Chitosan - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

CHITOSAN A M EDICAL D ICTIONARY , B IBLIOGRAPHY , AND A NNOTATED R ESEARCH G UIDE TO I NTERNET R E FERENCES J AMES N. P...

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CHITOSAN A M EDICAL D ICTIONARY , B IBLIOGRAPHY , AND A NNOTATED R ESEARCH G UIDE TO I NTERNET R E FERENCES

J AMES N. P ARKER , M.D. AND P HILIP M. P ARKER , P H .D., E DITORS

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ICON Health Publications ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, 4th Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Copyright 2003 by ICON Group International, Inc. Copyright 2003 by ICON Group International, Inc. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 4 5 3 2 1

Publisher, Health Care: Philip Parker, Ph.D. Editor(s): James Parker, M.D., Philip Parker, Ph.D. Publisher's note: The ideas, procedures, and suggestions contained in this book are not intended for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. As new medical or scientific information becomes available from academic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies may undergo changes. The authors, editors, and publisher have attempted to make the information in this book up to date and accurate in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of this book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised to always check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dosage and contraindications before prescribing any drug or pharmacological product. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs, herbal remedies, vitamins and supplements, alternative therapies, complementary therapies and medicines, and integrative medical treatments. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Parker, James N., 1961Parker, Philip M., 1960Chitosan: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References / James N. Parker and Philip M. Parker, editors p. cm. Includes bibliographical references, glossary, and index. ISBN: 0-597-83864-X 1. Chitosan-Popular works. I. Title.

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Disclaimer This publication is not intended to be used for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not engaging in the rendering of medical, psychological, financial, legal, or other professional services. References to any entity, product, service, or source of information that may be contained in this publication should not be considered an endorsement, either direct or implied, by the publisher, editors, or authors. ICON Group International, Inc., the editors, and the authors are not responsible for the content of any Web pages or publications referenced in this publication.

Copyright Notice If a physician wishes to copy limited passages from this book for patient use, this right is automatically granted without written permission from ICON Group International, Inc. (ICON Group). However, all of ICON Group publications have copyrights. With exception to the above, copying our publications in whole or in part, for whatever reason, is a violation of copyright laws and can lead to penalties and fines. Should you want to copy tables, graphs, or other materials, please contact us to request permission (E-mail: [email protected]). ICON Group often grants permission for very limited reproduction of our publications for internal use, press releases, and academic research. Such reproduction requires confirmed permission from ICON Group International Inc. The disclaimer above must accompany all reproductions, in whole or in part, of this book.

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Acknowledgements The collective knowledge generated from academic and applied research summarized in various references has been critical in the creation of this book which is best viewed as a comprehensive compilation and collection of information prepared by various official agencies which produce publications on chitosan. Books in this series draw from various agencies and institutions associated with the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and in particular, the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), the Administration on Aging (AOA), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Healthcare Financing Administration (HCFA), the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Indian Health Service (IHS), the institutions of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Program Support Center (PSC), and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). In addition to these sources, information gathered from the National Library of Medicine, the United States Patent Office, the European Union, and their related organizations has been invaluable in the creation of this book. Some of the work represented was financially supported by the Research and Development Committee at INSEAD. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, special thanks are owed to Tiffany Freeman for her excellent editorial support.

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About the Editors James N. Parker, M.D. Dr. James N. Parker received his Bachelor of Science degree in Psychobiology from the University of California, Riverside and his M.D. from the University of California, San Diego. In addition to authoring numerous research publications, he has lectured at various academic institutions. Dr. Parker is the medical editor for health books by ICON Health Publications. Philip M. Parker, Ph.D. Philip M. Parker is the Eli Lilly Chair Professor of Innovation, Business and Society at INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France and Singapore). Dr. Parker has also been Professor at the University of California, San Diego and has taught courses at Harvard University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and UCLA. Dr. Parker is the associate editor for ICON Health Publications.

