should have response structures different from those of cells outside thalamic reach. This prediction is tested by comparing responses of cells in layer 4 with those in layer 2+3 to the same stereotyped stimulus. The anatomical substrate for information transfer from the first to second cortical stage is determined by labeling the connections extending from layer 4 to 2+3. A knowledge of how the brain operates in the everyday situation provides a standard against which to judge changes that occur in the course of various disorders, as well as a model system on which to test drugs developed to treat illness. From this perspective, the visual cortex is an obvious site to study; its function and anatomy are better resolved than any other cortical region. A deeper understanding of cortical synaptic mechanisms provides insight into processes that go awry during disease. For example, the work proposed here bears directly on a central theme in research on amblyopia, the examination of how abnormal visual experience leads to changes in central processing. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT GLUR TRAFFICKING IN VISUAL CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Quinlan, Elizabeth M.; Biology; University of Maryland College Pk Campus College Park, Md 20742 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-FEB-2002; Project End 31-JAN-2005 Summary: Despite the importance of visual experience in the normal and pathological development of the visual cortex, the molecular mechanisms by which visual activity induces long-lasting changes in the function of cortical synapses have not been defined. The highly modifiable synapses between excitatory neurons in the mammalian visual cortex use glutamate as a neurotransmitter. As the primary effectors of synaptic glutamate release, changes in the number and/or function of post-synaptic glutamate receptors (GluRs) are likely to dramatically effect synaptic strength. This proposal uses binocular and monocular deprivation paradigms to regulate the strength of synaptic connections in the rat visual cortex, and tests the hypothesis that an experience-induced increase in synaptic strength is mediated by delivery of GluRs, while a deprivationinduced decrease in synaptic strength is due to the removal of synaptic GluRs. Analysis of GluR levels is performed in synatoneurosomes, a subcellular fraction which is enriched for intact, metabolically active glutamatergic synapses. The power of this procedure is revealed by the observation that levels of synaptoneurosomal GluRs are highly correlated with changes in the physiological and pharmacological response properties of synaptic GluRs, and in fact are highly predictive of changes in synaptic strength. The role of synaptic protein synthesis in the long-term experience- dependent maintenance of synaptic GluR levels will also be examined in vivo, and in isolated metabolically active synaptic profiles in vitro. Bidirectional, activity-dependent control of synaptic GluR composition would represent a novel mechanism for the regulation of synaptic efficacy in the developing visual cortex, and identify potential targets (GluR or GluR trafficking proteins) for pharmacological intervention, especially in the case of severe, therapy-resistant amblyopia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: EXTRASTRIATE VISUAL CORTEX DEFICITS IN AMBLYOPIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Wong, Erwin H.; Optometry; University of California Berkeley Berkeley, Ca 947205940
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Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-FEB-2002; Project End 31-DEC-2006 Summary: (Candidate's Abstract) The overall goal of this application is to develop research skills for independent patient-oriented (clinical and fundamental) investigations through (a) didactic courses, (b) special studies and (c) intensive supervised research. The candidate for this K23 award has completed 2 years of Ph.D. training in physiological optics and vision science, and is conducting psychophysical research on amblyopia with Dr. Dennis Levi. The specific training aims are to develop research skills and experience in (1) psychophysics, (2) computational vision, and (3) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Amblyopia is a major cause of vision loss in infants and young children. Amblyopia results in well-documented losses in detection of luminance defined patterns that reflect abnormalities in primary visual cortex (VI). The Levi lab has recently shown losses in detection of contrast defined (second-order) patterns, which are widely believed to be processed in early extrastriate visual cortex (V2). The specific research aims test hypotheses about the mechanisms of these second-order spatial losses in amblyopia. Is the V2 loss associated with (la) loss of binocularity, abnormalities in (1b) compressive non-linearity, (1c) contrast gain control, (1d) long-range interactions, and (le) predictable by a quantitative model? Are abnormal mechanism(s) explained by (2) reduced second-order neuron population in V2? The research design includes psychophysical experiments (aims la - ld), computational modeling and simulation (aim le), and brain functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (aim 2) on normal and amblyopic human adults. Understanding amblyopia and its neural basis may lead to improved diagnosis and treatment. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: AMBLYOPIA
FUNCTIONAL
MAGNETIC
RESONANCE
IMAGING
OF
Principal Investigator & Institution: Mendola, Janine D.; Professor; West Virginia University P. O. Box 6845 Morgantown, Wv 265066845 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002 Summary: Amybylopia is a developmental visual disorder, usually involving poor acuity in one eye, that affects 2% of Americans. Amybylopia has been well studied behaviorally in humans, and animal models of Amybylopia have been developed. However, little is known about the human neural substrates and mechanisms that underlie the disorder. This lack of neural characterization of amybylopia severely hinders our efforts to provide a treatment or cure. Our long-term goal is to develop a comprehensive treatment strategy for children and adults diagnosed with the two types of amybylopia, called anisometropic and strabismic. The objective of this application will be to characterize the functional anatomy of visual cortex in subjects with amblyopia, and assess the effects of a pharmacological treatment, levodopa, on visual processing, and the utility of levodopa and behavioral training as possible treatments. Our central hypothesis is that amblyopia is associated with abnormal patterns of neural activity in the visual areas of cerebral cortex, and possibly other brain regions, that are detected during specific visual tasks measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The rationale for this hypothesis is that visual functions are severely degraded in amblyopia and may correlate with abnormal activation of particular visual areas. Once we characterize the pathophysiology of amybylopia we can strategically develop rehabilitation methods. Our team offers a rare combination of expertise in fMRI, clinical visual assessment, and medical treatment of eye disorders. Our methods are appropriate for describing this heterogeneous disorder because we produce detailed maps of brain activation in individual subjects. This project is innovative because we
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will apply a powerful, non-invasive tool to a prevalent visual impairment to create treatment regimes tailored to individual subjects. This project will also significantly advance the body of knowledge on the functional development of the immature visual system. In the future, we expect that each subjects behavior and drug treatment will be modified based on the degree to which fMRI activity patterns are normalized. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: HIGH SPATIAL FREQUENCY FEATURE ACUITY IN HUMAN VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Klein, Stanley A.; Professor; None; University of California Berkeley Berkeley, Ca 947205940 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUL-1987; Project End 31-MAR-2004 Summary: ( applicant's abstract): Our broad goal is to develop a four stage computational model of spatial vision, based on plausible physiological mechanisms, that predict the performance of normal foveal and peripheral vision, as well as the visual deficits associated with amblyopia. There is a great diversity of masking effects not handled by present models. One limitation of most current models is that they overlook retinal front-end effects and second order effects, such as texture processing. Another major limitation of current models is their reliance on fixed cortical spatial filters, followed by a primitive decision stage. Rather than inventing exotic spatial filters to account for unexplainable data, we suggest that a more parsimonious explanation, based on decision stage limits, can account for much of the data. The six aims of the proposal are organized into three categories: Modelfest: To enhance cross-fertilization among vision modelers, we have organized the Modelfest group. Modelfest is a new approach to modeling that involves the sharing of resources, learning from each other's success and providing a method to cross validate proposed models. Modelfest also facilitates interactions between vision science and medical imaging researchers, two groups with very different approaches to modeling. This interaction has already benefited us on decision stage issues. Our goal is to continue organizing, administering and promoting the group so that progress on vision modeling accelerates (Aim 1). Fourstage model: Current general purpose vision models virtually ignore several important stages of visual processing. We have developed several innovative methods to characterize processing at four stages, from early retinal processes to late decision stage variables. The proposed experiments will be used to define the computational model structure and to set the parameters at each stage. (Aims 2-5) Amblyopia and peripheral vision: Many of the stimuli used to develop the four stage model will also be used to test amblyopes and peripheral vision to determine the stages at which the peripheral and amblyopic visual systems differ from normal foveal vision. Wile past work has focused on early stage differences, there are now indications that some of the losses are taking place at later stages where information is integrated. The experimental results will be used to extend our model of spatial vision so that it predicts the visual losses associated with amblyopic and peripheral vision. (Aim 6) Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: HOMEOSTATIC PLASTICITY IN DEVELOPING VISUAL CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Turrigiano, Gina G.; Associate Professor; Biology; Brandeis University 415 South Street Waltham, Ma 024549110 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JUL-2003; Project End 30-JUN-2008
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Summary: Sensory experience plays an important role in refining the connectivity of primary visual cortex, but the identity of the synaptic plasticity mechanisms that contribute to this refinement are still under debate. Most research has concentrated on the role of correlation-based plasticity mechanisms such as LTP and LTD, but these mechanisms are highly destabilizing and are unlikely to be sufficient to explain all of activity-dependent development. Using cultured cortical networks we identified a novel form of homeostatic synaptic plasticity that scales excitatory and inhibitory synaptic strengths up and down in the correct direction to stabilize the activity of cortical networks, and more recently we have demonstrated a similar phenomenon in vivo. Here we propose to examine the role of this homeostatic synaptic scaling in experiencedependent plasticity in vivo using a classic sensory deprivation paradigm, monocular deprivation (MD) and binocular deprivation (BD) using lid suture. MD and BD have been used extensively to study activity-dependent plasticity, but the effects of these manipulations on intracortical circuitry have never been probed in detail. We will approach this problem by manipulating activity in rodent visual cortex through MD and DR, then cutting slices of primary visual cortex and obtaining whole-cell recordings to measure quantal currents and paired synaptic transmission. We will ask whether the quantal currents for excitatory and inhibitory synapses are scaled in the opposite direction in response to altered visual input, whether this scaling displays critical periods as do other forms of activity-dependent plasticity, and whether the rules for synaptic scaling are specific for particular classes of excitatory and inhibitory inputs. These experiments will lay an important foundation for understanding the detailed changes in cortical circuitry that arise as a result of altered sensory experience, and will have important implications for the mechanisms of visual abnormalities such as amblyopia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: IMAGING FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY IN VISUAL CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Yuste, Rafael; Assistant Professor; Biological Sciences; Columbia Univ New York Morningside 1210 Amsterdam Ave, Mc 2205 New York, Ny 10027 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JAN-1998; Project End 31-DEC-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): The neocortex constitutes the larger part of the brain in mammals and is the primary site of mental functions. No unitary theory of how the cortex works exists. Nevertheless, the basic structure of the cortex develops in stereotyped fashion, is similar in different parts of the cortex and in different mammals, and has not changed much in evolution since its appearance. Because of this, it is conceivable that a "canonical" cortical microcircuit may exist and implement a basic algorithm. Anatomical and physiological studies have suggested that the synaptic connectivity of the cortical microcircuitry is complex, but not random. In the previous cycle of the award we developed an optical method using calcium imaging of slices, to track excitatory circuits in neocortical slices. With this "optical probing" method we have reconstructed synaptic circuits in layer 5 from mouse primary visual cortex (V1) and have discovered extraordinary target specificity in several projections from layer 5 pyramidal neurons. These circuits were precise and identical in different animals suggesting that the neocortex is indeed built out of scores of precise circuits with dedicated junctions. For this next cycle we propose a "frontal attack" on the cortical microcircuitry of mouse V1 using a large-scale optical probing effort with the goal to achieve a relatively complete reconstruction of the inter- and intralaminar excitatory circuitry. We will test whether the precision found in layer 5 applies to other neocortical
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excitatory connections, as well as search for general rules in this circuit diagram. Our second goal is to test whether there are indeed canonical microcircuits, by reconstructing layer 5 circuits in mouse somatosensory cortex (S1) and compare them with those in V1. In these experiments we will use transgenic mice strains that express GFP in subpopulations of neurons, a novel two-photon stimulation method that enables us to stimulate at will any neuron in the field of view, and exploratory microarray studies to find clusters of genes specifically expressed on subtypes of cortical cells. These basic studies will shed light on the structure of the functional units of the cortex and contribute to build bridges between system and cellular, molecular and biophysical level studies of visual cortex. In addition, they will help understand the central pathophysiological consequences of amblyopia and strabismus and improve analysis of visual evoked potentials and early diagnosis of visual pathologies. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: INFORMATION TRANSFER FROM LGN TO PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Van Hooser, Stephen D.; Biology; Brandeis University 415 South Street Waltham, Ma 024549110 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JUL-2003; Project End 30-JUN-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): In the mammalian visual system, signals are relayed from the retina to the primary visual cortex (V1) via the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). Over the past 30 years, three main cell types with very different properties have been identified in the LGN: parvocellular, magnocellular, and koniocellular. How do V1 cells interpret spike trains from different types of LGN cells? We propose experiments to explore the synaptic physiology of connections from LGN to V1. In one set of experiments, we will record action potentials from many individual cells in the squirrel LGN using tetrodes, and record from single units in V1 using conventional electrodes. We will fully characterize the physiological properties of the LGN and V1 cells in response to natural input, and look for evidence of monosynaptic connections using cross-correlation techniques. We will see if LGN cells only contact V1 cells with similar properties or if the connections are diffuse. In a second line of experiments, we will record many LGN cells using tetrodes and will make whole cell (intracellular) recordings in V1. We will fully characterize the LGN and V1 cells, and, using spiketriggered averaging, we will look for monosynaptic connections between the LGN and V1 cells. Finally, we will characterize the synaptic dynamics of these connections. Understanding the transfer of information from LGN to V1 will aid in understanding developmental diseases such as amblyopia, and understanding how cortical cells function will aid in understanding many diseases or injuries of the cortex such as Alzheimer's and stroke, and this knowledge will inspire treatments for these ailments. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: LIMITING FACTORS IN NORMAL AND AMBLYOPIC SPATIAL VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Levi, Dennis M.; Professor; None; University of California Berkeley Berkeley, Ca 947205940 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-MAY-1976; Project End 30-NOV-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): Amblyopia is a major cause of vision loss in young children (Sachsenweger, 1968). Although amblyopia is thought to reflect alterations in the neuronal properties of Vi, recent work suggests that amblyopes may have higher
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Amblyopia
level deficits, abnormalities in grouping processes and long-range interactions, and previously unsuspected neural plasticity. We propose to test a number of specific hypotheses about the contributions of each of these factors in limiting spatial vision in amblyopic vision, and to assess the limits and mechanisms of neural plasticity in the spatial vision of adults and children with amblyopia. Aim 1. Abnormal long- and shortrange interactions in Amblyopia. Spatial interactions are a critical feature of spatial vision, which serve to sharpen perception of form, and enable features to be grouped into forms. Spatial interactions can be both facilitory and inhibitory, and are thought to have their neural basis in lateral interconnections in the visual nervous system (Gilbert, 1998). Several important recent empirical and theoretical developments provide impetus for a new understanding of spatial interactions (including abnormal crowding and grouping) in amblyopia, and to test a novel theory placing the neural abnormality in amblyopia at the level of integrative (grouping) processes. Aim 2. High level deficits in Amblyopia. The main site of the deficit in amblyopia is thought to be the primary visual cortex (Vi). Our recent work suggests that strabismic amblyopes may also have higher level deficits. We propose to explore and assess the generality and implications of this surprising result, to develop a quantitative model for normal and amblyopic counting, and to test several specific hypotheses about the nature and locus of these high level deficits. Aim 3. Neural Plasticity in Amblyopia. Our pilot data suggest a high degree of neural plasticity in some adults with amblyopia. We propose to assess the time course limits and mechanisms of this plasticity in both adults, and young children (three and up) with amblyopia. In particular, our hypothesis is that the improvement that occurs following successful treatment of amblyopia is a result of boosting the brain's ability to extract the relevant information (improved efficiency) by strengthening the weighting of appropriate channels, and reducing input from irrelevant channels (noise exclusion), similar to improvements that occur in normal vision following perceptual learning. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: MECHANISMS OF VISUAL PLASTICITY Principal Investigator & Institution: Ramoa, Ary S.; Professor; Anesthesiology; Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Va 232980568 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-1998; Project End 30-JUL-2005 Summary: (adapted from applicant's abstract): Degradation of the visual characterized by a decrease of visual acuity that cannot be improved by corrective lenses. Amblyopia is relatively common in the general population and constitutes a major cause of visual disability. In this condition, connections relaying information from the deprived eye to the visual cortex withdraw and connections relaying information from the experienced eye expand, with most cortical neurons responding only to stimulation of the experienced eye. As a consequence, visual function mediated by the deprived eye can be completely and irreversibly lost. Recovery of binocular function can be obtained, however, if normal visual stimulation to the deprived eye is restored promptly after deprivation has been initiated. In view of the substantial scientific and clinical relevance of these types of neural plasticity, there is an urgent need to elucidate the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms. Neurophysiological activity involving the Nmethyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) type of glutamate receptor is thought to be required for the loss of connections from the deprived eye. The prevailing hypothesis is that the voltagedependent magnesium blockade of the NMDA receptor enables it to act as a correlation detector. Inputs from the non-deprived eye that can drive correlated pre-and postsynaptic activity are strengthened, while synaptic inputs from the deprived eye that
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exhibit uncorrelated firing with the post-synaptic cell are lost. In addition, calcium influx through the NMDA receptor associated channel regulates intracellular kinases that activate the transcription factor cAMP/Calcium-dependent response element binding protein (CREB). Although this cascade of events has provided a framework for understanding the mechanisms of cortical plasticity, several important questions have remained unanswered concerning the role of NMDA receptors and CREB in ocular dominance plasticity: I) do NMDA receptors function as correlation detectors in ocular dominance plasticity? ii) is activation of CREB required for the loss of cortical binocularity during monocular deprivation?, iii) do NMDA receptors have a function in recovery of cortical binocularity following re-establishment of visual stimulation to the deprived eye?, and iv) what function does CREB have in recovery of cortical binocularity? The proposed studies will use molecular-genetic manipulations to answer these important questions. Antisense reagents will be used to reduce expression of individual genes, and viral mediated gene transfer will be used to induce overexpression of individual genes or expression of mutated genes in the visual cortex. Use of these complementary techniques will provide a new and exciting opportunity to examine the molecular mechanisms of loss and recovery of visual cortical function. Collectively the results of the proposed studies will place us in a position to start tracing the sequence of molecular events leading to loss and recovery of cortical function in monocular deprivation amblyopia. A better understanding of these mechanisms should provide specific targets to develop novel therapeutic approaches in the treatment of amblyopia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: MODELS OF CORRELATION BASED NEURAL DEVELOPMENT Principal Investigator & Institution: Miller, Kenneth D.; Professor; Physiology; University of California San Francisco 500 Parnassus Ave San Francisco, Ca 941222747 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-1994; Project End 31-MAR-2004 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's abstract): Many aspects of the later stages of neural development are guided by neuronal activity. Guidance is given both by intrinsic patterns of activity, before and after birth, and by activity resulting from experience after birth. Theoretical studies will address the role of activity-dependent mechanisms in the development of the mammalian primary visual cortex. Such cortical mechanisms appear to play an important role in many aspects of human health, including visual disorders such as strabismus and amblyopia, as well as recovery and reorganization of visual function after retinal lesions. The theoretical studies will address the following specific questions in the development of the primary visual cortex: (1) The relationships that may develop between the maps of retinotopy, ocular dominance, orientation, disparity, and other cortical receptive field properties such as preferred spatial frequency and spatial phase, and the relationships among these properties that develop in individual receptive fields, when inputs of four types (ON-center and OFF-center from the left and right eyes) compete to innervate a two-dimensional cortical layer representing layer 4 of primary visual cortex; (2) The relationships that develop between the receptive fields of excitatory and inhibitory neurons when both types of neurons are included, with realistic connectivity, in the model of the layer 4 circuit; (3) The effects on these relationships of simultaneous plasticity of intracortical, as well as, feedforward synapses, and of more realistic models of synaptic plasticity and competition motivated by recent experimental work. In all of these studies, the goal will be to characterize the different possible developmental outcomes that may result under activity-dependent, correlation-based mechanisms of synaptic plasticity, and to determine the
22
Amblyopia
experimentally measurable and manipulable factors that will determine the actual outcome, if such mechanisms underlie development. This will provide a basis for experimental tests of the hypothesis that such mechanisms underlie the studied phenomena, and ultimately for improvements of related human health problems, such as strabismus, amblyopia, and retinal lesions. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: MULTIETHNIC PEDIATRIC EYE DISEASE STUDY (MEPEDS) Principal Investigator & Institution: Varma, Rohit; Professor; Ophthalmology; University of Southern California 2250 Alcazar Street, Csc-219 Los Angeles, Ca 90033 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2002; Project End 29-SEP-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): Vision disorders such as strabismus, amblyopia and refractive error are the leading causes of handicapping conditions in childhood. Over the past decade, there is an increasing amount of evidence that suggest that early diagnosis and treatment of these ocular disorders can result in beneficial outcomes. Indeed, early detection and treatment is critical because it can decrease the burden of visual impairment on the child, her/his family and the society at large. This has lead to widespread interest in screening programs. However, despite the wealth of knowledge regarding early treatment, very little evidence exists on the prevalence of vision disorders in children. Additionally, almost no evidence exists on minority populations. The primary objective of this study, the Multi-Ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study (MEPEDS) is to improve our understanding of the magnitude and causes of ocular disease problems in population based samples of African-American, Latino and NonHispanic White children in the United States. A population-based sample of three thousand children from each of the three ethnic/racial groups will undergo a comprehensive eye examination to determine the prevalence of refractive error, strabismus and amblyopia. MEPEDS will also be studying selected demographic, biological and behavioral risk factors associated with these diseases and the consequences of these diseases from a health related quality of life perspective. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: NEURAL DEVELOPMENT
AND
HORMONAL
PATHWAYS
IN
OCULAR
Principal Investigator & Institution: Howland, Howard C.; Professor; Neurobiology and Behavior; Cornell University Ithaca Office of Sponsored Programs Ithaca, Ny 14853 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUL-1979; Project End 31-MAY-2004 Summary: (Adapted from Applicant's Abstract): This grant addresses aspects of the general question: how do neural and hormonal pathways work together to establish regulation of refraction and growth of both eyes during early postnatal development? These pathways are important in coordinating development of eye movements, eye size, refraction and emmetropization. As such, their investigation is of singular importance in understanding the genesis of refractive error, strabismus, and amblyopia in humans. This study is particularly focused on the regulation of growth of the anterior segment of the eye. Using the chick model we will 1a) determine if the signal responsible for protection from constant light effects (flattened cornea, shallow anterior chamber & hyperopia) is a periodic increase in melatonin concentration, and investigate the causal chain linking illumination and melatonin concentrations; 1b) determine whether the elongation of the vitreous chamber in constant light results from emmetropization growth, induced by the hyperopia that is caused by the flattening of the cornea; 1c)
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investigate the role of autonomic effects on the growth of the anterior segment; 2) investigate the light-dependent growth influences of one eye on another by various manipulations including optic nerve section, selective retinal cell destruction by drugs, and the generation of unilaterally micro-ophthalmic chicks. 3) investigate the mode of coupling of the light dark cycle to the circadian melatonin rhythm with the aid of mathematical models. Behavioral, surgical, biochemical, histological, and mathematical methods will be employed to answer these questions. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: NEURAL BASIS OF VISUAL PATTERN APPEARANCE Principal Investigator & Institution: Heeger, David J.; Associate Professor; Psychology; New York University 15 Washington Place New York, Ny 10003 Timing: Fiscal Year 2004; Project Start 01-JAN-1998; Project End 30-NOV-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): Over the past few years, we have come to learn that early visual cortex does not act as a passive image processing machine simply devoted to representing bottom up sensory signals. Rather, the bottom-up sensory signals in visual cortex interact with strong top-down signals related to attention and working memory, so that the neural substrates of visual perception involve recurrent interactions among early visual areas including primary visual cortex (V1) and a number of widely separated cortical areas in the temporal parietal and frontal lobes. The proposed experiments aim to measure the neuronal correlates of perception, attention, and working memory, and then to characterize how these three processes interact to drive perceptual decisions. Aim 1 will use a combination of psychophysics, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and evoked potentials to measure and characterize the activity in early visual cortex that is correlated with perception during a visual detection task, and to test the hypothesis that this precept-related activity derives from a combination of bottom-up and top-down signals. Aim 2 will use psychophysics (contrast detection) and fMRI to study the neuronal correlates of attention in early visual cortex, first to test the hypothesis that the attentional signals in early visual cortex are involved in the maintenance of sustained attention, and second to test the hypothesis that trial-to-trial correlation between performance and cortical activity is driven by trialto-trial variability in uncertainty. Aim 3 will use psychophysics (threshold-difficulty contrast and spatial frequency discrimination tasks that involve comparing two stimuli that ate separated in time by a delay period) and fMRI to test the hypothesis that early visual cortex plays a role in visual working memory. We will explore two alternative possible roles for early visual cortex in working memory. First, early visual areas might exhibit sustained delay-period activity implying that visual cortex is involved in holding the memory itself. Second, if these areas do not exhibit sustained delay period activity, they may nonetheless be reactivated at the end of the delay period, suggesting that they are involved in comparing the incoming sensory signals with the memory of a previously presented stimulus. Although these experiments will focus on understanding visual processing n subjects with normal vision, the knowledge gained about the function of human visual cortex and the experimental protocols that will be developed will both be directly applicable to the study of visual deficits including amblyopia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: NEURAL BASIS OF VISUAL SUPPRESSION IN STRABISMICS Principal Investigator & Institution: Economides, John R.; Ophthalmology; University of California San Francisco 500 Parnassus Ave San Francisco, Ca 941222747
24
Amblyopia
Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 30-MAR-2004; Project End 29-MAR-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): This project is focused on the clinical problem of strabismus. The macaque monkey will be used as an experimental model to examine the underlying mechanisms of strabismus. In children with strabismus, the image from the deviated eye is suppressed. The mechanism whereby this suppression occurs is unknown. This proposal probes the psychophysical, physiological and anatomical basis of visual suppression in awake behaving monkeys raised with strabismus. After measurement of fixation preference and acuity in strabismic monkeys, areas of suppression in the visual field will be mapped under binocular conditions. Electrophysiological recordings will then be performed to determine how single cell activity in regions ofcortex corresponding to suppression scotomas is modulated by changes in ocular fixation. Subsequent anatomical experiments will correlate local levels of metabolic activity, reflected by cytochrome oxidase histochemistry in ocular dominance columns, with suppression scotomas. Taken together, it is hoped that this approach, the first using a conscious macaque model in strabismus, will shed light on this important clinical problem. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: NEURAL CIRCUITS AND FUNCTION IN PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Callaway, Edward M.; Associate Professor; Salk Institute for Biological Studies 10010 N Torrey Pines Rd La Jolla, Ca 920371099 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-SEP-1995; Project End 30-JUN-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): Visual perception is mediated by complex interactions amongst neurons in the retina, visual cortex and subcortical brain structures. The importance of vision to humans and other primates is reflected in the enormous percentage of cerebral cortex devoted to processing visual information. Thus, deficits in visual processing are particularly debilitating and arise from abnormalities not only in the eye, but also in cortical circuitry. For example, strabismus or amblyopia during childhood can have long-lasting effects on the cortical circuits that process visual information. There is also evidence that some forms of dyslexia result from central visual system abnormalities. The proposed studies are aimed at understanding the organization and function of neural circuits to and within the primary visual cortex (Vl), with the broader objective of contributing to understanding how neural circuits mediate the computations that underlie visual perception. In particular, these studies aim to identify: 1) the detailed functional organization of afferent input from the LGN to V1; 2) the functional connectivity between excitatory neurons and distinct types of inhibitory neurons in V1 and how these circuits relate to the functional organization of V1; 3) how the in vivo visual response properties of individual, identified neurons correlate with the connectivity of these same cell types, as revealed by our previous and ongoing in vitro studies. These goals will be achieved by: 1) directly recording visual responses from the terminal arbors of LGN afferents in V1, 2) using a combination of anatomical and physiological methods in living in vitro brain slice preparations; 3) recording visual responses of V1 neurons and labeling them with dye to correlate anatomically distinct cell types with function. In vitro brain slice studies will use scanning laser photostimulation to reveal the sources of local functional input to individual inhibitory neurons in V1. The same cells will be intracellularly labeled, stained with antibodies, and their intrinsic membrane properties assessed; the combined physiological and anatomical approach allows the identification of functional input sources to cells whose outputs and physiology are also characterized. The proposed studies will allow an
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unprecedented view of visual cortical circuits - they will reveal the detailed functional connectivity of neurons in visual cortex and how these circuits relate to the functional properties of the component neurons. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: NEURAL ACCOMMODATION
CONTROL
OF
VERGENCE
AND
OCULAR
Principal Investigator & Institution: Gamlin, Paul D.; Physiological Optics; University of Alabama at Birmingham Uab Station Birmingham, Al 35294 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-1989; Project End 31-MAR-2005 Summary: Vergence eye movements are required to foveate an object of interest located either behind or in front of the current fixation point. In addition, appropriate ocular accommodation is required to bring this object into focus. Problems with these eye movements may result in insufficient or excessive vergence and ocular accommodation. Furthermore, the inability to converge or diverge the eyes appropriately may result in strabismus, which can often lead to amblyopia in children. Unfortunately, very little is currently known about the areas of the brain involved in controlling these eye movements or about the sensorimotor transformations that are required for their neural control. Therefore, the long-term objectives of the proposed experiments are to obtain a better understanding of the neural circuits and sensorimotor transformations underlying these eye movements. Recently, a region of the prearcuate cortex immediately anterior to the frontal eye fields has been reported by us to contain neurons related to vergence and accommodation (near-response and far-response neurons) and neurons related to the visual cues that drive these eye movements such as disparity and blur. Identification of this cortical area is a significant step forward and, this application proposes to more closely examine its role in controlling vergence and accommodation. Specifically, experiments will examine the responses of neurons in this region of prearcuate cortex to the major visual cues for vergence and accommodation such as disparity and blur, as well as their responses to specific motion-in-depth cues. The visual responses of these neurons to static and motion-in-depth cyclopean targets will also be examined. The motor responses of these neurons will be studied during those vergence and accommodative eye movements required to look between stationary targets at different depths, and during those that are required to track targets moving in depth. To examine the characteristic of the vergence and accommodation signals sent to pontine regions by these prearcuate neurons, they will be antidromically activated from the nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis, which possesses a well-defined vergence and accommodation region. To examine the functional role of this prearcuate area in vergence and accommodative eye movements, it will be ablated both unilaterally and bilaterally. Based on smooth pursuit and saccadic deficits following frontal eye field lesions, deficits are predicted in the ability to track targets moving in depth and in the ability to perform movements to remembered targets at different depths, and potential deficits in these abilities will be specifically investigated. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: NEURAL MECHANISMS OF HUMAN VISUAL PERCEPTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Tong, Frank; Psychology; Princeton University 4 New South Building Princeton, Nj 085440036 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 15-SEP-2002; Project End 31-AUG-2005
26
Amblyopia
Summary: (provided by applicant): Human visual perception relies on both selective and constructive neural mechanisms to organize and to interpret visual information. The selectivity of perception can be seen in binocular rivalry, during which each eye views a different monocular pattern. Under these conditions, perception selectively alternates between one monocular image versus the other image every few seconds. Conversely, the constructive nature of perception may be best exemplified by perceptual filling-in of the blind spot in which vivid impressions occur in a visual location that lacks any input. Exactly how the brain mediates these complementary processes of perceptual selection and construction remains poorly understood. This project will use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the neural basis of binocular rivalry and perceptual filling-in within human visual cortex. Our central hypothesis is that selective perception during rivalry and constructive perception during filling-in involve separate neural mechanisms that operate at different levels of the visual system. To investigate these issues, we have developed special behavioral and fMRI techniques to localize the cortical representation of the blind spot quickly and reliably, in previous studies, we have shown that fMRI activity in the monocular VI representation of the blind spot is tightly linked to perceptual awareness during rivalry, suggesting that rivalry results from early competition between monocular VI neurons. In contrast, when we stimulate the retinal region immediately surrounding the blind spot, we find evidence of a "hole" in visual activity in Vi but not in V2, perhaps suggesting that perceptual filling-in occurs in higher visual areas such as V2. The proposed research will characterize the neural mechanisms and visual areas responsible for rivalry and filling-in. More important, it will address scientific debates regarding whether: i) binocular rivalry arises from interocular competition versus pattern competition, and ii) perceptual filling-in arises from active neural completion versus passive remapping of visual inputs. This project will advance our knowledge of the neural organization of selective and constructive mechanisms in human visual perception. Such research is important given that vision serves as a primary sense for acquiring information from the environment to guide judgments and actions. The proposed studies will not only address the neural basis of human visual perception but will also inform research on visual dysfunctions and neurological disorders, including strabismus, amblyopia (suppressed vision in one eye), and the neural consequences of visual-field loss resulting from retinal or cortical injury. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: NEURAL PROCESSES OF PATTERN VISION IN HUMAN INFANTS Principal Investigator & Institution: Skoczenski, Ann M.; Associate Professor of Psychiatry; Psychiatry; Univ of Massachusetts Med Sch Worcester Office of Research Funding Worcester, Ma 01655 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-MAY-2000; Project End 30-APR-2004 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's abstract): The goal of this project is to advance our understanding of the development of visual pattern sensitivity in human infants. Numerous and complex cues are available to judge spatial position in visual pattern elements; these cues include orientation, luminance contrast, temporal frequency, and spatial frequency. The proposed experiments are designed to determine the relative contributions of mechanisms sensitive to these different sources of information to infants' position sensitivity. The experiments will use an improved version of an established visual evoked potential (VEP) technique, and the most widely used test of position sensitivity, vernier acuity. The project will address the following questions: (1) What are the roles of spatiotemporal mechanisms in vernier acuity development? (2)
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Are vernier and grating acuity limited by different mechanisms? (3) What are the roles of orientation-sensitive filters in vernier acuity during development? Each experiment will measure different aspects of infants' VEP vernier responses during development, and compare these to adults' responses to determine the nature of the vernier response immaturity. Beyond analyzing the mechanisms of infant vernier acuity, the project will have potential value for clinical diagnosis. Vernier acuity is a more sensitive indicator than grating acuity of vision loss due to ambylopia. Specifically, vernier acuity is significantly more reliable than grating acuity in Snellen (letter chart) acuity in adult amblyopes. Vernier acuity is also selectively damaged in infants and children with cortical visual impairment. The proposed experiments on vernier acuity development will provide substantial normative data for designing new vision tests for infants at risk for amblyopia or cortical visual impairment. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: NORMAL AND ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT OF SPATIAL VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Norcia, Anthony M.; Scientist; Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute Research Institute San Francisco, Ca 94115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-DEC-1985; Project End 30-NOV-2004 Summary: (Adapted from Applicant's abstract): This proposal focuses on the normal and abnormal development of two mid-level feature integration mechanisms in human visual cortex. These mechanisms will be studied using a combination of psychophysical and non-invasive electrophysiological methods. The first Aim examines the integration of local orientation information along closed contours. Thresholds for contours embedded in noise will be measured in normally developing infants, visually mature patients with a history of amblyopia and in normal adults. The second Aim examines the integration of local motion signals into coherent global motions. Normally developing infants and patients with amblyopia will be studied. The extraction of local features appears to develop relatively early, but integration of features may emerge substantially later and at different times for different types of object-related information. Objective methods of characterizing feature integration mechanisms may provide a better description of the deficit in amblyopia than currently available measures of contrast sensitivity or resolution. These new measures may prove useful in the monitoring of the effectiveness of amblyopia treatment in pre-verbal populations. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: NOVEL IMMUNOTOXIN AND IGF THERAPY FOR STRABISMUS Principal Investigator & Institution: Mcloon, Linda K.; Associate Professor; Ophthalmology; University of Minnesota Twin Cities 200 Oak Street Se Minneapolis, Mn 554552070 Timing: Fiscal Year 2004; Project Start 01-JAN-2004; Project End 30-NOV-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): Strabismus is a common ophthalmologic problem, affecting between 2-5% of the population of preschool aged children in the U.S. It is manifested by a misalignment of the eyes and untreated results in amblyopia and permanent visual deficits. Many of these children require a surgical procedure for correction of their binocular alignment. The goal of this study is to develop pharmacologic treatments that will result in both muscle strengthening and muscle weakening. Current options include incisional surgery and botulinum toxin. Incisional surgery may be limited by induced scarring, altered muscle-globe dynamics, and disruption of extraocular muscle relationships with soft-tissue pulleys. These changes
28
Amblyopia
affect extraocular muscle function and may influence surgical outcomes. Botulinum toxin injection avoids most of these complications and has been used effectively for both childhood and adult strabismus. However, the treatment of congenital strabismus with botulinum toxin often yields inconsistent results, particularly where the initial deviation is large. The principle limitation of botulinum toxin injection is its relatively short duration of action. Ideally, injected agents should allow titratable adjustment of extraocular muscle force generation so that, in the presence of abnormal efferent motor signals, binocular alignment can be achieved. These effects must last sufficiently long so that sensory and motor adaptation can occur to create a permanent change in the rotational position of the globe. Immunotoxins are biological toxins, such as ricin, conjugated to antibodies that target the toxin against specific cells and tissues that express the selected antigen. This study is designed to test the primary hypothesis that immunotoxins, targeted against extraocular muscle, can be used in the treatment of strabismus by producing long-term muscle weakness. We will continue to test ricinmAb 35 and a new immunotoxin we are developing, DR-iTox, a fusion protein composed of the ricin A chain and the diphtheria A chain conjugated to a monoclonal antibody to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Both immunotoxins are myotoxic and targeted to mature myofibers; they spare satellite cells and myoblasts, permitting muscle regeneration. We will determine if the increased myotoxicity of the DR-iTox will extend the duration of muscle weakening compared to treatment with ricin-mAb35. We will also attempt to strengthen selected extraocular muscles by direct injection of insulin growth factor I or II. Increasing the motive force of the antagonist could augment the long-term weakening effect of an immunotoxin in an extraocular muscle, and this represents a unique approach to strabismus treatment. These novel treatments may allow titratable and sustained changes in the rotational position of the globe, the goal of strabismus surgery, without requiring an incisional procedure. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: OBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF SUPPRESSION IN AMBLYOPIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Mckee, Suzanne P.; Associate Director; SmithKettlewell Eye Research Institute Research Institute San Francisco, Ca 94115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-SEP-2002; Project End 30-JUN-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): We will design an objective test, based on the Visual Evoked Potential (VEP), to measure amblyopic suppression. Our basic tool is the VEP monocular response to periodic vernier onset/offset transitions in bar stimuli, and its suppression during dichoptic stimulation with matching contours. What is unique about this approach is that it identifies which eye is being suppressed as well as the visual acuity of each eye. Although we will develop and validate this test in adult subjects, our dichoptic visual display system has been specifically designed for ultimate use with infants and pre-verbal children. We also will use a new multi-channel recording system (Geodesic Sensor Net) to explore the neural basis for the differences between normal and abnormal binocular processing. About 4% of all children suffer from strabismus and/or anisometropia during early development. These abnormalities place an individual at risk for a variety of visual deficiencies. The most serious outcome is amblyopia in one eye. Amblyopia refers to a loss of visual acuity, without obvious organic cause, that cannot be corrected by wearing spectacles or contact lenses. Perhaps one third of strabismics and anisometropes suffer some loss in visual acuity. The proposed test could assist with the diagnosis of amblyopia in infancy, as well as in monitoring progress during treatment, thereby improving the chance of a favorable outcome.