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About ICON Health Publications To discover more about ICON Health Publications, simply check with your preferred online booksellers, including Barnes & Noble.com and Amazon.com which currently carry all of our titles. Or, feel free to contact us directly for bulk purchases or institutional discounts: ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, Fourth Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Fax: 858-546-4341 Web site: www.icongrouponline.com/health

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Table of Contents FORWARD .......................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON CHITOSAN ................................................................................................. 3 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 3 Federally Funded Research on Chitosan ........................................................................................ 3 E-Journals: PubMed Central ....................................................................................................... 12 The National Library of Medicine: PubMed ................................................................................ 13 CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND CHITOSAN ....................................................................................... 39 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 39 Finding Nutrition Studies on Chitosan....................................................................................... 39 Federal Resources on Nutrition ................................................................................................... 50 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 51 CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND CHITOSAN ................................................................. 53 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 53 National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.................................................. 53 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 60 General References ....................................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON CHITOSAN ................................................................................... 63 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 63 Dissertations on Chitosan............................................................................................................ 63 Keeping Current .......................................................................................................................... 64 CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON CHITOSAN ............................................................................................. 65 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 65 Patents on Chitosan ..................................................................................................................... 65 Patent Applications on Chitosan ................................................................................................. 98 Keeping Current ........................................................................................................................ 132 CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON CHITOSAN ............................................................................................... 135 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 135 Book Summaries: Online Booksellers......................................................................................... 135 The National Library of Medicine Book Index ........................................................................... 136 Chapters on Chitosan................................................................................................................. 137 CHAPTER 7. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON CHITOSAN ................................................................. 139 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 139 News Services and Press Releases.............................................................................................. 139 Newsletter Articles .................................................................................................................... 140 Academic Periodicals covering Chitosan ................................................................................... 141 APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES .......................................................................................... 145 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 145 NIH Guidelines.......................................................................................................................... 145 NIH Databases........................................................................................................................... 147 Other Commercial Databases..................................................................................................... 149 APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES ............................................................................................... 151 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 151 Patient Guideline Sources.......................................................................................................... 151 Finding Associations.................................................................................................................. 152 APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES ................................................................................ 155 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 155 Preparation................................................................................................................................. 155 Finding a Local Medical Library................................................................................................ 155 Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada ................................................................................. 155 ONLINE GLOSSARIES................................................................................................................ 161

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Online Dictionary Directories ................................................................................................... 161 CHITOSAN DICTIONARY......................................................................................................... 163 INDEX .............................................................................................................................................. 229

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FORWARD In March 2001, the National Institutes of Health issued the following warning: "The number of Web sites offering health-related resources grows every day. Many sites provide valuable information, while others may have information that is unreliable or misleading."1 Furthermore, because of the rapid increase in Internet-based information, many hours can be wasted searching, selecting, and printing. Since only the smallest fraction of information dealing with chitosan is indexed in search engines, such as www.google.com or others, a non-systematic approach to Internet research can be not only time consuming, but also incomplete. This book was created for medical professionals, students, and members of the general public who want to know as much as possible about chitosan, using the most advanced research tools available and spending the least amount of time doing so. In addition to offering a structured and comprehensive bibliography, the pages that follow will tell you where and how to find reliable information covering virtually all topics related to chitosan, from the essentials to the most advanced areas of research. Public, academic, government, and peer-reviewed research studies are emphasized. Various abstracts are reproduced to give you some of the latest official information available to date on chitosan. Abundant guidance is given on how to obtain free-of-charge primary research results via the Internet. While this book focuses on the field of medicine, when some sources provide access to non-medical information relating to chitosan, these are noted in the text. E-book and electronic versions of this book are fully interactive with each of the Internet sites mentioned (clicking on a hyperlink automatically opens your browser to the site indicated). If you are using the hard copy version of this book, you can access a cited Web site by typing the provided Web address directly into your Internet browser. You may find it useful to refer to synonyms or related terms when accessing these Internet databases. NOTE: At the time of publication, the Web addresses were functional. However, some links may fail due to URL address changes, which is a common occurrence on the Internet. For readers unfamiliar with the Internet, detailed instructions are offered on how to access electronic resources. For readers unfamiliar with medical terminology, a comprehensive glossary is provided. For readers without access to Internet resources, a directory of medical libraries, that have or can locate references cited here, is given. We hope these resources will prove useful to the widest possible audience seeking information on chitosan. The Editors

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From the NIH, National Cancer Institute (NCI): http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ten-things-to-know.

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CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON CHITOSAN Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to locate peer-reviewed references and studies on chitosan.

Federally Funded Research on Chitosan The U.S. Government supports a variety of research studies relating to chitosan. These studies are tracked by the Office of Extramural Research at the National Institutes of Health.2 CRISP (Computerized Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects) is a searchable database of federally funded biomedical research projects conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. Search the CRISP Web site at http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/crisp_query.generate_screen. You will have the option to perform targeted searches by various criteria, including geography, date, and topics related to chitosan. For most of the studies, the agencies reporting into CRISP provide summaries or abstracts. As opposed to clinical trial research using patients, many federally funded studies use animals or simulated models to explore chitosan. The following is typical of the type of information found when searching the CRISP database for chitosan: •

Project Title: CALCIUM PHOSPHATE BONE REPAIR MATERIALS Principal Investigator & Institution: Chow, Laurence C.; Chief Research Scientist; American Dental Assn Health Fdn 211 E Chicago Ave Chicago, Il 60611 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAY-1996; Project End 30-JUN-2004 Summary: (Adapted from the Investigator's Abstract): A calcium phosphate cement (CPC), developed under this research project, was approved by the FDA in 1996 for

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Healthcare projects are funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and Office of Assistant Secretary of Health (OASH).

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cranial defects repair applications in humans, thus becoming the first material of its kind to be available for clinical use. While CPCs were shown to be very useful in a number of dental and medical applications for which other materials do not work well, in vivo study results suggest that in order to achieve the best results, CPC should have handling and in vivo properties that are best suited for the particular clinical application. The objectives of the proposed research are to elucidate mechanisms of cement setting reactions and to understand the physicochemical factors that influence cements= handling and in vivo properties. Four specific aims are proposed. Aim 1 proposes to understand factors that control the hydrolysis reactions of tetracalcium phosphate (TTCP), alpha-tricalcium phosphate (alpha-TCP), dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD), dicalcium phosphate anhydrous (DCPA) and calcium hydroxide. These calcium phosphate salts are the major components of different CPCs. Hydrolysis of one or more of the salts that form hydroxyapatite (HA) is responsible for the hardening of the cement. A better understanding of the hydrolysis reaction of each of these salts will provide important insights into factors that influence some important cement properties, including the rate of conversion to HA, formation of Ca-deficient or stoichiometric HA, the crystallinity HA, etc. Defective or non-stoichiometric HAs are believed to be more bioresorbable. Aim 2 proposes to study the dissolution rate of cement products in demineralizing solutions having ionic compositions mimicking the acidic environment produced by osteoclasts. A dual constant-composition titration system was developed during the report period for measuring dissolution rates of calcium phosphate biomaterials under simulated acidified physiological solutions. The Principal Investigator proposes to use this technique as an in vitro model for predicting resorption rates of CPC and to understand factors that control the dissolution rate. Aim 3 proposes to study properties of non-rigid and resorbable calcium phosphate cements. Experiments are described to study composites of CPC and chitosan, a biocompatible polymer to form self-hardening, bioresorbable, and non-rigid bone graft materials. These materials should be useful in a number of applications in which the implant can remain stable and firmly attached to the bone defect surface despite micro-movements of the defect walls. Aim 4 will study properties of injectable premixed calcium phosphate cement pastes. Premixed CPC pastes have the advantages that they are stable in the package and harden only after delivery to the defect site where the non-aqueous liquid is replaced by water from the surrounding tissue. While premixed CPC is considerably easier to use and is injectable, its properties are quite different from the conventional CPCs. The hardening time, resistance to washout, and HA conversion of premixed pastes consisting of CPC powder and non-aqueous liquids, such as glycerin, will be studied. The Principal Investigator also proposes to determine mechanical properties of the hardened CPC pastes. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: CHITOSAN IFNGAMMA-PDNA NANOSPHERE THERAPY AND IMMUNOPATHOLOGY OF ALLERGIC ASTHMA Principal Investigator & Institution: Mohapatra, Shyam S.; Professor of Medicine, Medical Microbiol; Internal Medicine; University of South Florida 4202 E Fowler Ave Tampa, Fl 33620 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 25-SEP-2003; Project End 31-AUG-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): With an intent to develop effective prophylaxis or treatment of allergic diseases including allergic asthma, our goal is to examine the safety and efficacy of chitosan IFN-gamma-pDNA nanosphere (CIN) Therapy and the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying its effectiveness in a mouse model of asthma.