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Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: OCULAR BIOMETRY IN VISION SCREENING Principal Investigator & Institution: Apple, Howard P.; Wavetec Vision Systems, Inc. Los Angeles, Ca 90025 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 04-JUN-2001; Project End 30-APR-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): The ultimate objective is to develop products for vision-screening/diagnosis of preschool children. WaveTec Vision Systems has developed combined wavefront-sensing and eye-tracking technology for unobtrusively and dynamically measuring binocular line-of-sight and refraction, including sphere, cylinder, and axis. Realtime eye tracking is also used to assess fixation and attention. With a binocular open view and targets at different distances, the technology measures vergence and accommodation along with standard vision screening parameters. Automated algorithms process pupil images and make a final vision screening decision with no expert viewer required. Within Phase I, Wavetec demonstrated the technology's feasibility for vision screening via mathematical simulation/analysis, engineering trials on prototypes using artificial eyes and automated computer processing, and successful demonstrations on humans. This Product Development grant will design and build two product prototypes; gather feasibility data on adults and preschool children; and use these data to develop robust algorithms for objective vision screening. This is not clinical research or evaluation per se. The data are necessary for the prototype development. The end goal of Phase II is to objectively/subjectively demonstrate product feasibility in terms of ease-of-use, ability of preschool children to comply with the simple task, accuracy of the refraction/alignment measurements, effectiveness of the automated analysis, and reasonable manufacturing cost estimates. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: OCULAR DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY/EARLY CHILDHOOD Principal Investigator & Institution: Mutti, Donald O.; Associate Professor; None; Ohio State University 1960 Kenny Road Columbus, Oh 43210 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-APR-1997; Project End 31-MAR-2005 Summary: (Applicant?s Abstract) The most rapid phase of post-natal ocular growth occurs during the first years of life. This period is characterized by emmetropization, a reduction in both the average amount and the variability in refractive error. The vast majority of infants reach an emmetropic refractive state by three years of age and have no significant refractive error. Despite continued growth of the eye after the age of three, emmetropia is maintained in most children until the age of about nine years. At that time the prevalence of myopia begins to increase even though ocular growth is slower on average compared to age three. It is not understood how emmetropia is maintained during more rapid growth in early childhood, yet fails to be sustained throughout the period of slower growth in the school years. The initial phase of the Berkeley Infant Biometry Study (BIBS) was a five-year longitudinal study of the ocular components in infants and toddlers aged three months to three years. It investigated the changes occurring in the eyes of infants and toddlers during the ernmetropizing period of ocular development. The goal of the continuation of this project over the next three years is to determine how emmetropia is maintained after three years of age. We will evaluate competing hypotheses that emmetropia is maintained by visual feedback from defocus or accommodative lag as opposed to being maintained by passive processes where innate axial growth is balanced by lens power changes due to decreases in equivalent
30
Amblyopia
refractive index. This goal will be accomplished by longitudinal measurement of refractive error, accommodative response, corneal curvature, anterior chamber depth, crystalline lens thickness and surface curvatures, vitreous chamber depth, and axial length in the original BIBS participants when they are between 3 and 6 years of age. Besides establishing normative growth curves for all the eye?s optical components for the first six years of life, these data will allow for evaluation of predictive factors for mature refractive error based on the earlier values for these parameters. Longitudinal refractive and biometric data from infancy through early childhood will make it possible to investigate the responsiveness of the eye to defocus, what components are responsible for maintaining emmetropia, the role of accommodation in ocular growth, and how component and refractive development in the first years of life are related to those parameters in later childhood. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: OPTICAL PERFORMANCE
AND
RETINAL
LIMITS
TO
HUMAN
VISUAL
Principal Investigator & Institution: Thibos, Larry N.; Professor; Visual Sciences; Indiana University Bloomington P.O. Box 1847 Bloomington, in 47402 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JAN-1984; Project End 31-MAR-2005 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's abstract): The long-term goal of our research program is to understand how optical and retinal factors constrain the quality of visual experience. In central vision, poor optical quality of the eye is the chief cause of poor visual performance on many visual tasks, especially in clinically abnormal eyes. We propose to use newly developed technologies to investigate the underlying physiological mechanisms which are responsible for these optical limitations to vision. The results will improve our understanding of the optical consequences of clinical conditions such as dry eye and keratoconus, which may ultimately lead to new diagnostic and treatment strategies. Aim 1 is to test the hypothesis that the corneal tear film provides an optically smooth refracting surface which reduces light scatter and refractive aberrations that would otherwise degrade the retinal image and reduce visual performance. This hypothesis predicts that disruption of the tear film by blink suppression will expose the underlying rough, irregular surface of the cornea, thereby increasing light scatter and refractive aberrations which will degrade the retinal image. The predicted outcome is blurry vision and reduced visual performance. To test these predictions we will use a Shack-Hartmann aberrometer to objectively measure refractive aberration and light scatter simultaneously at 200 or more points in the eye's pupil. The results will be compared with topographic maps of tear film disruption obtained simultaneously by fluorescein and by retro-illumination imaging of the pupil. Image quality will also be compared with visual acuity and contrast sensitivity during tear film disruption. Aim 2 is to test the hypothesis that corneal shape is responsible for the majority of the eye's refractive aberrations. In the process, we also aim to resolve the current controversy over whether optical aberrations due to corneal shape compensate or exacerbate the aberrations of the remaining optical elements of the eye. This hypothesis will be tested in normal eyes and in clinical patients with highly abnormal corneal shape caused by the corneal disease keratoconus. We will measure the aberrations of the cornea with topographic videokeratoscopy for comparison against aberrations of the whole eye measured with the Shack-Hartmann aberrometer. The effect of corneal aberrations and scatter in keratoconic eyes on visual performance will also be measured by using simulated retinal images computed with an optical model of the keratoconic eye as visual stimuli for normal eyes. Aim 3 is to develop a
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comprehensive, quantitative optical model of the eye which accounts for constraints on retinal image quality and on visual performance imposed by optical imperfections of the eye. Results from our studies of the optical function of the tear film and cornea will be incorporated in to the optical model to provide a quantitative, functional description of the effect of the eye's optical imperfections on retinal image quality and on visual performance in normals, dry-eye patients, and keratoconus patients. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: OPTICALLY INDUCED ANISOMETROPIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Smith, Earl L.; Dean; Basic Sciences; University of Houston 316 E Cullen Houston, Tx 772042015 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-FEB-1981; Project End 31-MAR-2005 Summary: (from the investigator's abstract): Soon after birth, most infants develop near emmetropic refractive errors which are then maintained in both eye throughout childhood and into early adult life. However, for reasons not currently understood, a significant and increasing proportion of the population develop abnormal refractive errors (currently about 30 percent of young adults have significant refractive errors). In addition to the high costs for traditional optical corrections, refractive errors can lead to permanent sensory disorders and ocular abnormalities causing blindness. The long-term objectives for the proposed research are to provide a better understanding of the etiologies of human refractive errors and to gain insight into refractive errors as risk factors for the development of sensory disorders like amblyopia and anomalous binocular vision. A primary goal is to determine how early visual experiences, and in particular optical defocus, influences ocular refractive error development. Spectacle lens-rearing regimens will be used to effectively alter the refractive status of infant rhesus monkeys. Optical and ultrasonographic techniques will be used to quantify the effects of these lens-rearing strategies on the development of the eyes axial and refractive components. In addition to determining which ocular components can be influenced by visual experience, the proposed investigation are designed to determine (1) whether the emmetropization process in higher primates is sensitive to and regulated by optical defocus, (2) the relationship between the phenomenon of formdeprivation myopia and the normal emmetropization process, and (3) whether the presence of astigmatism disrupts normal emmetropization. Parallel psychophysical investigations of spatial contrast sensitivity and stereoacuity will examine the relationship between early refractive errors and the development of amblyopia and/or anomalous binocular vision. The behavioral studies will also determine whether the presence of sensory disorders, themselves, can disrupt emmetropization and promote the subsequent development of abnormal refractive errors. The results of these studies are essential for the development of new treatment and management strategies for refractive errors. Moreover, these investigation will help determine the extent to which refractive errors need to be corrected in young infants in order to avoid the development of sensory disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: PEDIATRIC LOW VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Good, William V.; Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute Research Institute San Francisco, Ca 94115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-1998; Project End 31-JUL-2003
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Summary: The long-term goals of this training award are to prepare the applicant for a research career in the area of Pediatric Low Vision. Advanced training in the areas of infant vision and human electrophysiology will enable the applicant to develop new and more effective diagnosis and treatment regimes for infants with blinding eye disorders. Understanding the mechanisms of visual loss and recovery in infancy requires an understanding of human developmental critical periods for different visual functions and an ability to measure visual function accurately during early infancy and childhood. This award will provide the applicant with training in these areas that will supplement his clinical expertise. It will also provide the applicant with a large database that can be used in future, independent research. Human amblyopia will be used as a model system to study human developmental critical periods and cortical plasticity. The research is focused on determining the patterns of visual loss that occur in infants and children with amblyopia, prior to treatment. The data will be used to test the hypothesis that the amblyopic visual system is always equivalent to that of the normal visual system at an earlier stage of development. The first Aim will validate new Visual Evoked Potential (VEP) measures of two visual functions with differing developmental sequences -- grating acuity and vernier acuity. The second Aim will measure developmental sequences for grating acuity and vernier acuity using the sweep VEP measures developed in Aim 1. The third Aim will apply the new VEP measures in patients when first diagnosed with amblyopia. Loss patterns in the amblyopic patients will be compared to normative values measured at different developmental stages. Does amblyopia result in a simple arrest of each of the two visual functions? Knowing the loss relative to normals on one variable, can one predict the loss on the other variable from knowledge of normal growth patterns? The patterns of functional loss will be correlated with age of diagnosis and cause of the amblyopia (strabismus, anisometropia or both). Do strabismus and anisometropia affect different visual functions differentially? Is the combination of risk-factors more amblyogenic? Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: RETINAL BIREFRINGENCE ANALYSIS IN STRABISMUS & AMBLYOPIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Hunter, David G.; Associate Professor; Children's Hospital (Boston) Boston, Ma 021155737 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-FEB-2000; Project End 31-JAN-2004 Summary: (Author Abstract): Amblyopia is the leading treatable cause of vision loss in childhood, with a prevalence of 2-5%. It is responsive to treatment early in life, but delayed treatment can result in life-long visual impairment. Unfortunately, health care practitioners are often unable to identify amblyopia risk factors, including strabismus, media opacities, and anisometropia, in patients under age 5, so that many cases of amblyopia go undetected and untreated. There is a need for a more effective method of detecting amblyopia risk factors. The fovea of the eye is surrounded by a distinctive pattern of birefrefringent fibers that change the polarization state of transmitted light. Our laboratory has developed a specialized form of retinal birefringence scanning (RBS), in which a small spot of polarized fight is scanned in a circle on the retina, and the returning fight measured for changes in polarization. We have demonstrated that RBS accurately (+/- 1 deg) detects foveal fixation in real time, in unrestrained subjects (including infants and children), making it possible to study patients with amblyopia and young children at risk for developing amblyopia. RBS has been characterized in only a small number of subjects, however, and little is known about individual variability. We have also developed binocular RBS (BRBS), which detects fixation of
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both eyes simultaneously and hence detects interocular alignment. The specific aims are to more fully characterize the RBS signal in normal and amblyopic subjects to enhance accuracy (hence sensitivity and specificity), and to screen normal and strabismic subjects using BRBS to identify amblyopia risk factors. BRBS may make it possible to screen infants and children automatically for the presence of amblyopia risk factors, including ocular misalignment, media opacity, and possibly refractive error, thereby facilitating early detection and treatment of this preventable form of blindness. The ability to screen for early, small deviations may help resolve conflicting findings on the efficacy of early amblyopia detection and treatment. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: STRUCTURAL BASIS OF AMBLYOPIA & STRABISMUS Principal Investigator & Institution: Horton, Jonathon C.; University of California Davis Sponsored Programs, 118 Everson Hall Davis, Ca 956165200 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002 Summary: This abstract is not available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: STRUCTURAL BASIS OF AMBLYOPIA AND STRABISMUS Principal Investigator & Institution: Horton, Jonathan C.; Professor; Ophthalmology; University of California San Francisco 500 Parnassus Ave San Francisco, Ca 941222747 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JUL-1993; Project End 30-JUN-2008 Summary: (provided by applicant): The ultimate objective of this project is to understand the neural mechanisms responsible for visual loss caused by two diseases: amblyopia and strabismus. Together, these conditions affect about 2% of the children in the United States. Amblyopia develops when one eye is deprived of normal visual stimulation during early childhood. For example, a congenital cataract impairs vision by preventing the retina from receiving clearly focused images. Even after the cataract is removed, the visual acuity in the eye remains poor, because visual deprivation has caused abnormal wiring of synaptic connections and disruption of cellular activity in the brain. In normal monkeys the synaptic connections in the primary visual cortex serving each eye are organized into a system of parallel, alternating bands, called ocular dominance columns. In some forms of amblyopia, these columns shrink and their cells lose responsiveness to the deprived eye. In Specific Aim #1, a metabolic label, cytochrome oxidase (CO), will be used to how ocular dominance columns are organized in humans, by examining post-mortem specimens of visual cortex obtained from patients with a history of visual loss in one eye. Patterns of metabolic activity will also be studied in amblyopia and strabismus, and in normal subjects in area V2, the next cortical area devoted to visual processing. In Specific Aim #2, connections will be traced from ocular dominance columns to area V2 in the macaque. The hypothesis is that a loss of projections from cells in the deprived eye's ocular dominance columns to area V2 is unimportant factor in amblyopia, because it prevents the normal transfer of visual information to higher centers. In Specific Aim #3, the neural mechanisms responsible for visual suppression will be examined. In strabismus, children fail to maintain normal alignment of the eyes. They avoid double vision by suppressing the image from one eye. How this occurs will be studied in strabismic macaques by testing their visual function and ocular fixation preference. Dichoptic perimetry will be employed to map patterns of visual suppression in the visual fields. After these psychophysical tests are completed, recordings will be made from single cells in awake animals, as they switch fixation back
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and forth between each eye. The goal will be to determine how the firing rate of cells is modulated by visual suppression. Iso-oriented and cross-oriented gratings will be used to search for binocular facilitation and suppression, and to test whether these effects depend upon which eye is perceptually dominant. Finally, areas of regional suppression in the visual fields will be correlated with patterns of CO activity in the ocular dominance columns. The hypothesis is that metabolic activity will be reduced in the suppressed eye's columns. New insights from these experiments into the structural basis of amblyopia and strabismus may lead to improved methods of preventing and treating these diseases. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: SYNAPSE FORMATION AND REFINEMENT IN THE VISUAL SYSTEM Principal Investigator & Institution: Mcallister, a K.; Center for Neuroscience; University of California Davis Sponsored Programs, 118 Everson Hall Davis, Ca 956165200 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-2001; Project End 30-JUN-2005 Summary: During mammalian development, neurons in the visual cortex differentiate from immature cells with few processes into elaborate, richly interconnected components of a network capable of complex information processing. The exquisite precision of these thousands of connections within visual cortex is established during a critical period of development, when immature neural connections are remodeled by visual experience to generate adult patterns of connectivity. Although this activitydependent competition has been the focus of much research at the system level, there is very little known about the cellular and molecular changes that occur at individual synapses during initial synapse formation, and then subsequently during the synaptic strengthening and weakening that underlie synaptic refinement. The central goal of this proposal is to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of synapse formation and refinement in the developing visual cortex. Specifically, the molecular and physiological changes that occur as cortical synapses form and are strengthened and stabilized, or are weakened and eliminated, will be studied in real-time using simultaneous time-lapse confocal imaging of fluorescently-tagged synaptic proteins and whole-cell path-clamp recording of the activity of individual, identified synapses. These specific aims of this proposal are: (1) to define the sequence of cellular and molecular events that occurs during synaptogenesis between glutamatergic neurons from the visual cortex, (2) to identify the cellular and molecular events that mediate activitydependent refinement at excitatory synapses between visual cortical neurons, and (3) to test the hypothesis that the hypothesis that the neurotrophins regulate the formation and/or refinement of glutamatergic synapses between visual cortical neurons. The results of these experiments will be essential for a comprehensive understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the development of the visual cortex. These results will also provide insight into the mechanisms responsible for amblyopia, as well as possible approaches to therapy. More generally, defects in synapse formation are likely to cause many neurodevelopmental disorders-from mental retardation, to autism, to schizophrenia. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms of synapse formation and refinement could revolutionize our ability to identify, prevent, and treat these developmental disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: TIME COURSE OF LEARNING PERCEPTUAL POP-OUT IN V1 AND V2 Principal Investigator & Institution: Smith, Matthew A.; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition; Carnegie-Mellon University 5000 Forbes Ave Pittsburgh, Pa 15213 Timing: Fiscal Year 2004; Project Start 14-JAN-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): This project focuses on the neural basis of perceptual learning in visual cortex. Although plasticity has been well documented in visual cortex, the time course of plasticity and the kinds of changes that occur in visual neurons have not been fully characterized. The proposed experiments aim to explore the development and nature of visual plasticity due to extensive training by monitoring the evolution of cortical neuronal responses relative to the time course of behavioral change. The change of psychometric and neurometric contrast response functions and the change in correlation within neuronal ensembles will be explored as more sensitive measures of plasticity. An understanding of the mechanisms of change in the cerebral cortex as a result of training is potentially very important for the medical treatment of humans with various kinds of brain damage. In particular, the treatment of strokes and other focal brain lesions can gain insight from the research in this proposal. In addition, knowledge of the limits of visual cortical plasticity are important in understanding diseases such as amblyopia, in which there are known changes in the cortex as a result of a visual impairment. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: TREATMENTS FOR APHAKIC AMBLYOPIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Boothe, Ronald G.; Emory University 1784 North Decatur Road Atlanta, Ga 30322 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002 Summary: This abstract is not available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: TROPHIC MANIPULATIONS OF THE OCULOMOTOR SYSTEM Principal Investigator & Institution: Von Bartheld, Christopher S.; Associate Professor; Physiology and Cell Biology; University of Nevada Reno 204 Ross Hall Mailstop 325 Reno, Nv 89557 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-SEP-2000; Project End 31-JUL-2005 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's abstract): Strabismus is a misalignment of the visual axis, which can lead to severe deficiencies such as loss of central vision from one eye, known as amblyopia. Strabismus is relatively common in the general population with estimates of 5-6 percent. The etiology of strabismus is multifactorial. Current therapies for restoration of visual alignment include muscle weakening by surgical recession or pharmacological denervation with botulinum toxin and muscle tightening by surgical resection. In the proposed research project, the trophic regulation between eye muscles an innervating oculomotor neurons will be explored with the long-term goal to supplement surgical treatment of strabismus with a pharmacological treatment targeted at trophic interactions. Injections of trophic factors or trophic antagonists into selected eye muscles may restore balanced eye movements by mimicking intrinsic trophic mechanisms. The proposed studies will test in an animal model how trophic manipulations of oculomotor neurons and eye muscles can adjust the strength of these muscles, increase the survival of oculomotor neurons during development, increase
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numbers of collateral axonal branches of oculomotor neurons, and maintain axon collaterals and endplates. Studies will determine which trophic factors are produced in the eye muscles, which functions they have on muscle mass, muscle strength, nerve sprouting, and maintenance of axons or endplates. Additional studies will determine whether the muscle-derived factors are transported retrogradely to the oculomotor neurons and support the survival of these neurons. The time course of trophic interactions between eye muscles and their nerves will be explored with the goal to understand and manipulate the trophic responses which are induced by denervation with botulinum toxin or in chronically paralyzed muscle such as the avian genetic mutant, crooked neck dwarf (cn/cn). These studies will focus on four trophic factors, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), glial cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), and the insulin-like growth factors (IGF I, II), and, added in the resubmission, cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1). Additional trophic factors will be screened for their potential to modify the strength of eye muscles. A combined pharmacological, molecular, physiological and morphological approach including the ultrastructural level will provide a meaningful assessment of the prospects for a trophic, pharmacological treatment of strabismus and other eye muscle disorders as a supplement to current resection and denervation procedures. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: V1 TO V2 PROJECTIONS IN NORMAL VISION AND AMBLYOPIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Sincich, Lawrence C.; Ophthalmology; University of California San Francisco 500 Parnassus Ave San Francisco, Ca 941222747 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-2002 Summary: In primates, visual information passes from the primary visual area (V1) to the second visual area (V2) before distribution to higher cortical areas. An accurate description of the projections linking V 1 and V2 is crucial for understanding how the brain deciphers visual images. Prior studies have shown that V2 is partitioned into three compartments, known as pale, thin, and thick stripes, defined by their content of a metabolic enzyme called cytochrome oxidase (CO). Our principal goal is to describe the anatomical projections from V1 to each V2 stripe compartment. In Specific Aim #1 we will make injections of a retrograde tracer into single CO stripes in V2 of normal macaques. The resulting pattern of labeled cells in V1 will be correlated with the V2 stripe that received the injection. Our preliminary data indicate that, contrary to a previous report, layer 4B and interblobs both project to thick stripes and pale stripes. In Specific Aim #2 we will make paired injections of two different tracers into adjacent thick stripes and pale stripes to determine if different subpopulations of cells in layer 4B and interblobs project to these V2 compartments. In Specific Aim #3 we will make injections of [3H]proline into V1 to correlate patches of efferent projections with CO staining patterns in V2. In Specific Ai/s #4 we will examine the V1->V2 projections in animals raised with early monocular deprivation. These experiments will advance our knowledge of the mechanisms underlying amblyopia, an important cause of visual loss that affects 2% of the American population. We hypothesize that a selective loss of V1>V2 projections emanating from the ocular dominance columns serving the deprived eye contributes to the loss of vision in amblyopia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: VISION IN PRESCHOOLERS (VIP) STUDY Principal Investigator & Institution: Moore, Bruce D.; Professor; Pediatrics; New England College of Optometry 424 Beacon St Boston, Ma 02115
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Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2000; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: This proposal is for the New England College of Optometry (NEWENCO) to serve as one of five clinical centers in the Vision In Preschoolers (VIP) Study. The VIP Study is a prospective, clinical trial designed to develop an effective and efficient battery of screening tests to identify those 3-and 4-year-old Head Start children in need of further vision care for amblyopia, strabismus, and/or significant refractive error, that are the prevalent significant vision disorders of early childhood. To accomplish these goals, a battery of screening tests will be administered to at least 1278 3- and 4 year-old children enrolled in Head Start centers in Boston. The battery consists of tests chosen for their design characteristics, validity, and applicability to the preschool population, and includes the Massachusetts Visual Acuity Test modification of the Lea Symbols test at distance, Random Dot E stereotest, and refraction via the Retinomax monocular autorefractor. The battery of tests will be administered at Head Start sites by lay people (Head Start parents) which ensures availability of screeners, utilizes persons with a vested interest in benefiting children, and maximizes the applicability of this model to other communities. Each child who fails the screening or is untestable, and a randomly selected subset of children who pass the screening, will undergo a comprehensive eye examination at the NEWENCO Clinical Center. The examination will serve as the definitive method, or gold standard, for detection of the target disorders. The sensitivity and specificity for detection of the target disorders will be determined for each of the screening battery tests alone, and in combination. This application documents: a) access of the NEWENCO Clinical Center to 1750 children enrolled in Head Start and b) that facilities and personnel are available for conducting vision screenings at the Head Start sites and for conducting gold standard eye examinations. Complete details of the VIP Study rationale, design, and methods are contained in the MOP, which is submitted with the Study Chair application. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: VISION IN PRESCHOOLERS (VIP) STUDY Principal Investigator & Institution: Orel-Bixler, Deborah A.; None; University of California Berkeley Berkeley, Ca 947205940 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2000; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: This proposal is for the University of California, Berkeley, School of Optometry (UCBSO) to serve as one of five clinical centers in the Vision In Preschoolers (VIP) Study. The VIP Study is a prospective, clinical study designed to develop an effective and efficient battery of screening tests to identify those 3-and 4-year-old Head Start children in need of further vision care for amblyopia, strabismus, and/or significant refractive error, that are the prevalent significant vision disorders of early childhood. To accomplish these goals, a battery of screening tests will be administered to at least 1278 three- and four-year-old children enrolled in Head Start programs in the Berkeley bay area. The battery consists of tests chosen for their design characteristics, validity, and applicability to the preschool population. The battery will include the Massachusetts Visual Acuity Test (MassVAT), which is a modification of the Lea symbols visual acuity test at distance, a Random Dot E (RDE) test of stereopsis, and noncycloplegic autorefraction using the Nikon Retinomax. The battery of tests will be administered at Head Start sites by lay people (Head Start parents) which ensures availability of screeners, utilizes persons with a vested interest in benefitting children from their neighborhoods, and maximizes the applicability of this model to other communities. Each child who fails the screening or is untestable, and a randomly selected subset of children who pass the screening, will undergo a comprehensive eye
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examination at the UCBSO Clinical Center. The examination will serve as the definitive method, or gold standard, for detection of the target disorders. The sensitivity and specificity for detection of the target disorders will be determined for each of the screening battery tests alone, and in combination. This application documents: a) access of the UCBSO Clinical Center to 1750 children enrolled in Head Start and b) that facilities and personnel are available for conducting vision screenings at the Head Start sites and for conducting gold standard eye examinations. Complete details of the VIP Study rationale, design, and methods are contained in the MOP, which is submitted with the Study Chairperson's application. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: VISION IN PRESCHOOLERS STUDY Principal Investigator & Institution: Ciner, Elise B.; Pediatrics; Pennsylvania College of Optometry Elkins Park, Pa 19027 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2000; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: This proposal is for the Pennsylvania College of Optometry (PCO) to service as one of five clinical centers designed to develop an effective and efficient battery of screening tests to identify those 3- and 40 year-old Head Start children in need of further vision care for amblyopia, strabismus, and/or significant refractive error, that are the prevalent significant vision disorders of early childhood. To accomplish these goals, a battery of vision screening tests will be administered to 1278 three- and four year-old children enrolled in Head Start throughout Philadelphia. The battery consists of tests chosen for their design characteristics, validity, and applicability to the preschool population, and includes the Lea visual acuity test at distance, the Random Dot E and Retinomax Autorefractor. This battery of tests will be administered at Head Start sites by lay people (Head Start parents), which ensures availability of screeners, utilizes persons with a vested interest in benefitting children within their community, empowers communities toward self improvement and maximizes the applicability of this model to other communities. Each child who fails the screening or is untestable, and a randomly selected subset of children who pass the screening, will undergo a comprehensive eye examination at the Pennsylvania College of Optometry (PCO). The examination will serve as the definitive method, or gold standard for detection of the target disorders will be determined for each of the screening battery tests alone, and in combination. This application documents: a) access of the PCO Clinical Center to 1750 children enrolled in Head Start and b) that facilities and personnel are available for conducting vision screenings at the Head Start sites and for conducting gold standard eye examinations. Complete details of the VIP Study rationale, design and methods are contained in the MP, which is submitted with the Study Chair application. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: VISION IN PRESCHOOLERS STUDY Principal Investigator & Institution: Cyert, Lynn A.; Professor; None; Northeastern Oklahoma State University Tahlequah, Ok 74464 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2000; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: This proposal is for the Northeastern State University College of Optometry (NSUCO) to serve as one of five Clinical Centers in the Vision In Preschoolers (VIP) Study. The VIP Study is a prospective, clinical study designed to develop an effective and efficient battery of screening tests to identify those 3- and 4 year-old Head Start children in need of further vision care for amblyopia, strabismus, and/or significant
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refractive error, that are the prevalent significant vision disorders of early childhood. To accomplish these goals, a battery of screening tests will be administered to at least 1315 3- and 4 year-old children enrolled in Head Start sites in northeastern Oklahoma. The battery consists of tests chosen for their design characteristics, validity, and applicability to the preschool population, and includes the Massachusetts Visual Acuity Test modification of the Lea symbols test at distance (MassVAT), Random Dot E (RDE) stereoacuity test, and monocular noncycloplegic autorefraction with the Nikon Retinomax. The battery of tests will be administered at Head Start sites primarily by lay people (Head Start parents) which ensures availability of screeners, utilizes persons with a vested interest in benefitting children, and maximizes the applicability of this model to other communities. Each child who falls the screening or is untestable, and a randomly selected subset of children who pass the screening, will undergo a comprehensive eye examination to be conducted by examination optometrists at the child's Head Start site. The examination will serve as the definitive method, or gold standard, for detection of the target disorders. The sensitivity and specificity for detection of the target disorders will be determined for each of the screening battery tests alone, and in combination. This application documents: a) access of the NSUCO Clinical Center to 1777 children enrolled in Head Start and b) that facilities and personnel are available for conducting vision screenings at the Head Start sites and for conducting gold standard eye examinations. Complete details of the VIP Study rationale, design, and methods are contained in the MOP, which is submitted with the Study Chair application. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: VISION RESEARCH CENTER (CORE) Principal Investigator & Institution: Sires, Bryan S.; Ophthalmology; University of Washington Grant & Contract Services Seattle, Wa 98105 Timing: Fiscal Year 2004; Project Start 01-JUN-1976; Project End 31-MAY-2006 Summary: Investigators who have achieved independent National Eye Institute (NEI) funding will be provided with additional shared support to enhance their own and University of Washington's capability for conducting vision research. Collaborative studies will be attracted to research on the visual system by present of this shared support. A modular organizational structure will be maintained, with each module devoted to a specific activity that would be impractical or less efficient to support on an individual research grant. Each module will support a service or resource that enhances or facilitates the research efforts of a core group of investigators each having independent funding. Some sharing of resources and services with non-NEI-funded collaborators and with investigators new to vision research will occur. Proposed modules include: Biochemistry/Immunology (B/I), Molecular Techniques (MT), Morphology/Morphometry (M/M), Psychophysics/Physiology (P/P), and Research Imaging (RI). Areas of investigation include retinal and chroidal diseases, corneal wound healing, corneal diseases, lens and cataract, glaucoma, strabismus, amblyopia, visual processing, and ocular development. Specific disciplines that will be brought to bear on these problems include: behavioral studies, biochemistry, biostatistics, molecular biology, cell biology, clinical investigation, immunology, microbiology, morphometry, neurophysiology, and pathology. This project will elucidate basic mechanisms that underlie the function of the eye and the visual system and apply this knowledge and other information to the solution of problems in vision and ophthalmology. Collaboration among investigators from the University of Washington
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and elsewhere will be promoted. This proposal will improve the effectiveness of funding available on individual research project grants. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: VISION SCREENING IN PRESCHOOLERS/CHAIR GRANT Principal Investigator & Institution: Schmidt, Paulette P.; Associate Professor; None; Ohio State University 1960 Kenny Road Columbus, Oh 43210 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2000; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: Vision disorders are the leading cause of handicapping conditions in childhood. Comprehensive eye examinations are recommended for preschool children because early detection increases the likelihood of effective treatment and allows for actions to decrease the negative impact of the disorders. However, less than 15% of all children receive an eye examination. And less than 22% of preschool children have some type of vision screening. Further, the methods for vision Screening vary tremendously and the effectiveness of the methods in appropriately identifying children has not been documented. The Vision In Preschoolers (VIP) Study is a multi-center, prospective clinical study to evaluate candidate screening tests for children aged 3 or 4 years. The primary goal of the VIP Study is to develop an effective and efficient battery of Screening tests that can be administered mainly by lay people and that have high sensitivity and specificity in identifying children in need of further evaluation for amblyopia, strabismus, and/or significant refractive error. To achieve these goals, a battery of screening tests will be administered at 5 VIP Participating Clinical Centers to at least 6,400 three- and four- year-old children enrolled at VIP affiliated Head Start sites. The battery will include tests chosen on the basis of their validity, design characteristics, and applicability to the preschool population. The battery will be administered primarily by lay people (Head Start parents) to maximize the availability of screeners, utilizes persons with a vested interest in benefitting children, and maximizes the applicability of this model to other communities. The screening battery will consist of the Massachusetts Visual Acuity Test (MassVAT), a form of the LEA symbols visual acuity test at distance, the Random Dot E (RDE) stereotest, and noncycloplegic autorefraction using a Nikon Retinomax. Every child who fails the screening, or is untestable, and a randomly selected subset of those children who pass the screening, at least 4,150, will undergo a comprehensive eye examination that will serve as the definitive method, or "gold standard", of detection of the target disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
The National Library of Medicine: PubMed One of the quickest and most comprehensive ways to find academic studies in both English and other languages is to use PubMed, maintained by the National Library of Medicine.3 The advantage of PubMed over previously mentioned sources is that it covers a greater number of domestic and foreign references. It is also free to use. If the publisher has a Web site that offers full text of its journals, PubMed will provide links to that site, as well as to
3
PubMed was developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The PubMed database was developed in conjunction with publishers of biomedical literature as a search tool for accessing literature citations and linking to full-text journal articles at Web sites of participating publishers. Publishers that participate in PubMed supply NLM with their citations electronically prior to or at the time of publication.
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sites offering other related data. User registration, a subscription fee, or some other type of fee may be required to access the full text of articles in some journals. To generate your own bibliography of studies dealing with amblyopia, simply go to the PubMed Web site at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed. Type “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” The following is the type of output you can expect from PubMed for amblyopia (hyperlinks lead to article summaries): •
A cost-effectiveness model of screening strategies for amblyopia and risk factors and its application in a german setting. Author(s): Gandjour A, Schlichtherle S, Neugebauer A, Russmann W, Lauterbach KW. Source: Optometry and Vision Science : Official Publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 2003 March; 80(3): 259-69. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12637838
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A cost-utility analysis of therapy for amblyopia. Author(s): Membreno JH, Brown MM, Brown GC, Sharma S, Beauchamp GR. Source: Ophthalmology. 2002 December; 109(12): 2265-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12466169
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A value analysis model applied to the management of amblyopia. Author(s): Beauchamp GR, Bane MC, Stager DR, Berry PM, Wright WW. Source: Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1999; 97: 349-67; Discussion 367-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10703133
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Abnormal function of the parvocellular visual system in anisometropic amblyopia. Author(s): Shan Y, Moster ML, Roemer RA, Siegfried JB. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2000 March-April; 37(2): 73-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10779264
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Amblyopia in astigmatic preschool children. Author(s): Dobson V, Miller JM, Harvey EM, Mohan KM. Source: Vision Research. 2003 April; 43(9): 1081-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12676249
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Amblyopia therapy. Author(s): Fleck BW. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2003 March; 87(3): 255-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12598430
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Amblyopia. Author(s): Mittelman D. Source: Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2003 February; 50(1): 189-96. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12713112
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Amblyopia. Current clinical studies. Author(s): Holmes JM, Beck RW, Repka MX. Source: Ophthalmology Clinics of North America. 2001 September; 14(3): 393-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11705138
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Amblyopia: detection, prevention, and rehabilitation. Author(s): LaRoche GR. Source: Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 2001 October; 12(5): 363-7. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11588499
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Amblyopia: its treatment today and its portent for the future. Author(s): Flynn JT. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2000 Summer; 15(2): 109. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10893451
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Astigmatic axis and amblyopia in childhood. Author(s): Abrahamsson M, Sjostrand J. Source: Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. 2003 February; 81(1): 33-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12631016
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Atropine vs patching for treatment of amblyopia in children. Author(s): Kushner BJ. Source: Jama : the Journal of the American Medical Association. 2002 April 24; 287(16): 2145-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11977238
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Bilateral ametropic functional amblyopia in genetic ectopia lentis: its relation to the amount of subluxation, an indicator for early surgical management. Author(s): Romano PE, Kerr NC, Hope GM. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2002 Fall; 17(3): 235-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12171598
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Bilateral hypermetropic amblyopia. Author(s): Phillips CI. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1987 November-December; 24(6): 319. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3694388
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Bilateral hypermetropic amblyopia. Author(s): Schoenleber DB, Crouch ER Jr. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1987 March-April; 24(2): 75-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3585655
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Binocular amblyopia improved by yellow spectacles. Author(s): Fowler MS, Mason AJ, Stein JF. Source: Lancet. 1992 May 16; 339(8803): 1230. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1349959
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Binocular contrast summation and inhibition in amblyopia. The influence of the interocular difference on binocular contrast sensitivity. Author(s): Pardhan S, Gilchrist J. Source: Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology. 1992; 82(3): 239-48. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1303860
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Binocular fixation pattern and visual acuity in children with strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Laws D, Noonan CP, Ward A, Chandna A. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2000 January-February; 37(1): 24-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10714692
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Binocular function and amblyopia after early surgery in infantile eosotropia. Author(s): O'Keefe M, Abdulla N, Bowell R, Lanigan B. Source: Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. 1996 October; 74(5): 461-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8950394
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Binocular integration of contrast information in amblyopia. Author(s): Harrad RA, Hess RF. Source: Vision Research. 1992 November; 32(11): 2135-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1304091
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Binocular interaction in the peripheral visual field of humans with strabismic and anisometropic amblyopia. Author(s): Sireteanu R, Fronius M, Singer W. Source: Vision Research. 1981; 21(7): 1065-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7314487
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Binocularity and spatial frequency dependence of calcarine activation in two types of amblyopia. Author(s): Lee KM, Lee SH, Kim NY, Kim CY, Sohn JW, Choi MY, Gyu Choi D, Hwang JM, Ho Park K, Lee DS, Suk Yu Y, Hyun Chang K. Source: Neuroscience Research. 2001 June; 40(2): 147-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11377753
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Blepharophimosis, ptosis, epicanthus inversus, telecanthus, amblyopia, and menstrual abnormality in sisters. Author(s): Amano T, Shibuya Y, Hayasaka S. Source: Japanese Journal of Ophthalmology. 1995; 39(2): 172-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8538074
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Blue field entoptic phenomenon in amblyopia. Author(s): Grunwald JE, Sinclair SH, Crandall AS, Riva CE. Source: Ophthalmology. 1981 October; 88(10): 1054-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7335309
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BOLD fMRI response of early visual areas to perceived contrast in human amblyopia. Author(s): Goodyear BG, Nicolle DA, Humphrey GK, Menon RS. Source: Journal of Neurophysiology. 2000 October; 84(4): 1907-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11024083
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Border distinctness in amblyopia. Author(s): Hess RF, Pointer JS, Simmers A, Bex P. Source: Vision Research. 2003 September; 43(21): 2255-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12885379
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Brain SPECT evaluation of the visual cortex in amblyopia. Author(s): Kabasakal L, Devranoglu K, Arslan O, Erdil TY, Sonmezoglu K, Uslu I, Tolun H, Isitman AT, Ozker K, Onsel C. Source: Journal of Nuclear Medicine : Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 1995 July; 36(7): 1170-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7790940
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Brown's syndrome: fusion status and amblyopia. Author(s): Clarke WN, Noel LP. Source: Can J Ophthalmol. 1983 April; 18(3): 118-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6871788
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BVAT distance vs. near stereopsis screening of strabismus, strabismic amblyopia and refractive amblyopia; a prospective study of 68 patients. Author(s): Rutstein RP, Corliss DA. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2000 Fall; 15(3): 229-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10960226
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Can interocular pattern reversal visual evoked potential and motor reaction time differences distinguish anisometropic from strabismic amblyopia? Author(s): McKerral M, Polomeno RC, Lepore F, Lachapelle P. Source: Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. 1999 February; 77(1): 40-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10071147
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Can retinoscopy be used to screen infants for amblyopia? A longitudinal study of refraction in the first year of life. Author(s): Hopkisson B, Arnold P, Billingham B, McGarrigle M, Shribman S. Source: Eye (London, England). 1992; 6 ( Pt 6): 607-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1289138
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Changes in conceptions of meaning, effects and treatment of amblyopia. A phenomenographic analysis of interview data from parents of amblyopic children. Author(s): Goransson A, Dahlgren LO, Lennerstrand G. Source: Patient Education and Counseling. 1998 July; 34(3): 213-25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9791525
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Combined treatment of a proliferative peri-orbital haemangioma with a tuneable dye laser and intra-lesional steroids to prevent deprivation amblyopia. Author(s): Gorst CM, Munnoch DA, Hancock K. Source: Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. 2001 August; 46(4): 2346. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11523716
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Comparison between anisometropic and strabismic amblyopia using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Author(s): Choi MY, Lee KM, Hwang JM, Choi DG, Lee DS, Park KH, Yu YS. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2001 September; 85(9): 1052-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11520755
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Compliance in amblyopia therapy: objective monitoring of occlusion. Author(s): Fielder AR, Irwin M, Auld R, Cocker KD, Jones HS, Moseley MJ. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1995 June; 79(6): 585-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7626576
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Compliance with amblyopia therapy. Author(s): Moseley M, Fielder A, Stewart C. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2001 August; 119(8): 1226. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11483109
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Computerized method of visual acuity testing: adaptation of the amblyopia treatment study visual acuity testing protocol. Author(s): Moke PS, Turpin AH, Beck RW, Holmes JM, Repka MX, Birch EE, Hertle RW, Kraker RT, Miller JM, Johnson CA. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2001 December; 132(6): 903-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11730656
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Congenital ptosis and amblyopia: a retrospective study of 130 cases. Author(s): Dray JP, Leibovitch I. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2002 July-August; 39(4): 222-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12148555
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Contact lenses in the management of high anisometropic amblyopia. Author(s): Roberts CJ, Adams GG. Source: Eye (London, England). 2002 September; 16(5): 577-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12194072
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Contour integration in anisometropic amblyopia. Author(s): Hess RF, Demanins R. Source: Vision Research. 1998 March; 38(6): 889-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9624438
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Contour integration in strabismic amblyopia: the sufficiency of an explanation based on positional uncertainty. Author(s): Hess RF, McIlhagga W, Field DJ. Source: Vision Research. 1997 November; 37(22): 3145-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9463696
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Contrast detection and orientation discrimination thresholds associated with meridional amblyopia. Author(s): St John R. Source: Vision Research. 1997 June; 37(11): 1451-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9205708
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Contrast sensitivity in amblyopia: masking effects of noise. Author(s): Nordmann JP, Freeman RD, Casanova C. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1992 September; 33(10): 2975-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1526746
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Cost effectiveness of treatment for amblyopia: an analysis based on a probabilistic Markov model. Author(s): Konig HH, Barry JC. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2004 May; 88(5): 606-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15090409
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Critical periods and amblyopia. Author(s): Daw NW. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1998 April; 116(4): 502-5. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9565050
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Cuban epidemic neuropathy, 1991 to 1994: history repeats itself a century after the "amblyopia of the blockade". Author(s): Ordunez-Garcia PO, Nieto FJ, Espinosa-Brito AD, Caballero B. Source: American Journal of Public Health. 1996 May; 86(5): 738-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8629731
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Decreased activation of the lateral geniculate nucleus in a patient with anisometropic amblyopia demonstrated by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Author(s): Miki A, Liu GT, Goldsmith ZG, Liu CS, Haselgrove JC. Source: Ophthalmologica. Journal International D'ophtalmologie. International Journal of Ophthalmology. Zeitschrift Fur Augenheilkunde. 2003 September-October; 217(5): 365-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12913328
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Defective processing of motion-defined form in the fellow eye of patients with unilateral amblyopia. Author(s): Giaschi DE, Regan D, Kraft SP, Hong XH. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1992 July; 33(8): 2483-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1634346
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Deficits to global motion processing in human amblyopia. Author(s): Simmers AJ, Ledgeway T, Hess RF, McGraw PV. Source: Vision Research. 2003 March; 43(6): 729-38. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12604110
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Defining and measuring treatment outcome in unilateral amblyopia. Author(s): Stewart CE, Moseley MJ, Fielder AR. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2003 October; 87(10): 1229-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14507754
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Depth of strabismic amblyopia determined with neutral density filters. Author(s): Nardi M. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1984 March; 97(3): 400-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6702988
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Depth of strabismic amblyopia determined with neutral density filters. Author(s): Cadera W, Pachtman MA, Ellis FD, Helveston EM. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1983 June; 95(6): 763-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6859184
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Design of the Monitored Occlusion Treatment of Amblyopia Study (MOTAS). Author(s): Stewart CE, Fielder AR, Stephens DA, Moseley MJ. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002 August; 86(8): 915-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12140215
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Detection of amblyopia and development of binocular vision in infants and children. Author(s): Gwiazda JE. Source: Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 1992 December; 3(6): 735-40. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10147973
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Detection of amblyopia with P-VEP during chloral hydrate sedation. Author(s): Wright KW, Eriksen KJ, Shors TJ. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1987 July-August; 24(4): 170-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3668763
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Detection of M and P pathway deficits of amblyopia by multifocal VEPs. Author(s): Kawabata H, Adachi-Usami E. Source: Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl. 1999; 49: 116-22. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10533096
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Development of two stable oral suspensions of levodopa-carbidopa for children with amblyopia. Author(s): Nahata MC, Morosco RS, Leguire LE. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2000 November-December; 37(6): 333-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11392406
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Diagnosis and management of strabismus and amblyopia. Author(s): Nelson LB. Source: Pediatric Clinics of North America. 1983 December; 30(6): 1003-14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6646863
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Diagnosis of amblyopia using the 10-diopter fixation test: a proposed modification for patients with unilateral ptosis. Author(s): Whittaker KW, O'Flynn E, Manners RM. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2000 January-February; 37(1): 21-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10714691
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Differences in the management of amblyopia between European countries. Author(s): Tan JH, Thompson JR, Gottlob I. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2003 March; 87(3): 291-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12598440
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Differences in the neural basis of human amblyopia: the distribution of the anomaly across the visual field. Author(s): Hess RF, Pointer JS. Source: Vision Research. 1985; 25(11): 1577-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3832581
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Dynamic vergence eye movements in strabismus and amblyopia: asymmetric vergence. Author(s): Kenyon RV, Ciuffreda KJ, Stark L. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1981 March; 65(3): 167-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7225309
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Early screening for amblyogenic risk factors lowers the prevalence and severity of amblyopia. Author(s): Eibschitz-Tsimhoni M, Friedman T, Naor J, Eibschitz N, Friedman Z. Source: J Aapos. 2000 August; 4(4): 194-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10951293
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Echobiometric study of ocular growth in patients with amblyopia. Author(s): Burtolo C, Ciurlo C, Polizzi A, Lantier PB, Calabria G. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2002 July-August; 39(4): 209-14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12148553
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Economic evaluation of different methods of screening for amblyopia in kindergarten. Author(s): Konig HH, Barry JC. Source: Pediatrics. 2002 April; 109(4): E59. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11927732
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Effect of amblyopia on employment prospects. Author(s): Adams GG, Karas MP. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 March; 83(3): 380. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10365058
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Effect of citicoline on visual acuity in amblyopia: preliminary results. Author(s): Campos EC, Schiavi C, Benedetti P, Bolzani R, Porciatti V. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 1995 May; 233(5): 307-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7622080
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Effect of levodopa and carbidopa in human amblyopia. Author(s): Pandey PK, Chaudhuri Z, Kumar M, Satyabala K, Sharma P. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2002 March-April; 39(2): 81-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11911549
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Effect of ongoing treatment of amblyopia on surgical outcome in esotropia. Author(s): Weakley DR Jr, Holland DR. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1997 September-October; 34(5): 275-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9310914
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Effectiveness of occlusion therapy in ametropic amblyopia. Author(s): Clarke MP. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1998 July; 82(7): 850. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9924395
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Effectiveness of occlusion therapy in ametropic amblyopia: a pilot study. Author(s): Moseley MJ, Fielder AR, Irwin M, Jones HS, Auld RJ. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1997 November; 81(11): 956-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9505818
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Efficacy of occlusion for strabismic amblyopia: can an optimal duration be identified? Author(s): Cleary M. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2000 June; 84(6): 572-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10837378
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Electrophysiological and psychophysical differences between early- and late-onset strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Davis AR, Sloper JJ, Neveu MM, Hogg CR, Morgan MJ, Holder GE. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2003 February; 44(2): 610-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12556390
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Esterman binocular scoring in amblyopia. Author(s): Gezer A, Sezen F, Izgi B. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2004 March-April; 41(2): 112-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15089068
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Evaluation of the functions of the parvocellular and magnocellular pathways in strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Demirci H, Gezer A, Sezen F, Ovali T, Demiralp T, Isoglu-Alkoc U. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2002 July-August; 39(4): 215-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12148554
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Eye dominance in visual cortex in amblyopia using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Author(s): Liu GT, Miki A, Francis E, Quinn GE, Modestino EJ, Bonhomme GR, Haselgrove JC. Source: J Aapos. 2004 April; 8(2): 184-6. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15088055
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Eye drops and patches both in fact work for amblyopia. Author(s): Repka MX. Source: Bmj (Clinical Research Ed.). 2002 June 8; 324(7350): 1397. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12052818
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Factors affecting the outcome of children treated for amblyopia. Author(s): Flanagan DW, Beardsell R. Source: Eye (London, England). 1995; 9 ( Pt 5): 664. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8543101
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Factors affecting the outcome of children treated for amblyopia. Author(s): Good WV. Source: Survey of Ophthalmology. 1996 March-April; 40(5): 422-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8779092
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Factors affecting treatment compliance in amblyopia. Author(s): Smith LK, Thompson JR, Woodruff G, Hiscox F. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1995 March-April; 32(2): 98-101. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7629678
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Factors associated with delay in diagnosis of childhood amblyopia. Author(s): Campbell LR, Charney E. Source: Pediatrics. 1991 February; 87(2): 178-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1987528
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Flash and pattern VEPs: examples of cases of hysterical amblyopia and provoked visual impairment (Uhthoff's sign). Author(s): MacCana F, Bhargava SK, Kulikowski JJ. Source: Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics : the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists). 1983; 3(1): 55-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6866523
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Flash visual evoked potential (VEP) in amblyopia and optic nerve disease. Author(s): Davis ET, Bass SJ, Sherman J. Source: Optometry and Vision Science : Official Publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 1995 September; 72(9): 612-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8532302
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Flotation devices to facilitate amblyopia therapy. Author(s): Hacker HD, O'Hara M. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1991 January 15; 111(1): 110-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1985475
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Form-vision deprivation amblyopia and strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Uemura Y, Katsumi O. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 1988; 226(2): 193-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3360352
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Functional amblyopia associated with abnormalities of the optic nerve. Author(s): Kushner BJ. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1984 May; 102(5): 683-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6721752
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging as a tool for investigating amblyopia in the human visual cortex: a pilot study. Author(s): Algaze A, Roberts C, Leguire L, Schmalbrock P, Rogers G. Source: J Aapos. 2002 October; 6(5): 300-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12381989
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Functional MRI of amblyopia before and after levodopa. Author(s): Yang CI, Yang ML, Huang JC, Wan YL, Jui-Fang Tsai R, Wai YY, Liu HL. Source: Neuroscience Letters. 2003 March 13; 339(1): 49-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12618298
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Future directions in the treatment of amblyopia. Author(s): Campos EC. Source: Lancet. 1997 April 26; 349(9060): 1190. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9130938
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Future directions in treatment of amblyopia. Author(s): Moseley MJ, Fielder AR. Source: Lancet. 1997 June 28; 349(9069): 1917-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9217791
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Future of preschool vision screening. Cost effectiveness of screening for amblyopia is a public health issue. Author(s): Lee J, Adams G, Sloper J, McIntyre A. Source: Bmj (Clinical Research Ed.). 1998 March 21; 316(7135): 937-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9569403
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Glenn Fry Award Lecture: behavioral studies of amblyopia in monkeys. Author(s): Harwerth RS. Source: Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1982 July; 59(7): 535-55. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7124893
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Good visual outcome after endophthalmitis in an eye previously treated successfully for amblyopia. Author(s): Kushner BJ, Meyers FL. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1989 March-April; 26(2): 69-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2785175
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Grand rounds #54: A case of consecutive exotropia, amblyopia, DVD, and possibly the anti-elevation syndrome after inferior oblique anterior transposition. Author(s): Cheng KP, Scott WE, Stager DR Sr, Stavis MI. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 1999 Summer; 14(2): 120-4; Discussion 125. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10506690
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Grating detection and orientation discrimination in amblyopia. Author(s): Barrett BT, Cox MJ, Simmers AJ, Gray LS. Source: Current Eye Research. 1997 October; 16(10): 1044-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9330857
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Herpes simplex keratitis and amblyopia. Author(s): Beneish RG, Williams FR, Polomeno RC, Flanders ME. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1987 March-April; 24(2): 94-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3585659
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History of amblyopia and its treatment. Fifth annual Richard C. Scobee Memorial Lecture. Author(s): Cibis L. Source: Am Orthopt J. 1975; 25: 54-61. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1106271
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Home exercises for amblyopia. Author(s): Weiss JB. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1973 March; 89(3): 235. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4691322
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Home therapy for amblyopia. Author(s): Von Noorden GK, Springer F, Romano P, Parks M. Source: Am Orthopt J. 1970; 20: 46-50. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5425261
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How young is too young for amblyopia screening? Author(s): Tong P, Stumpp Loftus J. Source: Pediatrics. 2001 April; 107(4): 809. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11380010
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Human amblyopia: consequence of chronic interocular suppression. Author(s): Sireteanu R. Source: Hum Neurobiol. 1982 March; 1(1): 31-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7185779
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Human amblyopia: structure of the visual field. Author(s): Sireteanu R, Fronius M. Source: Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale. 1990; 79(3): 603-14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2340877
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Hydroxocobalamin versus cyanocobalamin in the treatment of tobacco amblyopia. Author(s): Chisholm IA, Bronte-Stewart J, Foulds WS. Source: Lancet. 1967 August 26; 2(7513): 450-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4166110
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Hyperacuity and amblyopia. Author(s): Levi DM, Klein S. Source: Nature. 1982 July 15; 298(5871): 268-70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7088177
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Hysterical amblyopia: electrodiagnostic and clinical evaluation. Author(s): Berman MS, Levi DM. Source: Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1975 April; 52(4): 267-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1130491
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Identifying amblyopia using associated conditions, acuity, and nonacuity features. Author(s): Flom MC, Bedell HE. Source: Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1985 March; 62(3): 153-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3985107
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Imaging of cerebral blood flow and metabolism in amblyopia by positron emission tomography. Author(s): Demer JL, von Noorden GK, Volkow ND, Gould KL. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1988 April 15; 105(4): 337-47. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3258733
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Improvement in Vernier acuity in adults with amblyopia. Practice makes better. Author(s): Levi DM, Polat U, Hu YS. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1997 July; 38(8): 1493-510. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9224277
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Improvement of contrast sensitivity from treatment for amblyopia. Author(s): Lennerstrand G, Lundh BL. Source: Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1980 April; 58(2): 292-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7395490
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Incidence of anisometropic amblyopia in Zambia. Author(s): Kant M. Source: Med J Zambia. 1983 July; 17(3): 86-8. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6332435
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Incidence of loss of vision in the healthy eye in amblyopia. Author(s): Tommila V, Tarkkanen A. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1981 August; 65(8): 575-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7295619
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Infant astigmatism and meridional amblyopia. Author(s): Gwiazda J, Mohindra I, Brill S, Held R. Source: Vision Research. 1985; 25(9): 1269-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4072007
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Influence of amblyopia on high-pass resolution perimetry. Author(s): Martin-Boglind LM. Source: Ophthalmologica. Journal International D'ophtalmologie. International Journal of Ophthalmology. Zeitschrift Fur Augenheilkunde. 1991; 203(2): 99-104. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1762726
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Initiation of amblyopia treatment in monocular congenital cataracts. Author(s): Aguirre Vila-Coro A, Mazow ML. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1989 August; 107(8): 1113-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2757542
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Integration of local orientation in strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Levi DM, Sharma V. Source: Vision Research. 1998 March; 38(6): 775-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9624428
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Intensive occlusion therapy for amblyopia. Author(s): Dorey SE, Adams GG, Lee JP, Sloper JJ. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2001 March; 85(3): 310-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11222336
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Is amblyopia an impediment to binocular function? Author(s): Hess RF. Source: Eye (London, England). 1996; 10 ( Pt 2): 245-9. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8776455
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Is amblyopia spatial frequency or retinal locus specific? Author(s): Bradley A, Freeman RD, Applegate R. Source: Vision Research. 1985; 25(1): 47-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3984217
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Is community screening for amblyopia possible, or appropriate? Author(s): Wright MC, Colville DJ, Oberklaid F. Source: Archives of Disease in Childhood. 1995 September; 73(3): 192-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7492153
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Is home schooling a risk for missing amblyopia? Author(s): Drazin D, Guevarra A, Schuler E, Silverberg M. Source: Pediatrics. 2004 March; 113(3 Pt 1): 629-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14993567
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Is reduced vernier acuity in amblyopia due to position, contrast or fixation deficits? Author(s): Bradley A, Freeman RD. Source: Vision Research. 1985; 25(1): 55-66. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3984218
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Is second-order spatial loss in amblyopia explained by the loss of first-order spatial input? Author(s): Wong EH, Levi DM, McGraw PV. Source: Vision Research. 2001 October; 41(23): 2951-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11704234
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Is the motion system relatively spared in amblyopia? Evidence from cortical evoked responses. Author(s): Kubova Z, Kuba M, Juran J, Blakemore C. Source: Vision Research. 1996 January; 36(1): 181-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8746252
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Juvenile myasthenia gravis and amblyopia. Author(s): Ellenhorn N, Lucchese N, Greenwald M. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1986 February 15; 101(2): 214-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3946539
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Juvenile pilocytic astrocytoma masquerading as amblyopia. Author(s): Roh S, Mawn L, Hedges TR 3rd. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1997 May; 123(5): 692-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9152078
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Lack of alternation in patients treated for strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Campos EC, Gulli R. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1985 January 15; 99(1): 63-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3966520
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Lack of positive results of a physiologically based treatment of amblyopia. Author(s): Ciuffreda KJ, Goldner K, Connelly R. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1980 August; 64(8): 607-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7426577
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Laser in situ keratomileusis improves visual acuity in some adult eyes with amblyopia. Author(s): Barequet IS, Wygnanski-Jaffe T, Hirsh A. Source: Journal of Refractive Surgery (Thorofare, N.J. : 1995). 2004 January-February; 20(1): 25-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14763467
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Laser-assisted subepithelial keratectomy and photorefractive keratectomy versus conventional treatment of myopic anisometropic amblyopia in children. Author(s): Autrata R, Rehurek J. Source: Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery. 2004 January; 30(1): 74-84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14967271
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Latent nystagmus and strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): von Noorden GK, Avilla C, Sidikaro Y, LaRoche R. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1987 January 15; 103(1): 87-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3799793
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Lateral interactions in amblyopia. Author(s): Ellemberg D, Hess RF, Arsenault AS. Source: Vision Research. 2002 September; 42(21): 2471-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12367746
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Lea symbols: visual acuity assessment and detection of amblyopia. Author(s): Graf MH, Becker R, Kaufmann H. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 2000 January; 238(1): 53-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10664053
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Letter: Amblyopia. Author(s): Hiatt RL. Source: Jama : the Journal of the American Medical Association. 1974 January 7; 227(1): 79. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4859645
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Levodopa and childhood amblyopia. Author(s): Leguire LE, Rogers GL, Bremer DL, Walson P, Hadjiconstantinou-Neff M. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1992 September-October; 29(5): 290-8; Discussion 299. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1432516
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Listing's law in strabismus and amblyopia: a preliminary report. Author(s): Bosman J, ten Tusscher MP, de Jong I, Vles JS, Kingma H. Source: Strabismus. 2000 September; 8(3): 157-68. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11035558
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Local adaptation in functional amblyopia. Author(s): Lawwill T. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1968 June; 65(6): 903-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5656210
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Long term follow up of premature infants: detection of strabismus, amblyopia, and refractive errors. Author(s): Schalij-Delfos NE, de Graaf ME, Treffers WF, Engel J, Cats BP. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2000 September; 84(9): 963-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10966945
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Long term visual outcome in amblyopia treatment. Author(s): Ohlsson J, Baumann M, Sjostrand J, Abrahamsson M. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002 October; 86(10): 1148-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12234897
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Long-term follow-up of L-dopa treatment in children with amblyopia. Author(s): Leguire LE, Komaromy KL, Nairus TM, Rogers GL. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2002 November-December; 39(6): 326-30; Quiz 345-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12458842
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Long-term follow-up of red-filter treatment of amblyopia. Author(s): Malik SR, Singh P, Goel BK. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1972 August; 56(8): 613-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5079410
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Long-term results in the treatment of unilateral high myopia with amblyopia. Author(s): Pollard ZF, Manley D. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1974 September; 78(3): 397-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4414509
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Luminance, contrast function and visual acuity in functional amblyopia. Author(s): Lawwill T, Burian HM. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1966 September; 62(3): 511-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5920434
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Maintenance of improvement gains in refractive amblyopia: a comparison of treatment modalities. Author(s): FitzGerald DE, Krumholtz I. Source: Optometry. 2002 March; 73(3): 153-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12365698
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Model of static accommodative behavior in human amblyopia. Author(s): Hung GK, Ciuffreda KJ, Semmlow JL, Hokoda SC. Source: Ieee Transactions on Bio-Medical Engineering. 1983 October; 30(10): 665-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6654373
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Modified Allen pictures to assess amblyopia in young children. Author(s): Mayer DL, Gross RD. Source: Ophthalmology. 1990 June; 97(6): 827-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2374689
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Modulation of amblyopia therapy. Author(s): Benezra D. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1996 May; 80(5): 492. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8695582
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Monocular infantile cataract, intraocular lenses, and amblyopia. Author(s): Burke JP, Young JD, Willshaw HE. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1989 December; 73(12): 1019. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2611185
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Monocular infantile cataract, intraocular lenses, and amblyopia. Author(s): Taylor D. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1989 November; 73(11): 857-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2690924
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Monocular spatial distortion in strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Bedell HD, Flom MC. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1981 February; 20(2): 263-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7461929
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Monocular vertical oscillations of amblyopia. The Heimann-Bielschowsky phenomenon. Author(s): Smith JL, Flynn JT, Spiro HJ. Source: J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1982 June; 2(2): 85-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6226701
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Motion perimetry in anisometropic amblyopia: elevated size thresholds extend into the midperiphery. Author(s): Donahue SP, Wall M, Stanek KE. Source: J Aapos. 1998 April; 2(2): 94-101. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10530970
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Myelinated nerve fibers, axial myopia, and refractory amblyopia: an organic disease. Author(s): Ellis GS Jr, Frey T, Gouterman RZ. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1987 May-June; 24(3): 1119. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3598829
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Myelinated retinal nerve fibers associated with ipsilateral myopia, amblyopia, and strabismus. Author(s): Straatsma BR, Heckenlively JR, Foos RY, Shahinian JK. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1979 September; 88(3 Pt 1): 506-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=484678
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Naso-temporal asymmetries in human amblyopia consequence of long-term interocular suppression. Author(s): Sireteanu R, Fronius M. Source: Vision Research. 1981; 21(7): 1055-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7314486
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Natural history of amblyopia untreated owing to lack of compliance. Author(s): Simons K, Preslan M. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 May; 83(5): 582-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10216059
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Neuronal basis of amblyopia: a review. Author(s): Grigg J, Thomas R, Billson F. Source: Indian J Ophthalmol. 1996 June; 44(2): 69-76. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8916592
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Non-concordance in amblyopia treatment: the effective use of 'smileys'. Author(s): Oto S, Pelit A, Aydin P. Source: Strabismus. 2002 March; 10(1): 23-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12185643
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Non-cycloplegic screening for amblyopia via refractive findings with the Nikon Retinomax hand held autorefractor in 3 year old kindergarten children. Author(s): Barry JC, Konig HH. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2001 October; 85(10): 1179-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11567961
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Normal pattern electroretinograms in amblyopia. Author(s): Gottlob I, Welge-Lussen L. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1987 January; 28(1): 187-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3804650
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Normal stereo acuity despite anisometropic-amblyopia. Author(s): Peli E. Source: J Am Optom Assoc. 1983 October; 54(10): 919-21. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6630842
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Nutritional amblyopia among tuberculous patients. Author(s): Zauberman H, Berson D. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1967 May; 51(5): 331-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6022774
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Nutritional amblyopia associated with jejunoileal bypass surgery. Author(s): Thompson RE, Felton JL. Source: Ann Ophthalmol. 1982 September; 14(9): 848-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7181347
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Nutritional amblyopia in a patient with Crohn's disease. Author(s): Iansek R, Edge CJ. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1985 December; 48(12): 1307-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4087012
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Nutritional amblyopia. Author(s): Carroll FD. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1966 September; 76(3): 406-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5946114
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Nutritional amblyopia. A histopathologic study with retrospective clinical correlation. Author(s): Smiddy WE, Green WR. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 1987; 225(5): 321-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3666474
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Nutritional amblyopia. Folic acid, vitamin B-12, and other vitamins. Author(s): Knox DL, Chen MF, Guilarte TR, Dang CV, Burnette J. Source: Retina (Philadelphia, Pa.). 1982; 2(4): 288-93. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6101136
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Occlusion therapy for amblyopia and stereopsis. Author(s): Zang YF, Guo JQ, Liu JQ. Source: Chinese Medical Journal. 1988 October; 101(10): 719-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3150703
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Occlusion therapy for the treatment of amblyopia: letting the parents decide. Author(s): Tripathi A, O'Donnell NP, Holden R, Kaye L, Kaye SB. Source: Ophthalmologica. Journal International D'ophtalmologie. International Journal of Ophthalmology. Zeitschrift Fur Augenheilkunde. 2002 November-December; 216(6): 426-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12566886
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OKN asymmetries and binocular function in amblyopia. Author(s): Westall CA, Woodhouse JM, Brown VA. Source: Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics : the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists). 1989 July; 9(3): 269-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2622667
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On the treatment of amblyopia. Author(s): Urrets-Zavalia A. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1997 September; 81(9): 806. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9422942
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Ongoing treatment of amblyopia. Author(s): Kavakli S, Cekic O. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1998 January-February; 35(1): 7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9503308
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Optic disc shape, corneal astigmatism, and amblyopia. Author(s): Jonas JB, Kling F, Grundler AE. Source: Ophthalmology. 1997 November; 104(11): 1934-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9373129
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Optic nerve hypoplasia and small eyes in presumed amblyopia. Author(s): Lempert P. Source: J Aapos. 2000 October; 4(5): 258-66. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11040474
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Perceived blur in amblyopia. Author(s): Simmers AJ, Bex PJ, Hess RF. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2003 March; 44(3): 1395-400. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12601073
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Phakic intraocular lens to correct high myopic amblyopia in children. Author(s): Lesueur LC, Arne JL. Source: Journal of Refractive Surgery (Thorofare, N.J. : 1995). 2002 September-October; 18(5): 519-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12361151
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Polycoria, miosis, and amblyopia. Author(s): Hofeldt GT, Simon JW. Source: J Aapos. 2002 October; 6(5): 328-9. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12381993
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Positron-emission tomographic study of human amblyopia with use of defined visual stimuli. Author(s): Demer JL, Grafton S, Marg E, Mazziotta JC, Nuwer M. Source: J Aapos. 1997 September; 1(3): 158-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10532779
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Possible role of corticosteroids in nervous system plasticity: improvement in amblyopia after optic neuritis in the fellow eye treated with steroids. Author(s): Constantinescu CS, Gottlob I. Source: Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2001; 15(3): 223-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11944744
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Poverty predicts amblyopia treatment failure. Author(s): Hudak DT, Magoon EH. Source: J Aapos. 1997 December; 1(4): 214-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10532766
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Predicting adherence to eye patching in children with amblyopia: an application of protection motivation theory. Author(s): Norman P, Searle A, Harrad R, Vedhara K. Source: British Journal of Health Psychology. 2003 February; 8(Pt 1): 67-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12643817
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Preschool vision screening: negative predictive value for amblyopia. Author(s): Newman DK, East MM. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 June; 83(6): 676-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10340974
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Quantitative assessment of colour vision in tobacco amblyopia. Author(s): Chisholm IA. Source: Proc R Soc Med. 1970 August; 63(8): 792. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5452238
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Quinine amblyopia related to heroin addiction. Author(s): Brust JC, Richter RW. Source: Annals of Internal Medicine. 1971 January; 74(1): 84-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5539279
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Quinine amblyopia treated by combined haemodialysis and activated resin haemoperfusion. Author(s): Gibbs JL, Trafford A, Sharpstone P. Source: Lancet. 1985 March 30; 1(8431): 752-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2858017
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Quinine amblyopia treated by hemodialysis. Author(s): Floyd M, Hill AV, Ormston BJ, Menzies R, Porter R. Source: Clinical Nephrology. 1974 January-February; 2(1): 44-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4823494
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Quinine amblyopia treated with stellate ganglion block. Author(s): Bankes JL, Hayward JA, Jones MB. Source: British Medical Journal. 1972 October 14; 4(832): 85-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5077473
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Quinine amblyopia: is current management appropriate? Author(s): Dyson EH, Proudfoot AT, Bateman DN. Source: Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology. 1985-86; 23(7-8): 571-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3831380
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Reduced activity in the extrastriate visual cortex of individuals with strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Imamura K, Richter H, Fischer H, Lennerstrand G, Franzen O, Rydberg A, Andersson J, Schneider H, Onoe H, Watanabe Y, Langstrom B. Source: Neuroscience Letters. 1997 April 11; 225(3): 173-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9147398
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Relationship between anisometropia, amblyopia, and binocularity. Author(s): Rutstein RP, Corliss D. Source: Optometry and Vision Science : Official Publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 1999 April; 76(4): 229-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10333185
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Remediation of refractive amblyopia by optical correction alone. Author(s): Moseley MJ, Neufeld M, McCarry B, Charnock A, McNamara R, Rice T, Fielder A. Source: Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics : the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists). 2002 July; 22(4): 296-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12162480
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Report of the conjoint 59th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Association of Strabismus and Amblyopia and 28th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Association of Pediatric Ophthalmology. Author(s): Sato M. Source: J Aapos. 2004 April; 8(2): 119-20. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15088042
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Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in human strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Colen TP, de Faber JT, Lemij HG. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2000 Summer; 15(2): 141-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10893456
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Reversal of myopic anisometropic amblyopia with phakic intraocular lens implantation. Author(s): Chipont EM, Garcia-Hermosa P, Alio JL. Source: Journal of Refractive Surgery (Thorofare, N.J. : 1995). 2001 July-August; 17(4): 460-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11472004
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Screening for amblyopia in preschool children: results of a population-based, randomised controlled trial. ALSPAC Study Team. Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood. Author(s): Williams C, Harrad RA, Harvey I, Sparrow JM; ALSPAC Study Team. Source: Ophthalmic Epidemiology. 2001 December; 8(5): 279-95. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11922382
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Screening for amblyopia in preverbal children with photoscreening photographs. III. improved grading criteria for hyperopia. Author(s): Tong PY, Macke JP, Bassin RE, Everett M, Enke-Miyazaki E, Tielsch JM, Stager DR Sr, Parks MM, Beauchamp GR. Source: Ophthalmology. 2000 September; 107(9): 1630-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10964819
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Screening for amblyopia in preverbal children with photoscreening photographs. National Children's Eye Care Foundation Vision Screening Study Group. Author(s): Tong PY, Enke-Miyazaki E, Bassin RE, Tielsch JM, Stager DR Sr, Beauchamp GR, Parks MM. Source: Ophthalmology. 1998 May; 105(5): 856-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9593387
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Screening for amblyopia in preverbal children. Author(s): Scott WE, Ottar WL. Source: Ophthalmology. 2000 January; 107(1): 1-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10647707
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Screening for amblyopia in preverbal children: improved grading criteria for hyperopia. Author(s): Donahue SP, Johnson TM, Merin LM. Source: Ophthalmology. 2001 October; 108(10): 1711-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11581024
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Slowly progressive retinal arteriovenous malformation and relative amblyopia. Author(s): Ehrt O. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2004 March; 122(3): 408-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15006865
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Spatial-frequency properties of letter identification in amblyopia. Author(s): Chung ST, Levi DM, Legge GE, Tjan BS. Source: Vision Research. 2002 June; 42(12): 1571-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12074951
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The assessment and management of strabismus and amblyopia: a national audit. Author(s): Wickham L, Stewart C, Charnock A, Fielder A. Source: Eye (London, England). 2002 September; 16(5): 522-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12194062
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The assessment of management of strabismus and amblyopia and national audit by Wickham. Author(s): Harrad RA, Williams C. Source: Eye (London, England). 2002 September; 16(5): 505-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12194058
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The axial length/disc area ratio in anisometropic hyperopic amblyopia: a hypothesis for decreased unilateral vision associated with hyperopic anisometropia. Author(s): Lempert P. Source: Ophthalmology. 2004 February; 111(2): 304-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15019380
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The history of research into the disorders of reading and accommodation in strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Piper HF. Source: Strabismus. 2002 June; 10(2): 83-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12221486
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The site of amblyopia. Author(s): Crewther DP. Source: Clinical & Experimental Optometry : Journal of the Australian Optometrical Association. 2002 January; 85(1): 49-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11952399
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Undercounting features and missing features: evidence for a high-level deficit in strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Sharma V, Levi DM, Klein SA. Source: Nature Neuroscience. 2000 May; 3(5): 496-501. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10769391
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Unifying concepts in mechanism of amblyopia. Author(s): Tong LM. Source: Medical Hypotheses. 1997 February; 48(2): 97-102. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9076690
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Unilateral or asymmetric congenital ptosis, head posturing, and amblyopia. Author(s): Fiergang DL, Wright KW, Foster JA. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1999 March-April; 36(2): 74-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10204133
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Unilateral peripapillary myelinated retinal nerve fibers associated with strabismus, amblyopia, and myopia. Author(s): Kasmann-Kellner B, Ruprecht KW. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1998 December; 126(6): 853. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9860023
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Unilateral peripapillary myelinated retinal nerve fibers associated with strabismus, amblyopia, and myopia. Author(s): Lee MS, Gonzalez C. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1998 April; 125(4): 554-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9559744
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Untreated essential infantile esotropia: factors affecting the development of amblyopia. Author(s): Calcutt C, Murray AD. Source: Eye (London, England). 1998; 12 ( Pt 2): 167-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9683932
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Update on squint and amblyopia. Author(s): Adams GG, Sloper JJ. Source: Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 2003 January; 96(1): 3-6. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12519794
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Update on strabismus and amblyopia. Author(s): Campos EC. Source: Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. Supplement. 1995; (214): 17-24; Discussion 24-5. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8574880
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Upper age limit for the development of amblyopia. Author(s): Keech RV, Kutschke PJ. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1995 March-April; 32(2): 89-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7629676
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Validity of the Bruckner reflex in the detection of amblyopia. Author(s): Gole GA, Douglas LM. Source: Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology. 1995 November; 23(4): 281-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11980073
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Vision therapy for amblyopia? Author(s): Kushner BJ, Doolittle JW, Doolittle H. Source: Postgraduate Medicine. 2002 October; 112(4): 16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12400148
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Visual acuities and scotomas after 3 weeks' levodopa administration in adult amblyopia. Author(s): Gottlob I, Wizov SS, Reinecke RD. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 1995 July; 233(7): 407-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7557504
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Visual acuities and scotomas after one week levodopa administration in human amblyopia. Author(s): Gottlob I, Charlier J, Reinecke RD. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1992 August; 33(9): 2722-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1639618
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Visual acuity and color vision deficiency in amblyopia. Author(s): Kocak-Altintas AG, Satana B, Kocak I, Duman S. Source: Eur J Ophthalmol. 2000 January-March; 10(1): 77-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10744210
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Visual acuity, amblyopia, and ocular pathology in 12- to 13-year-old children in Northern Mexico. Author(s): Ohlsson J, Villarreal G, Sjostrom A, Cavazos H, Abrahamsson M, Sjostrand J. Source: J Aapos. 2003 February; 7(1): 47-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12690370
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Visual acuity, residual amblyopia and ocular pathology in a screened population of 12-13-year-old children in Sweden. Author(s): Ohlsson J, Villarreal G, Sjostrom A, Abrahamsson M, Sjostrand J. Source: Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. 2001 December; 79(6): 589-95. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11782225
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Visual evoked response in different types of amblyopia before and after occlusion therapy. Author(s): Datta H, Choudhuri BR, Datta S. Source: J Indian Med Assoc. 1998 April; 96(4): 109-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9844331
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West Indian amblyopia. Author(s): Fasler JJ, Rose FC. Source: Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1980 July; 56(657): 494-500. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7443605
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West Indian amblyopia. Author(s): MacKenzie AD, Phillips CI. Source: Brain; a Journal of Neurology. 1968 June; 91(2): 249-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5721928
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Whole blood cyanide levels in patients with tobacco amblyopia. Author(s): Jestico JV, O'Brien MD, Teoh R, Toseland PA, Wong HC. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1984 June; 47(6): 573-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6610725
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Why are we so bad at treating amblyopia? Author(s): Gregson R. Source: Eye (London, England). 2002 July; 16(4): 461-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12101454
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Wide field gratings--room to optimize amblyopia treatment? Comments upon Westall (1981). Author(s): Piggins D. Source: Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics : the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists). 1982; 2(3): 239-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7177652
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Yellow spectacles to improve vision in children with binocular amblyopia. Author(s): Fowler MS, Mason AJ, Richardson A, Stein JF. Source: Lancet. 1991 November 2; 338(8775): 1109-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1682545
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CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND AMBLYOPIA Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to find studies dedicated specifically to nutrition and amblyopia.
Finding Nutrition Studies on Amblyopia The National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) offers a searchable bibliographic database called the IBIDS (International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements; National Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 1B29, 31 Center Drive, MSC 2086, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2086, Tel: 301-435-2920, Fax: 301-480-1845, E-mail:
[email protected]). The IBIDS contains over 460,000 scientific citations and summaries about dietary supplements and nutrition as well as references to published international, scientific literature on dietary supplements such as vitamins, minerals, and botanicals.4 The IBIDS includes references and citations to both human and animal research studies. As a service of the ODS, access to the IBIDS database is available free of charge at the following Web address: http://ods.od.nih.gov/databases/ibids.html. After entering the search area, you have three choices: (1) IBIDS Consumer Database, (2) Full IBIDS Database, or (3) Peer Reviewed Citations Only. Now that you have selected a database, click on the “Advanced” tab. An advanced search allows you to retrieve up to 100 fully explained references in a comprehensive format. Type “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” To narrow the search, you can also select the “Title” field.
4
Adapted from http://ods.od.nih.gov. IBIDS is produced by the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the National Institutes of Health to assist the public, healthcare providers, educators, and researchers in locating credible, scientific information on dietary supplements. IBIDS was developed and will be maintained through an interagency partnership with the Food and Nutrition Information Center of the National Agricultural Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
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The following information is typical of that found when using the “Full IBIDS Database” to search for “amblyopia” (or a synonym): •
A randomized trial of atropine vs. patching for treatment of moderate amblyopia in children. Author(s): Jaeb Center for Health Research, Tampa, Fla. USA. Source: Arch-Ophthalmol. 2002 March; 120(3): 268-78 0003-9950
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Atropine occlusion in the treatment of strabismic amblyopia and its effect upon the non-amblyopic eye. Author(s): Laboratory of Experimental Optometry, University of Wales, Cardiff, UK. Source: North, R V Kelly, M E Ophthalmic-Physiol-Opt. 1991 April; 11(2): 113-7 02755408
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The amblyopia treatment study visual acuity testing protocol. Author(s): Mayo Clinic, Ophthalmology West 7, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
[email protected] Source: Holmes, J M Beck, R W Repka, M X Leske, D A Kraker, R T Blair, R C Moke, P S Birch, E E Saunders, R A Hertle, R W Quinn, G E Simons, K A Miller, J M ArchOphthalmol. 2001 September; 119(9): 1345-53 0003-9950
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The clinical profile of moderate amblyopia in children younger than 7 years. Author(s): Jaeb Center for Health Research, Tampa, Fla., USA. Source: Arch-Ophthalmol. 2002 March; 120(3): 281-7 0003-9950
Federal Resources on Nutrition In addition to the IBIDS, the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provide many sources of information on general nutrition and health. Recommended resources include: •
healthfinder®, HHS’s gateway to health information, including diet and nutrition: http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/SearchContext.asp?topic=238&page=0
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The United States Department of Agriculture’s Web site dedicated to nutrition information: www.nutrition.gov
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The Food and Drug Administration’s Web site for federal food safety information: www.foodsafety.gov
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The National Action Plan on Overweight and Obesity sponsored by the United States Surgeon General: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/
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The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition has an Internet site sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/
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Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.usda.gov/cnpp/
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Food and Nutrition Information Center, National Agricultural Library sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/
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Food and Nutrition Service sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.fns.usda.gov/fns/
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Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering food and nutrition. The following is a representative sample: •
AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=174&layer=&from=subcats
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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_nutrition.html
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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Nutrition/
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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/
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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Nutrition/
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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Nutrition/
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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/nutrition
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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html
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CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND AMBLYOPIA Overview In this chapter, we will begin by introducing you to official information sources on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) relating to amblyopia. At the conclusion of this chapter, we will provide additional sources.
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National Institutes of Health (http://nccam.nih.gov/) has created a link to the National Library of Medicine’s databases to facilitate research for articles that specifically relate to amblyopia and complementary medicine. To search the database, go to the following Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html. Select “CAM on PubMed.” Enter “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the search box. Click “Go.” The following references provide information on particular aspects of complementary and alternative medicine that are related to amblyopia: •
1999 Costenbader Lecture. Outcome study in amblyopia: treatment and practice pattern variations. Author(s): Mazow ML, Chuang A, Vital MC, Prager T. Source: J Aapos. 2000 February; 4(1): 1-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10675864
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A comparison of atropine and patching treatments for moderate amblyopia by patient age, cause of amblyopia, depth of amblyopia, and other factors. Author(s): Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: Ophthalmology. 2003 August; 110(8): 1632-7; Discussion 1637-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12917184
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A comparison of the spectral sensitivities of monkeys with anisometropic and stimulus deprivation amblyopia. Author(s): Smith EL 3rd, Harwerth RS, Duncan GC, Crawford ML.
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Source: Behavioural Brain Research. 1986 October; 22(1): 13-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3790234 •
A follow-up study of suppression amblyopia in children previously subjected to hypnotherapy. Author(s): SMITH GG, CRASILNECK HB, BROWNING CW. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1961 November; 52: 690-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=13914230
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A preliminary report about the relation between visual acuity increase and compliance in patching therapy for amblyopia. Author(s): Loudon SE, Polling JR, Simonsz HJ. Source: Strabismus. 2002 June; 10(2): 79-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12221485
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A prospective, pilot study of treatment of amblyopia in children 10 to <18 years old. Author(s): Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2004 March; 137(3): 581-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15013894
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A randomized trial of atropine vs. patching for treatment of moderate amblyopia in children. Author(s): Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2002 March; 120(3): 268-78. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11879129
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A randomized trial of patching regimens for treatment of moderate amblyopia in children. Author(s): Repka MX, Beck RW, Holmes JM, Birch EE, Chandler DL, Cotter SA, Hertle RW, Kraker RT, Moke PS, Quinn GE, Scheiman MM; Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2003 May; 121(5): 603-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12742836
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A randomized trial of prescribed patching regimens for treatment of severe amblyopia in children. Author(s): Holmes JM, Kraker RT, Beck RW, Birch EE, Cotter SA, Everett DF, Hertle RW, Quinn GE, Repka MX, Scheiman MM, Wallace DK; Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: Ophthalmology. 2003 November; 110(11): 2075-87. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14597512
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Achromatopsia with amblyopia. II. A psychophysical study of 5 cases. Author(s): Auerbach E, Kripke B. Source: Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology. 1974 April 26; 37(1): 119-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4545906
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Adie syndrome: evidence for refractive error and accomodative asymmetry as the cause of amblyopia. Author(s): Firth AY. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 July; 128(1): 118-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10482113
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Against-the-rule (ATR) astigmatism as a predicting factor for the outcome of amblyopia treatment. Author(s): Somer D, Budak K, Demirci S, Duman S. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002 June; 133(6): 741-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12036662
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Amblyopia and strabismus in congenital ptosis. Author(s): Harrad RA, Graham CM, Collin JR. Source: Eye (London, England). 1988; 2 ( Pt 6): 625-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3256499
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Amblyopia in 4-year-old children treated with grating stimulation and full-time occlusion; a comparative study. Author(s): Lennerstrand G, Samuelsson B. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1983 March; 67(3): 181-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6337624
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Amblyopia in congenital glaucoma. Author(s): Clothier CM, Rice NS, Dobinson P, Wakefield E. Source: Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1979; 99(3): 427-31. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=298826
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Amblyopia in congenital ptosis. Author(s): Hornblass A, Kass LG, Ziffer AJ. Source: Ophthalmic Surg. 1995 July-August; 26(4): 334-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8532286
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Amblyopia induced by anisometropia without shrinkage of ocular dominance columns in human striate cortex. Author(s): Horton JC, Stryker MP.