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Deviation of immune response to allergens from a pathogenic T helper-2 type response to T helper-1 type may provide a practical approach to modifying the course of disease. Administration of IFN-gamma, and IL-12 DNA plasmids significantly decreased airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness in a mouse model of grass allergic asthma. In addition, Adenoviral-mediated IFN-gamma, gene transfer effectively reversed established asthma in BALB/c mouse model. While these studies aid in the mechanistic understanding of IFN-gamma, action in the lung, acute inflammation and immunogenicity to virus remains the major obstacle for the application of viralmediated gene transfer for treating human asthma. We therefore developed a non-viral strategy that involves the development of chitosan nanospheres containing IFN-gamma, pDNA (CIN), intranasally (i.n.) delivered to the lung, as a strategy for asthma treatment. Our working hypothesis is that i.n. CIN therapy provides for effective prophylaxis or treatment of asthma by inducing changes in expression of cytokine and chemokine genes which result in altered antigen presentation, decreased migration of effector cells into the lung, and apoptosis of inflammatory cells, leading to a global decrease in inflammation and airway remodeling. The specific aims of this research program are as follows: Aim #1. Evaluate chitosan-IFN-gamma-pDNA nanospheres (CIN) as a prophylactic or a therapeutic modality for allergic disease in BALB/c mice. We plan to evaluate the role of CIN in prophylaxis/therapy of allergic asthma in BALB/c mice with respect to magnitude of acute inflammation, duration of protection from asthma and its potential in a chronic asthma model. We will analyze different asthma phenotypes, such as immune deviation of allergic response revealed by a change in T-cell cytokine secretion and antibody response profiles, the airway hyperreactivity and eosinophils in broncho-alveolar lavage, and lung pathology. Aim #2. Elucidate the cellular/molecular mechanism of CIN-induced immunomodulation. We plan to examine the role of T cells, CIN modulation of specific T cell response in the lung including apoptosis of Th2 cells and modulation of the number and activity of dendritic cells in the lung. Aim #3. Elucidate the anti-inflammatory mechanism of CIN-induced protection. We plan to examine the genes, which mediate the effects of CIN, whether CIN affects airway inflammation and airway remodeling in lungs of mice, and whether CIN induces apoptosis of mucus producing goblet cells. It is anticipated that the results of these studies will contribute significantly to our knowledge of asthma and CIN therapy may provide a major breakthrough in management of asthma. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: CHITOSAN-ZINC AS AN IMMUNOLOGICAL ADJUVANT Principal Investigator & Institution: Martinez-Montgomery, Mitzi M.; Zonagen, Inc. 2408 Timberloch Pl, B-4 the Woodlands, Tx 77380 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 15-JUL-2002; Project End 30-JUN-2003 Summary: (Provided by Applicant) An effective immunological adjuvant is one that is able to enhance both antibody and cell mediated immune responses. Alum is the only adjuvant widely licensed for human use and is reported as stimulating effective Thelper cell type 2 (Th-2) like responses. Th-2 responses are typified by production of predominately IgG1, IgE and the cytokines IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-10. In contrast adjuvants such as Complete Freund?s adjuvant, stimulate strong antibody responses with a preponderance of IgG2a. This type of response is indicative of a Th-1 response and is associated with the presence of cell mediated immunity, delayed type hypersensitivity, induction of complement fixing and IgA antibodies and the cytokines IFN-gamma, IL-2 and IL-12. Desired adjuvants, especially for poorly immunogenic, subunit, recombinant protein and synthetic peptide and carbohydrate antigens, are

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those capable of stimulating Th-1 immune responses. In this study we will characterize the cytokine and specific antibody response using a new adjuvant developed at Zonagen. We believe this adjuvant, which was developed to combine the unique immune modulating properties of chitosan and zinc, will have several advantages in the preparation of vaccines. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: Products, such as improved adjuvants, that will enhance the immune response to poorly immunogenic antigens, should be widely received and commercially profitable. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: ENZYME ELECTRODES BASED ON CHITOSAN SCAFFOLDINGS Principal Investigator & Institution: Gorski, Waldemar; University of Texas San Antonio San Antonio, Tx 78249 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-AUG-2003; Project End 31-JUL-2006 Summary: The long-term objective of our research is to design, synthesize, and characterize selective and catalytic molecular systems for bioanalytical applications. The specific aim of this competitive continuation proposal is the development of enzyme electrodes (biosensors) for the determination of clinically important species such as lactate, glucose, glutamate, and ethanol. The experimental design is based on the integration of dehydrogenase enzymes and electrodes using thin surface films of a biopolymer chitosan. While most of the current biosensors are based on oxidases, the use of dehydrogenases has a potential to expand the scope of biosensing because dehydrogenases are more abundant, less prone to interferences from oxygen, and have higher substrate specificity. In addition, such biosensors are expected to have improved operational stability, as the chitosan matrix will provide a biocompatible microenvironment for enzymes. Chitosan is a promising structural material for designing functional layers on electrode surfaces because it displays excellent membrane forming ability, good adhesion, and susceptibility to chemical modifications due to the presence of amino and hydroxyl groups. In a series of synthetic steps, the components necessary for the operation of a biosensor will be covalently linked to chitosan scaffold using bifunctional tethering molecules. The tethering chemistry will involve the Schiff base, urethane, and urea bonds. The biosensing films will be characterized using electrochemical and spectroscopic techniques in order to determine the composition-structure-activity patterns. The optimized biosensors will be used in a biological fluid (serum) to evaluate the effects of a sample matrix on their performance. The proposed enzyme electrodes will provide analytical access to a large group of dehydrogenases for applications in bioelectronics, and specifically, in reagentless biosensors, i.e. devices that do not require dissolved enzymes and cofactors to operate. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: HARVESTING AUTOLOGOUS GROWTH FACTORS FOR WOUND HEALING Principal Investigator & Institution: Olsen, Don B.; Hemogenesis, Llc 803 N 300 W, Ste 1180 Salt Lake City, Ut 84103 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JUL-2001; Project End 30-APR-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): An emerging clinical approach for augmenting wound healing involves the use of recombinant or autologous growth factors for improved therapeutic outcomes in various surgical and outpatient situations. However, currently available growth factor-based wound healing therapies are relatively expensive and often cumbersome to use. The applicants have developed a simple and