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Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1993 June 15; 90(12): 5494-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8390668 •
Amblyopia occurs in retinal ganglion cells in cats reared with convergent squint without alternating fixation. Author(s): Ikeda H, Tremain KE. Source: Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale. 1979 May 2; 35(3): 559-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=456457
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Amblyopia results from chronic blurring of visual images during development. Author(s): Deering KR, Peck CK. Source: Brain Research. 1984 August; 317(2): 302-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6478255
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Amblyopia treatment outcomes after screening before or at age 3 years: follow up from randomised trial. Author(s): Williams C, Northstone K, Harrad RA, Sparrow JM, Harvey I; ALSPAC Study Team. Source: Bmj (Clinical Research Ed.). 2002 June 29; 324(7353): 1549. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12089090
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Amblyopia. Author(s): DeRespinis P, Medow N, Olitsky SE. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2003 May-June; 40(3): 1325. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12795429
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Amblyopia. Author(s): Awaya S, Watanabe Y. Source: Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 1995 October; 6(5): 9-14. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10159724
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Amblyopia. Author(s): Campos E. Source: Survey of Ophthalmology. 1995 July-August; 40(1): 23-39. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8545799
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Amblyopia: a multidisciplinary approach. Proctor lecture. Author(s): von Noorden GK.
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Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1985 December; 26(12): 1704-16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3934105 •
Amblyopia: theories on its etiology. Author(s): Phelps G. Source: Ophthalmic Semin. 1976; 1(1): 1-19. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=828711
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Amblyopia--or lazy eye. Author(s): Fraser H. Source: Aust Fam Physician. 1995 June; 24(6): 1021-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7625935
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An efficient treatment and new criteria for cure of strabismic amblyopia: reading and Bangerter foils. Author(s): Lang J. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 1999 Spring; 14(1): 9-10. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10076102
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Animal models of strabismic amblyopia: comparative behavioral studies. Author(s): Mower GD, Duffy FH. Source: Behavioural Brain Research. 1983 February; 7(2): 239-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6830653
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Anisometropic amblyopia: is the patient ever too old to treat? Author(s): Wick B, Wingard M, Cotter S, Scheiman M. Source: Optometry and Vision Science : Official Publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 1992 November; 69(11): 866-78. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1454304
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Anisometropic and strabismic amblyopia in the age group 2 years and above: a prospective study of the results of treatment. Author(s): Lithander J, Sjostrand J. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1991 February; 75(2): 111-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1995038
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Anterior chamber iris-fixated phakic intraocular lens for anisometropic amblyopia. Author(s): Saxena R, van Minderhout HM, Luyten GP. Source: Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery. 2003 April; 29(4): 835-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12686258
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Atropine penalisation versus occlusion as the primary treatment for amblyopia. Author(s): Foley-Nolan A, McCann A, O'Keefe M. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1997 January; 81(1): 54-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9135409
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Atropine vs. patching for the treatment of moderate amblyopia in children. Author(s): Kushner BJ. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2002 March; 120(3): 387-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11879145
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Behavioral and anatomical aspects of experimental amblyopia in monkeys. Author(s): von Noorden GK. Source: Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1973; 71: 111-23; Discussions 124-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10949593
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Behavioral studies of stimulus deprivation amblyopia in monkeys. Author(s): Harwerth RS, Crawford ML, Smith EL 3rd, Boltz RL. Source: Vision Research. 1981; 21(6): 779-89. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7314454
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Bilateral deprivation amblyopia. Author(s): Singh G, Schulz E. Source: Ann Ophthalmol. 1984 January; 16(1): 86-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6703579
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Blue filter amblyopia treatment protocol for strabismic amblyopia: a prospective comparative study of 50 cases. Author(s): Metzler U, Ham O, Flores V, Claramunt M, Sepulveda C, Casanova D. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 1998 Winter; 13(4): 241-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9852438
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Central and peripheral residual vision in humans with bilateral deprivation amblyopia. Author(s): Mioche L, Perenin MT.
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Changes in the visual evoked response during and after occlusion therapy for amblyopia. Author(s): Barnard WM, Arden GB. Source: Child: Care, Health and Development. 1979 November-December; 5(6): 421-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=527215
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Combined optical and atropine penalization for the treatment of strabismic and anisometropic amblyopia. Author(s): Kaye SB, Chen SI, Price G, Kaye LC, Noonan C, Tripathi A, Ashwin P, Cota N, Clark D, Butcher J. Source: J Aapos. 2002 October; 6(5): 289-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12381987
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Comparison of pattern-onset, -reversal and -offset VEPs in treated amblyopia. Author(s): Shawkat FS, Kriss A, Timms C, Taylor DS. Source: Eye (London, England). 1998; 12 ( Pt 5): 863-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10070525
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Competitive neuronal interactions underlying amblyopia. Author(s): Cynader MS. Source: Hum Neurobiol. 1982 March; 1(1): 35-9. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6764458
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Contour integration deficits in anisometropic amblyopia. Author(s): Chandna A, Pennefather PM, Kovacs I, Norcia AM. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2001 March; 42(3): 875-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11222553
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Critical period for deprivation amblyopia in children. Author(s): Vaegan, Taylor D. Source: Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1979; 99(3): 432-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=298827
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Current state of therapy for amblyopia. Author(s): Eggers HM. Source: Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1979; 99(3): 457-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=298832
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Cytidin-5'-diphosphocholine enhances the effect of part-time occlusion in amblyopia. Author(s): Campos EC, Bolzani R, Schiavi C, Baldi A, Porciatti V. Source: Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology. 1996-97; 93(3): 24763. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9550353
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Detection, prevention, and rehabilitation of amblyopia. Author(s): LaRoche GR. Source: Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 2000 October; 11(5): 306-9. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11148694
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Development of the neural basis of visual acuity in monkeys: speculation on the origin of deprivation amblyopia. Author(s): Blakemore C, Vital-Durand F. Source: Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1979; 99(3): 363-8. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=298814
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Developmental sensory impairment: amblyopia or tarachopia? Author(s): Hess RF. Source: Hum Neurobiol. 1982 March; 1(1): 17-29. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7185777
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Does amblyopia protect against age-related maculopathy? Author(s): Campos EC, Schiavi C, Baldi A. Source: International Ophthalmology. 1998-99; 22(4): 193-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10674860
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Effect of occlusion on the visual evoked response in amblyopia. Author(s): Arden GB, Barnard WM. Source: Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1979; 99(3): 419-26. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=298825
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Efficacy and stability of amblyopia therapy. Author(s): Rutstein RP, Fuhr PS. Source: Optometry and Vision Science : Official Publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 1992 October; 69(10): 747-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1436994
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Efficacy of treatment modalities in refractive amblyopia. Author(s): Krumholtz I, FitzGerald D.
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Efficacy of vision therapy in amblyopia: a literature review. Author(s): Garzia RP. Source: Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1987 June; 64(6): 393-404. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3307436
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Electronic monitoring of treatment compliance in patching for amblyopia. Author(s): Fielder AR. Source: Survey of Ophthalmology. 2000 May-June; 44(6): 539-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10914521
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Electronic monitoring of treatment compliance in patching for amblyopia. Author(s): Simonsz HJ, Polling JR, Voorn R, van Leeuwen J, Meester H, Romijn C, Dijkstra BG. Source: Strabismus. 1999 June; 7(2): 113-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10420216
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Electronically measured compliance with occlusion therapy for amblyopia is related to visual acuity increase. Author(s): Loudon SE, Polling JR, Simonsz HJ. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 2003 March; 241(3): 176-80. Epub 2003 February 08. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12644939
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Eradicating amblyopia before surgery. Author(s): Campos EC. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1998 January-February; 35(1): 6-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9503307
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Experimental amblyopia in monkeys. Further behavioral observations and clinical correlations. Author(s): von Noorden GK. Source: Invest Ophthalmol. 1973 October; 12(10): 721-6. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4206139
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Experimental amblyopia in monkeys. I. Behavioral studies of stimulus deprivation amblyopia. Author(s): Von Noorden GK, Dowling JE, Ferguson DC.
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Experimental amblyopia. Author(s): Noorden GK. Source: Isr J Med Sci. 1972 August-September; 8(8): 1496-9. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4630597
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Experimental analysis of amblyopia and strabismus. Author(s): Blakemore C, Van Sluyters RC. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1974 March; 58(3): 176-82. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4600340
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Factors affecting long term results of successfully treated amblyopia: initial visual acuity and type of amblyopia. Author(s): Levartovsky S, Oliver M, Gottesman N, Shimshoni M. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1995 March; 79(3): 225-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7703198
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Factors affecting long-term results of successfully treated amblyopia: age at beginning of treatment and age at cessation of monitoring. Author(s): Levartovsky S, Gottesman N, Shimshoni M, Oliver M. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1992 July-August; 29(4): 219-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1512662
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Factors affecting the outcome of children treated for amblyopia. Author(s): Woodruff G, Hiscox F, Thompson JR, Smith LK. Source: Eye (London, England). 1994; 8 ( Pt 6): 627-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7867817
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Factors involved in the production of amblyopia. Author(s): Von Noorden GK. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1974 March; 58(3): 158-64. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4209595
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Form vision deprivation amblyopia: further observations. Author(s): Awaya S, Miyake S. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 1988; 226(2): 132-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3360338
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Full-time atropine, intermittent atropine, and optical penalization and binocular outcome in treatment of strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Simons K, Stein L, Sener EC, Vitale S, Guyton DL. Source: Ophthalmology. 1997 December; 104(12): 2143-55. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9400777
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Full-time occlusion compared to part-time occlusion for the treatment of amblyopia. Author(s): Hug T. Source: Optometry. 2004 April; 75(4): 241-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15117057
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Functional amblyopia and social deprivation-- a report on eight cases. Author(s): HIRSCH MJ. Source: Am J Optom Arch Am Acad Optom. 1965 April; 42: 244-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14316767
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Functional visual loss in amblyopia and the effect of occlusion therapy. Author(s): Simmers AJ, Gray LS, McGraw PV, Winn B. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1999 November; 40(12): 2859-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10549646
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Giant hairy nevus: preventable cause of amblyopia. Author(s): Antinone RL, Helveston EM, Bennett JE, Keener P. Source: J Pediatr Ophthalmol. 1976 July-August; 13(4): 192-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1018200
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Histological studies of the visual system in monkeys with experimental amblyopia. Author(s): von Noorden GK. Source: Invest Ophthalmol. 1973 October; 12(10): 727-38. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4206140
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Impact of patching and atropine treatment on the child and family in the amblyopia treatment study. Author(s): Holmes JM, Beck RW, Kraker RT, Cole SR, Repka MX, Birch EE, Felius J, Christiansen SP, Coats DK, Kulp MT; Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2003 November; 121(11): 1625-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14609923
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Is it mandatory to treat amblyopia prior to surgery in esotropia? Author(s): Dadeya S, Kamlesh MS.
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Levodopa/carbidopa for childhood amblyopia. Author(s): Leguire LE, Rogers GL, Bremer DL, Walson PD, McGregor ML. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1993 October; 34(11): 3090-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8407216
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Levodopa/carbidopa treatment for amblyopia in older children. Author(s): Leguire LE, Walson PD, Rogers GL, Bremer DL, McGregor ML. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1995 May-June; 32(3): 14351. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7636693
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Levodopa-carbidopa with occlusion in older children with amblyopia. Author(s): Bhartiya P, Sharma P, Biswas NR, Tandon R, Khokhar SK. Source: J Aapos. 2002 December; 6(6): 368-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12506278
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Longitudinal study of levodopa/carbidopa for childhood amblyopia. Author(s): Leguire LE, Walson PD, Rogers GL, Bremer DL, McGregor ML. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1993 November-December; 30(6): 354-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8120739
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Long-term follow-up of occlusion therapy in amblyopia. Author(s): Leiba H, Shimshoni M, Oliver M, Gottesman N, Levartovsky S. Source: Ophthalmology. 2001 September; 108(9): 1552-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11535448
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Meridional amblyopia in monkeys. Author(s): Harwerth RS, Smith EL 3rd, Boltz RL. Source: Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale. 1980; 39(3): 351-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6772462
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New clinical aspects of stimulus deprivation amblyopia. Author(s): von Noorden GK. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1981 September; 92(3): 416-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7294102
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Oblique effects, vertical effects and meridional amblyopia in monkeys. Author(s): Harwerth RS, Smith EL 3rd, Okundaye OJ. Source: Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale. 1983; 53(1): 142-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6673992
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Observations in patients with occlusion amblyopia: results of treatment. Author(s): Awaya S, Sugawara M, Miyake S. Source: Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1979; 99(3): 447-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=298830
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Occlusion and levodopa-carbidopa treatment for childhood amblyopia. Author(s): Leguire LE, Rogers GL, Walson PD, Bremer DL, McGregor ML. Source: J Aapos. 1998 October; 2(5): 257-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10646745
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Occlusion for amblyopia: a comprehensive survey of outcome. Author(s): Hiscox F, Strong N, Thompson JR, Minshull C, Woodruff G. Source: Eye (London, England). 1992; 6 ( Pt 3): 300-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1446765
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Occlusion therapy for strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Elder MJ. Source: Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology. 1994 August; 22(3): 187-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7818877
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Occlusion therapy of Japanese children with anisometropic amblyopia without strabismus. Author(s): Noda S, Hayasaka S, Setogawa T. Source: Ann Ophthalmol. 1993 April; 25(4): 145-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8484657
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Outcome of occlusion treatment for amblyopia. Author(s): Beardsell R, Clarke S, Hill M. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1999 January-February; 36(1): 19-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9972510
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PEDIG study on amblyopia; vision therapy by atropine penalization versus occlusion. Author(s): Kowal L.
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Penalization versus part-time occlusion and binocular outcome in treatment of strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Simons K, Gotzler KC, Vitale S. Source: Ophthalmology. 1997 December; 104(12): 2156-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9400778
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Preferential looking techniques yield important information in strabismic amblyopia follow-up. Author(s): Brovarone FV, Fea A, Chiado Piat L, Porro G, Ponzetto M, Cortassa F. Source: Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology. 1993; 83(4): 307-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8223100
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Prevalence and causes of amblyopia in an adult population. Author(s): Attebo K, Mitchell P, Cumming R, Smith W, Jolly N, Sparkes R. Source: Ophthalmology. 1998 January; 105(1): 154-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9442792
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Prognostic value of visual evoked responses in childhood amblyopia. Author(s): Henc-Petrinovic L, Deban N, Gabric N, Petrinovic J. Source: Eur J Ophthalmol. 1993 July-September; 3(3): 114-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8219733
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Recovery from monocular stimulus deprivation amblyopia in the kitten. Author(s): Van Sluyters RC. Source: Ophthalmology. 1978 May; 85(5): 478-88. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=353621
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Refractive amblyopia: its classification, etiology, and epidemiology. Author(s): Amos JF. Source: J Am Optom Assoc. 1977 April; 48(4): 489-95. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=874274
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Results of amblyopia therapy in eyes with unilateral structural abnormalities. Author(s): Bradford GM, Kutschke PJ, Scott WE. Source: Ophthalmology. 1992 October; 99(10): 1616-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1454331
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Results of occlusion therapy in anisomyopic amblyopia with myelinated nerve fibers. Author(s): Kasmann B, Hoh H, Ruprecht KW.
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Results of treatment of amblyopia with a screening program for early detection. Author(s): Lennerstrand G, Rydberg A. Source: Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. Supplement. 1996; (219): 42-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8741117
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Role of intracortical inhibition in deprivation amblyopia: reversal by microiontophoretic bicuculline. Author(s): Burchfiel JL, Duffy FH. Source: Brain Research. 1981 February 16; 206(2): 479-84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7214147
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Slow control of eye position in strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Schor C, Hallmark W. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1978 June; 17(6): 577-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=659082
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Some observations on the mechanism of tobacco amblyopia and its treatment with sodium thiosulphate. Author(s): Phillips CI, Wang MK, Van Peborgh PF. Source: Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1970; 90: 809-26. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4997473
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Steroid injection versus conservative treatment of anisometropia amblyopia in juvenile adnexal hemangioma. Author(s): Motwani MV, Simon JW, Pickering JD, Catalano RA, Jenkins PL. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1995 January-February; 32(1): 26-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7752030
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Stimulus deprivation amblyopia in children. Sensitivity, plasticity, and elasticity (SPE). Author(s): Jastrzebski GB, Hoyt CS, Marg E. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1984 July; 102(7): 1030-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6743080
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Stimulus deprivation amblyopia in human congenital ptosis: a study of 100 patients. Author(s): Gusek-Schneider GC, Martus P.
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Source: Strabismus. 2000 December; 8(4): 261-70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11262686 •
Stimulus deprivation amblyopia. Author(s): Wybar K. Source: Isr J Med Sci. 1972 August-September; 8(8): 1482-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4675094
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Stimulus deprivation amblyopia. Simultaneous recording of local macular electroretinogram and visual evoked response. Author(s): Miyake Y, Awaya S. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1984 July; 102(7): 998-1003. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6743095
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Strabismus and amblyopia: where are we going? Author(s): Guyton DL. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2000 Winter; 15(4): 322-3. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11093090
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Successful amblyopia therapy initiated after age 7 years: compliance cures. Author(s): Mintz-Hittner HA, Fernandez KM. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2000 November; 118(11): 1535-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11074810
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Successful occlusion therapy for amblyopia in 11- to 15-year-old children. Author(s): Mohan K, Saroha V, Sharma A. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2004 March-April; 41(2): 89-95. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15089063
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Suction-cup occluder for amblyopia therapy. Author(s): Deutsch JA, Nelson LB. Source: Ophthalmic Surg. 1989 March; 20(3): 217. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2710492
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The amblyopia treatment index. Author(s): Cole SR, Beck RW, Moke PS, Celano MP, Drews CD, Repka MX, Holmes JM, Birch EE, Kraker RT, Kip KE; Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: J Aapos. 2001 August; 5(4): 250-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11507585
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The amblyopia treatment study visual acuity testing protocol. Author(s): Holmes JM, Beck RW, Repka MX, Leske DA, Kraker RT, Blair RC, Moke PS, Birch EE, Saunders RA, Hertle RW, Quinn GE, Simons KA, Miller JM; Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2001 September; 119(9): 1345-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11545641
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The clinical profile of moderate amblyopia in children younger than 7 years. Author(s): Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2002 March; 120(3): 281-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11879130
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The course of moderate amblyopia treated with atropine in children: experience of the amblyopia treatment study. Author(s): Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2003 October; 136(4): 630-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14516802
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The course of moderate amblyopia treated with patching in children: experience of the amblyopia treatment study. Author(s): Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2003 October; 136(4): 620-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14516801
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The degree of image degradation and the depth of amblyopia. Author(s): Smith EL 3rd, Hung LF, Harwerth RS. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2000 November; 41(12): 3775-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11053276
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The effect of increasing doses of levodopa on children with strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Procianoy E, Fuchs FD, Procianoy L, Procianoy F. Source: J Aapos. 1999 December; 3(6): 337-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10613576
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The effect of patient compliance on the assessment of amblyopia treatment. Author(s): Bloom JN. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2004 March; 122(3): 422; Author Reply 424-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15006871
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The effectiveness of patching for amblyopia should be tested with untreated control subjects. Author(s): Lempert P.
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Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2004 March; 122(3): 423-4; Author Reply 424-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15006873 •
The experimental use of hypnosis in suppression amblyopia: a preliminary report. Author(s): BROWNING CW, CRASILNECK HB. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1957 October; 44(4, Part 1): 468-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=13469930
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The minimum occlusion trial for the treatment of amblyopia. Author(s): Keech RV, Ottar W, Zhang L. Source: Ophthalmology. 2002 December; 109(12): 2261-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12466168
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The pharmacology of amblyopia. Author(s): Duffy FH, Burchfiel JL, Snodgrass SR. Source: Ophthalmology. 1978 May; 85(5): 489-95. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=353622
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The present and potential impact of research on animal models for clinical treatment of stimulus deprivation amblyopia. Author(s): Mitchell DE, MacKinnon S. Source: Clinical & Experimental Optometry : Journal of the Australian Optometrical Association. 2002 January; 85(1): 5-18. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11952391
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The relationship between stereopsis and visual acuity after occlusion therapy for amblyopia. Author(s): Lee SY, Isenberg SJ. Source: Ophthalmology. 2003 November; 110(11): 2088-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14597513
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The role of compliance in 2 vs 6 hours of patching in children with amblyopia. Author(s): Gottlob I, Awan M, Proudlock F. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2004 March; 122(3): 422-3; Author Reply 424-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15006872
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The sensitive period for strabismic amblyopia. Author(s): Assaf AA. Source: Ophthalmology. 1993 October; 100(10): 1433-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8414400
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The therapy of amblyopia: an analysis comparing the results of amblyopia therapy utilizing two pooled data sets. Author(s): Flynn JT, Woodruff G, Thompson JR, Hiscox F, Feuer W, Schiffman J, Corona A, Smith LK. Source: Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1999; 97: 373-90; Discussion 390-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10703134
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The use of hypnosis in suppression amblyopia of children. Author(s): BROWNING CW, QUINN LH, CRASILNECK HB. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1958 July; 46(1, Part 1): 53-67. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=13545311
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The visually evoked potential in humans with amblyopia: pseudorandom modulation of uniform field and sine-wave gratings. Author(s): Manny RE, Levi DM. Source: Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale. 1982; 47(1): 15-27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7117438
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Timing of amblyopia therapy relative to strabismus surgery. Author(s): Lam GC, Repka MX, Guyton DL. Source: Ophthalmology. 1993 December; 100(12): 1751-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8259271
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Transient monocular diplopia resulting from the treatment of amblyopia. Author(s): Cackett P, Weir C, Houston CA. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2003 July-August; 40(4): 245-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12908542
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Treatment for amblyopia: results using occlusive contact lens. Author(s): Eustis HS, Chamberlain D. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1996 November-December; 33(6): 319-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8934415
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Treatment of amblyopia and surgical outcome. Author(s): von Noorden GK. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 1998 January-February; 35(1): 5-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9503306
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Treatment of amblyopia by extended-wear occlusion soft contact lenses. Author(s): Tsubota K, Yamada M. Source: Ophthalmologica. Journal International D'ophtalmologie. International Journal of Ophthalmology. Zeitschrift Fur Augenheilkunde. 1994; 208(4): 214-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7970550
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Treatment of refractive amblyopia in adults. Author(s): Saulles H. Source: J Am Optom Assoc. 1987 December; 58(12): 959-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3429755
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Two infant vision screening programmes: prediction and prevention of strabismus and amblyopia from photo- and videorefractive screening. Author(s): Atkinson J, Braddick O, Robier B, Anker S, Ehrlich D, King J, Watson P, Moore A. Source: Eye (London, England). 1996; 10 ( Pt 2): 189-98. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8776448
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Understanding the neural basis of amblyopia. Author(s): Barrett BT, Bradley A, McGraw PV. Source: The Neuroscientist : a Review Journal Bringing Neurobiology, Neurology and Psychiatry. 2004 April; 10(2): 106-17. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15070485
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Visual acuities after levodopa administration in amblyopia. Author(s): Mohan K, Dhankar V, Sharma A. Source: Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2001 March-April; 38(2): 62-7; Quiz 96-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11310708
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Visual improvement in amblyopia after visual loss in the dominant eye. Author(s): Rabin J. Source: Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1984 May; 61(5): 334-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6203410
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Visual rehabilitation in a child with diffuse choroidal hemangioma by using aggressive amblyopia therapy with low-dose external beam irradiation. Author(s): Packwood EA, Havertape SA, Cruz OA, Mann ES. Source: J Aapos. 2000 October; 4(5): 321-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11040486
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Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering CAM and related topics. The following is a representative sample: •
Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.: http://www.herbmed.org/
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AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=169&layer=&from=subcats
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Chinese Medicine: http://www.newcenturynutrition.com/
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drkoop.com: http://www.drkoop.com/InteractiveMedicine/IndexC.html
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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_altn.htm
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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Alternative/
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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/
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MedWebPlus: http://medwebplus.com/subject/Alternative_and_Complementary_Medicine
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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/
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HealthGate: http://www.tnp.com/
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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/drugs_and_herbs
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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html
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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Alternative_Medicine/
General References A good place to find general background information on CAM is the National Library of Medicine. It has prepared within the MEDLINEplus system an information topic page dedicated to complementary and alternative medicine. To access this page, go to the MEDLINEplus site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alternativemedicine.html. This Web site provides a general overview of various topics and can lead to a number of general sources.
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CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON AMBLYOPIA Overview In this chapter, we will give you a bibliography on recent dissertations relating to amblyopia. We will also provide you with information on how to use the Internet to stay current on dissertations. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical dissertations that use the generic term “amblyopia” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on amblyopia, we have not necessarily excluded nonmedical dissertations in this bibliography.
Dissertations on Amblyopia ProQuest Digital Dissertations, the largest archive of academic dissertations available, is located at the following Web address: http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations. From this archive, we have compiled the following list covering dissertations devoted to amblyopia. You will see that the information provided includes the dissertation’s title, its author, and the institution with which the author is associated. The following covers recent dissertations found when using this search procedure: •
A behavioral and neurophysiological investigation of experimentally induced amblyopia in cats by Murphy, Kathryn M; PhD from Dalhousie University (Canada), 1987 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NL40217
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DETERMINANTS OF COMPLIANCE TO OCULAR OCCLUSION THERAPY AMONG PEDIATRIC AMBLYOPIA PATIENTS by WOLFF, HANS JOACHIM, PHD from Loyola University of Chicago, 1984, 182 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8407157
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Keeping Current Ask the medical librarian at your library if it has full and unlimited access to the ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. From the library, you should be able to do more complete searches via http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations.
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CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON AMBLYOPIA Overview Patents can be physical innovations (e.g. chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment) or processes (e.g. treatments or diagnostic procedures). The United States Patent and Trademark Office defines a patent as a grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the Patent and Trademark Office.5 Patents, therefore, are intellectual property. For the United States, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date when the patent application was filed. If the inventor wishes to receive economic benefits, it is likely that the invention will become commercially available within 20 years of the initial filing. It is important to understand, therefore, that an inventor’s patent does not indicate that a product or service is or will be commercially available. The patent implies only that the inventor has “the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling” the invention in the United States. While this relates to U.S. patents, similar rules govern foreign patents. In this chapter, we show you how to locate information on patents and their inventors. If you find a patent that is particularly interesting to you, contact the inventor or the assignee for further information. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical patents that use the generic term “amblyopia” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on amblyopia, we have not necessarily excluded nonmedical patents in this bibliography.
Patents on Amblyopia By performing a patent search focusing on amblyopia, you can obtain information such as the title of the invention, the names of the inventor(s), the assignee(s) or the company that owns or controls the patent, a short abstract that summarizes the patent, and a few excerpts from the description of the patent. The abstract of a patent tends to be more technical in nature, while the description is often written for the public. Full patent descriptions contain much more information than is presented here (e.g. claims, references, figures, diagrams, etc.). We will tell you how to obtain this information later in the chapter. The following is an 5Adapted
from the United States Patent and Trademark Office: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/whatis.htm.
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example of the type of information that you can expect to obtain from a patent search on amblyopia: •
Acuity therapy unit Inventor(s): Diamond; Gary (Bryn Mawr, PA), O'Brien; Richard W. (Philadelphia, PA) Assignee(s): Visual Enhancement, Inc. (Philadelphia, PA) Patent Number: 4,726,672 Date filed: April 8, 1987 Abstract: An exercise device for improving poor visual acuity is disclosed in which a subject must identify randomly chosen figures of minimal visual stimulus projected in a darkened chamber. Earphones are provided to aid in the isolation of the subject and provide audio feedback. The device provides effective treatment for certain eye conditions involving poor acuity and is particularly effective in treating the eye condition known as amblyopia. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to treatment of eye conditions caused by a loss of acuity where the origin of that loss is in the retina or brain and not of a refractive/transparent nature. Of particular concern is the treatment of the eye condition known as amblyopia. Persons afflicted with amblyopia suffer from a mild to acute acuity loss in at least one of their eyes. This condition occurs despite a lack of evident structural change in the eye itself. The only accepted treatment for amblyopia is the use of "patch therapy" during early childhood. This is usually attempted between the ages of a few months and about nine years. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04726672__
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Amblyopia screening Inventor(s): Diddie; Kenneth R. (San Marino, CA), Hillis; Argye I. (Waco, TX), Walonker; Anne F. (Lomita, CA) Assignee(s): The Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore, MD), University of Southern California (Los Angeles, CA) Patent Number: 4,778,267 Date filed: March 8, 1982 Abstract: Pre-literate children are screened for amblyopia utilizing a simple device. A pair of eyepieces are mounted by a static structure so that the fields of view through the eyepieces are segregated. A card having two different, spaced pictorial representations of common physical objects or beings is mounted to the static structure so that the pictorial representations are visible through the eyepieces. If the pre-literate child is not able to accurately report both of the different pictorial representations on the card, the child is sent for more detailed testing. Excerpt(s): Amblyopia is a dimness of vision in the absence of a demonstrable structural defect, and it may occur gradually or suddenly and may effect both eyes or one eye. Amblyopia is often difficult to diagnose, and especially so in pre-literate children. Since proper treatment of amblyopia can be dependent upon how early it can be detected, it is desirable to recognize amblyopia in pre-literate children as early as possible. In this way learning problems associated with the dimness of vision, particularly dimness of central
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vision, for pre-literate children can be overcome. The invention relates to a method for screening pre-literate children for amblyopia and a simple screening device for use in accomplishing that purpose. The invention only relates to screening, and is not intended to provide positive diagnosis of amblyopia. However after screening according to the invention is practiced, those children without an amblyopic condition can be clearly identified, and any children falling outside of that category can be sent for more detailed testing. In this way unnecessary detailed testing of a large number of children is avoided, yet positive diagnosis of those having an amblyopic condition is facilitated. The simple screening device according to the invention comprises no moving parts although an indicia-containing card forming part of the structure may be removable and replaceable if desired. A pair of eyepieces are mounted by a static structure which segregates the fields of view through the eyepieces and maintains a fixed static relationship between them. The indicia-containing card has a face thereof with two different, spaced indicia formed thereon, the indicia each being a pictorial representation of a common physical object or being, so that a preliterate child will have no difficulty in identifying the object. The card is either permanently or detachably mounted to the static structure so that each pictorial representation is visible through one of the eyepieces, but not the other. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04778267__ •
Lens for diplopia and amblyopia and glasses using the same Inventor(s): Min; Byung-Moo (Taejon, KR) Assignee(s): Park; Jong-Deok (Taejon, KR) Patent Number: 5,900,921 Date filed: January 20, 1998 Abstract: Disclosed is a lens for treating the diplopia and amblyopia and glasses using the same including a concave and convex part wherein a concave part and a convex part are continuously and repeatedly formed on the overall surface of a lens body facing an eye ball of a person who wears the lens. Here, the concave pan has a radius of curvature of R and the convex part has a radius of curvature of r. The relation between R and r is R>>r. There is no esthetic defects ostensibly since an eye through the glasses using the lens look like a normal eye seen from the outside of the glasses and covers a normal eye on behalf of the conventional eye patch by hardly seeing an object of the outside seen from the inside of the glasses, thereby improving the eyesight of the patient suffering from the diplopia or the amblyopia. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a lens specially manufactured for treatment of a diplopia and a amblyopia and glasses using the same, and particularly to a lens for remedial treatment of a diplopia and amblyopia and glasses capable of increasing an effective treatment result and enhancing satisfaction of a wearer by compensating drawbacks in that a conventionally used eye patch has caused an inconvenience to a wearer and the wearer has avoided wearing the eye patch due to the deficiency in the esthetic sense. Amblylopia is defined as dimness of sight in one eye or in both eyes without an apparent organic defect, and most of the cases, it occurs in one eye. The Amblyopia is known to be caused by the interdiction of an appropriate visual impetus indispensable for development of eye sight in the early ages by strabismus, anisometropia, a heavy abnormal refraction and the like. However, it is a kind of disease curable to normalcy when treated in an early stage. The ratio of people suffering from the disease roughly amounts to 2% to 5% of the total population. Diplopia is defined as
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a condition of vision in which a single object appears double caused by a facial muscle paralysis and the like. The diplopia is known to be originated from the generation of strabismus caused by the nervous paralysis of orbit muscle resulting from the circulatory disorders such as diabetes, a high blood pressure and the like, and most of the cases, it is possible to recover from diplopia within six (6) months since the disease has occurred. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05900921__ •
Opto-cupped pedia patch Inventor(s): Gallamore; Deborah (129 17.sup.th St., Washougal, WA 98671) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,149,615 Date filed: November 23, 1998 Abstract: An improved occlusive self-adhesive eye patch, and a method of treatment for Amblyopia. A patch may successfully be applied over the left or right eye without restriction of eye movement or function. The patch comprises a non-adherent gauze pad or foam, having an adhesive for securing patch to the face over the eye socket. A slit from the patch's central bottom edge inward toward the center is present to allow for manual manipulation of the adhesive side transversely atop from the slit and adhering it to the non-adhesive side; therefore, the patch may be configured into an concavo-convex or outwardly cupped shape. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to eye patches, and in particular these employed by Optometric personnel and/or for the treatment of Amblyopia (am-bleeoh-pee-ah), or lazy eye. An occlusive patch for covering the good eye of a patient suffering from Amblyopia to regain part of full visional function. Lazy eye is the loss or lack of development of central vision in one eye that is unrelated to any eye health problem and is not correctable with lenses. It usually occurs before age six. Side vision is unaffected. Lazy eye usually results from failure to use both eyes together. It is often associated with crossed-eyes or a large difference in the degree of nearsightedness or farsightedness between the two eyes. Symptoms include noticeably favoring one eye or a tendency to bump into objects on one side. Symptoms, however are not always obvious. The earlier lazy eye is diagnosed, the greater the chance for complete recovery. This is one reason why children should see an optometrist for a thorough eye examination by six months of age. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06149615__
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Real image/red ray pulse and beep type amblyopia curing device Inventor(s): Sun; Han-Jun (Chung Ching, CN) Assignee(s): Cheng; Pei-Chang (TW) Patent Number: 5,304,168 Date filed: January 4, 1993 Abstract: A real image/red ray pulse and beep type amblyopia curing device is designed to take into account the "Substitutive Suppressed Competition" theory and includes a main frame, a red ray projector, a real image projector, and an electronic
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circuit composed of a power supply circuit, a speaker circuit, a real image/red ray projector circuit, an oscillation circuit, a red lamp connected to the oscillation circuit, a real image lamp connected to the power supply, and a real image/red ray selector switch, in which the real image lamp is installed at the bottom of the real image projector, one or more lenses are installed at the front side of the real image projector to provide parallel rays for providing a steady real image, a non-transparent dot of preferably 3 to 8 mm in diameter is made at the center of the front surface of the lens or lenses, and the red ray lamp is installed within the red ray projector. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an electronic medical instrument, particularly a real image/red ray pulse and beep type amblyopia curing device. (1) Only the yellow spot are stimulated, the degree of stimulation is limited, and hence the curing effect is poor. (2) Sophisticated structure and high production cost. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05304168__ •
Testing and treating of visual dysfunctions Inventor(s): Eydelman; Malvina B. (368 Longwood Ave., Apt. 45, Boston, MA 02215), Wray; Shirley H. (987 Memorial Dr., Cambridge, MA 02138) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 5,206,671 Date filed: June 29, 1990 Abstract: A method for testing and treating visual dysfunctions (for example amblyopia) includes steps of providing an interactive visual game that presents to the patient a visual task, the visual game employing images scaled to the threshold visual parameter or parameters of the patient, and presenting a nonvisual reward to the patient for successful completion of the task. Also, apparatus for treating visual dysfunctions in a patient includes means for presenting an image to the patient, the image presenting a visual task to the patient, means for scaling the image to about the patient's threshold value for a visual parameter or parameters, means for providing an interaction between the patient and the image, and means for providing a reward for successful completion of the task. Also, an interactive video apparatus includes video display means for simultaneously stimulating a subject's interest and stimulating the subject's vision at about the maximum value of a visual parameter or parameters of which the subject is capable, means for receiving input from the subject, and means for providing to the subject a nonvisual reward for subject input that is appropriate to an image presented to the subject on the video display means. Also, a computerized method for testing a visual parameter or parameters comprises providing an interactive visual test that presents to the patient an image to be identified and, in step increments of increasing difficulty of the parameter in question, determining that patient's threshold value for the visual parameter or parameters by providing for interaction between the patient and the image. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to testing for and treating defects in vision, and particularly to treating amblyopia. Amblyopia is a defect in visual acuity of an eye that persists after refractive error in the eye has been corrected and any pathological obstacle to vision has removed. It is a leading cause of impaired visual acuity in one eye, affecting about 2% of persons in the U.S. Unless successfully treated, amblyopia constitutes a potential handicap. A variety of approaches to treating amblyopia have been tried. Approaches based promoting the use of the amblyopic eye include, for
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example, optical penalization, administration of cycloplegic drugs, CAM visual stimulation and occlusion of the better eye. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05206671__ •
Visual acuity unit for treatment of amblypia Inventor(s): O'Brien; Richard W. (Philadelphia, PA) Assignee(s): Visual Enhancement, Inc. (Philadelphia, PA) Patent Number: 4,896,959 Date filed: November 6, 1987 Abstract: The present invention provides improved apparatus for treatment of amblyopia and similar eye conditions through use of a solitary visual target maintained at a level of minimal discernible size. The improved apparatus provides instantaneous electronic switching between targets of different acuity demand levels, compact optics requiring limited case size, and automatic scoring of correct responses. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to apparatus for treating amblyopia and similar eye conditions caused by a lack of acuity which is not of a refractive or transparent nature. Although this method and basic apparatus achieved remarkable results, the apparatus itself was deficient in a number of respects. The use of only a single solitary target required the target to be physically moved each time the acuity level had to be changed. With use of the unit contained in a case, this required opening the case, readjusting or changing the target and the lens to one of many predetermined locations, each location providing a particular acuity level, and then reassemblying the apparatus. This usually amounted to far too complicated a procedure to provide treatment at multiple acuity levels during a single treatment. Additionally, many people, particularly young children, have great difficulty correctly changing the lens and target locations. A further problem with the basic apparatus is that it did not make optimum use of space, thus creating a somewhat unwieldy package to transport, store, and use. Finally, the basic apparatus provided minimum feedback to the user, requiring the user to keep track of the number of correct and incorrect responses he had during a given session. In light of the above considerations, it is a primary object of the present invention to provide improved apparatus for treatment of amblyopia and similar eye conditions which can be easily and rapidly switched between various levels of acuity demand. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04896959__
Patent Applications on Amblyopia As of December 2000, U.S. patent applications are open to public viewing.6 Applications are patent requests which have yet to be granted. (The process to achieve a patent can take several years.) The following patent applications have been filed since December 2000 relating to amblyopia:
6
This has been a common practice outside the United States prior to December 2000.
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•
Apparatus and method for treatment of amblyopia Inventor(s): Graham, Lewis N.; (Madison, AL), Hay, Sam H.; (Huntsville, AL) Correspondence: Mark Clodfelter; 555 Sparkman Drive; Suite 1602d; Huntsville; AL; 35816; US Patent Application Number: 20010050754 Date filed: January 10, 2001 Abstract: A method for treating amblyopia in children is disclosed. A pair of eyeglasses or goggles is provided with an electrically and selectively darkenable lens, such as am LCD lens, so that for selected portions of time, one or the other eye may be occluded. In one embodiment, circuitry for providing pulses of a selected width to one or both lenses is incorporated in the eyeglasses or goggles, with the lens associated with the deviating eye receiving a wider pulse than the lens associated with the other eye. Thus, the deviating eye is occluded for a longer period of time than the normal eye. In another embodiment, a computer is coupled to the eyeglasses or goggles, and is provided with a program of interest to the child which selectively occludes the deviating eye. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to the treatment of amblyopia, also known as "lazy eye", in children. Particularly, the invention utilizes a pair of glasses fitted with LCD lenses that are selectively made opaque in order to force the child to exercise the weak eye. Amblyopia (lazy eye) is probably the most common cause of monocular blindness. It occurs in about 4% of the population, with between 80,000-160,000 new cases occurring yearly in the United States. This neurological condition is believed to occur due to a neural input imbalance of either the optical power of the eyes or ocular misalignment. Both of these conditions may result in an incompatible binocular visual input to the visual centers of the brain that prevents a normal, single visual perception. This incomparability of visual perception induces a competitive inhibition between the two eyes resulting in a "strong eye" and a "weak eye". Here, the visual utility of the "strong eye" becomes dominant over the "weak eye" and results in permanent structural degradation of the cellular anatomy of portions of the lateral genticulate body and visual cortex of the occipital lobe of the brain. This degradation results in loss of visual acuity and loss of higher order binocular functions, such as stereopsis. After visual maturity of the child is reached, which is about 10 years of age, the disease becomes permanent. The accepted treatment of this disorder involves blocking or reducing vision in the strong, good eye, as by a patch, in order to force the weaker eye to "work harder". This establishes and reinforces the development of neural pathways in the brain to cause proper connections to develop between the weak, amblyopic eye and the visual cortex. After a period of time, which may be between months and years, use of the patch is gradually reduced, affording both eyes the opportunity to develop normal binocular vision. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html
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Interactive occlusion system Inventor(s): Winterbotham, Chloe Tyler; (Chicago, IL) Correspondence: Eric P. Mcalpine; Jenner & Block, Llc; One Ibm Plaza; Chicago; IL; 60611; US Patent Application Number: 20030214630 Date filed: May 17, 2002
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Abstract: An interactive occlusion system, including software and hardware, for the treatment of amblyopia using virtual reality or other physically interactive or perceptually immersive three-dimensional or two-dimensional computer generated simulations, in which the patient's occlusion compliance and usage time during occlusive and non-occlusive periods can be precisely recorded and the patient's visual acuity can be accurately measured to be provided to the clinician, as well as the capacity for entering prescriptions and treatment plans for individual patients and restricting individual access to that patient's prescription and treatment plan while allowing nonocclusive operation of the system after the prescribed occlusion time or for non-patient users. Excerpt(s): The present invention pertains to an interactive occlusion system, including computer software and hardware, for the treatment of amblyopia using virtual reality or other physically interactive or perceptually immersive computer generated three dimensional or two dimensional environments including the precise measuring of treatment compliance and recording of visual acuity during such treatment, as well as the capacity for restricting individual access to each patient's prescribed treatment plan. More particularly, the present invention pertains to a system in which the clinician can program an individual treatment plan for each patient using a virtual reality system or other computer-generated physically interactive or perceptually immersive setting for performing visually demanding tasks while the system selectively occludes the patient's eye(s) as the clinician prescribes. During such treatment, the patient is presented with tasks requiring varying levels of visual acuity to progressively exercise the amblyopic eye, while protecting against creating amblyopia in a normal or less amblyopic eye. The system records the amount of time that each eye is occluded as well as the visual acuity level of the patient for clinician monitoring. Amblyopia, epidemiologically the most common vision impairment, is an ophthalmic condition usually beginning in early childhood and requiring immediate treatment in order for normal eye-brain visual pathways to develop. Most commonly unilateral, the cause of the problem in amblyopia is that, although there is no obvious structural abnormality in the eye, there is a problem with central fixation that can cause eccentric fixation in trying to see a target toward which the two eyes align or try to align. The anatomical centers of vision, the fovea and its most sensitive center the foveola (both contained in the macula) are so crucial to precise vision and visual stimulation that the further from the foveola that fixation occurs, the larger the compensatory or eccentric area must be. Although some eccentric areas can see surprisingly well, when vision is not central, a suppression scotoma, or area not seen by the eye, develops at or near the foveola, fovea or macula, getting worse as fixation moves further from the macula. Unless the scotoma is small enough for remaining central vision to compensate, which will not happen in the retinal periphery where Snellen equivalent visual acuity drops to 20/200 or worse outside the macula, the brain can start to suppress the image from the non-fixating eye, stopping the visual stimuli necessary to reach the visual pathways into the brain, arresting normal visual development and creating amblyopia. The drive for fusion necessary between the two eyes to see one image for stereo vision will not be sufficient. Amblyopia can be treated by interrupting binocular vision with occlusion of the sound eye, thereby stopping suppression of the amblyopic eye and allowing it to work. Significantly, without treatment, if the visual pathways in general do not develop, visual stimuli in later life will not compensate sufficiently for complete perception, nor will stereoscopic vision be possible. Although treatment does not guarantee stereoscopic vision, early and effective treatment increases the possibility of improving stereoscopic vision. Additionally, if amblyopia is left untreated and the sound eye becomes permanently damaged, for whatever reason, the amblyope will be forced to rely solely on the amblyopic eye. This
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reliance on the already visually impaired amblyopic eye can leave the amblyope with either blindness or serious vision loss. For any binocular vision, the two eyes move in the same direction in order to see a target. With or without alignment of both eyes, each eye sees its own separate image(s) from the binocular retinal rivalry or disparity of the perceived images created by the distance between the two eyes, driving fusion to bring the images together in a way that the brain can interpret in a logical three dimensional or stereo perceptual image. With misalignment of the two eyes, such as with strabismus, and particularly in unilateral esotropia, a common cause of amblyopia, one eye does the work of central fixation. There are theories that amblyopia can develop in the crossing, non-fixating eye because either it experiences confusion during binocular vision trying to see images which overlap without accurate fusion between the two eyes, or the two eyes experience diplopia when unable to fuse. Over time, inability to fuse can cause the suppression of vision in the non-fixating eye which becomes amblyopic. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •
Method and apparatus for performing vision screening Inventor(s): Glaser, Stephen R.; (Gaithersburg, MD) Correspondence: Michael A. Oblon; Shaw Pittman Llp; 1650 Tysons Boulevard; Mclean; VA; 22102; US Patent Application Number: 20040100620 Date filed: November 24, 2003 Abstract: The present invention relates to a vision screening system and a method for using the system to easily perform screenings for vision disorders, including amblyopia in children using only one examiner. The system includes a lightweight, portable apparatus having a surface upon which a series of images are imprinted, projected, or digitally altered. The size, shape, appearance, arrangement, and quantity of the images are chosen to allow an examiner to rapidly screen the examinee for a visual disorder such as amblyopia. The apparatus also includes a measurement tool, integrated with the apparatus, which enables the examiner maintain the surface of the device at a predetermined distance from the examinee's eyes. To screen a child's vision, the apparatus is positioned at a predetermined distance from the examinee's eyes using the systems built-in measuring distance device. With one eye covered at a time with adhesive patches provided as part of the vision screening system, the examinee is asked to either identify an image displayed on the apparatus, or point to a matching image on a card provided as part of the system, that is located at a close distance to the examinee. Based upon the examinee's collective responses, the examiner can determine whether the examinee is affected by a visual disorder such as amblyopia. The entire system (the optotypes target apparatus with built-in measuring device, matching optotypes card, adhesive eye occluders, and instructions) are all provided in a self-contained, small, lightweight box or package for ease of transport and storage. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to visual screening systems and methods, and more particularly, to a method and apparatus screening monocular visual acuity to detect vision disorders, such as amblyopia. It is recommended to screen children at an early age for vision disorders. The American Academy of Pediatrics, along with other medical professional organizations, recommend that children have their visual acuity quantified at least by age four. In many instances, it may be possible to correct a child's vision if problems are detected during early childhood. Amblyopia is the leading cause of reversible blindness in children in the United States, affecting approximately 2-4% of
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the population. In order to successfully treat amblyopia, a child must be diagnosed with this condition at an early age. If the condition is detected sufficiently early, it is often possible to completely, or at least substantially, correct the child's vision. However, if left untreated by seven to nine years of age, it may only be possible to slightly improve a child's vision, if at all. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •
Method and apparatus for treatment of amblyopia Inventor(s): Guerrero, John M.; (Palm City, FL) Correspondence: Barbara S. Kitchell, Akerman; Senterfitt & Eidson, P.A.; Fourth Floor, 222 Lakeview Avenue; P.O. Box 3188; West Palm Beach; FL; 33402-3188; US Patent Application Number: 20030114830 Date filed: June 28, 2002 Abstract: A method of improving vision in an amblyopic eye is described in which vision in the dominant eye is reversibly disrupted. The technique promotes improvement of visual acuity in the weaker eye. The disclosed method is particularly suitable for treatment of adult amblyopia. The method also includes several devices suitable for use in the described treatments. Excerpt(s): The invention concerns apparatus and methods for treating amblyopic conditions and is particularly directed to methods that correct this visual deficiency in adults. Amblyopia, Greek for "blunt vision", is the failure of an anatomically intact eye to develop normal visual acuity. Amblyopia affects five to seven million individuals in the United States alone, with an estimated 70,000 new cases annually. Amblyopia accounts for more visual loss in the under-45 age group than all other ocular diseases, including trauma. In the lay press, this condition is often referred to as "lazy eye". The term lazy eye is to be avoided, however, as it may also be used in the lay press to describe strabismus ("crossed" eye) as well. While a crossed eye may become amblyopic (strabismic amblyopia), not all crossed eyes are amblyopic nor are all amblyopic eyes crossed. Amblyopia represents a failure of the affected eye to develop normal synaptic connections with the visual cortex (Sireteanu, 1982). This is thought to result from an abnormal outcome of the competitive process of visual development. During visual development, the roughly 1.2 million nerve fibers that make up the optic nerve of each eye compete for synaptic connections in the brain (Cynader 1982). Under normal developmental circumstances, the visual input from each eye is roughly equal to that of its counterpart therefore each eye is assigned a proportionately equal number of synapses in the visual processing areas of the brain and allowed to realize its full visual potential. In humans, this process is thought to begin at birth and continues until roughly 8 years of age. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html
Keeping Current In order to stay informed about patents and patent applications dealing with amblyopia, you can access the U.S. Patent Office archive via the Internet at the following Web address: http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. You will see two broad options: (1) Issued Patent,
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and (2) Published Applications. To see a list of issued patents, perform the following steps: Under “Issued Patents,” click “Quick Search.” Then, type “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the “Term 1” box. After clicking on the search button, scroll down to see the various patents which have been granted to date on amblyopia. You can also use this procedure to view pending patent applications concerning amblyopia. Simply go back to http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. Select “Quick Search” under “Published Applications.” Then proceed with the steps listed above.
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CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON AMBLYOPIA Overview This chapter provides bibliographic book references relating to amblyopia. In addition to online booksellers such as www.amazon.com and www.bn.com, excellent sources for book titles on amblyopia include the Combined Health Information Database and the National Library of Medicine. Your local medical library also may have these titles available for loan.
Book Summaries: Online Booksellers Commercial Internet-based booksellers, such as Amazon.com and Barnes&Noble.com, offer summaries which have been supplied by each title’s publisher. Some summaries also include customer reviews. Your local bookseller may have access to in-house and commercial databases that index all published books (e.g. Books in Print). IMPORTANT NOTE: Online booksellers typically produce search results for medical and non-medical books. When searching for “amblyopia” at online booksellers’ Web sites, you may discover non-medical books that use the generic term “amblyopia” (or a synonym) in their titles. The following is indicative of the results you might find when searching for “amblyopia” (sorted alphabetically by title; follow the hyperlink to view more details at Amazon.com): •
Sensory Evaluation of Strabismus and Amblyopia in a Natural Environment by Emilio C. Campos; ISBN: 9061935083; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9061935083/icongroupinterna
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The Great American Lazy Eye Scandal by Tom Cataldo; ISBN: 0938711482; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0938711482/icongroupinterna
The National Library of Medicine Book Index The National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health has a massive database of books published on healthcare and biomedicine. Go to the following Internet site, http://locatorplus.gov/, and then select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once you are in the search area, simply type “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and select “books only.”
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From there, results can be sorted by publication date, author, or relevance. The following was recently catalogued by the National Library of Medicine:7 •
Sensory evaluation of strabismus and amblyopia in a natural environment: in honour of Professor Bruno Bagolini. Author: edited by Emilio C. Campos; Year: 1984
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Strabismus and amblyopia: experimental basis for advances in clinical management: proceedings of an international symposium held at the Wenner-Gren Center, Stockholm, June 24th-26th, 1987. Author: edited by Gunnar Lennerstrand, Gunter K. von Noorden, and Emili; Year: 1988
Chapters on Amblyopia In order to find chapters that specifically relate to amblyopia, an excellent source of abstracts is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to book chapters and amblyopia using the “Detailed Search” option. Go to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find book chapters, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Book Chapter.” Type “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for book chapters on amblyopia: •
Common Ocular Disorders Found Among Deaf NTID Students Source: in Johnson, D.D. Deafness and Vision Disorders: Anatomy and Physiology, Assessment Procedures, Ocular Anomalies, and Educational Implications. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd. 1999. p. 95-223. Contact: Available from Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd. 2600 South First Street, Springfield, IL 62794-9265. (800) 258-8980 or (217) 789-8980. Fax (217) 789-9130. PRICE: $74.95 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 039806945X. Summary: This lengthy chapter is from a textbook written to help students preparing for work in the field of deafness to understand and incorporate an awareness of vision disorders in the deaf population. This chapter discusses common ocular disorders. Information within the book concerning the congenital anomalies, functional defects, and pathologic ocular conditions most often found within a deaf student population was obtained from eleven years of research unobtrusively conducted within the NTID Eye and Ear Clinic between August 1984 and May 1995 (at the National Technical Institute for the Deaf, one of the eight colleges of the Rochester Institute of Technology). This chapter deals specifically with those eleven common visual pathologies and aberrant visual conditions most often encountered among the young and more chronologically mature deaf adult students within the NTID college population. The author also hopes to promote an awareness of those vision problems which are also likely to be found in greater numbers within the deaf population in general. Failure to
7
In addition to LOCATORPlus, in collaboration with authors and publishers, the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) is currently adapting biomedical books for the Web. The books may be accessed in two ways: (1) by searching directly using any search term or phrase (in the same way as the bibliographic database PubMed), or (2) by following the links to PubMed abstracts. Each PubMed abstract has a "Books" button that displays a facsimile of the abstract in which some phrases are hypertext links. These phrases are also found in the books available at NCBI. Click on hyperlinked results in the list of books in which the phrase is found. Currently, the majority of the links are between the books and PubMed. In the future, more links will be created between the books and other types of information, such as gene and protein sequences and macromolecular structures. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books.
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identify and attend to these problems may not only impact on the learning process, but on communication, mobility, recreation, social interaction, and vocational pursuits as well. The conditions covered are rubella oculopathy, strabismus, amblyopia, inherited color vision deficiency, retinitis pigmentosa (Usher syndrome), cataracts or aphakia, nystagmus, microphthalmos, glaucoma, ocular albinism, and ptosis (blepharoptosis). The chapter demonstrates that a large number of deaf people have concomitant visual problems, many of which are noncorrectable or progressive in nature. 43 tables. 130 references.
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CHAPTER 7. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON AMBLYOPIA Overview In this chapter, we suggest a number of news sources and present various periodicals that cover amblyopia.
News Services and Press Releases One of the simplest ways of tracking press releases on amblyopia is to search the news wires. In the following sample of sources, we will briefly describe how to access each service. These services only post recent news intended for public viewing. PR Newswire To access the PR Newswire archive, simply go to http://www.prnewswire.com/. Select your country. Type “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the search box. You will automatically receive information on relevant news releases posted within the last 30 days. The search results are shown by order of relevance. Reuters Health The Reuters’ Medical News and Health eLine databases can be very useful in exploring news archives relating to amblyopia. While some of the listed articles are free to view, others are available for purchase for a nominal fee. To access this archive, go to http://www.reutershealth.com/en/index.html and search by “amblyopia” (or synonyms). The following was recently listed in this archive for amblyopia: •
Lifetime risk of vision loss with amblyopia higher than previously thought Source: Reuters Medical News Date: August 22, 2002
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Photoscreening may increase detection of amblyopia in young children Source: Reuters Medical News Date: March 08, 2002
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New computer software aids amblyopia diagnosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: August 28, 2001
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Occlusion for amblyopia maximally effective within first 3 months of treatment Source: Reuters Medical News Date: June 20, 2000 The NIH
Within MEDLINEplus, the NIH has made an agreement with the New York Times Syndicate, the AP News Service, and Reuters to deliver news that can be browsed by the public. Search news releases at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alphanews_a.html. MEDLINEplus allows you to browse across an alphabetical index. Or you can search by date at the following Web page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/newsbydate.html. Often, news items are indexed by MEDLINEplus within its search engine. Business Wire Business Wire is similar to PR Newswire. To access this archive, simply go to http://www.businesswire.com/. You can scan the news by industry category or company name. Market Wire Market Wire is more focused on technology than the other wires. To browse the latest press releases by topic, such as alternative medicine, biotechnology, fitness, healthcare, legal, nutrition, and pharmaceuticals, access Market Wire’s Medical/Health channel at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_index?channel=MedicalHealth. Or simply go to Market Wire’s home page at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/home, type “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click on “Search News.” As this service is technology oriented, you may wish to use it when searching for press releases covering diagnostic procedures or tests. Search Engines Medical news is also available in the news sections of commercial Internet search engines. See the health news page at Yahoo (http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/News_and_Media/), or you can use this Web site’s general news search page at http://news.yahoo.com/. Type in “amblyopia” (or synonyms). If you know the name of a company that is relevant to amblyopia, you can go to any stock trading Web site (such as http://www.etrade.com/) and search for the company name there. News items across various news sources are reported on indicated hyperlinks. Google offers a similar service at http://news.google.com/.
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BBC Covering news from a more European perspective, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) allows the public free access to their news archive located at http://www.bbc.co.uk/. Search by “amblyopia” (or synonyms).
Academic Periodicals covering Amblyopia Numerous periodicals are currently indexed within the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed database that are known to publish articles relating to amblyopia. In addition to these sources, you can search for articles covering amblyopia that have been published by any of the periodicals listed in previous chapters. To find the latest studies published, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed, type the name of the periodical into the search box, and click “Go.” If you want complete details about the historical contents of a journal, you can also visit the following Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/jrbrowser.cgi. Here, type in the name of the journal or its abbreviation, and you will receive an index of published articles. At http://locatorplus.gov/, you can retrieve more indexing information on medical periodicals (e.g. the name of the publisher). Select the button “Search LOCATORplus.” Then type in the name of the journal and select the advanced search option “Journal Title Search.”
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES Overview In this chapter, we focus on databases and Internet-based guidelines and information resources created or written for a professional audience.
NIH Guidelines Commonly referred to as “clinical” or “professional” guidelines, the National Institutes of Health publish physician guidelines for the most common diseases. Publications are available at the following by relevant Institute8: •
Office of the Director (OD); guidelines consolidated across agencies available at http://www.nih.gov/health/consumer/conkey.htm
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National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS); fact sheets available at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/facts/
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National Library of Medicine (NLM); extensive encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.) with guidelines: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html
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National Cancer Institute (NCI); guidelines available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/list.aspx?viewid=5f35036e-5497-4d86-8c2c714a9f7c8d25
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National Eye Institute (NEI); guidelines available at http://www.nei.nih.gov/order/index.htm
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National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); guidelines available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/index.htm
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National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI); research available at http://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10000375
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National Institute on Aging (NIA); guidelines available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/health/
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These publications are typically written by one or more of the various NIH Institutes.
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National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA); guidelines available at http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/publications.htm
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National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); guidelines available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/
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National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS); fact sheets and guidelines available at http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/index.htm
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National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); guidelines available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm
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National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); fact sheets and guidelines at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/
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National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR); guidelines available at http://www.nidr.nih.gov/health/
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National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); guidelines available at http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/health.htm
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National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); guidelines available at http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugAbuse.html
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National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS); environmental health information available at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/facts.htm
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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH); guidelines available at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/practitioners/index.cfm
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National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); neurological disorder information pages available at http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm
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National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR); publications on selected illnesses at http://www.nih.gov/ninr/news-info/publications.html
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National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering; general information at http://grants.nih.gov/grants/becon/becon_info.htm
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Center for Information Technology (CIT); referrals to other agencies based on keyword searches available at http://kb.nih.gov/www_query_main.asp
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National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM); health information available at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/
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National Center for Research Resources (NCRR); various information directories available at http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/publications.asp
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Office of Rare Diseases; various fact sheets available at http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/html/resources/rep_pubs.html
•
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; various fact sheets on infectious diseases available at http://www.cdc.gov/publications.htm
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NIH Databases In addition to the various Institutes of Health that publish professional guidelines, the NIH has designed a number of databases for professionals.9 Physician-oriented resources provide a wide variety of information related to the biomedical and health sciences, both past and present. The format of these resources varies. Searchable databases, bibliographic citations, full-text articles (when available), archival collections, and images are all available. The following are referenced by the National Library of Medicine:10 •
Bioethics: Access to published literature on the ethical, legal, and public policy issues surrounding healthcare and biomedical research. This information is provided in conjunction with the Kennedy Institute of Ethics located at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_bioethics.html
•
HIV/AIDS Resources: Describes various links and databases dedicated to HIV/AIDS research: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/aidsinfs.html
•
NLM Online Exhibitions: Describes “Exhibitions in the History of Medicine”: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/exhibition.html. Additional resources for historical scholarship in medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/hmd.html
•
Biotechnology Information: Access to public databases. The National Center for Biotechnology Information conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
•
Population Information: The National Library of Medicine provides access to worldwide coverage of population, family planning, and related health issues, including family planning technology and programs, fertility, and population law and policy: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_population.html
•
Cancer Information: Access to cancer-oriented databases: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_cancer.html
•
Profiles in Science: Offering the archival collections of prominent twentieth-century biomedical scientists to the public through modern digital technology: http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/
•
Chemical Information: Provides links to various chemical databases and references: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Chem/ChemMain.html
•
Clinical Alerts: Reports the release of findings from the NIH-funded clinical trials where such release could significantly affect morbidity and mortality: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/alerts/clinical_alerts.html
•
Space Life Sciences: Provides links and information to space-based research (including NASA): http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_space.html
•
MEDLINE: Bibliographic database covering the fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the healthcare system, and the pre-clinical sciences: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_medline.html
9
Remember, for the general public, the National Library of Medicine recommends the databases referenced in MEDLINEplus (http://medlineplus.gov/ or http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/databases.html). 10 See http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases.html.
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•
Toxicology and Environmental Health Information (TOXNET): Databases covering toxicology and environmental health: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxMain.html
•
Visible Human Interface: Anatomically detailed, three-dimensional representations of normal male and female human bodies: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html
The NLM Gateway11 The NLM (National Library of Medicine) Gateway is a Web-based system that lets users search simultaneously in multiple retrieval systems at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). It allows users of NLM services to initiate searches from one Web interface, providing one-stop searching for many of NLM’s information resources or databases.12 To use the NLM Gateway, simply go to the search site at http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd. Type “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Search.” The results will be presented in a tabular form, indicating the number of references in each database category. Results Summary Category Journal Articles Books / Periodicals / Audio Visual Consumer Health Meeting Abstracts Other Collections Total
Items Found 5309 98 25 1 43 5476
HSTAT13 HSTAT is a free, Web-based resource that provides access to full-text documents used in healthcare decision-making.14 These documents include clinical practice guidelines, quickreference guides for clinicians, consumer health brochures, evidence reports and technology assessments from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), as well as AHRQ’s Put Prevention Into Practice.15 Simply search by “amblyopia” (or synonyms) at the following Web site: http://text.nlm.nih.gov.
11
Adapted from NLM: http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?Overview.x.
12
The NLM Gateway is currently being developed by the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications (LHNCBC) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). 13 Adapted from HSTAT: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/hstat.html. 14 15
The HSTAT URL is http://hstat.nlm.nih.gov/.
Other important documents in HSTAT include: the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference Reports and Technology Assessment Reports; the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS) resource documents; the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (SAMHSA/CSAT) Treatment Improvement Protocols (TIP) and Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (SAMHSA/CSAP) Prevention Enhancement Protocols System (PEPS); the Public Health Service (PHS) Preventive Services Task Force's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services; the independent, nonfederal Task Force on Community Services’ Guide to Community Preventive Services; and the Health Technology Advisory Committee (HTAC) of the Minnesota Health Care Commission (MHCC) health technology evaluations.
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Coffee Break: Tutorials for Biologists16 Coffee Break is a general healthcare site that takes a scientific view of the news and covers recent breakthroughs in biology that may one day assist physicians in developing treatments. Here you will find a collection of short reports on recent biological discoveries. Each report incorporates interactive tutorials that demonstrate how bioinformatics tools are used as a part of the research process. Currently, all Coffee Breaks are written by NCBI staff.17 Each report is about 400 words and is usually based on a discovery reported in one or more articles from recently published, peer-reviewed literature.18 This site has new articles every few weeks, so it can be considered an online magazine of sorts. It is intended for general background information. You can access the Coffee Break Web site at the following hyperlink: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/.
Other Commercial Databases In addition to resources maintained by official agencies, other databases exist that are commercial ventures addressing medical professionals. Here are some examples that may interest you: •
CliniWeb International: Index and table of contents to selected clinical information on the Internet; see http://www.ohsu.edu/cliniweb/.
•
Medical World Search: Searches full text from thousands of selected medical sites on the Internet; see http://www.mwsearch.com/.
16 Adapted 17
from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/Archive/FAQ.html.
The figure that accompanies each article is frequently supplied by an expert external to NCBI, in which case the source of the figure is cited. The result is an interactive tutorial that tells a biological story. 18 After a brief introduction that sets the work described into a broader context, the report focuses on how a molecular understanding can provide explanations of observed biology and lead to therapies for diseases. Each vignette is accompanied by a figure and hypertext links that lead to a series of pages that interactively show how NCBI tools and resources are used in the research process.
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APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES Overview Official agencies, as well as federally funded institutions supported by national grants, frequently publish a variety of guidelines written with the patient in mind. These are typically called “Fact Sheets” or “Guidelines.” They can take the form of a brochure, information kit, pamphlet, or flyer. Often they are only a few pages in length. Since new guidelines on amblyopia can appear at any moment and be published by a number of sources, the best approach to finding guidelines is to systematically scan the Internet-based services that post them.
Patient Guideline Sources The remainder of this chapter directs you to sources which either publish or can help you find additional guidelines on topics related to amblyopia. Due to space limitations, these sources are listed in a concise manner. Do not hesitate to consult the following sources by either using the Internet hyperlink provided, or, in cases where the contact information is provided, contacting the publisher or author directly. The National Institutes of Health The NIH gateway to patients is located at http://health.nih.gov/. From this site, you can search across various sources and institutes, a number of which are summarized below. Topic Pages: MEDLINEplus The National Library of Medicine has created a vast and patient-oriented healthcare information portal called MEDLINEplus. Within this Internet-based system are “health topic pages” which list links to available materials relevant to amblyopia. To access this system, log on to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html. From there you can either search using the alphabetical index or browse by broad topic areas. Recently, MEDLINEplus listed the following when searched for “amblyopia”:
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Eye Diseases http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/eyediseases.html Eye Wear http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/eyewear.html Laser Eye Surgery http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/lasereyesurgery.html Refractive Errors http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/refractiveerrors.html Vision Impairment and Blindness http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/visionimpairmentandblindness.html You may also choose to use the search utility provided by MEDLINEplus at the following Web address: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/. Simply type a keyword into the search box and click “Search.” This utility is similar to the NIH search utility, with the exception that it only includes materials that are linked within the MEDLINEplus system (mostly patient-oriented information). It also has the disadvantage of generating unstructured results. We recommend, therefore, that you use this method only if you have a very targeted search. The NIH Search Utility The NIH search utility allows you to search for documents on over 100 selected Web sites that comprise the NIH-WEB-SPACE. Each of these servers is “crawled” and indexed on an ongoing basis. Your search will produce a list of various documents, all of which will relate in some way to amblyopia. The drawbacks of this approach are that the information is not organized by theme and that the references are often a mix of information for professionals and patients. Nevertheless, a large number of the listed Web sites provide useful background information. We can only recommend this route, therefore, for relatively rare or specific disorders, or when using highly targeted searches. To use the NIH search utility, visit the following Web page: http://search.nih.gov/index.html. Additional Web Sources A number of Web sites are available to the public that often link to government sites. These can also point you in the direction of essential information. The following is a representative sample: •
AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=168&layer=&from=subcats
•
Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/specific.htm
•
Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/
•
Med Help International: http://www.medhelp.org/HealthTopics/A.html
•
Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/
•
Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Diseases_and_Conditions/
•
WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/health_topics
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Finding Associations There are several Internet directories that provide lists of medical associations with information on or resources relating to amblyopia. By consulting all of associations listed in this chapter, you will have nearly exhausted all sources for patient associations concerned with amblyopia. The National Health Information Center (NHIC) The National Health Information Center (NHIC) offers a free referral service to help people find organizations that provide information about amblyopia. For more information, see the NHIC’s Web site at http://www.health.gov/NHIC/ or contact an information specialist by calling 1-800-336-4797. Directory of Health Organizations The Directory of Health Organizations, provided by the National Library of Medicine Specialized Information Services, is a comprehensive source of information on associations. The Directory of Health Organizations database can be accessed via the Internet at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/Dir/DirMain.html. It is composed of two parts: DIRLINE and Health Hotlines. The DIRLINE database comprises some 10,000 records of organizations, research centers, and government institutes and associations that primarily focus on health and biomedicine. To access DIRLINE directly, go to the following Web site: http://dirline.nlm.nih.gov/. Simply type in “amblyopia” (or a synonym), and you will receive information on all relevant organizations listed in the database. Health Hotlines directs you to toll-free numbers to over 300 organizations. You can access this database directly at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/hotlines/. On this page, you are given the option to search by keyword or by browsing the subject list. When you have received your search results, click on the name of the organization for its description and contact information. The Combined Health Information Database Another comprehensive source of information on healthcare associations is the Combined Health Information Database. Using the “Detailed Search” option, you will need to limit your search to “Organizations” and “amblyopia”. Type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For publication date, select “All Years.” Then, select your preferred language and the format option “Organization Resource Sheet.” Type “amblyopia” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database since it is updated every three months.
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The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. has prepared a Web site that provides, at no charge, lists of associations organized by health topic. You can access this database at the following Web site: http://www.rarediseases.org/search/orgsearch.html. Type “amblyopia” (or a synonym) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.”
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APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES Overview In this Appendix, we show you how to quickly find a medical library in your area.
Preparation Your local public library and medical libraries have interlibrary loan programs with the National Library of Medicine (NLM), one of the largest medical collections in the world. According to the NLM, most of the literature in the general and historical collections of the National Library of Medicine is available on interlibrary loan to any library. If you would like to access NLM medical literature, then visit a library in your area that can request the publications for you.19
Finding a Local Medical Library The quickest method to locate medical libraries is to use the Internet-based directory published by the National Network of Libraries of Medicine (NN/LM). This network includes 4626 members and affiliates that provide many services to librarians, health professionals, and the public. To find a library in your area, simply visit http://nnlm.gov/members/adv.html or call 1-800-338-7657.
Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada In addition to the NN/LM, the National Library of Medicine (NLM) lists a number of libraries with reference facilities that are open to the public. The following is the NLM’s list and includes hyperlinks to each library’s Web site. These Web pages can provide information on hours of operation and other restrictions. The list below is a small sample of
19
Adapted from the NLM: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/psd/cas/interlibrary.html.
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libraries recommended by the National Library of Medicine (sorted alphabetically by name of the U.S. state or Canadian province where the library is located)20: •
Alabama: Health InfoNet of Jefferson County (Jefferson County Library Cooperative, Lister Hill Library of the Health Sciences), http://www.uab.edu/infonet/
•
Alabama: Richard M. Scrushy Library (American Sports Medicine Institute)
•
Arizona: Samaritan Regional Medical Center: The Learning Center (Samaritan Health System, Phoenix, Arizona), http://www.samaritan.edu/library/bannerlibs.htm
•
California: Kris Kelly Health Information Center (St. Joseph Health System, Humboldt), http://www.humboldt1.com/~kkhic/index.html
•
California: Community Health Library of Los Gatos, http://www.healthlib.org/orgresources.html
•
California: Consumer Health Program and Services (CHIPS) (County of Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles County Harbor-UCLA Medical Center Library) - Carson, CA, http://www.colapublib.org/services/chips.html
•
California: Gateway Health Library (Sutter Gould Medical Foundation)
•
California: Health Library (Stanford University Medical Center), http://wwwmed.stanford.edu/healthlibrary/
•
California: Patient Education Resource Center - Health Information and Resources (University of California, San Francisco), http://sfghdean.ucsf.edu/barnett/PERC/default.asp
•
California: Redwood Health Library (Petaluma Health Care District), http://www.phcd.org/rdwdlib.html
•
California: Los Gatos PlaneTree Health Library, http://planetreesanjose.org/
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California: Sutter Resource Library (Sutter Hospitals Foundation, Sacramento), http://suttermedicalcenter.org/library/
•
California: Health Sciences Libraries (University of California, Davis), http://www.lib.ucdavis.edu/healthsci/
•
California: ValleyCare Health Library & Ryan Comer Cancer Resource Center (ValleyCare Health System, Pleasanton), http://gaelnet.stmarysca.edu/other.libs/gbal/east/vchl.html
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California: Washington Community Health Resource Library (Fremont), http://www.healthlibrary.org/
•
Colorado: William V. Gervasini Memorial Library (Exempla Healthcare), http://www.saintjosephdenver.org/yourhealth/libraries/
•
Connecticut: Hartford Hospital Health Science Libraries (Hartford Hospital), http://www.harthosp.org/library/
•
Connecticut: Healthnet: Connecticut Consumer Health Information Center (University of Connecticut Health Center, Lyman Maynard Stowe Library), http://library.uchc.edu/departm/hnet/
20
Abstracted from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/libraries.html.