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inexpensive technique obviates the need for cumbersome equipment. Phase I studies have demonstrated that high platelet yields with included growth factors can be obtained using a disposable device that allows controlled delivery of platelet growth factors with significant mitogenic activity resulting accelerated cell growth. In this Phase II study, the applicants proposes to undertake and complete pre-commercialization investigations of a convenient and inexpensive intraoperative process to harvest and concentrate platelets with contained growth factors from autologous for enhancing wound healing. Optimization and characterization of key parameters associated with obtaining platelet concentrates from autologous blood using the applicants' method will be conducted. A prototype device-kit that simplifies and automates the applicants' process will be developed and tested. The prototype will consist of a base unit and disposable components that will integrate and execute the Hemogenesis process in a simple, and automated fashion. The in-vivo wound healing activity of platelets retrieved by the applicants' technique will be tested in soft and hard tissue animal models. A procine skin wound model will be utilized to simulate soft-tissue wounds, and a porcine bone defect (by osteotomy) model will be used to simulate hard tissue wounds. The efficacy of autlogous platelet growth factors will be tested in these animal models using various carrier substrates such as alginate, fibrin, hydrogel, and chitosan-calcium phosphate sponge. These studies will be an important precursor to commercialization efforts and clinical investigations that will eventually test the efficacy of the autologous platelet growth factor product that is obtained by the Hemogenesis technique. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: MECHANISTIC STUDIES ON POLYMERIC CONTROLLED ORAL GENE Principal Investigator & Institution: Leong, Kam W.; Professor; Biomedical Engineering; Johns Hopkins University 3400 N Charles St Baltimore, Md 21218 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 10-SEP-2003; Project End 31-JUL-2008 Summary: (provided by applicant): Gene therapy continues to hold exciting promise in treating many genetic disorders and producing therapeutic gene products in vivo. While the initial notion that a single treatment can integrate the foreign transgene into the genome of the host, for instance through retroviruses, is attractive, in practice repeated treatment would be required for the majority of gene therapies. Viral vectors have been the most efficient and commonly used delivery modalities for in vivo gene transfer. However, various shortcomings of these viral vectors still leave much room for improvement. Requirement of cell mitosis for retrovirus, immunogenicity of adenovirus, and size limitation of the packaged gene in adeno-associated virus (AAV) are some of the disadvantages of the viral vectors. Although promising animal data have warranted many recent clinical trials, concerns of the long-term safety of the use of viral vectors linger. Non-viral vectors present an attractive alternative because of their non-immunogenicity. They can also satisfy many of the pharmaceutical issues better than viral vectors, such as ease of scale-up, storage stability, and quality control. Because of the low efficiency and the transient nature of gene expression, non-viral gene therapy would necessitate frequent administration by muscular or intravenous injections, the common routes for non-viral in vivo gene transfer. The invasive nature of such administration renders such therapy unattractive. The objective of this proposal is to test the hypothesis that oral gene delivery can be effective with polymeric gene carriers. We have obtained promising preliminary data that the human Factor IX (FIX) gene delivered by chitosan-DNA nanospheres through the oral route can lead to circulating FIX protein concentration in the plasma up to 120 ng/mL. We have also synthesized a