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•
Connecticut: Waterbury Hospital Health Center Library (Waterbury Hospital, Waterbury), http://www.waterburyhospital.com/library/consumer.shtml
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Delaware: Consumer Health Library (Christiana Care Health System, Eugene du Pont Preventive Medicine & Rehabilitation Institute, Wilmington), http://www.christianacare.org/health_guide/health_guide_pmri_health_info.cfm
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Delaware: Lewis B. Flinn Library (Delaware Academy of Medicine, Wilmington), http://www.delamed.org/chls.html
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Georgia: Family Resource Library (Medical College of Georgia, Augusta), http://cmc.mcg.edu/kids_families/fam_resources/fam_res_lib/frl.htm
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Georgia: Health Resource Center (Medical Center of Central Georgia, Macon), http://www.mccg.org/hrc/hrchome.asp
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Hawaii: Hawaii Medical Library: Consumer Health Information Service (Hawaii Medical Library, Honolulu), http://hml.org/CHIS/
•
Idaho: DeArmond Consumer Health Library (Kootenai Medical Center, Coeur d’Alene), http://www.nicon.org/DeArmond/index.htm
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Illinois: Health Learning Center of Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago), http://www.nmh.org/health_info/hlc.html
•
Illinois: Medical Library (OSF Saint Francis Medical Center, Peoria), http://www.osfsaintfrancis.org/general/library/
•
Kentucky: Medical Library - Services for Patients, Families, Students & the Public (Central Baptist Hospital, Lexington), http://www.centralbap.com/education/community/library.cfm
•
Kentucky: University of Kentucky - Health Information Library (Chandler Medical Center, Lexington), http://www.mc.uky.edu/PatientEd/
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Louisiana: Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation Library (Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation, New Orleans), http://www.ochsner.org/library/
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Louisiana: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Medical LibraryShreveport, http://lib-sh.lsuhsc.edu/
•
Maine: Franklin Memorial Hospital Medical Library (Franklin Memorial Hospital, Farmington), http://www.fchn.org/fmh/lib.htm
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Maine: Gerrish-True Health Sciences Library (Central Maine Medical Center, Lewiston), http://www.cmmc.org/library/library.html
•
Maine: Hadley Parrot Health Science Library (Eastern Maine Healthcare, Bangor), http://www.emh.org/hll/hpl/guide.htm
•
Maine: Maine Medical Center Library (Maine Medical Center, Portland), http://www.mmc.org/library/
•
Maine: Parkview Hospital (Brunswick), http://www.parkviewhospital.org/
•
Maine: Southern Maine Medical Center Health Sciences Library (Southern Maine Medical Center, Biddeford), http://www.smmc.org/services/service.php3?choice=10
•
Maine: Stephens Memorial Hospital’s Health Information Library (Western Maine Health, Norway), http://www.wmhcc.org/Library/
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Manitoba, Canada: Consumer & Patient Health Information Service (University of Manitoba Libraries), http://www.umanitoba.ca/libraries/units/health/reference/chis.html
•
Manitoba, Canada: J.W. Crane Memorial Library (Deer Lodge Centre, Winnipeg), http://www.deerlodge.mb.ca/crane_library/about.asp
•
Maryland: Health Information Center at the Wheaton Regional Library (Montgomery County, Dept. of Public Libraries, Wheaton Regional Library), http://www.mont.lib.md.us/healthinfo/hic.asp
•
Massachusetts: Baystate Medical Center Library (Baystate Health System), http://www.baystatehealth.com/1024/
•
Massachusetts: Boston University Medical Center Alumni Medical Library (Boston University Medical Center), http://med-libwww.bu.edu/library/lib.html
•
Massachusetts: Lowell General Hospital Health Sciences Library (Lowell General Hospital, Lowell), http://www.lowellgeneral.org/library/HomePageLinks/WWW.htm
•
Massachusetts: Paul E. Woodard Health Sciences Library (New England Baptist Hospital, Boston), http://www.nebh.org/health_lib.asp
•
Massachusetts: St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Library (St. Luke’s Hospital, Southcoast Health System, New Bedford), http://www.southcoast.org/library/
•
Massachusetts: Treadwell Library Consumer Health Reference Center (Massachusetts General Hospital), http://www.mgh.harvard.edu/library/chrcindex.html
•
Massachusetts: UMass HealthNet (University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worchester), http://healthnet.umassmed.edu/
•
Michigan: Botsford General Hospital Library - Consumer Health (Botsford General Hospital, Library & Internet Services), http://www.botsfordlibrary.org/consumer.htm
•
Michigan: Helen DeRoy Medical Library (Providence Hospital and Medical Centers), http://www.providence-hospital.org/library/
•
Michigan: Marquette General Hospital - Consumer Health Library (Marquette General Hospital, Health Information Center), http://www.mgh.org/center.html
•
Michigan: Patient Education Resouce Center - University of Michigan Cancer Center (University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor), http://www.cancer.med.umich.edu/learn/leares.htm
•
Michigan: Sladen Library & Center for Health Information Resources - Consumer Health Information (Detroit), http://www.henryford.com/body.cfm?id=39330
•
Montana: Center for Health Information (St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center, Missoula)
•
National: Consumer Health Library Directory (Medical Library Association, Consumer and Patient Health Information Section), http://caphis.mlanet.org/directory/index.html
•
National: National Network of Libraries of Medicine (National Library of Medicine) provides library services for health professionals in the United States who do not have access to a medical library, http://nnlm.gov/
•
National: NN/LM List of Libraries Serving the Public (National Network of Libraries of Medicine), http://nnlm.gov/members/
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•
Nevada: Health Science Library, West Charleston Library (Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, Las Vegas), http://www.lvccld.org/special_collections/medical/index.htm
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New Hampshire: Dartmouth Biomedical Libraries (Dartmouth College Library, Hanover), http://www.dartmouth.edu/~biomed/resources.htmld/conshealth.htmld/
•
New Jersey: Consumer Health Library (Rahway Hospital, Rahway), http://www.rahwayhospital.com/library.htm
•
New Jersey: Dr. Walter Phillips Health Sciences Library (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.englewoodhospital.com/links/index.htm
•
New Jersey: Meland Foundation (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/9360/
•
New York: Choices in Health Information (New York Public Library) - NLM Consumer Pilot Project participant, http://www.nypl.org/branch/health/links.html
•
New York: Health Information Center (Upstate Medical University, State University of New York, Syracuse), http://www.upstate.edu/library/hic/
•
New York: Health Sciences Library (Long Island Jewish Medical Center, New Hyde Park), http://www.lij.edu/library/library.html
•
New York: ViaHealth Medical Library (Rochester General Hospital), http://www.nyam.org/library/
•
Ohio: Consumer Health Library (Akron General Medical Center, Medical & Consumer Health Library), http://www.akrongeneral.org/hwlibrary.htm
•
Oklahoma: The Health Information Center at Saint Francis Hospital (Saint Francis Health System, Tulsa), http://www.sfh-tulsa.com/services/healthinfo.asp
•
Oregon: Planetree Health Resource Center (Mid-Columbia Medical Center, The Dalles), http://www.mcmc.net/phrc/
•
Pennsylvania: Community Health Information Library (Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey), http://www.hmc.psu.edu/commhealth/
•
Pennsylvania: Community Health Resource Library (Geisinger Medical Center, Danville), http://www.geisinger.edu/education/commlib.shtml
•
Pennsylvania: HealthInfo Library (Moses Taylor Hospital, Scranton), http://www.mth.org/healthwellness.html
•
Pennsylvania: Hopwood Library (University of Pittsburgh, Health Sciences Library System, Pittsburgh), http://www.hsls.pitt.edu/guides/chi/hopwood/index_html
•
Pennsylvania: Koop Community Health Information Center (College of Physicians of Philadelphia), http://www.collphyphil.org/kooppg1.shtml
•
Pennsylvania: Learning Resources Center - Medical Library (Susquehanna Health System, Williamsport), http://www.shscares.org/services/lrc/index.asp
•
Pennsylvania: Medical Library (UPMC Health System, Pittsburgh), http://www.upmc.edu/passavant/library.htm
•
Quebec, Canada: Medical Library (Montreal General Hospital), http://www.mghlib.mcgill.ca/
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South Dakota: Rapid City Regional Hospital Medical Library (Rapid City Regional Hospital), http://www.rcrh.org/Services/Library/Default.asp
•
Texas: Houston HealthWays (Houston Academy of Medicine-Texas Medical Center Library), http://hhw.library.tmc.edu/
•
Washington: Community Health Library (Kittitas Valley Community Hospital), http://www.kvch.com/
•
Washington: Southwest Washington Medical Center Library (Southwest Washington Medical Center, Vancouver), http://www.swmedicalcenter.com/body.cfm?id=72
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ONLINE GLOSSARIES The Internet provides access to a number of free-to-use medical dictionaries. The National Library of Medicine has compiled the following list of online dictionaries: •
ADAM Medical Encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.), comprehensive medical reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html
•
MedicineNet.com Medical Dictionary (MedicineNet, Inc.): http://www.medterms.com/Script/Main/hp.asp
•
Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary (Inteli-Health, Inc.): http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/
•
Multilingual Glossary of Technical and Popular Medical Terms in Eight European Languages (European Commission) - Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish: http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~rvdstich/eugloss/welcome.html
•
On-line Medical Dictionary (CancerWEB): http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/
•
Rare Diseases Terms (Office of Rare Diseases): http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/diseases/diseases.asp
•
Technology Glossary (National Library of Medicine) - Health Care Technology: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/ta101/ta10108.htm
Beyond these, MEDLINEplus contains a very patient-friendly encyclopedia covering every aspect of medicine (licensed from A.D.A.M., Inc.). The ADAM Medical Encyclopedia can be accessed at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html. ADAM is also available on commercial Web sites such as drkoop.com (http://www.drkoop.com/) and Web MD (http://my.webmd.com/adam/asset/adam_disease_articles/a_to_z/a). The NIH suggests the following Web sites in the ADAM Medical Encyclopedia when searching for information on amblyopia: •
Basic Guidelines for Amblyopia Amblyopia Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001014.htm Strabismus Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001004.htm
•
Diagnostics and Tests for Amblyopia Visual acuity Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003396.htm
•
Background Topics for Amblyopia Central nervous system Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002311.htm
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Online Dictionary Directories The following are additional online directories compiled by the National Library of Medicine, including a number of specialized medical dictionaries: •
Medical Dictionaries: Medical & Biological (World Health Organization): http://www.who.int/hlt/virtuallibrary/English/diction.htm#Medical
•
MEL-Michigan Electronic Library List of Online Health and Medical Dictionaries (Michigan Electronic Library): http://mel.lib.mi.us/health/health-dictionaries.html
•
Patient Education: Glossaries (DMOZ Open Directory Project): http://dmoz.org/Health/Education/Patient_Education/Glossaries/
•
Web of Online Dictionaries (Bucknell University): http://www.yourdictionary.com/diction5.html#medicine
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AMBLYOPIA DICTIONARY The definitions below are derived from official public sources, including the National Institutes of Health [NIH] and the European Union [EU]. Abducens Nerve: The 6th cranial nerve. The abducens nerve originates in the abducens nucleus of the pons and sends motor fibers to the lateral rectus muscles of the eye. Damage to the nerve or its nucleus disrupts horizontal eye movement control. [NIH] Abducens Nerve Diseases: Diseases of the sixth cranial (abducens) nerve or its nucleus in the pons. The nerve may be injured along its course in the pons, intracranially as it travels along the base of the brain, in the cavernous sinus, or at the level of superior orbital fissure or orbit. Dysfunction of the nerve causes lateral rectus muscle weakness, resulting in horizontal diplopia that is maximal when the affected eye is abducted and esotropia. Common conditions associated with nerve injury include intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; ischemia; and infratentorial neoplasms. [NIH] Aberrant: Wandering or deviating from the usual or normal course. [EU] Accommodation: Adjustment, especially that of the eye for various distances. [EU] Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine in vertebrates is the major transmitter at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system. It is generally not used as an administered drug because it is broken down very rapidly by cholinesterases, but it is useful in some ophthalmological applications. [NIH] Action Potentials: The electric response of a nerve or muscle to its stimulation. [NIH] Acuity: Clarity or clearness, especially of the vision. [EU] Adaptation: 1. The adjustment of an organism to its environment, or the process by which it enhances such fitness. 2. The normal ability of the eye to adjust itself to variations in the intensity of light; the adjustment to such variations. 3. The decline in the frequency of firing of a neuron, particularly of a receptor, under conditions of constant stimulation. 4. In dentistry, (a) the proper fitting of a denture, (b) the degree of proximity and interlocking of restorative material to a tooth preparation, (c) the exact adjustment of bands to teeth. 5. In microbiology, the adjustment of bacterial physiology to a new environment. [EU] Adjustment: The dynamic process wherein the thoughts, feelings, behavior, and biophysiological mechanisms of the individual continually change to adjust to the environment. [NIH] Adolescence: The period of life beginning with the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and terminating with the cessation of somatic growth. The years usually referred to as adolescence lie between 13 and 18 years of age. [NIH] Adverse Effect: An unwanted side effect of treatment. [NIH] Aerosol: A solution of a drug which can be atomized into a fine mist for inhalation therapy. [EU]
Afferent: Concerned with the transmission of neural impulse toward the central part of the nervous system. [NIH] Affinity: 1. Inherent likeness or relationship. 2. A special attraction for a specific element, organ, or structure. 3. Chemical affinity; the force that binds atoms in molecules; the tendency of substances to combine by chemical reaction. 4. The strength of noncovalent
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chemical binding between two substances as measured by the dissociation constant of the complex. 5. In immunology, a thermodynamic expression of the strength of interaction between a single antigen-binding site and a single antigenic determinant (and thus of the stereochemical compatibility between them), most accurately applied to interactions among simple, uniform antigenic determinants such as haptens. Expressed as the association constant (K litres mole -1), which, owing to the heterogeneity of affinities in a population of antibody molecules of a given specificity, actually represents an average value (mean intrinsic association constant). 6. The reciprocal of the dissociation constant. [EU] Albinism: General term for a number of inherited defects of amino acid metabolism in which there is a deficiency or absence of pigment in the eyes, skin, or hair. [NIH] Alexia: The inability to recognize or comprehend written or printed words. [NIH] Algorithms: A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task. [NIH] Alkaline: Having the reactions of an alkali. [EU] Alkaloid: A member of a large group of chemicals that are made by plants and have nitrogen in them. Some alkaloids have been shown to work against cancer. [NIH] Alternative medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used instead of standard treatments. Alternative medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Amblyopia: A nonspecific term referring to impaired vision. Major subcategories include stimulus deprivation-induced amblyopia and toxic amblyopia. Stimulus deprivationinduced amblopia is a developmental disorder of the visual cortex. A discrepancy between visual information received by the visual cortex from each eye results in abnormal cortical development. Strabismus and refractive errors may cause this condition. Toxic amblyopia is a disorder of the optic nerve which is associated with alcoholism, tobacco smoking, and other toxins and as an adverse effect of the use of some medications. [NIH] Amino Acid Sequence: The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining protein conformation. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amygdala: Almond-shaped group of basal nuclei anterior to the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle of the brain, within the temporal lobe. The amygdala is part of the limbic system. [NIH]
Anal: Having to do with the anus, which is the posterior opening of the large bowel. [NIH] Anaphylatoxins: The family of peptides C3a, C4a, C5a, and C5a des-arginine produced in the serum during complement activation. They produce smooth muscle contraction, mast cell histamine release, affect platelet aggregation, and act as mediators of the local inflammatory process. The order of anaphylatoxin activity from strongest to weakest is C5a, C3a, C4a, and C5a des-arginine. The latter is the so-called "classical" anaphylatoxin but shows no spasmogenic activity though it contains some chemotactic ability. [NIH]
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Anastomosis: A procedure to connect healthy sections of tubular structures in the body after the diseased portion has been surgically removed. [NIH] Anatomical: Pertaining to anatomy, or to the structure of the organism. [EU] Animal model: An animal with a disease either the same as or like a disease in humans. Animal models are used to study the development and progression of diseases and to test new treatments before they are given to humans. Animals with transplanted human cancers or other tissues are called xenograft models. [NIH] Anisometropia: A condition of an inequality of refractive power of the two eyes. [NIH] Anomalies: Birth defects; abnormalities. [NIH] Anterior Cerebral Artery: Artery formed by the bifurcation of the internal carotid artery. Branches of the anterior cerebral artery supply the caudate nucleus, internal capsule, putamen, septal nuclei, gyrus cinguli, and surfaces of the frontal lobe and parietal lobe. [NIH] Anterior chamber: The space in front of the iris and behind the cornea. [NIH] Antibodies: Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the antigen that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially plasma cells), or with an antigen closely related to it. [NIH] Antibody: A type of protein made by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign substance (antigen). Each antibody can bind to only a specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen. [NIH] Anticoagulant: A drug that helps prevent blood clots from forming. Also called a blood thinner. [NIH] Antigen: Any substance which is capable, under appropriate conditions, of inducing a specific immune response and of reacting with the products of that response, that is, with specific antibody or specifically sensitized T-lymphocytes, or both. Antigens may be soluble substances, such as toxins and foreign proteins, or particulate, such as bacteria and tissue cells; however, only the portion of the protein or polysaccharide molecule known as the antigenic determinant (q.v.) combines with antibody or a specific receptor on a lymphocyte. Abbreviated Ag. [EU] Antigen-Antibody Complex: The complex formed by the binding of antigen and antibody molecules. The deposition of large antigen-antibody complexes leading to tissue damage causes immune complex diseases. [NIH] Anxiety: Persistent feeling of dread, apprehension, and impending disaster. [NIH] Aphakia: Absence of crystalline lens totally or partially from field of vision, from any cause except after cataract extraction. Aphakia is mainly congenital or as result of lens dislocation and subluxation. [NIH] Aponeurosis: Tendinous expansion consisting of a fibrous or membranous sheath which serves as a fascia to enclose or bind a group of muscles. [NIH] Applicability: A list of the commodities to which the candidate method can be applied as presented or with minor modifications. [NIH] Aqueous: Having to do with water. [NIH] Archaea: One of the three domains of life (the others being bacteria and Eucarya), formerly called Archaebacteria under the taxon Bacteria, but now considered separate and distinct. They are characterized by: 1) the presence of characteristic tRNAs and ribosomal RNAs; 2) the absence of peptidoglycan cell walls; 3) the presence of ether-linked lipids built from
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branched-chain subunits; and 4) their occurrence in unusual habitats. While archaea resemble bacteria in morphology and genomic organization, they resemble eukarya in their method of genomic replication. The domain contains at least three kingdoms: crenarchaeota, euryarchaeota, and korarchaeota. [NIH] Arginine: An essential amino acid that is physiologically active in the L-form. [NIH] Arterial: Pertaining to an artery or to the arteries. [EU] Arteries: The vessels carrying blood away from the heart. [NIH] Arteriovenous: Both arterial and venous; pertaining to or affecting an artery and a vein. [EU] Artery: Vessel-carrying blood from the heart to various parts of the body. [NIH] Artificial Eye: Usually made of artificial plastic material or glass to which small quantities of metallic oxides have been added in order to imitate the features and coloring of the various parts of t he human eye; a prosthesis made of glass, plastic, or similar material. [NIH] Aspartate: A synthetic amino acid. [NIH] Astigmatism: A condition in which the surface of the cornea is not spherical; causes a blurred image to be received at the retina. [NIH] Astrocytes: The largest and most numerous neuroglial cells in the brain and spinal cord. Astrocytes (from "star" cells) are irregularly shaped with many long processes, including those with "end feet" which form the glial (limiting) membrane and directly and indirectly contribute to the blood brain barrier. They regulate the extracellular ionic and chemical environment, and "reactive astrocytes" (along with microglia) respond to injury. Astrocytes have high- affinity transmitter uptake systems, voltage-dependent and transmitter-gated ion channels, and can release transmitter, but their role in signaling (as in many other functions) is not well understood. [NIH] Astrocytoma: A tumor that begins in the brain or spinal cord in small, star-shaped cells called astrocytes. [NIH] Atropine: A toxic alkaloid, originally from Atropa belladonna, but found in other plants, mainly Solanaceae. [NIH] Avian: A plasmodial infection in birds. [NIH] Axons: Nerve fibers that are capable of rapidly conducting impulses away from the neuron cell body. [NIH] Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. [NIH] Bacterial Physiology: Physiological processes and activities of bacteria. [NIH] Basal Ganglia: Large subcortical nuclear masses derived from the telencephalon and located in the basal regions of the cerebral hemispheres. [NIH] Base: In chemistry, the nonacid part of a salt; a substance that combines with acids to form salts; a substance that dissociates to give hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions; a substance whose molecule or ion can combine with a proton (hydrogen ion); a substance capable of donating a pair of electrons (to an acid) for the formation of a coordinate covalent bond. [EU] Belladonna: A species of very poisonous Solanaceous plants yielding atropine (hyoscyamine), scopolamine, and other belladonna alkaloids, used to block the muscarinic autonomic nervous system. [NIH] Benign: Not cancerous; does not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body. [NIH]
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Bewilderment: Impairment or loss of will power. [NIH] Bicuculline: Isoquinoline alkaloid from Dicentra cucullaria and other plants that is a competitive antagonist at GABA-A receptors and thus causes convulsions. [NIH] Bilateral: Affecting both the right and left side of body. [NIH] Binocular vision: The blending of the separate images seen by each eye into a single image; allows images to be seen with depth. [NIH] Biochemical: Relating to biochemistry; characterized by, produced by, or involving chemical reactions in living organisms. [EU] Biological therapy: Treatment to stimulate or restore the ability of the immune system to fight infection and disease. Also used to lessen side effects that may be caused by some cancer treatments. Also known as immunotherapy, biotherapy, or biological response modifier (BRM) therapy. [NIH] Biotechnology: Body of knowledge related to the use of organisms, cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of developing products which are technically, scientifically and clinically useful. Alteration of biologic function at the molecular level (i.e., genetic engineering) is a central focus; laboratory methods used include transfection and cloning technologies, sequence and structure analysis algorithms, computer databases, and gene and protein structure function analysis and prediction. [NIH] Bladder: The organ that stores urine. [NIH] Blepharoptosis: Drooping of the upper lid due to deficient development or paralysis of the levator palpebrae muscle. [NIH] Blind spot: (1) A small area of the retina where the optic nerve enters the eye; occurs normally in all eyes.(2) Any gap in the visual field corresponding to an area of the retina where no visual cells are present; associated with eye disease. [NIH] Blood Coagulation: The process of the interaction of blood coagulation factors that results in an insoluble fibrin clot. [NIH] Blood pressure: The pressure of blood against the walls of a blood vessel or heart chamber. Unless there is reference to another location, such as the pulmonary artery or one of the heart chambers, it refers to the pressure in the systemic arteries, as measured, for example, in the forearm. [NIH] Blood vessel: A tube in the body through which blood circulates. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. [NIH] Blood-Brain Barrier: Specialized non-fenestrated tightly-joined endothelial cells (tight junctions) that form a transport barrier for certain substances between the cerebral capillaries and the brain tissue. [NIH] Body Fluids: Liquid components of living organisms. [NIH] Brachytherapy: A collective term for interstitial, intracavity, and surface radiotherapy. It uses small sealed or partly-sealed sources that may be placed on or near the body surface or within a natural body cavity or implanted directly into the tissues. [NIH] Bradykinin: A nonapeptide messenger that is enzymatically produced from kallidin in the blood where it is a potent but short-lived agent of arteriolar dilation and increased capillary permeability. Bradykinin is also released from mast cells during asthma attacks, from gut walls as a gastrointestinal vasodilator, from damaged tissues as a pain signal, and may be a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Brain Stem: The part of the brain that connects the cerebral hemispheres with the spinal cord. It consists of the mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata. [NIH]
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Bypass: A surgical procedure in which the doctor creates a new pathway for the flow of body fluids. [NIH] Calcium: A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. [NIH] Calmodulin: A heat-stable, low-molecular-weight activator protein found mainly in the brain and heart. The binding of calcium ions to this protein allows this protein to bind to cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases and to adenyl cyclase with subsequent activation. Thereby this protein modulates cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP levels. [NIH] Canonical: A particular nucleotide sequence in which each position represents the base more often found when many actual sequences of a given class of genetic elements are compared. [NIH] Carbidopa: A peripheral inhibitor of dopa decarboxylase. It is given in parkinsonism along with levodopa to inhibit the conversion of levodopa to dopamine in the periphery, thereby reducing the peripheral adverse effects, increasing the amount of levodopa that reaches the central nervous system, and reducing the dose needed. It has no antiparkinson actions when given alone. [NIH] Carbon Dioxide: A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals. [NIH] Carotene: The general name for a group of pigments found in green, yellow, and leafy vegetables, and yellow fruits. The pigments are fat-soluble, unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons functioning as provitamins and are converted to vitamin A through enzymatic processes in the intestinal wall. [NIH] Case report: A detailed report of the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports also contain some demographic information about the patient (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin). [NIH] Case series: A group or series of case reports involving patients who were given similar treatment. Reports of case series usually contain detailed information about the individual patients. This includes demographic information (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin) and information on diagnosis, treatment, response to treatment, and follow-up after treatment. [NIH] Castor Oil: Oil obtained from seeds of Ricinus communis that is used as a cathartic and as a plasticizer. [NIH] Cataract: An opacity, partial or complete, of one or both eyes, on or in the lens or capsule, especially an opacity impairing vision or causing blindness. The many kinds of cataract are classified by their morphology (size, shape, location) or etiology (cause and time of occurrence). [EU] Causal: Pertaining to a cause; directed against a cause. [EU] Cell: The individual unit that makes up all of the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells. [NIH] Cell Differentiation: Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function which takes place during the development of the embryo and leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Cell Division: The fission of a cell. [NIH]
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Cell membrane: Cell membrane = plasma membrane. The structure enveloping a cell, enclosing the cytoplasm, and forming a selective permeability barrier; it consists of lipids, proteins, and some carbohydrates, the lipids thought to form a bilayer in which integral proteins are embedded to varying degrees. [EU] Cell proliferation: An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division. [NIH] Cell Survival: The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability. [NIH] Central Nervous System: The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. [NIH] Cerebral: Of or pertaining of the cerebrum or the brain. [EU] Cerebral Cortex: The thin layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemisphere that develops from the telencephalon and folds into gyri. It reaches its highest development in man and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions. [NIH] Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum controls muscle functions of the body and also controls speech, emotions, reading, writing, and learning. [NIH] Cervical: Relating to the neck, or to the neck of any organ or structure. Cervical lymph nodes are located in the neck; cervical cancer refers to cancer of the uterine cervix, which is the lower, narrow end (the "neck") of the uterus. [NIH] Chemotactic Factors: Chemical substances that attract or repel cells or organisms. The concept denotes especially those factors released as a result of tissue injury, invasion, or immunologic activity, that attract leukocytes, macrophages, or other cells to the site of infection or insult. [NIH] Child Development: The continuous sequential physiological and psychological maturing of the child from birth up to but not including adolescence. It includes healthy responses to situations, but does not include growth in stature or size (= growth). [NIH] Chin: The anatomical frontal portion of the mandible, also known as the mentum, that contains the line of fusion of the two separate halves of the mandible (symphysis menti). This line of fusion divides inferiorly to enclose a triangular area called the mental protuberance. On each side, inferior to the second premolar tooth, is the mental foramen for the passage of blood vessels and a nerve. [NIH] Chloral Hydrate: A hypnotic and sedative used in the treatment of insomnia. The safety margin is too narrow for chloral hydrate to be used as a general anesthetic in humans, but it is commonly used for that purpose in animal experiments. It is no longer considered useful as an anti-anxiety medication. [NIH] Cholinergic: Resembling acetylcholine in pharmacological action; stimulated by or releasing acetylcholine or a related compound. [EU] Chorioretinitis: Inflammation of the choroid in which the sensory retina becomes edematous and opaque. The inflammatory cells and exudate may burst through the sensory retina to cloud the vitreous body. [NIH] Choroid: The thin, highly vascular membrane covering most of the posterior of the eye between the retina and sclera. [NIH] Chromatopsia: Colored vision; an abnormal condition in which all objects appear in a particular color. [NIH]
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Chromosomal: Pertaining to chromosomes. [EU] Chromosome: Part of a cell that contains genetic information. Except for sperm and eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes. [NIH] Chronic: A disease or condition that persists or progresses over a long period of time. [NIH] Ciliary: Inflammation or infection of the glands of the margins of the eyelids. [NIH] Circadian: Repeated more or less daily, i. e. on a 23- to 25-hour cycle. [NIH] CIS: Cancer Information Service. The CIS is the National Cancer Institute's link to the public, interpreting and explaining research findings in a clear and understandable manner, and providing personalized responses to specific questions about cancer. Access the CIS by calling 1-800-4-CANCER, or by using the Web site at http://cis.nci.nih.gov. [NIH] Clamp: A u-shaped steel rod used with a pin or wire for skeletal traction in the treatment of certain fractures. [NIH] Clinical study: A research study in which patients receive treatment in a clinic or other medical facility. Reports of clinical studies can contain results for single patients (case reports) or many patients (case series or clinical trials). [NIH] Clinical trial: A research study that tests how well new medical treatments or other interventions work in people. Each study is designed to test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. [NIH] Cloning: The production of a number of genetically identical individuals; in genetic engineering, a process for the efficient replication of a great number of identical DNA molecules. [NIH] Cofactor: A substance, microorganism or environmental factor that activates or enhances the action of another entity such as a disease-causing agent. [NIH] Collagen: A polypeptide substance comprising about one third of the total protein in mammalian organisms. It is the main constituent of skin, connective tissue, and the organic substance of bones and teeth. Different forms of collagen are produced in the body but all consist of three alpha-polypeptide chains arranged in a triple helix. Collagen is differentiated from other fibrous proteins, such as elastin, by the content of proline, hydroxyproline, and hydroxylysine; by the absence of tryptophan; and particularly by the high content of polar groups which are responsible for its swelling properties. [NIH] Colloidal: Of the nature of a colloid. [EU] Communis: Common tendon of the rectus group of muscles that surrounds the optic foramen and a portion of the superior orbital fissure, to the anterior margin of which it is attached at the spina recti lateralis. [NIH] Complement: A term originally used to refer to the heat-labile factor in serum that causes immune cytolysis, the lysis of antibody-coated cells, and now referring to the entire functionally related system comprising at least 20 distinct serum proteins that is the effector not only of immune cytolysis but also of other biologic functions. Complement activation occurs by two different sequences, the classic and alternative pathways. The proteins of the classic pathway are termed 'components of complement' and are designated by the symbols C1 through C9. C1 is a calcium-dependent complex of three distinct proteins C1q, C1r and C1s. The proteins of the alternative pathway (collectively referred to as the properdin system) and complement regulatory proteins are known by semisystematic or trivial names. Fragments resulting from proteolytic cleavage of complement proteins are designated with lower-case letter suffixes, e.g., C3a. Inactivated fragments may be designated with the suffix 'i', e.g. C3bi. Activated components or complexes with biological activity are designated by a bar over the symbol e.g. C1 or C4b,2a. The classic pathway is activated by the binding of C1
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to classic pathway activators, primarily antigen-antibody complexes containing IgM, IgG1, IgG3; C1q binds to a single IgM molecule or two adjacent IgG molecules. The alternative pathway can be activated by IgA immune complexes and also by nonimmunologic materials including bacterial endotoxins, microbial polysaccharides, and cell walls. Activation of the classic pathway triggers an enzymatic cascade involving C1, C4, C2 and C3; activation of the alternative pathway triggers a cascade involving C3 and factors B, D and P. Both result in the cleavage of C5 and the formation of the membrane attack complex. Complement activation also results in the formation of many biologically active complement fragments that act as anaphylatoxins, opsonins, or chemotactic factors. [EU] Complementary and alternative medicine: CAM. Forms of treatment that are used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices are not considered standard medical approaches. CAM includes dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, herbal preparations, special teas, massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementary medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used to enhance or complement the standard treatments. Complementary medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Compliance: Distensibility measure of a chamber such as the lungs (lung compliance) or bladder. Compliance is expressed as a change in volume per unit change in pressure. [NIH] Computational Biology: A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and theories applicable to molecular biology and areas of computer-based techniques for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets. [NIH] Concomitant: Accompanying; accessory; joined with another. [EU] Cones: One type of specialized light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors) in the retina that provide sharp central vision and color vision. [NIH] Confusion: A mental state characterized by bewilderment, emotional disturbance, lack of clear thinking, and perceptual disorientation. [NIH] Conjugated: Acting or operating as if joined; simultaneous. [EU] Conjunctiva: The mucous membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelids and the anterior part of the sclera. [NIH] Connexins: A group of homologous proteins which form the intermembrane channels of gap junctions. The connexins are the products of an identified gene family which has both highly conserved and highly divergent regions. The variety contributes to the wide range of functional properties of gap junctions. [NIH] Constitutional: 1. Affecting the whole constitution of the body; not local. 2. Pertaining to the constitution. [EU] Constriction: The act of constricting. [NIH] Contraindications: Any factor or sign that it is unwise to pursue a certain kind of action or treatment, e. g. giving a general anesthetic to a person with pneumonia. [NIH] Contrast Sensitivity: The ability to detect sharp boundaries (stimuli) and to detect slight changes in luminance at regions without distinct contours. Psychophysical measurements of this visual function are used to evaluate visual acuity and to detect eye disease. [NIH] Conventional treatment: A currently accepted and widely used treatment for a certain type
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of disease, based on the results of past research. Also called conventional therapy. [NIH] Convulsions: A general term referring to sudden and often violent motor activity of cerebral or brainstem origin. Convulsions may also occur in the absence of an electrical cerebral discharge (e.g., in response to hypotension). [NIH] Cornea: The transparent part of the eye that covers the iris and the pupil and allows light to enter the inside. [NIH] Corneal Diseases: Diseases of the cornea. [NIH] Corpus: The body of the uterus. [NIH] Cortex: The outer layer of an organ or other body structure, as distinguished from the internal substance. [EU] Cortical: Pertaining to or of the nature of a cortex or bark. [EU] Corticosteroids: Hormones that have antitumor activity in lymphomas and lymphoid leukemias; in addition, corticosteroids (steroids) may be used for hormone replacement and for the management of some of the complications of cancer and its treatment. [NIH] Cranial: Pertaining to the cranium, or to the anterior (in animals) or superior (in humans) end of the body. [EU] Crowding: Behavior with respect to an excessive number of individuals, human or animal, in relation to available space. [NIH] Cues: Signals for an action; that specific portion of a perceptual field or pattern of stimuli to which a subject has learned to respond. [NIH] Curative: Tending to overcome disease and promote recovery. [EU] Cyanide: An extremely toxic class of compounds that can be lethal on inhaling of ingesting in minute quantities. [NIH] Cyclic: Pertaining to or occurring in a cycle or cycles; the term is applied to chemical compounds that contain a ring of atoms in the nucleus. [EU] Cytochrome: Any electron transfer hemoprotein having a mode of action in which the transfer of a single electron is effected by a reversible valence change of the central iron atom of the heme prosthetic group between the +2 and +3 oxidation states; classified as cytochromes a in which the heme contains a formyl side chain, cytochromes b, which contain protoheme or a closely similar heme that is not covalently bound to the protein, cytochromes c in which protoheme or other heme is covalently bound to the protein, and cytochromes d in which the iron-tetrapyrrole has fewer conjugated double bonds than the hemes have. Well-known cytochromes have been numbered consecutively within groups and are designated by subscripts (beginning with no subscript), e.g. cytochromes c, c1, C2, . New cytochromes are named according to the wavelength in nanometres of the absorption maximum of the a-band of the iron (II) form in pyridine, e.g., c-555. [EU] Cytogenetics: A branch of genetics which deals with the cytological and molecular behavior of genes and chromosomes during cell division. [NIH] Cytotoxic: Cell-killing. [NIH] Data Collection: Systematic gathering of data for a particular purpose from various sources, including questionnaires, interviews, observation, existing records, and electronic devices. The process is usually preliminary to statistical analysis of the data. [NIH] Degenerative: Undergoing degeneration : tending to degenerate; having the character of or involving degeneration; causing or tending to cause degeneration. [EU] Dendrites: Extensions of the nerve cell body. They are short and branched and receive stimuli from other neurons. [NIH]
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Dendritic: 1. Branched like a tree. 2. Pertaining to or possessing dendrites. [EU] Depolarization: The process or act of neutralizing polarity. In neurophysiology, the reversal of the resting potential in excitable cell membranes when stimulated, i.e., the tendency of the cell membrane potential to become positive with respect to the potential outside the cell. [EU] Deprivation: Loss or absence of parts, organs, powers, or things that are needed. [EU] Depth Perception: Perception of three-dimensionality. [NIH] Diagnostic procedure: A method used to identify a disease. [NIH] Dialyzer: A part of the hemodialysis machine. (See hemodialysis under dialysis.) The dialyzer has two sections separated by a membrane. One section holds dialysate. The other holds the patient's blood. [NIH] Diffusion: The tendency of a gas or solute to pass from a point of higher pressure or concentration to a point of lower pressure or concentration and to distribute itself throughout the available space; a major mechanism of biological transport. [NIH] Dimness: A result of alcohol's toxic effect on the optic nerve. [NIH] Diopter: The measurement of refractive error. A negative diopter value signifies an eye with myopia and positive diopter value signifies an eye with hyperopia. [NIH] Diphtheria: A localized infection of mucous membranes or skin caused by toxigenic strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae. It is characterized by the presence of a pseudomembrane at the site of infection. Diphtheria toxin, produced by C. diphtheriae, can cause myocarditis, polyneuritis, and other systemic toxic effects. [NIH] Diplopia: A visual symptom in which a single object is perceived by the visual cortex as two objects rather than one. Disorders associated with this condition include refractive errors; strabismus; oculomotor nerve diseases; trochlear nerve diseases; abducens nerve diseases; and diseases of the brain stem and occipital lobe. [NIH] Direct: 1. Straight; in a straight line. 2. Performed immediately and without the intervention of subsidiary means. [EU] Discrimination: The act of qualitative and/or quantitative differentiation between two or more stimuli. [NIH] Dislocation: The displacement of any part, more especially of a bone. Called also luxation. [EU]
Disorientation: The loss of proper bearings, or a state of mental confusion as to time, place, or identity. [EU] Disparity: Failure of the two retinal images of an object to fall on corresponding retinal points. [NIH] Distal: Remote; farther from any point of reference; opposed to proximal. In dentistry, used to designate a position on the dental arch farther from the median line of the jaw. [EU] Dominance: In genetics, the full phenotypic expression of a gene in both heterozygotes and homozygotes. [EU] Dopa: The racemic or DL form of DOPA, an amino acid found in various legumes. The dextro form has little physiologic activity but the levo form (levodopa) is a very important physiologic mediator and precursor and pharmacological agent. [NIH] Dopa Decarboxylase: One of the aromatic-l-amino-acid decarboxylases, this enzyme is responsible for the conversion of dopa to dopamine. It is of clinical importance in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. EC 4.1.1.28. [NIH] Dopamine: An endogenous catecholamine and prominent neurotransmitter in several
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systems of the brain. In the synthesis of catecholamines from tyrosine, it is the immediate precursor to norepinephrine and epinephrine. Dopamine is a major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement. A family of dopaminergic receptor subtypes mediate its action. Dopamine is used pharmacologically for its direct (beta adrenergic agonist) and indirect (adrenergic releasing) sympathomimetic effects including its actions as an inotropic agent and as a renal vasodilator. [NIH] Dorsum: A plate of bone which forms the posterior boundary of the sella turcica. [NIH] Drive: A state of internal activity of an organism that is a necessary condition before a given stimulus will elicit a class of responses; e.g., a certain level of hunger (drive) must be present before food will elicit an eating response. [NIH] Drug Interactions: The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug. [NIH] Dyes: Chemical substances that are used to stain and color other materials. The coloring may or may not be permanent. Dyes can also be used as therapeutic agents and test reagents in medicine and scientific research. [NIH] Dyslexia: Partial alexia in which letters but not words may be read, or in which words may be read but not understood. [NIH] Ectopia Lentis: Congenital displacement of the lens resulting from defective zonule formation. [NIH] Effector: It is often an enzyme that converts an inactive precursor molecule into an active second messenger. [NIH] Efferent: Nerve fibers which conduct impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands. [NIH] Efficacy: The extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service produces a beneficial result under ideal conditions. Ideally, the determination of efficacy is based on the results of a randomized control trial. [NIH] Elasticity: Resistance and recovery from distortion of shape. [NIH] Electrolyte: A substance that dissociates into ions when fused or in solution, and thus becomes capable of conducting electricity; an ionic solute. [EU] Electroretinogram: The electrical effect recorded from the surface of the eyeball and originated by a pulse of light. [NIH] Empirical: A treatment based on an assumed diagnosis, prior to receiving confirmatory laboratory test results. [NIH] Emulsion: A preparation of one liquid distributed in small globules throughout the body of a second liquid. The dispersed liquid is the discontinuous phase, and the dispersion medium is the continuous phase. When oil is the dispersed liquid and an aqueous solution is the continuous phase, it is known as an oil-in-water emulsion, whereas when water or aqueous solution is the dispersed phase and oil or oleaginous substance is the continuous phase, it is known as a water-in-oil emulsion. Pharmaceutical emulsions for which official standards have been promulgated include cod liver oil emulsion, cod liver oil emulsion with malt, liquid petrolatum emulsion, and phenolphthalein in liquid petrolatum emulsion. [EU] Endogenous: Produced inside an organism or cell. The opposite is external (exogenous) production. [NIH] Endophthalmitis: Suppurative inflammation of the tissues of the internal structures of the eye; not all layers of the uvea are affected. Fungi, necrosis of intraocular tumors, and retained intraocular foreign bodies often cause a purulent endophthalmitis. [NIH]
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Endorphins: One of the three major groups of endogenous opioid peptides. They are large peptides derived from the pro-opiomelanocortin precursor. The known members of this group are alpha-, beta-, and gamma-endorphin. The term endorphin is also sometimes used to refer to all opioid peptides, but the narrower sense is used here; opioid peptides is used for the broader group. [NIH] Endothelium: A layer of epithelium that lines the heart, blood vessels (endothelium, vascular), lymph vessels (endothelium, lymphatic), and the serous cavities of the body. [NIH] Endothelium-derived: Small molecule that diffuses to the adjacent muscle layer and relaxes it. [NIH] Endotoxins: Toxins closely associated with the living cytoplasm or cell wall of certain microorganisms, which do not readily diffuse into the culture medium, but are released upon lysis of the cells. [NIH] Enkephalins: One of the three major families of endogenous opioid peptides. The enkephalins are pentapeptides that are widespread in the central and peripheral nervous systems and in the adrenal medulla. [NIH] Entoptic: Arising from within the eye, pertaining especially to certain phenomena related to the optical or sensory effects of internal structures perceived illusorily, as in the external field of vision. [NIH] Environmental Health: The science of controlling or modifying those conditions, influences, or forces surrounding man which relate to promoting, establishing, and maintaining health. [NIH]
Enzymatic: Phase where enzyme cuts the precursor protein. [NIH] Enzyme: A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. [NIH] Epicanthus: Fold of the skin partially covering the inner canthus, the caruncle, and the plica semilunaris. [NIH] Epidemic: Occurring suddenly in numbers clearly in excess of normal expectancy; said especially of infectious diseases but applied also to any disease, injury, or other healthrelated event occurring in such outbreaks. [EU] Epinephrine: The active sympathomimetic hormone from the adrenal medulla in most species. It stimulates both the alpha- and beta- adrenergic systems, causes systemic vasoconstriction and gastrointestinal relaxation, stimulates the heart, and dilates bronchi and cerebral vessels. It is used in asthma and cardiac failure and to delay absorption of local anesthetics. [NIH] Epithelium: One or more layers of epithelial cells, supported by the basal lamina, which covers the inner or outer surfaces of the body. [NIH] ERV: The expiratory reserve volume is the largest volume of gas that can be expired from the end-expiratory level. [NIH] Esotropia: A form of ocular misalignment characterized by an excessive convergence of the visual axes, resulting in a "cross-eye" appearance. An example of this condition occurs when paralysis of the lateral rectus muscle causes an abnormal inward deviation of one eye on attempted gaze. [NIH] Ethnic Groups: A group of people with a common cultural heritage that sets them apart from others in a variety of social relationships. [NIH] Evoke: The electric response recorded from the cerebral cortex after stimulation of a peripheral sense organ. [NIH] Excitation: An act of irritation or stimulation or of responding to a stimulus; the addition of
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energy, as the excitation of a molecule by absorption of photons. [EU] Excitatory: When cortical neurons are excited, their output increases and each new input they receive while they are still excited raises their output markedly. [NIH] Exogenous: Developed or originating outside the organism, as exogenous disease. [EU] Exotropia: A form of ocular misalignment where the visual axes diverge inappropriately. For example, medial rectus muscle weakness may produce this condition as the affected eye will deviate laterally upon attempted forward gaze. An exotropia occurs due to the relatively unopposed force exerted on the eye by the lateral rectus muscle, which pulls the eye in an outward direction. [NIH] Expiratory: The volume of air which leaves the breathing organs in each expiration. [NIH] Expiratory Reserve Volume: The extra volume of air that can be expired with maximum effort beyond the level reached at the end of a normal, quiet expiration. Common abbreviation is ERV. [NIH] External-beam radiation: Radiation therapy that uses a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer. Also called external radiation. [NIH] Extracellular: Outside a cell or cells. [EU] Extraction: The process or act of pulling or drawing out. [EU] Extraocular: External to or outside of the eye. [NIH] Eye Movements: Voluntary or reflex-controlled movements of the eye. [NIH] Eye socket: One of the two cavities in the skull which contains an eyeball. Each eye is located in a bony socket or orbit. [NIH] Facial: Of or pertaining to the face. [EU] Family Planning: Programs or services designed to assist the family in controlling reproduction by either improving or diminishing fertility. [NIH] Farsightedness: The common term for hyperopia. [NIH] Fixation: 1. The act or operation of holding, suturing, or fastening in a fixed position. 2. The condition of being held in a fixed position. 3. In psychiatry, a term with two related but distinct meanings : (1) arrest of development at a particular stage, which like regression (return to an earlier stage), if temporary is a normal reaction to setbacks and difficulties but if protracted or frequent is a cause of developmental failures and emotional problems, and (2) a close and suffocating attachment to another person, especially a childhood figure, such as one's mother or father. Both meanings are derived from psychoanalytic theory and refer to 'fixation' of libidinal energy either in a specific erogenous zone, hence fixation at the oral, anal, or phallic stage, or in a specific object, hence mother or father fixation. 4. The use of a fixative (q.v.) to preserve histological or cytological specimens. 5. In chemistry, the process whereby a substance is removed from the gaseous or solution phase and localized, as in carbon dioxide fixation or nitrogen fixation. 6. In ophthalmology, direction of the gaze so that the visual image of the object falls on the fovea centralis. 7. In film processing, the chemical removal of all undeveloped salts of the film emulsion, leaving only the developed silver to form a permanent image. [EU] Fluorescence: The property of emitting radiation while being irradiated. The radiation emitted is usually of longer wavelength than that incident or absorbed, e.g., a substance can be irradiated with invisible radiation and emit visible light. X-ray fluorescence is used in diagnosis. [NIH] Fluorescent Dyes: Dyes that emit light when exposed to light. The wave length of the emitted light is usually longer than that of the incident light. Fluorochromes are substances
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that cause fluorescence in other substances, i.e., dyes used to mark or label other compounds with fluorescent tags. They are used as markers in biochemistry and immunology. [NIH] Forearm: The part between the elbow and the wrist. [NIH] Fovea: The central part of the macula that provides the sharpest vision. [NIH] Frontal Lobe: The anterior part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Functional magnetic resonance imaging: A noninvasive tool used to observe functioning in the brain or other organs by detecting changes in chemical composition, blood flow, or both. [NIH]
Ganglia: Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized connective tissue located outside the central nervous system. [NIH] Ganglion: 1. A knot, or knotlike mass. 2. A general term for a group of nerve cell bodies located outside the central nervous system; occasionally applied to certain nuclear groups within the brain or spinal cord, e.g. basal ganglia. 3. A benign cystic tumour occurring on a aponeurosis or tendon, as in the wrist or dorsum of the foot; it consists of a thin fibrous capsule enclosing a clear mucinous fluid. [EU] Gap Junctions: Connections between cells which allow passage of small molecules and electric current. Gap junctions were first described anatomically as regions of close apposition between cells with a narrow (1-2 nm) gap between cell membranes. The variety in the properties of gap junctions is reflected in the number of connexins, the family of proteins which form the junctions. [NIH] Gas: Air that comes from normal breakdown of food. The gases are passed out of the body through the rectum (flatus) or the mouth (burp). [NIH] Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein. [NIH]
Genetics: The biological science that deals with the phenomena and mechanisms of heredity. [NIH] Genotype: The genetic constitution of the individual; the characterization of the genes. [NIH] Gland: An organ that produces and releases one or more substances for use in the body. Some glands produce fluids that affect tissues or organs. Others produce hormones or participate in blood production. [NIH] Glucose: D-Glucose. A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. [NIH] Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter of the brain. [NIH] Glutamic Acid: A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid (glutamate) is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. [NIH]
Glycine: A non-essential amino acid. It is found primarily in gelatin and silk fibroin and used therapeutically as a nutrient. It is also a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter. [NIH] Governing Board: The group in which legal authority is vested for the control of healthrelated institutions and organizations. [NIH] Grade: The grade of a tumor depends on how abnormal the cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly the tumor is likely to grow and spread. Grading systems are different for each type of cancer. [NIH] Grading: A system for classifying cancer cells in terms of how abnormal they appear when
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examined under a microscope. The objective of a grading system is to provide information about the probable growth rate of the tumor and its tendency to spread. The systems used to grade tumors vary with each type of cancer. Grading plays a role in treatment decisions. [NIH]
Grafting: The operation of transfer of tissue from one site to another. [NIH] Granulocytes: Leukocytes with abundant granules in the cytoplasm. They are divided into three groups: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. [NIH] Gravis: Eruption of watery blisters on the skin among those handling animals and animal products. [NIH] Growth factors: Substances made by the body that function to regulate cell division and cell survival. Some growth factors are also produced in the laboratory and used in biological therapy. [NIH] Guanylate Cyclase: An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of GTP to 3',5'-cyclic GMP and pyrophosphate. It also acts on ITP and dGTP. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 4.6.1.2. [NIH] Haemodialysis: The removal of certain elements from the blood by virtue of the difference in the rates of their diffusion through a semipermeable membrane, e.g., by means of a haemodialyzer. [EU] Haemoperfusion: 1. The act of pouring over or through, especially the passage of blood through the vessels of a specific organ. 2. Blood poured over or through an organ or tissue. [EU]
Handicap: A handicap occurs as a result of disability, but disability does not always constitute a handicap. A handicap may be said to exist when a disability causes a substantial and continuing reduction in a person's capacity to function socially and vocationally. [NIH] Hemodialysis: The use of a machine to clean wastes from the blood after the kidneys have failed. The blood travels through tubes to a dialyzer, which removes wastes and extra fluid. The cleaned blood then flows through another set of tubes back into the body. [NIH] Hemorrhage: Bleeding or escape of blood from a vessel. [NIH] Heredity: 1. The genetic transmission of a particular quality or trait from parent to offspring. 2. The genetic constitution of an individual. [EU] Heterozygotes: Having unlike alleles at one or more corresponding loci on homologous chromosomes. [NIH] Homologous: Corresponding in structure, position, origin, etc., as (a) the feathers of a bird and the scales of a fish, (b) antigen and its specific antibody, (c) allelic chromosomes. [EU] Homozygotes: An individual having a homozygous gene pair. [NIH] Hormonal: Pertaining to or of the nature of a hormone. [EU] Hormone: A substance in the body that regulates certain organs. Hormones such as gastrin help in breaking down food. Some hormones come from cells in the stomach and small intestine. [NIH] Human Development: Continuous sequential changes which occur in the physiological and psychological functions during the individual's life. [NIH] Hybrid: Cross fertilization between two varieties or, more usually, two species of vines, see also crossing. [NIH] Hydrogen: The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight 1. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are protons. Besides the common H1
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isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope deuterium and the unstable, radioactive isotope tritium. [NIH] Hyperopia: Farsightedness; ability to see distant objects more clearly than close objects; may be corrected with glasses or contact lenses. [NIH] Hypnotherapy: Sleeping-cure. [NIH] Hypnotic: A drug that acts to induce sleep. [EU] Hypoplasia: Incomplete development or underdevelopment of an organ or tissue. [EU] Ileum: The lower end of the small intestine. [NIH] Imaging procedures: Methods of producing pictures of areas inside the body. [NIH] Immaturity: The state or quality of being unripe or not fully developed. [EU] Immune response: The activity of the immune system against foreign substances (antigens). [NIH]
Immune system: The organs, cells, and molecules responsible for the recognition and disposal of foreign ("non-self") material which enters the body. [NIH] Immunology: The study of the body's immune system. [NIH] Immunotoxin: An antibody linked to a toxic substance. Some immmunotoxins can bind to cancer cells and kill them. [NIH] Impairment: In the context of health experience, an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. [NIH] Implant radiation: A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near the tumor. Also called [NIH] Implantation: The insertion or grafting into the body of biological, living, inert, or radioactive material. [EU] In situ: In the natural or normal place; confined to the site of origin without invasion of neighbouring tissues. [EU] In vitro: In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body). [NIH] In vivo: In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory). [NIH] Incision: A cut made in the body during surgery. [NIH] Incisional: The removal of a sample of tissue for examination under a microscope. [NIH] Infancy: The period of complete dependency prior to the acquisition of competence in walking, talking, and self-feeding. [NIH] Infantile: Pertaining to an infant or to infancy. [EU] Infection: 1. Invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues, which may be clinically unapparent or result in local cellular injury due to competitive metabolism, toxins, intracellular replication, or antigen-antibody response. The infection may remain localized, subclinical, and temporary if the body's defensive mechanisms are effective. A local infection may persist and spread by extension to become an acute, subacute, or chronic clinical infection or disease state. A local infection may also become systemic when the microorganisms gain access to the lymphatic or vascular system. 2. An infectious disease. [EU]
Inflammation: A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. [NIH] Innervation: 1. The distribution or supply of nerves to a part. 2. The supply of nervous
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energy or of nerve stimulus sent to a part. [EU] Inositol: An isomer of glucose that has traditionally been considered to be a B vitamin although it has an uncertain status as a vitamin and a deficiency syndrome has not been identified in man. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1379) Inositol phospholipids are important in signal transduction. [NIH] Insight: The capacity to understand one's own motives, to be aware of one's own psychodynamics, to appreciate the meaning of symbolic behavior. [NIH] Insomnia: Difficulty in going to sleep or getting enough sleep. [NIH] Insulin: A protein hormone secreted by beta cells of the pancreas. Insulin plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, generally promoting the cellular utilization of glucose. It is also an important regulator of protein and lipid metabolism. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. [NIH] Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: A disease characterized by high levels of blood glucose resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors are involved in the development of type I diabetes. [NIH] Insulin-like: Muscular growth factor. [NIH] Intermittent: Occurring at separated intervals; having periods of cessation of activity. [EU] Internal Capsule: White matter pathway, flanked by nuclear masses, consisting of both afferent and efferent fibers projecting between the cerebral cortex and the brainstem. It consists of three distinct parts: an anterior limb, posterior limb, and genu. [NIH] Internal radiation: A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near the tumor. Also called brachytherapy, implant radiation, or interstitial radiation therapy. [NIH] Interstitial: Pertaining to or situated between parts or in the interspaces of a tissue. [EU] Intestines: The section of the alimentary canal from the stomach to the anus. It includes the large intestine and small intestine. [NIH] Intoxication: Poisoning, the state of being poisoned. [EU] Intracellular: Inside a cell. [NIH] Intraocular: Within the eye. [EU] Intrinsic: Situated entirely within or pertaining exclusively to a part. [EU] Invasive: 1. Having the quality of invasiveness. 2. Involving puncture or incision of the skin or insertion of an instrument or foreign material into the body; said of diagnostic techniques. [EU]
Involuntary: Reaction occurring without intention or volition. [NIH] Ion Channels: Gated, ion-selective glycoproteins that traverse membranes. The stimulus for channel gating can be a membrane potential, drug, transmitter, cytoplasmic messenger, or a mechanical deformation. Ion channels which are integral parts of ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors are not included. [NIH] Ion Exchange: Reversible chemical reaction between a solid, often an ION exchange resin, and a fluid whereby ions may be exchanged from one substance to another. This technique is used in water purification, in research, and in industry. [NIH] Ionization: 1. Any process by which a neutral atom gains or loses electrons, thus acquiring a net charge, as the dissociation of a substance in solution into ions or ion production by the passage of radioactive particles. 2. Iontophoresis. [EU] Ions: An atom or group of atoms that have a positive or negative electric charge due to a
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gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons. Atoms with a positive charge are known as cations; those with a negative charge are anions. [NIH] Iontophoresis: Therapeutic introduction of ions of soluble salts into tissues by means of electric current. In medical literature it is commonly used to indicate the process of increasing the penetration of drugs into surface tissues by the application of electric current. It has nothing to do with ion exchange, air ionization nor phonophoresis, none of which requires current. [NIH] Ipsilateral: Having to do with the same side of the body. [NIH] Iris: The most anterior portion of the uveal layer, separating the anterior chamber from the posterior. It consists of two layers - the stroma and the pigmented epithelium. Color of the iris depends on the amount of melanin in the stroma on reflection from the pigmented epithelium. [NIH] Irradiation: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy) or from materials called radioisotopes. Radioisotopes produce radiation and can be placed in or near the tumor or in the area near cancer cells. This type of radiation treatment is called internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, interstitial radiation, or brachytherapy. Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Irradiation is also called radiation therapy, radiotherapy, and x-ray therapy. [NIH] Jejunoileal Bypass: A surgical procedure consisting of the anastomosis of the proximal part of the jejunum to the distal portion of the ileum, so as to bypass the nutrient-absorptive segment of the small intestine, to treat morbid obesity. [NIH] Jejunum: That portion of the small intestine which extends from the duodenum to the ileum; called also intestinum jejunum. [EU] Kb: A measure of the length of DNA fragments, 1 Kb = 1000 base pairs. The largest DNA fragments are up to 50 kilobases long. [NIH] Keratectomy: The surgical removal of corneal tissue. [NIH] Keratitis: Inflammation of the cornea. [NIH] Keratoconus: A disorder characterized by an irregular corneal surface (cone-shaped) resulting in blurred and distorted images. [NIH] Labile: 1. Gliding; moving from point to point over the surface; unstable; fluctuating. 2. Chemically unstable. [EU] Lag: The time elapsing between application of a stimulus and the resulting reaction. [NIH] Lectin: A complex molecule that has both protein and sugars. Lectins are able to bind to the outside of a cell and cause biochemical changes in it. Lectins are made by both animals and plants. [NIH] Lens: The transparent, double convex (outward curve on both sides) structure suspended between the aqueous and vitreous; helps to focus light on the retina. [NIH] Lesion: An area of abnormal tissue change. [NIH] Lethal: Deadly, fatal. [EU] Levo: It is an experimental treatment for heroin addiction that was developed by German scientists around 1948 as an analgesic. Like methadone, it binds with opioid receptors, but it is longer acting. [NIH] Levodopa: The naturally occurring form of dopa and the immediate precursor of dopamine. Unlike dopamine itself, it can be taken orally and crosses the blood-brain barrier. It is
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rapidly taken up by dopaminergic neurons and converted to dopamine. It is used for the treatment of parkinsonism and is usually given with agents that inhibit its conversion to dopamine outside of the central nervous system. [NIH] Lipid: Fat. [NIH] Localization: The process of determining or marking the location or site of a lesion or disease. May also refer to the process of keeping a lesion or disease in a specific location or site. [NIH] Localized: Cancer which has not metastasized yet. [NIH] Longitudinal study: Also referred to as a "cohort study" or "prospective study"; the analytic method of epidemiologic study in which subsets of a defined population can be identified who are, have been, or in the future may be exposed or not exposed, or exposed in different degrees, to a factor or factors hypothesized to influence the probability of occurrence of a given disease or other outcome. The main feature of this type of study is to observe large numbers of subjects over an extended time, with comparisons of incidence rates in groups that differ in exposure levels. [NIH] Lymph: The almost colorless fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymph node: A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Also known as a lymph gland. Lymph nodes are spread out along lymphatic vessels and contain many lymphocytes, which filter the lymphatic fluid (lymph). [NIH]
Lymphatic: The tissues and organs, including the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes, that produce and store cells that fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymphatic system: The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infection and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes and a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells. These tubes branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body. [NIH] Lymphocytes: White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each); those with characteristics of neither major class are called null cells. [NIH] Lymphoid: Referring to lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Also refers to tissue in which lymphocytes develop. [NIH] Macula: A stain, spot, or thickening. Often used alone to refer to the macula retinae. [EU] Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques. [NIH] Malformation: A morphologic developmental process. [EU]
defect
resulting
from
an
intrinsically
abnormal
Medial: Lying near the midsaggital plane of the body; opposed to lateral. [NIH] Mediate: Indirect; accomplished by the aid of an intervening medium. [EU] Mediator: An object or substance by which something is mediated, such as (1) a structure of the nervous system that transmits impulses eliciting a specific response; (2) a chemical substance (transmitter substance) that induces activity in an excitable tissue, such as nerve or muscle; or (3) a substance released from cells as the result of the interaction of antigen
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with antibody or by the action of antigen with a sensitized lymphocyte. [EU] Medical Records: Recording of pertinent information concerning patient's illness or illnesses. [NIH] MEDLINE: An online database of MEDLARS, the computerized bibliographic Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System of the National Library of Medicine. [NIH] Meiosis: A special method of cell division, occurring in maturation of the germ cells, by means of which each daughter nucleus receives half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the somatic cells of the species. [NIH] Melanin: The substance that gives the skin its color. [NIH] Melanocytes: Epidermal dendritic pigment cells which control long-term morphological color changes by alteration in their number or in the amount of pigment they produce and store in the pigment containing organelles called melanosomes. Melanophores are larger cells which do not exist in mammals. [NIH] Membrane: A very thin layer of tissue that covers a surface. [NIH] Memory: Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory. [NIH] Mental: Pertaining to the mind; psychic. 2. (L. mentum chin) pertaining to the chin. [EU] Mental Health: The state wherein the person is well adjusted. [NIH] Mental Retardation: Refers to sub-average general intellectual functioning which originated during the developmental period and is associated with impairment in adaptive behavior. [NIH]
Meridional: The meridional or longitudinal fibers of the ciliary muscle. [NIH] Metabotropic: A glutamate receptor which triggers an increase in production of 2 intracellular messengers: diacylglycerol and inositol 1, 4, 5-triphosphate. [NIH] Microbiology: The study of microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, archaea, and viruses. [NIH] Microorganism: An organism that can be seen only through a microscope. Microorganisms include bacteria, protozoa, algae, and fungi. Although viruses are not considered living organisms, they are sometimes classified as microorganisms. [NIH] Microphthalmos: Congenital or developmental anomaly in which the eyeballs are abnormally small. [NIH] Miosis: Pupillary constriction. This may result from congenital absence of the dilatator pupillary muscle, defective sympathetic innervation, or irritation of the conjunctiva or cornea. [NIH] Mobility: Capability of movement, of being moved, or of flowing freely. [EU] Modeling: A treatment procedure whereby the therapist presents the target behavior which the learner is to imitate and make part of his repertoire. [NIH] Modification: A change in an organism, or in a process in an organism, that is acquired from its own activity or environment. [NIH] Molecular: Of, pertaining to, or composed of molecules : a very small mass of matter. [EU] Molecule: A chemical made up of two or more atoms. The atoms in a molecule can be the same (an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms) or different (a water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom). Biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, can be made up of many thousands of atoms. [NIH]
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Monoclonal: An antibody produced by culturing a single type of cell. It therefore consists of a single species of immunoglobulin molecules. [NIH] Monocular: Diplopia identified with one eye only; it may be induced with a double prism, or it may occur either as a result of double imagery due to an optical defect in the eye, or as a result of simultaneous use of normal and anomalous retinal correspondence. [NIH] Morphological: Relating to the configuration or the structure of live organs. [NIH] Morphology: The science of the form and structure of organisms (plants, animals, and other forms of life). [NIH] Motility: The ability to move spontaneously. [EU] Motion Perception: The real or apparent movement of objects through the visual field. [NIH] Motor nerve: An efferent nerve conveying an impulse that excites muscular contraction. [NIH]
Mucinous: Containing or resembling mucin, the main compound in mucus. [NIH] Multiple sclerosis: A disorder of the central nervous system marked by weakness, numbness, a loss of muscle coordination, and problems with vision, speech, and bladder control. Multiple sclerosis is thought to be an autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system destroys myelin. Myelin is a substance that contains both protein and fat (lipid) and serves as a nerve insulator and helps in the transmission of nerve signals. [NIH] Myasthenia: Muscular debility; any constitutional anomaly of muscle. [EU] Myocarditis: Inflammation of the myocardium; inflammation of the muscular walls of the heart. [EU] Myopia: That error of refraction in which rays of light entering the eye parallel to the optic axis are brought to a focus in front of the retina, as a result of the eyeball being too long from front to back (axial m.) or of an increased strength in refractive power of the media of the eye (index m.). Called also nearsightedness, because the near point is less distant than it is in emmetropia with an equal amplitude of accommodation. [EU] Nearsightedness: The common term for myopia. [NIH] Necrosis: A pathological process caused by the progressive degradative action of enzymes that is generally associated with severe cellular trauma. It is characterized by mitochondrial swelling, nuclear flocculation, uncontrolled cell lysis, and ultimately cell death. [NIH] Neocortex: The largest portion of the cerebral cortex. It is composed of neurons arranged in six layers. [NIH] Nerve Fibers: Slender processes of neurons, especially the prolonged axons that conduct nerve impulses. [NIH] Nerve Growth Factor: Nerve growth factor is the first of a series of neurotrophic factors that were found to influence the growth and differentiation of sympathetic and sensory neurons. It is comprised of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits. The beta subunit is responsible for its growth stimulating activity. [NIH] Nervous System: The entire nerve apparatus composed of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. [NIH] Networks: Pertaining to a nerve or to the nerves, a meshlike structure of interlocking fibers or strands. [NIH] Neural: 1. Pertaining to a nerve or to the nerves. 2. Situated in the region of the spinal axis, as the neutral arch. [EU] Neural Pathways: Neural tracts connecting one part of the nervous system with another. [NIH]
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Neuritis: A general term indicating inflammation of a peripheral or cranial nerve. Clinical manifestation may include pain; paresthesias; paresis; or hypesthesia. [NIH] Neuromuscular: Pertaining to muscles and nerves. [EU] Neuromuscular Junction: The synapse between a neuron and a muscle. [NIH] Neuronal: Pertaining to a neuron or neurons (= conducting cells of the nervous system). [EU] Neurons: The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the nervous system. [NIH] Neuropathy: A problem in any part of the nervous system except the brain and spinal cord. Neuropathies can be caused by infection, toxic substances, or disease. [NIH] Neurophysiology: The scientific discipline concerned with the physiology of the nervous system. [NIH] Neuroretinitis: Inflammation of the optic nerve head and adjacent retina. [NIH] Neurotransmitter: Any of a group of substances that are released on excitation from the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron of the central or peripheral nervous system and travel across the synaptic cleft to either excite or inhibit the target cell. Among the many substances that have the properties of a neurotransmitter are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, glycine, y-aminobutyrate, glutamic acid, substance P, enkephalins, endorphins, and serotonin. [EU] Neurotrophins: A nerve growth factor. [NIH] Neutrons: Electrically neutral elementary particles found in all atomic nuclei except light hydrogen; the mass is equal to that of the proton and electron combined and they are unstable when isolated from the nucleus, undergoing beta decay. Slow, thermal, epithermal, and fast neutrons refer to the energy levels with which the neutrons are ejected from heavier nuclei during their decay. [NIH] Nevus: A benign growth on the skin, such as a mole. A mole is a cluster of melanocytes and surrounding supportive tissue that usually appears as a tan, brown, or flesh-colored spot on the skin. The plural of nevus is nevi (NEE-vye). [NIH] Night Blindness: Anomaly of vision in which there is a pronounced inadequacy or complete absence of dark-adaptation. [NIH] Nitric Oxide: A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells. It is synthesized from arginine by a complex reaction, catalyzed by nitric oxide synthase. Nitric oxide is endothelium-derived relaxing factor. It is released by the vascular endothelium and mediates the relaxation induced by some vasodilators such as acetylcholine and bradykinin. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic guanylate cyclase and thus elevates intracellular levels of cyclic GMP. [NIH]
Nitrogen: An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight 14. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells. [NIH] Norepinephrine: Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic. [NIH] Nuclear: A test of the structure, blood flow, and function of the kidneys. The doctor injects a
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mildly radioactive solution into an arm vein and uses x-rays to monitor its progress through the kidneys. [NIH] Nuclei: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nucleus: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nystagmus: An involuntary, rapid, rhythmic movement of the eyeball, which may be horizontal, vertical, rotatory, or mixed, i.e., of two varieties. [EU] Occipital Lobe: Posterior part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Ocular: 1. Of, pertaining to, or affecting the eye. 2. Eyepiece. [EU] Oculomotor: Cranial nerve III. It originate from the lower ventral surface of the midbrain and is classified as a motor nerve. [NIH] Oculomotor Nerve: The 3d cranial nerve. The oculomotor nerve sends motor fibers to the levator muscles of the eyelid and to the superior rectus, inferior rectus, and inferior oblique muscles of the eye. It also sends parasympathetic efferents (via the ciliary ganglion) to the muscles controlling pupillary constriction and accommodation. The motor fibers originate in the oculomotor nuclei of the midbrain. [NIH] Opacity: Degree of density (area most dense taken for reading). [NIH] Ophthalmic: Pertaining to the eye. [EU] Ophthalmologic: Pertaining to ophthalmology (= the branch of medicine dealing with the eye). [EU] Ophthalmologist: A medical doctor specializing in the diagnosis and medical or surgical treatment of visual disorders and eye disease. [NIH] Ophthalmology: A surgical specialty concerned with the structure and function of the eye and the medical and surgical treatment of its defects and diseases. [NIH] Opsin: A protein formed, together with retinene, by the chemical breakdown of metarhodopsin. [NIH] Optic Chiasm: The X-shaped structure formed by the meeting of the two optic nerves. At the optic chiasm the fibers from the medial part of each retina cross to project to the other side of the brain while the lateral retinal fibers continue on the same side. As a result each half of the brain receives information about the contralateral visual field from both eyes. [NIH]
Optic disc: The circular area (disc) where the optic nerve connects to the retina. [NIH] Optic Nerve: The 2nd cranial nerve. The optic nerve conveys visual information from the retina to the brain. The nerve carries the axons of the retinal ganglion cells which sort at the optic chiasm and continue via the optic tracts to the brain. The largest projection is to the lateral geniculate nuclei; other important targets include the superior colliculi and the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Though known as the second cranial nerve, it is considered part of the central nervous system. [NIH] Optic Nerve Diseases: Conditions which produce injury or dysfunction of the second cranial or optic nerve, which is generally considered a component of the central nervous system. Damage to optic nerve fibers may occur at or near their origin in the retina, at the optic disk, or in the nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, or lateral geniculate nuclei. Clinical manifestations may include decreased visual acuity and contrast sensitivity, impaired color vision, and an afferent pupillary defect. [NIH] Optic Neuritis: Inflammation of the optic nerve. Commonly associated conditions include
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autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis, infections, and granulomatous diseases. Clinical features include retro-orbital pain that is aggravated by eye movement, loss of color vision, and contrast sensitivity that may progress to severe visual loss, an afferent pupillary defect (Marcus-Gunn pupil), and in some instances optic disc hyperemia and swelling. Inflammation may occur in the portion of the nerve within the globe (neuropapillitis or anterior optic neuritis) or the portion behind the globe (retrobulbar neuritis or posterior optic neuritis). [NIH] Optometrist: A primary eye care provider who diagnoses, manages, and treats disorders of the visual system and eye diseases. [NIH] Orbit: One of the two cavities in the skull which contains an eyeball. Each eye is located in a bony socket or orbit. [NIH] Orbital: Pertaining to the orbit (= the bony cavity that contains the eyeball). [EU] Oxidation: The act of oxidizing or state of being oxidized. Chemically it consists in the increase of positive charges on an atom or the loss of negative charges. Most biological oxidations are accomplished by the removal of a pair of hydrogen atoms (dehydrogenation) from a molecule. Such oxidations must be accompanied by reduction of an acceptor molecule. Univalent o. indicates loss of one electron; divalent o., the loss of two electrons. [EU]
Oxides: Binary compounds of oxygen containing the anion O(2-). The anion combines with metals to form alkaline oxides and non-metals to form acidic oxides. [NIH] Palliative: 1. Affording relief, but not cure. 2. An alleviating medicine. [EU] Pancreas: A mixed exocrine and endocrine gland situated transversely across the posterior abdominal wall in the epigastric and hypochondriac regions. The endocrine portion is comprised of the Islets of Langerhans, while the exocrine portion is a compound acinar gland that secretes digestive enzymes. [NIH] Paralysis: Loss of ability to move all or part of the body. [NIH] Parietal: 1. Of or pertaining to the walls of a cavity. 2. Pertaining to or located near the parietal bone, as the parietal lobe. [EU] Parietal Lobe: Upper central part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Parkinsonism: A group of neurological disorders characterized by hypokinesia, tremor, and muscular rigidity. [EU] Patch: A piece of material used to cover or protect a wound, an injured part, etc.: a patch over the eye. [NIH] Pathologic: 1. Indicative of or caused by a morbid condition. 2. Pertaining to pathology (= branch of medicine that treats the essential nature of the disease, especially the structural and functional changes in tissues and organs of the body caused by the disease). [EU] Pathologies: The study of abnormality, especially the study of diseases. [NIH] Pathophysiology: Altered functions in an individual or an organ due to disease. [NIH] Patient Compliance: Voluntary cooperation of the patient in following a prescribed regimen. [NIH] Peptide: Any compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Peptides are combined to make proteins. [NIH] Perception: The ability quickly and accurately to recognize similarities and differences among presented objects, whether these be pairs of words, pairs of number series, or multiple sets of these or other symbols such as geometric figures. [NIH] Perimetry: Determination of the extent of the visual field for various types and intensities of
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stimuli. [NIH] Peripheral Nervous System: The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system has autonomic and somatic divisions. The autonomic nervous system includes the enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic subdivisions. The somatic nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves and their ganglia and the peripheral sensory receptors. [NIH] Peripheral vision: Side vision; ability to see objects and movement outside of the direct line of vision. [NIH] Periventricular Leukomalacia: Rare form of epilepsy. [NIH] PH: The symbol relating the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration or activity of a solution to that of a given standard solution. Numerically the pH is approximately equal to the negative logarithm of H+ concentration expressed in molarity. pH 7 is neutral; above it alkalinity increases and below it acidity increases. [EU] Phallic: Pertaining to the phallus, or penis. [EU] Pharmacologic: Pertaining to pharmacology or to the properties and reactions of drugs. [EU] Phonophoresis: Use of ultrasound to increase the percutaneous adsorption of drugs. [NIH] Phospholipases: A class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphoglycerides or glycerophosphatidates. EC 3.1.-. [NIH] Phosphorus: A non-metallic element that is found in the blood, muscles, nevers, bones, and teeth, and is a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP; the primary energy source for the body's cells.) [NIH] Physiologic: Having to do with the functions of the body. When used in the phrase "physiologic age," it refers to an age assigned by general health, as opposed to calendar age. [NIH]
Physiology: The science that deals with the life processes and functions of organismus, their cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Phytotoxin: A substance which is toxic for plants. [NIH] Pigment: A substance that gives color to tissue. Pigments are responsible for the color of skin, eyes, and hair. [NIH] Pilocytic: Made up of cells that look like fibers when viewed under a microscope. [NIH] Pilot study: The initial study examining a new method or treatment. [NIH] Plants: Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of the kingdom Plantae. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (meristems); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absense of nervous and sensory systems; and an alteration of haploid and diploid generations. [NIH] Plasma: The clear, yellowish, fluid part of the blood that carries the blood cells. The proteins that form blood clots are in plasma. [NIH] Plasma cells: A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies. [NIH] Plasticity: In an individual or a population, the capacity for adaptation: a) through gene changes (genetic plasticity) or b) through internal physiological modifications in response to changes of environment (physiological plasticity). [NIH] Platelet Activation: A series of progressive, overlapping events triggered by exposure of the platelets to subendothelial tissue. These events include shape change, adhesiveness, aggregation, and release reactions. When carried through to completion, these events lead to
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the formation of a stable hemostatic plug. [NIH] Platelet Aggregation: The attachment of platelets to one another. This clumping together can be induced by a number of agents (e.g., thrombin, collagen) and is part of the mechanism leading to the formation of a thrombus. [NIH] Platelets: A type of blood cell that helps prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form. Also called thrombocytes. [NIH] Pneumonia: Inflammation of the lungs. [NIH] Polyneuritis: Inflammation of several peripheral nerves at the same time. [NIH] Polysaccharide: A type of carbohydrate. It contains sugar molecules that are linked together chemically. [NIH] Pontine: A brain region involved in the detection and processing of taste. [NIH] Posterior: Situated in back of, or in the back part of, or affecting the back or dorsal surface of the body. In lower animals, it refers to the caudal end of the body. [EU] Postnatal: Occurring after birth, with reference to the newborn. [EU] Postsynaptic: Nerve potential generated by an inhibitory hyperpolarizing stimulation. [NIH] Post-synaptic: Nerve potential generated by an inhibitory hyperpolarizing stimulation. [NIH] Potentiation: An overall effect of two drugs taken together which is greater than the sum of the effects of each drug taken alone. [NIH] Practicability: A non-standard characteristic of an analytical procedure. It is dependent on the scope of the method and is determined by requirements such as sample throughout and costs. [NIH] Practice Guidelines: Directions or principles presenting current or future rules of policy for the health care practitioner to assist him in patient care decisions regarding diagnosis, therapy, or related clinical circumstances. The guidelines may be developed by government agencies at any level, institutions, professional societies, governing boards, or by the convening of expert panels. The guidelines form a basis for the evaluation of all aspects of health care and delivery. [NIH] Precursor: Something that precedes. In biological processes, a substance from which another, usually more active or mature substance is formed. In clinical medicine, a sign or symptom that heralds another. [EU] Predictive factor: A situation or condition that may increase a person's risk of developing a certain disease or disorder. [NIH] Presynaptic: Situated proximal to a synapse, or occurring before the synapse is crossed. [EU] Prevalence: The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from incidence, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time. [NIH] Probe: An instrument used in exploring cavities, or in the detection and dilatation of strictures, or in demonstrating the potency of channels; an elongated instrument for exploring or sounding body cavities. [NIH] Progression: Increase in the size of a tumor or spread of cancer in the body. [NIH] Progressive: Advancing; going forward; going from bad to worse; increasing in scope or severity. [EU] Projection: A defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, whereby that which is emotionally unacceptable in the self is rejected and attributed (projected) to others. [NIH] Proline: A non-essential amino acid that is synthesized from glutamic acid. It is an essential
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component of collagen and is important for proper functioning of joints and tendons. [NIH] Prophase: The first phase of cell division, in which the chromosomes become visible, the nucleus starts to lose its identity, the spindle appears, and the centrioles migrate toward opposite poles. [NIH] Prospective study: An epidemiologic study in which a group of individuals (a cohort), all free of a particular disease and varying in their exposure to a possible risk factor, is followed over a specific amount of time to determine the incidence rates of the disease in the exposed and unexposed groups. [NIH] Prosthesis: An artificial replacement of a part of the body. [NIH] Protein C: A vitamin-K dependent zymogen present in the blood, which, upon activation by thrombin and thrombomodulin exerts anticoagulant properties by inactivating factors Va and VIIIa at the rate-limiting steps of thrombin formation. [NIH] Protein S: The vitamin K-dependent cofactor of activated protein C. Together with protein C, it inhibits the action of factors VIIIa and Va. A deficiency in protein S can lead to recurrent venous and arterial thrombosis. [NIH] Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape and function of the protein. [NIH] Proteolytic: 1. Pertaining to, characterized by, or promoting proteolysis. 2. An enzyme that promotes proteolysis (= the splitting of proteins by hydrolysis of the peptide bonds with formation of smaller polypeptides). [EU] Protocol: The detailed plan for a clinical trial that states the trial's rationale, purpose, drug or vaccine dosages, length of study, routes of administration, who may participate, and other aspects of trial design. [NIH] Proximal: Nearest; closer to any point of reference; opposed to distal. [EU] Psychiatry: The medical science that deals with the origin, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. [NIH] Psychic: Pertaining to the psyche or to the mind; mental. [EU] Psychoactive: Those drugs which alter sensation, mood, consciousness or other psychological or behavioral functions. [NIH] Psychophysics: The science dealing with the correlation of the physical characteristics of a stimulus, e.g., frequency or intensity, with the response to the stimulus, in order to assess the psychologic factors involved in the relationship. [NIH] Ptosis: 1. Prolapse of an organ or part. 2. Drooping of the upper eyelid from paralysis of the third nerve or from sympathetic innervation. [EU] Public Health: Branch of medicine concerned with the prevention and control of disease and disability, and the promotion of physical and mental health of the population on the international, national, state, or municipal level. [NIH] Public Policy: A course or method of action selected, usually by a government, from among alternatives to guide and determine present and future decisions. [NIH] Pulmonary: Relating to the lungs. [NIH] Pulmonary Artery: The short wide vessel arising from the conus arteriosus of the right ventricle and conveying unaerated blood to the lungs. [NIH] Pulse: The rhythmical expansion and contraction of an artery produced by waves of pressure caused by the ejection of blood from the left ventricle of the heart as it contracts. [NIH]
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Pupil: The aperture in the iris through which light passes. [NIH] Purulent: Consisting of or containing pus; associated with the formation of or caused by pus. [EU] Quality of Health Care: The levels of excellence which characterize the health service or health care provided based on accepted standards of quality. [NIH] Quality of Life: A generic concept reflecting concern with the modification and enhancement of life attributes, e.g., physical, political, moral and social environment. [NIH] Race: A population within a species which exhibits general similarities within itself, but is both discontinuous and distinct from other populations of that species, though not sufficiently so as to achieve the status of a taxon. [NIH] Racemic: Optically inactive but resolvable in the way of all racemic compounds. [NIH] Radiation: Emission or propagation of electromagnetic energy (waves/rays), or the waves/rays themselves; a stream of electromagnetic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, alpha particles) or a mixture of these. The most common source is the sun. [NIH] Radiation therapy: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body in the area near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, or brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Also called radiotherapy. [NIH] Radioactive: Giving off radiation. [NIH] Radioisotope: An unstable element that releases radiation as it breaks down. Radioisotopes can be used in imaging tests or as a treatment for cancer. [NIH] Radiolabeled: Any compound that has been joined with a radioactive substance. [NIH] Radiotherapy: The use of ionizing radiation to treat malignant neoplasms and other benign conditions. The most common forms of ionizing radiation used as therapy are x-rays, gamma rays, and electrons. A special form of radiotherapy, targeted radiotherapy, links a cytotoxic radionuclide to a molecule that targets the tumor. When this molecule is an antibody or other immunologic molecule, the technique is called radioimmunotherapy. [NIH] Randomized: Describes an experiment or clinical trial in which animal or human subjects are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments. [NIH] Reaction Time: The time from the onset of a stimulus until the organism responds. [NIH] Receptor: A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific physiologic effect in the cell. [NIH] Refer: To send or direct for treatment, aid, information, de decision. [NIH] Reflex: An involuntary movement or exercise of function in a part, excited in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the brain or spinal cord. [NIH] Refraction: A test to determine the best eyeglasses or contact lenses to correct a refractive error (myopia, hyperopia, or astigmatism). [NIH] Refraction, Ocular: Refraction of light effected by the media of the eye. It also includes the determination of the refractive state and refractive correction. [NIH] Refractive Errors: Deviations from the average or standard indices of refraction of the eye through its dioptric or refractive apparatus. [NIH] Refractive Power: The ability of an object, such as the eye, to bend light as light passes
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through it. [NIH] Refractory: Not readily yielding to treatment. [EU] Regeneration: The natural renewal of a structure, as of a lost tissue or part. [EU] Regimen: A treatment plan that specifies the dosage, the schedule, and the duration of treatment. [NIH] Reliability: Used technically, in a statistical sense, of consistency of a test with itself, i. e. the extent to which we can assume that it will yield the same result if repeated a second time. [NIH]
Research Design: A plan for collecting and utilizing data so that desired information can be obtained with sufficient precision or so that an hypothesis can be tested properly. [NIH] Resection: Removal of tissue or part or all of an organ by surgery. [NIH] Retina: The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the optic nerve and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the choroid and the inner surface with the vitreous body. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent. [NIH] Retinae: A congenital notch or cleft of the retina, usually located inferiorly. [NIH] Retinal: 1. Pertaining to the retina. 2. The aldehyde of retinol, derived by the oxidative enzymatic splitting of absorbed dietary carotene, and having vitamin A activity. In the retina, retinal combines with opsins to form visual pigments. One isomer, 11-cis retinal combines with opsin in the rods (scotopsin) to form rhodopsin, or visual purple. Another, all-trans retinal (trans-r.); visual yellow; xanthopsin) results from the bleaching of rhodopsin by light, in which the 11-cis form is converted to the all-trans form. Retinal also combines with opsins in the cones (photopsins) to form the three pigments responsible for colour vision. Called also retinal, and retinene1. [EU] Retinal Ganglion Cells: Cells of the innermost nuclear layer of the retina, the ganglion cell layer, which project axons through the optic nerve to the brain. They are quite variable in size and in the shapes of their dendritic arbors, which are generally confined to the inner plexiform layer. [NIH] Retinitis: Inflammation of the retina. It is rarely limited to the retina, but is commonly associated with diseases of the choroid (chorioretinitis) and of the optic nerve (neuroretinitis). The disease may be confined to one eye, but since it is generally dependent on a constitutional factor, it is almost always bilateral. It may be acute in course, but as a rule it lasts many weeks or even several months. [NIH] Retinitis Pigmentosa: Hereditary, progressive degeneration of the neuroepithelium of the retina characterized by night blindness and progressive contraction of the visual field. [NIH] Retinol: Vitamin A. It is essential for proper vision and healthy skin and mucous membranes. Retinol is being studied for cancer prevention; it belongs to the family of drugs called retinoids. [NIH] Retinopathy: 1. Retinitis (= inflammation of the retina). 2. Retinosis (= degenerative, noninflammatory condition of the retina). [EU] Retrobulbar: Behind the pons. [EU] Retrograde: 1. Moving backward or against the usual direction of flow. 2. Degenerating, deteriorating, or catabolic. [EU] Retrospective: Looking back at events that have already taken place. [NIH] Retrospective study: A study that looks backward in time, usually using medical records and interviews with patients who already have or had a disease. [NIH]
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Rhodopsin: A photoreceptor protein found in retinal rods. It is a complex formed by the binding of retinal, the oxidized form of retinol, to the protein opsin and undergoes a series of complex reactions in response to visible light resulting in the transmission of nerve impulses to the brain. [NIH] Ricin: A protein phytotoxin from the seeds of Ricinus communis, the castor oil plant. It agglutinates cells, is proteolytic, and causes lethal inflammation and hemorrhage if taken internally. [NIH] Risk factor: A habit, trait, condition, or genetic alteration that increases a person's chance of developing a disease. [NIH] Rod: A reception for vision, located in the retina. [NIH] Rubella: An acute, usually benign, infectious disease caused by a togavirus and most often affecting children and nonimmune young adults, in which the virus enters the respiratory tract via droplet nuclei and spreads to the lymphatic system. It is characterized by a slight cold, sore throat, and fever, followed by enlargement of the postauricular, suboccipital, and cervical lymph nodes, and the appearances of a fine pink rash that begins on the head and spreads to become generalized. Called also German measles, roetln, röteln, and three-day measles, and rubeola in French and Spanish. [EU] Saccades: An abrupt voluntary shift in ocular fixation from one point to another, as occurs in reading. [NIH] Satellite: Applied to a vein which closely accompanies an artery for some distance; in cytogenetics, a chromosomal agent separated by a secondary constriction from the main body of the chromosome. [NIH] Scatter: The extent to which relative success and failure are divergently manifested in qualitatively different tests. [NIH] Schizoid: Having qualities resembling those found in greater degree in schizophrenics; a person of schizoid personality. [NIH] Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by a special type of disintegration of the personality. [NIH] Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A personality disorder in which there are oddities of thought (magical thinking, paranoid ideation, suspiciousness), perception (illusions, depersonalization), speech (digressive, vague, overelaborate), and behavior (inappropriate affect in social interactions, frequently social isolation) that are not severe enough to characterize schizophrenia. [NIH] Scotoma: A localized defect in the visual field bordered by an area of normal vision. This occurs with a variety of eye diseases (e.g., retinal diseases and glaucoma), optic nerve diseases, and other conditions. [NIH] Screening: Checking for disease when there are no symptoms. [NIH] Secretory: Secreting; relating to or influencing secretion or the secretions. [NIH] Sedative: 1. Allaying activity and excitement. 2. An agent that allays excitement. [EU] Segmentation: The process by which muscles in the intestines move food and wastes through the body. [NIH] Sensory Deprivation: The absence or restriction of the usual external sensory stimuli to which the individual responds. [NIH] Serotonin: A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-tryptophan. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important
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physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (receptors, serotonin) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator. [NIH] Serum: The clear liquid part of the blood that remains after blood cells and clotting proteins have been removed. [NIH] Sharpness: The apparent blurring of the border between two adjacent areas of a radiograph having different optical densities. [NIH] Shock: The general bodily disturbance following a severe injury; an emotional or moral upset occasioned by some disturbing or unexpected experience; disruption of the circulation, which can upset all body functions: sometimes referred to as circulatory shock. [NIH]
Side effect: A consequence other than the one(s) for which an agent or measure is used, as the adverse effects produced by a drug, especially on a tissue or organ system other than the one sought to be benefited by its administration. [EU] Signal Transduction: The intercellular or intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GABA-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptormediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway. [NIH] Skeletal: Having to do with the skeleton (boney part of the body). [NIH] Skull: The skeleton of the head including the bones of the face and the bones enclosing the brain. [NIH] Small intestine: The part of the digestive tract that is located between the stomach and the large intestine. [NIH] Social Environment: The aggregate of social and cultural institutions, forms, patterns, and processes that influence the life of an individual or community. [NIH] Sodium: An element that is a member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23. With a valence of 1, it has a strong affinity for oxygen and other nonmetallic elements. Sodium provides the chief cation of the extracellular body fluids. Its salts are the most widely used in medicine. (From Dorland, 27th ed) Physiologically the sodium ion plays a major role in blood pressure regulation, maintenance of fluid volume, and electrolyte balance. [NIH] Somatosensory Cortex: Area of the parietal lobe concerned with receiving general sensations. It lies posterior to the central sulcus. [NIH] Specialist: In medicine, one who concentrates on 1 special branch of medical science. [NIH] Species: A taxonomic category subordinate to a genus (or subgenus) and superior to a subspecies or variety, composed of individuals possessing common characters distinguishing them from other categories of individuals of the same taxonomic level. In taxonomic nomenclature, species are designated by the genus name followed by a Latin or Latinized adjective or noun. [EU]
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Specificity: Degree of selectivity shown by an antibody with respect to the number and types of antigens with which the antibody combines, as well as with respect to the rates and the extents of these reactions. [NIH] Spinal cord: The main trunk or bundle of nerves running down the spine through holes in the spinal bone (the vertebrae) from the brain to the level of the lower back. [NIH] Steel: A tough, malleable, iron-based alloy containing up to, but no more than, two percent carbon and often other metals. It is used in medicine and dentistry in implants and instrumentation. [NIH] Stellate: Star shaped. [NIH] Stellate Ganglion: A paravertebral sympathetic ganglion formed by the fusion of the inferior cervical and first thoracic ganglia. [NIH] Stereoscopic: Accurate depth perception in the presence of binocular single vision, due to the slight disparity in the two retinal images of the same object. [NIH] Steroids: Drugs used to relieve swelling and inflammation. [NIH] Stimulus: That which can elicit or evoke action (response) in a muscle, nerve, gland or other excitable issue, or cause an augmenting action upon any function or metabolic process. [NIH] Striate: Recurrent branch of the anterior cerebral artery which supplies the anterior limb of the internal capsule. [NIH] Stroke: Sudden loss of function of part of the brain because of loss of blood flow. Stroke may be caused by a clot (thrombosis) or rupture (hemorrhage) of a blood vessel to the brain. [NIH] Stroma: The middle, thickest layer of tissue in the cornea. [NIH] Subacute: Somewhat acute; between acute and chronic. [EU] Subclinical: Without clinical manifestations; said of the early stage(s) of an infection or other disease or abnormality before symptoms and signs become apparent or detectable by clinical examination or laboratory tests, or of a very mild form of an infection or other disease or abnormality. [EU] Substrate: A substance upon which an enzyme acts. [EU] Suppression: A conscious exclusion of disapproved desire contrary with repression, in which the process of exclusion is not conscious. [NIH] Suspensions: Colloids with liquid continuous phase and solid dispersed phase; the term is used loosely also for solid-in-gas (aerosol) and other colloidal systems; water-insoluble drugs may be given as suspensions. [NIH] Synapse: The region where the processes of two neurons come into close contiguity, and the nervous impulse passes from one to the other; the fibers of the two are intermeshed, but, according to the general view, there is no direct contiguity. [NIH] Synapsis: The pairing between homologous chromosomes of maternal and paternal origin during the prophase of meiosis, leading to the formation of gametes. [NIH] Synaptic: Pertaining to or affecting a synapse (= site of functional apposition between neurons, at which an impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another by electrical or chemical means); pertaining to synapsis (= pairing off in point-for-point association of homologous chromosomes from the male and female pronuclei during the early prophase of meiosis). [EU] Synaptic Transmission: The communication from a neuron to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a synapse. In chemical synaptic transmission, the presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific synaptic receptors. These activated receptors modulate ion channels and/or second-
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messenger systems to influence the postsynaptic cell. Electrical transmission is less common in the nervous system, and, as in other tissues, is mediated by gap junctions. [NIH] Systemic: Affecting the entire body. [NIH] Telencephalon: Paired anteriolateral evaginations of the prosencephalon plus the lamina terminalis. The cerebral hemispheres are derived from it. Many authors consider cerebrum a synonymous term to telencephalon, though a minority include diencephalon as part of the cerebrum (Anthoney, 1994). [NIH] Temporal: One of the two irregular bones forming part of the lateral surfaces and base of the skull, and containing the organs of hearing. [NIH] Tendon: A discrete band of connective tissue mainly composed of parallel bundles of collagenous fibers by which muscles are attached, or two muscles bellies joined. [NIH] Thalamic: Cell that reaches the lateral nucleus of amygdala. [NIH] Thalamus: Paired bodies containing mostly gray substance and forming part of the lateral wall of the third ventricle of the brain. The thalamus represents the major portion of the diencephalon and is commonly divided into cellular aggregates known as nuclear groups. [NIH]
Therapeutics: The branch of medicine which is concerned with the treatment of diseases, palliative or curative. [NIH] Third Ventricle: A narrow cleft inferior to the corpus callosum, within the diencephalon, between the paired thalami. Its floor is formed by the hypothalamus, its anterior wall by the lamina terminalis, and its roof by ependyma. It communicates with the fourth ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct, and with the lateral ventricles by the interventricular foramina. [NIH] Thoracic: Having to do with the chest. [NIH] Threshold: For a specified sensory modality (e. g. light, sound, vibration), the lowest level (absolute threshold) or smallest difference (difference threshold, difference limen) or intensity of the stimulus discernible in prescribed conditions of stimulation. [NIH] Thrombin: An enzyme formed from prothrombin that converts fibrinogen to fibrin. (Dorland, 27th ed) EC 3.4.21.5. [NIH] Thrombomodulin: A cell surface glycoprotein of endothelial cells that binds thrombin and serves as a cofactor in the activation of protein C and its regulation of blood coagulation. [NIH]
Thrombosis: The formation or presence of a blood clot inside a blood vessel. [NIH] Tissue: A group or layer of cells that are alike in type and work together to perform a specific function. [NIH] Tomography: Imaging methods that result in sharp images of objects located on a chosen plane and blurred images located above or below the plane. [NIH] Tooth Preparation: Procedures carried out with regard to the teeth or tooth structures preparatory to specified dental therapeutic and surgical measures. [NIH] Toxic: Having to do with poison or something harmful to the body. Toxic substances usually cause unwanted side effects. [NIH] Toxicity: The quality of being poisonous, especially the degree of virulence of a toxic microbe or of a poison. [EU] Toxicology: The science concerned with the detection, chemical composition, and pharmacologic action of toxic substances or poisons and the treatment and prevention of toxic manifestations. [NIH] Toxin: A poison; frequently used to refer specifically to a protein produced by some higher
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plants, certain animals, and pathogenic bacteria, which is highly toxic for other living organisms. Such substances are differentiated from the simple chemical poisons and the vegetable alkaloids by their high molecular weight and antigenicity. [EU] Tracer: A substance (such as a radioisotope) used in imaging procedures. [NIH] Traction: The act of pulling. [NIH] Transduction: The transfer of genes from one cell to another by means of a viral (in the case of bacteria, a bacteriophage) vector or a vector which is similar to a virus particle (pseudovirion). [NIH] Transfection: The uptake of naked or purified DNA into cells, usually eukaryotic. It is analogous to bacterial transformation. [NIH] Transmitter: A chemical substance which effects the passage of nerve impulses from one cell to the other at the synapse. [NIH] Trauma: Any injury, wound, or shock, must frequently physical or structural shock, producing a disturbance. [NIH] Treatment Failure: A measure of the quality of health care by assessment of unsuccessful results of management and procedures used in combating disease, in individual cases or series. [NIH] Treatment Outcome: Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, practicability, etc., of these interventions in individual cases or series. [NIH]
Trochlear Nerve: The 4th cranial nerve. The trochlear nerve carries the motor innervation of the superior oblique muscles of the eye. [NIH] Trochlear Nerve Diseases: Diseases of the fourth cranial (trochlear) nerve or its nucleus in the midbrain. The nerve crosses as it exits the midbrain dorsally and may be injured along its course through the intracranial space, cavernous sinus, superior orbital fissure, or orbit. Clinical manifestations include weakness of the superior oblique muscle which causes vertical diplopia that is maximal when the affected eye is adducted and directed inferiorly. Head tilt may be seen as a compensatory mechanism for diplopia and rotation of the visual axis. Common etiologies include craniocerebral trauma and infratentorial neoplasms. [NIH] Trophic: Of or pertaining to nutrition. [EU] Tumour: 1. Swelling, one of the cardinal signs of inflammations; morbid enlargement. 2. A new growth of tissue in which the multiplication of cells is uncontrolled and progressive; called also neoplasm. [EU] Uvea: The middle coat of the eyeball, consisting of the choroid in the back of the eye and the ciliary body and iris in the front of the eye. [NIH] Vaccine: A substance or group of substances meant to cause the immune system to respond to a tumor or to microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses. [NIH] Vascular: Pertaining to blood vessels or indicative of a copious blood supply. [EU] Vasodilators: Any nerve or agent which induces dilatation of the blood vessels. [NIH] Vein: Vessel-carrying blood from various parts of the body to the heart. [NIH] Venous: Of or pertaining to the veins. [EU] Ventral: 1. Pertaining to the belly or to any venter. 2. Denoting a position more toward the belly surface than some other object of reference; same as anterior in human anatomy. [EU] Ventricle: One of the two pumping chambers of the heart. The right ventricle receives
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oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The left ventricle receives oxygen-rich blood from the left atrium and pumps it to the body through the aorta. [NIH] Veterinary Medicine: The medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases in animals. [NIH] Viral: Pertaining to, caused by, or of the nature of virus. [EU] Virus: Submicroscopic organism that causes infectious disease. In cancer therapy, some viruses may be made into vaccines that help the body build an immune response to, and kill, tumor cells. [NIH] Vision Screening: Application of tests and examinations to identify visual defects or vision disorders occurring in specific populations, as in school children, the elderly, etc. It is differentiated from vision tests, which are given to evaluate/measure individual visual performance not related to a specific population. [NIH] Visual Acuity: Acuteness or clearness of vision, especially of form vision, which is dependent mainly on the sharpness of the retinal focus. [NIH] Visual Cortex: Area of the occipital lobe concerned with vision. [NIH] Visual field: The entire area that can be seen when the eye is forward, including peripheral vision. [NIH] Visual Pathways: Set of cell bodies and nerve fibers conducting impulses from the eyes to the cerebral cortex. It includes the retina, optic nerve, optic tract, and geniculocalcarine tract. [NIH]
Visual Perception: The selecting and organizing of visual stimuli based on the individual's past experience. [NIH] Vitreous: Glasslike or hyaline; often used alone to designate the vitreous body of the eye (corpus vitreum). [EU] Vitreous Body: The transparent, semigelatinous substance that fills the cavity behind the crystalline lens of the eye and in front of the retina. It is contained in a thin hyoid membrane and forms about four fifths of the optic globe. [NIH] Vitro: Descriptive of an event or enzyme reaction under experimental investigation occurring outside a living organism. Parts of an organism or microorganism are used together with artificial substrates and/or conditions. [NIH] Vivo: Outside of or removed from the body of a living organism. [NIH] White blood cell: A type of cell in the immune system that helps the body fight infection and disease. White blood cells include lymphocytes, granulocytes, macrophages, and others. [NIH]
Withdrawal: 1. A pathological retreat from interpersonal contact and social involvement, as may occur in schizophrenia, depression, or schizoid avoidant and schizotypal personality disorders. 2. (DSM III-R) A substance-specific organic brain syndrome that follows the cessation of use or reduction in intake of a psychoactive substance that had been regularly used to induce a state of intoxication. [EU] Wound Healing: Restoration of integrity to traumatized tissue. [NIH] Xenograft: The cells of one species transplanted to another species. [NIH] X-ray: High-energy radiation used in low doses to diagnose diseases and in high doses to treat cancer. [NIH] X-ray therapy: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation
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therapy) or from materials called radioisotopes. Radioisotopes produce radiation and can be placed in or near the tumor or in the area near cancer cells. This type of radiation treatment is called internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, interstitial radiation, or brachytherapy. Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. X-ray therapy is also called radiation therapy, radiotherapy, and irradiation. [NIH] Zymogen: Inactive form of an enzyme which can then be converted to the active form, usually by excision of a polypeptide, e. g. trypsinogen is the zymogen of trypsin. [NIH]
183
INDEX A Abducens Nerve, 145, 155 Abducens Nerve Diseases, 145, 155 Aberrant, 118, 145 Accommodation, 7, 25, 29, 30, 72, 145, 166, 168 Acetylcholine, 9, 28, 145, 151, 167 Action Potentials, 19, 145 Adaptation, 9, 28, 46, 59, 145, 167, 170 Adjustment, 28, 145 Adolescence, 145, 151 Adverse Effect, 145, 146, 150, 176 Aerosol, 145, 177 Afferent, 12, 24, 145, 162, 168, 169 Affinity, 145, 148, 176 Albinism, 4, 119, 146 Alexia, 146, 156 Algorithms, 29, 146, 149 Alkaline, 146, 150, 169 Alkaloid, 146, 148, 149 Alternative medicine, 122, 146 Amino Acid Sequence, 146, 147 Amino Acids, 146, 169, 172 Amygdala, 146, 178 Anal, 146, 158, 164 Anaphylatoxins, 146, 153 Anastomosis, 147, 163 Anatomical, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 24, 36, 86, 112, 147, 151, 161 Animal model, 16, 35, 85, 98, 147 Anisometropia, 12, 28, 32, 69, 72, 83, 95, 107, 147 Anomalies, 5, 7, 60, 118, 147 Anterior Cerebral Artery, 147, 177 Anterior chamber, 22, 30, 85, 147, 163 Antibodies, 24, 28, 147, 170 Antibody, 28, 146, 147, 152, 160, 161, 163, 165, 166, 173, 177, 181 Anticoagulant, 147, 172 Antigen, 28, 146, 147, 153, 160, 161, 164 Antigen-Antibody Complex, 147, 153 Anxiety, 147, 151 Aphakia, 119, 147 Aponeurosis, 147, 159 Applicability, 37, 38, 39, 40, 147 Aqueous, 147, 148, 156, 163 Archaea, 147, 165 Arginine, 146, 148, 167
Arterial, 148, 172 Arteries, 148, 149 Arteriovenous, 71, 148 Artery, 147, 148, 172, 175 Artificial Eye, 29, 148 Aspartate, 20, 148 Astigmatism, 5, 31, 56, 66, 83, 148, 173 Astrocytes, 148 Astrocytoma, 58, 148 Atropine, 42, 78, 81, 82, 86, 87, 91, 93, 97, 148 Avian, 36, 148 Axons, 36, 148, 166, 168, 174 B Bacteria, 147, 148, 165, 179 Bacterial Physiology, 145, 148 Basal Ganglia, 148, 159 Base, 145, 148, 150, 163, 178 Belladonna, 148 Benign, 148, 159, 167, 173, 175 Bewilderment, 149, 153 Bicuculline, 95, 149 Bilateral, 42, 43, 86, 149, 174 Binocular vision, 4, 8, 11, 14, 31, 48, 111, 112, 149 Biochemical, 12, 13, 23, 149, 163, 175 Biological therapy, 149, 160 Biotechnology, 40, 118, 122, 129, 149 Bladder, 149, 153, 166 Blepharoptosis, 119, 149 Blind spot, 26, 149 Blood Coagulation, 149, 150, 178 Blood pressure, 108, 149, 176 Blood vessel, 149, 151, 157, 164, 177, 178, 179 Blood-Brain Barrier, 149, 163 Body Fluids, 149, 150, 176 Brachytherapy, 149, 162, 163, 173, 181 Bradykinin, 149, 167 Brain Stem, 149, 155 Bypass, 150, 163 C Calcium, 12, 18, 21, 150, 152, 176 Calmodulin, 12, 150 Canonical, 18, 150 Carbidopa, 49, 50, 92, 93, 150 Carbon Dioxide, 150, 158 Carotene, 150, 174
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Case report, 150, 152 Case series, 150, 152 Castor Oil, 150, 175 Cataract, 33, 39, 58, 62, 85, 147, 150 Causal, 22, 150 Cell Differentiation, 150, 176 Cell Division, 148, 150, 151, 154, 160, 165, 170, 172 Cell membrane, 151, 155, 159 Cell proliferation, 151, 176 Cell Survival, 151, 160 Central Nervous System, 145, 150, 151, 156, 159, 164, 166, 168, 175 Cerebral, 14, 16, 24, 35, 55, 147, 148, 149, 151, 154, 157, 159, 162, 166, 168, 169, 178, 180 Cerebral Cortex, 14, 16, 24, 35, 151, 157, 162, 166, 180 Cerebrum, 151, 178 Cervical, 151, 175, 177 Chemotactic Factors, 151, 153 Child Development, 7, 151 Chin, 151, 165 Chloral Hydrate, 48, 151 Cholinergic, 9, 151 Chorioretinitis, 151, 174 Choroid, 151, 174, 179 Chromatopsia, 83, 151 Chromosomal, 152, 175 Chromosome, 152, 175 Chronic, 55, 84, 152, 161, 177 Ciliary, 152, 165, 168, 179 Circadian, 23, 152 CIS, 152, 174 Clamp, 34, 152 Clinical study, 8, 37, 38, 40, 152 Clinical trial, 3, 7, 11, 37, 129, 152, 172, 173 Cloning, 149, 152 Cofactor, 152, 172, 178 Collagen, 152, 171, 172 Colloidal, 152, 177 Communis, 150, 152, 175 Complement, 4, 146, 152, 153 Complementary and alternative medicine, 81, 101, 153 Complementary medicine, 81, 153 Compliance, 45, 46, 52, 63, 82, 89, 96, 98, 112, 153 Computational Biology, 129, 153 Concomitant, 119, 153 Cones, 153, 174 Confusion, 113, 153, 155
Conjugated, 28, 153, 154 Conjunctiva, 153, 165 Connexins, 153, 159 Constitutional, 153, 166, 174 Constriction, 153, 165, 168, 175 Contraindications, ii, 153 Contrast Sensitivity, 5, 27, 30, 31, 43, 56, 153, 168, 169 Conventional treatment, 58, 153 Convulsions, 149, 154 Cornea, 22, 30, 147, 148, 154, 163, 165, 177 Corneal Diseases, 39, 154 Corpus, 154, 178, 180 Cortex, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 33, 34, 35, 44, 51, 53, 69, 83, 111, 114, 146, 154, 155, 180 Corticosteroids, 67, 154 Cranial, 145, 154, 167, 168, 170, 179 Crowding, 20, 154 Cues, 12, 25, 26, 154 Curative, 154, 178 Cyanide, 75, 154 Cyclic, 150, 154, 160, 167 Cytochrome, 24, 33, 36, 154 Cytogenetics, 154, 175 Cytotoxic, 154, 173, 176 D Data Collection, 8, 154 Degenerative, 154, 174 Dendrites, 154, 155, 167 Dendritic, 13, 155, 165, 174 Depolarization, 155, 176 Depth Perception, 7, 155, 177 Diagnostic procedure, 105, 122, 155 Dialyzer, 155, 160 Diffusion, 155, 160 Dimness, 106, 107, 155 Diopter, 49, 155 Diphtheria, 28, 155 Diplopia, 99, 107, 113, 145, 155, 166, 179 Direct, iii, 15, 28, 155, 156, 170, 173, 177 Discrimination, 12, 23, 46, 54, 155 Dislocation, 147, 155 Disorientation, 153, 155 Disparity, 6, 21, 25, 113, 155, 177 Distal, 155, 163, 172 Dominance, 11, 14, 21, 24, 33, 36, 51, 83, 155 Dopa, 60, 150, 155, 163 Dopa Decarboxylase, 150, 155 Dopamine, 150, 155, 163, 167 Dorsum, 156, 159
185
Drive, ii, vi, 14, 20, 23, 25, 77, 112, 156 Drug Interactions, 156 Dyes, 156, 158 Dyslexia, 24, 156 E Ectopia Lentis, 42, 156 Effector, 145, 152, 156 Efferent, 28, 36, 156, 162, 166 Efficacy, 15, 33, 51, 88, 89, 156, 179 Elasticity, 95, 156 Electrolyte, 156, 176 Electroretinogram, 96, 156 Empirical, 10, 20, 156 Emulsion, 156, 158 Endogenous, 14, 155, 156, 157 Endophthalmitis, 54, 156 Endorphins, 157, 167 Endothelium, 157, 167 Endothelium-derived, 157, 167 Endotoxins, 153, 157 Enkephalins, 157, 167 Entoptic, 44, 157 Environmental Health, 128, 130, 157 Enzymatic, 150, 153, 157, 174 Enzyme, 36, 155, 156, 157, 160, 172, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181 Epicanthus, 44, 157 Epidemic, 47, 157 Epinephrine, 156, 157, 167 Epithelium, 157, 163 ERV, 5, 157, 158 Esotropia, 11, 50, 73, 91, 113, 145, 157 Ethnic Groups, 6, 157 Evoke, 14, 157, 177 Excitation, 14, 157, 167 Excitatory, 15, 18, 21, 24, 34, 158, 159 Exogenous, 156, 158 Exotropia, 54, 158 Expiratory, 157, 158 Expiratory Reserve Volume, 157, 158 External-beam radiation, 158, 163, 173, 180 Extracellular, 14, 148, 158, 176 Extraction, 27, 147, 158 Extraocular, 6, 27, 158 Eye Movements, 7, 10, 11, 22, 25, 35, 49, 158 Eye socket, 108, 158 F Facial, 108, 158 Family Planning, 129, 158 Farsightedness, 108, 158, 161
Fixation, 4, 24, 25, 29, 32, 33, 43, 49, 57, 61, 84, 112, 158, 175 Fluorescence, 9, 158, 159 Fluorescent Dyes, 14, 158 Forearm, 149, 159 Fovea, 32, 112, 158, 159 Frontal Lobe, 23, 147, 159 Functional magnetic resonance imaging, 16, 23, 26, 45, 47, 51, 53, 159 G Ganglia, 145, 159, 166, 170, 177 Ganglion, 9, 159, 168, 174, 177 Gap Junctions, 9, 153, 159, 178 Gas, 150, 155, 157, 159, 160, 167, 177 Gene, 21, 118, 149, 153, 155, 159, 160, 170 Genetics, 4, 154, 155, 159 Genotype, 4, 159 Gland, 159, 164, 169, 177 Glucose, 159, 162 Glutamate, 9, 12, 13, 15, 20, 159, 165 Glutamic Acid, 159, 167, 171 Glycine, 159, 167 Governing Board, 159, 171 Grade, 5, 159, 160 Grading, 70, 71, 159 Grafting, 160, 161 Granulocytes, 160, 176, 180 Gravis, 58, 160 Growth factors, 36, 160 Guanylate Cyclase, 160, 167 H Haemodialysis, 68, 160 Haemoperfusion, 68, 160 Handicap, 109, 160 Hemodialysis, 68, 155, 160 Hemorrhage, 160, 175, 177 Heredity, 159, 160 Heterozygotes, 155, 160 Homologous, 153, 160, 177 Homozygotes, 155, 160 Hormonal, 22, 160 Hormone, 154, 157, 160, 162, 176 Human Development, 32, 128, 160 Hybrid, 13, 160 Hydrogen, 148, 160, 165, 167, 169, 170 Hyperopia, 22, 70, 71, 155, 158, 161, 173 Hypnotherapy, 82, 161 Hypnotic, 151, 161 Hypoplasia, 66, 161 I Ileum, 161, 163 Imaging procedures, 161, 179
186
Amblyopia
Immaturity, 27, 161 Immune response, 147, 161, 180 Immune system, 149, 161, 166, 179, 180 Immunology, 39, 146, 159, 161 Immunotoxin, 28, 161 Impairment, 6, 17, 22, 27, 32, 35, 52, 88, 112, 134, 149, 161, 165 Implant radiation, 161, 162, 163, 173, 181 Implantation, 70, 161 In situ, 58, 161 In vitro, 14, 15, 24, 161 In vivo, 13, 14, 15, 18, 24, 161 Incision, 161, 162 Incisional, 27, 161 Infancy, 4, 28, 30, 32, 161 Infantile, 11, 43, 62, 73, 161 Infection, 14, 148, 149, 151, 152, 155, 161, 164, 167, 177, 180 Inflammation, 151, 152, 156, 161, 163, 166, 167, 168, 171, 174, 175, 177 Innervation, 161, 165, 172, 179 Inositol, 162, 165 Insight, 5, 11, 15, 31, 34, 35, 162 Insomnia, 151, 162 Insulin, 28, 36, 162 Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, 162 Insulin-like, 36, 162 Intermittent, 91, 162 Internal Capsule, 147, 162, 177 Internal radiation, 162, 163, 173, 181 Interstitial, 149, 162, 163, 181 Intestines, 162, 175 Intoxication, 162, 180 Intracellular, 14, 19, 21, 161, 162, 165, 167, 176 Intraocular, 62, 67, 70, 85, 156, 162 Intrinsic, 21, 24, 35, 146, 162 Invasive, 17, 27, 162, 164 Involuntary, 162, 168, 173 Ion Channels, 148, 162, 177 Ion Exchange, 162, 163 Ionization, 162, 163 Ions, 148, 150, 156, 160, 162, 163 Iontophoresis, 14, 162, 163 Ipsilateral, 63, 163 Iris, 85, 147, 154, 163, 173, 179 Irradiation, 100, 163, 181 J Jejunoileal Bypass, 65, 163 Jejunum, 163 K Kb, 128, 163
Keratectomy, 58, 163 Keratitis, 54, 163 Keratoconus, 30, 163 L Labile, 152, 163 Lag, 29, 163 Lectin, 12, 163 Lens, 29, 31, 39, 67, 70, 85, 99, 107, 109, 110, 111, 147, 150, 156, 163, 180 Lesion, 163, 164 Lethal, 154, 163, 175 Levo, 155, 163 Levodopa, 16, 49, 50, 53, 59, 74, 92, 93, 97, 100, 150, 155, 163 Lipid, 162, 164, 166 Localization, 12, 164 Localized, 12, 155, 158, 161, 164, 170, 175 Longitudinal study, 29, 45, 92, 164 Lymph, 151, 157, 164, 175 Lymph node, 151, 164, 175 Lymphatic, 157, 161, 164, 175 Lymphatic system, 164, 175 Lymphocytes, 147, 164, 180 Lymphoid, 147, 154, 164 M Macula, 112, 159, 164 Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 16, 164 Malformation, 71, 164 Medial, 158, 164, 168 Mediate, 13, 24, 34, 156, 164 Mediator, 155, 164, 176 Medical Records, 165, 174 MEDLINE, 129, 165 Meiosis, 165, 177 Melanin, 163, 165 Melanocytes, 165, 167 Membrane, 24, 148, 151, 153, 155, 160, 162, 165, 174, 176, 180 Memory, 23, 165 Mental, iv, 3, 18, 34, 128, 130, 151, 153, 155, 165, 172, 175 Mental Health, iv, 3, 128, 130, 165, 172 Mental Retardation, 34, 165 Meridional, 5, 46, 56, 92, 93, 165 Metabotropic, 12, 165 Microbiology, 39, 145, 165 Microorganism, 152, 165, 180 Microphthalmos, 119, 165 Miosis, 67, 165 Mobility, 119, 165 Modeling, 16, 17, 165 Modification, 37, 39, 49, 165, 173
187
Molecular, 15, 19, 20, 34, 36, 39, 129, 131, 149, 150, 153, 154, 165, 179 Molecule, 14, 147, 148, 153, 156, 157, 158, 163, 165, 169, 173, 176 Monoclonal, 28, 163, 166, 173, 181 Monocular, 4, 12, 14, 15, 18, 21, 26, 28, 36, 37, 39, 56, 62, 94, 99, 111, 113, 166 Morphological, 36, 165, 166 Morphology, 39, 148, 150, 166 Motility, 6, 166, 176 Motion Perception, 11, 12, 166 Motor nerve, 166, 168 Mucinous, 159, 166 Multiple sclerosis, 166, 169 Myasthenia, 58, 166 Myocarditis, 155, 166 Myopia, 29, 31, 60, 63, 72, 73, 155, 166, 173 N Nearsightedness, 108, 166 Necrosis, 156, 166 Neocortex, 18, 166 Nerve Fibers, 63, 72, 73, 94, 114, 166, 168, 180 Nerve Growth Factor, 166, 167 Nervous System, 20, 67, 143, 145, 148, 151, 164, 166, 167, 170, 178 Networks, 18, 166 Neural Pathways, 111, 166 Neuritis, 167, 169 Neuromuscular, 145, 167 Neuromuscular Junction, 145, 167 Neuronal, 14, 19, 21, 23, 35, 64, 87, 167 Neurons, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 34, 35, 154, 158, 159, 164, 166, 167, 177 Neuropathy, 47, 167 Neurophysiology, 39, 44, 155, 167 Neuroretinitis, 167, 174 Neurotransmitter, 15, 145, 149, 155, 159, 162, 167, 176, 177 Neurotrophins, 34, 167 Neutrons, 163, 167, 173 Nevus, 91, 167 Night Blindness, 167, 174 Nitric Oxide, 12, 14, 167 Nitrogen, 146, 158, 167 Norepinephrine, 156, 167 Nuclear, 44, 148, 159, 162, 166, 167, 174, 178 Nuclei, 146, 147, 164, 167, 168, 175 Nucleus, 19, 25, 47, 145, 147, 154, 164, 165, 167, 168, 172, 178, 179
Nystagmus, 4, 58, 119, 168 O Occipital Lobe, 111, 155, 168, 180 Ocular, 6, 10, 11, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 29, 31, 33, 36, 39, 50, 74, 83, 111, 114, 118, 157, 158, 168, 175 Oculomotor, 35, 155, 168 Oculomotor Nerve, 155, 168 Opacity, 33, 150, 168 Ophthalmic, 23, 52, 61, 66, 68, 69, 70, 75, 78, 83, 85, 96, 112, 168 Ophthalmologic, 27, 168 Ophthalmologist, 6, 168 Opsin, 168, 174, 175 Optic Chiasm, 168 Optic disc, 66, 168, 169 Optic Nerve, 23, 52, 53, 114, 146, 149, 155, 167, 168, 174, 175, 180 Optic Nerve Diseases, 168, 175 Optic Neuritis, 67, 168 Optometrist, 108, 169 Orbit, 108, 145, 158, 169, 179 Orbital, 45, 145, 152, 169, 179 Oxidation, 154, 169 Oxides, 148, 169 P Palliative, 169, 178 Pancreas, 162, 169 Paralysis, 108, 149, 157, 169, 172 Parietal, 23, 147, 169, 176 Parietal Lobe, 147, 169, 176 Parkinsonism, 150, 164, 169 Patch, 13, 106, 107, 108, 111, 169 Pathologic, 118, 169 Pathologies, 19, 118, 169 Pathophysiology, 16, 169 Patient Compliance, 97, 169 Peptide, 169, 172 Perception, 11, 20, 23, 24, 26, 111, 112, 155, 169, 175 Perimetry, 33, 56, 62, 169 Peripheral Nervous System, 157, 167, 170 Peripheral vision, 17, 170, 180 Periventricular Leukomalacia, 4, 170 PH, 19, 170 Phallic, 158, 170 Pharmacologic, 27, 170, 178 Phonophoresis, 163, 170 Phospholipases, 170, 176 Phosphorus, 150, 170 Physiologic, 155, 170, 173
188
Amblyopia
Physiology, 11, 14, 19, 21, 24, 35, 39, 118, 167, 170 Phytotoxin, 170, 175 Pigment, 146, 165, 170 Pilocytic, 58, 170 Pilot study, 51, 53, 82, 170 Plants, 146, 148, 149, 150, 159, 163, 166, 167, 170, 179 Plasma, 147, 151, 170 Plasma cells, 147, 170 Plasticity, 4, 11, 13, 18, 20, 21, 32, 35, 64, 67, 95, 170 Platelet Activation, 170, 176 Platelet Aggregation, 146, 167, 171 Platelets, 167, 170, 171, 175 Pneumonia, 153, 171 Polyneuritis, 155, 171 Polysaccharide, 147, 171 Pontine, 25, 171 Posterior, 146, 151, 156, 162, 163, 168, 169, 171, 176 Postnatal, 14, 22, 171 Postsynaptic, 14, 171, 176, 178 Post-synaptic, 15, 20, 171 Potentiation, 171, 176 Practicability, 171, 179 Practice Guidelines, 130, 171 Precursor, 155, 156, 157, 163, 167, 171 Predictive factor, 30, 171 Presynaptic, 167, 171, 177 Prevalence, 5, 6, 22, 29, 32, 49, 68, 94, 171 Probe, 12, 171 Progression, 147, 171 Progressive, 71, 119, 150, 166, 170, 171, 174, 179 Projection, 12, 167, 168, 171 Proline, 36, 152, 171 Prophase, 172, 177 Prospective study, 45, 85, 164, 172 Prosthesis, 148, 172 Protein C, 13, 28, 146, 172 Protein S, 15, 118, 149, 172 Proteins, 13, 15, 34, 146, 147, 151, 152, 153, 159, 165, 167, 169, 170, 172, 176 Proteolytic, 152, 172, 175 Protocol, 8, 46, 78, 86, 97, 172 Proximal, 155, 163, 171, 172 Psychiatry, 26, 65, 75, 100, 158, 172 Psychic, 165, 172 Psychoactive, 172, 180 Psychophysics, 16, 23, 39, 172 Ptosis, 14, 44, 46, 49, 72, 83, 95, 119, 172
Public Health, 5, 47, 53, 130, 172 Public Policy, 129, 172 Pulmonary, 149, 172, 180 Pulmonary Artery, 149, 172, 180 Pulse, 108, 109, 111, 156, 172 Pupil, 29, 30, 154, 169, 173 Purulent, 156, 173 Q Quality of Health Care, 173, 179 Quality of Life, 22, 173 R Race, 6, 155, 173 Racemic, 155, 173 Radiation, 158, 162, 163, 173, 180 Radiation therapy, 158, 162, 163, 173, 181 Radioactive, 161, 162, 163, 168, 173, 181 Radioisotope, 173, 179 Radiolabeled, 163, 173, 181 Radiotherapy, 149, 163, 173, 181 Randomized, 78, 82, 156, 173 Reaction Time, 45, 173 Receptor, 13, 20, 28, 145, 147, 156, 165, 173, 176 Refer, 1, 152, 157, 158, 164, 167, 173, 178 Reflex, 7, 73, 158, 173 Refraction, 6, 7, 22, 29, 37, 45, 107, 166, 173 Refraction, Ocular, 6, 173 Refractive Errors, 31, 59, 134, 146, 155, 173 Refractive Power, 147, 166, 173 Refractory, 63, 174 Regeneration, 28, 174 Regimen, 156, 169, 174 Reliability, 14, 174 Research Design, 16, 174 Resection, 35, 174 Retina, 10, 19, 24, 32, 33, 65, 106, 148, 149, 151, 153, 163, 166, 167, 168, 174, 175, 180 Retinae, 164, 174 Retinal Ganglion Cells, 84, 168, 174 Retinitis, 119, 174 Retinitis Pigmentosa, 119, 174 Retinol, 174, 175 Retinopathy, 4, 174 Retrobulbar, 169, 174 Retrograde, 36, 174 Retrospective, 46, 65, 174 Retrospective study, 46, 174 Rhodopsin, 168, 174, 175 Ricin, 28, 175 Risk factor, 6, 22, 31, 32, 41, 49, 172, 175 Rod, 152, 175 Rubella, 119, 175
189
S Saccades, 4, 175 Satellite, 28, 175 Scatter, 30, 175 Schizoid, 175, 180 Schizophrenia, 9, 34, 175, 180 Schizotypal Personality Disorder, 175, 180 Scotoma, 112, 175 Secretory, 175, 177 Sedative, 151, 175 Segmentation, 67, 175 Sensory Deprivation, 18, 175 Serotonin, 167, 175 Serum, 146, 152, 176 Sharpness, 176, 180 Shock, 176, 179 Side effect, 145, 149, 176, 178 Signal Transduction, 13, 162, 176 Skeletal, 152, 176 Skull, 158, 169, 176, 178 Small intestine, 160, 161, 162, 163, 176 Social Environment, 173, 176 Sodium, 95, 176 Somatosensory Cortex, 19, 176 Specialist, 135, 176 Species, 148, 157, 160, 165, 166, 173, 176, 180 Specificity, 18, 33, 37, 38, 39, 40, 71, 146, 177 Spinal cord, 148, 149, 151, 159, 166, 167, 170, 173, 177 Steel, 152, 177 Stellate, 68, 177 Stellate Ganglion, 68, 177 Stereoscopic, 112, 177 Steroids, 45, 67, 154, 177 Stimulus, 4, 15, 23, 81, 86, 89, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98, 106, 146, 156, 157, 162, 163, 172, 173, 177, 178 Striate, 14, 83, 177 Stroke, 13, 19, 128, 177 Stroma, 163, 177 Subacute, 161, 177 Subclinical, 161, 177 Substrate, 15, 177 Suppression, 5, 11, 24, 28, 30, 33, 55, 61, 63, 82, 98, 99, 112, 177 Suspensions, 49, 177 Synapse, 13, 34, 167, 171, 177, 179 Synapsis, 177 Synaptic, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 33, 34, 114, 167, 176, 177
Synaptic Transmission, 18, 177 Systemic, 149, 155, 157, 161, 163, 173, 178, 181 T Telencephalon, 148, 151, 178 Temporal, 5, 7, 11, 23, 26, 63, 146, 178 Tendon, 152, 159, 178 Thalamic, 15, 178 Thalamus, 14, 178 Therapeutics, 178 Third Ventricle, 178 Thoracic, 177, 178 Threshold, 14, 23, 109, 178 Thrombin, 171, 172, 178 Thrombomodulin, 172, 178 Thrombosis, 172, 177, 178 Tomography, 55, 178 Tooth Preparation, 145, 178 Toxic, iv, 146, 148, 154, 155, 161, 167, 170, 178, 179 Toxicity, 156, 178 Toxicology, 69, 130, 178 Toxin, 27, 35, 155, 178 Tracer, 36, 179 Traction, 152, 179 Transduction, 176, 179 Transfection, 149, 179 Transmitter, 145, 148, 156, 162, 164, 167, 179 Trauma, 13, 114, 145, 166, 179 Treatment Failure, 67, 179 Treatment Outcome, 11, 48, 84, 179 Trochlear Nerve, 155, 179 Trochlear Nerve Diseases, 155, 179 Trophic, 35, 179 Tumour, 159, 179 U Uvea, 156, 179 V Vaccine, 172, 179 Vascular, 151, 157, 161, 167, 179 Vasodilators, 167, 179 Vein, 148, 168, 175, 179 Venous, 148, 172, 179 Ventral, 168, 179 Ventricle, 146, 172, 178, 179 Veterinary Medicine, 129, 180 Viral, 21, 179, 180 Virus, 175, 179, 180 Vision Screening, 8, 29, 37, 38, 39, 40, 53, 60, 68, 70, 100, 113, 180
190
Amblyopia
Visual field, 4, 24, 33, 43, 49, 55, 149, 166, 168, 169, 174, 175, 180 Visual Pathways, 3, 8, 112, 180 Visual Perception, 7, 23, 24, 26, 64, 111, 180 Vitreous, 22, 30, 151, 163, 174, 180 Vitreous Body, 151, 174, 180 Vitro, 14, 24, 180 Vivo, 18, 180
W White blood cell, 147, 164, 170, 180 Withdrawal, 14, 180 Wound Healing, 39, 180 X Xenograft, 147, 180 X-ray, 158, 163, 168, 173, 180 X-ray therapy, 163, 180 Z Zymogen, 172, 181
191
192
Amblyopia