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series of cationic poly(phosphoester)s that show efficacy of gene transfer in the muscle and the central nervous system of murine models. We propose to identify the optimal characteristics of a polymeric gene carrier in non-viral gene transfer using mechanistic information obtained from intracellular trafficking and relevant in vitro cell culture transport models. We will then evaluate the most promising polymeric gene carriers in a rat model. It is hope that these studies will pave the way of realizing the ultimate goal of gene therapy, that of applying genes as a "drug". Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: NANOPARTICLE DELIVERY OF ANTIANGIOGENIC GENES Principal Investigator & Institution: Lutty, Gerard A.; Associate Professor; Ophthalmology; Johns Hopkins University 3400 N Charles St Baltimore, Md 21218 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 02-JUL-2001; Project End 30-JUN-2004 Summary: (Applicant's Abstract) Angiogenesis is a blinding complication of many eye diseases including diabetic and sickle cell retinopathy, retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) and exudative age-related macular degeneration (ARMID). Although over 50 antiangiogenic factors are currently being evaluated in clinical trials for eir effect on tumors, only two are in clinical trial for angiogenesis in the eye. One needed stepping stone towards antiangiogenic therapy in the eye has been the delivery of the agents to the nieovascularization selectively. This proposal will evaluate the delivery of genes encoding for antiangiogenic agents to sites of angiogenesis in the eye by non-viral means. The genes will be encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles and the particles injected into vitreous or the subtenon's space. This gene delivery system has several attractive features: 1) ligands can be conjugated to the nanoparticles to stimulate receptor-mediated endocytosis (ex: acetylated LDL); 2) lysosomolytic agents can be incorporated to reduce degradation of the DNA in the endosomal and lysosomal compartments (ex: chloroquine); 3) other bioactive agents (proteinacious or nonproteinacious) or multiple plasmids can be co-encapsulated; 4) bioavailability of the DNA can be improved because of protection from nuclease degradation by the matrix; 5) the nanoparticles can be lyophilized for storage without loss of bioactivity. Pigment epithelial-derived factor (PEDF) will serve as the prototypic gene to be evaluated initially by this novel antiangiogenic therapeutic approach. In summary, chitosan nanoparticles are nontoxic, biodegradable particles that have the potential of delivering large genes to target cells of the eye. The goal of this proposal is to deliver genes for endogenous antiangiogenic agents to sites of ocular neovascularization. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: NON-INVASIVE SYSTEM FOR AND ARREST OF PERIODONTITIS Principal Investigator & Institution: Bogomolova, Anastassia; Fractal Systems, Inc. 200 9Th Ave N, Ste 100 Safety Harbor, Fl 34695 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 30-SEP-2001; Project End 31-MAR-2002 Summary: The goal of this application is to create a system for the prevention and treatment of the early stages of periodontal disease. This will be accomplished by developing an adhesive, biodegradable hydrogel that will form inside the periodontal pocket following ionotropic gelation of mixed liquid components. The gel will adhere to existing bacterial plaque and inhibit the growth, adherence and penetration of bacteria. The application proposes to develop a chitosan hydrogel with three different polyanions: collagen, heparin and polylactic acid. The optimal gel composition with regard to physical stability in orally relevant conditions, gelation time, biodegradation,

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oxygen permeability and attachment to oral surfaces will be determined. The ability of the most appropriate gel to inhibit the growth and adhesion of oral bacterial will be assessed. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: Development of a non-invasive system for prevention and treatment of early periodontitis will allow to create a product for home application. The use of this product will result in avoiding advanced periodontal disease. The product will become an affordable alternative to expensive periodontal surgical treatment and will result in better dental health of the world population. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: ORAL MUCOSITIS - FORMULATIONS FOR PALLIATION AND THERAPY Principal Investigator & Institution: Squier, Christopher A.; Dows Inst for Dental Research; University of Iowa Iowa City, Ia 52242 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-2000; Project End 31-AUG-2003 Summary: As the end-of-life approaches, the frequency of cancer increases markedly and it has been estimated that approximately 400,000 persons each year suffer oral side effects as a consequence of being treated for cancer therapy. Oral mucositis, an inflammatory condition of the oral mucosa leading to atrophy and ulceration, is one of the conditions frequently seen in those patients undergoing anti-cancer therapy. The lesions first appear in the mucosa of the soft palate, tongue and cheeks and as they enlarge lead to extreme pain and dysphagia. As a consequence, there may be dehydration, a compromised nutritional status and a decreased quality of life. Palliation represents the standard clinical management so as to relieve symptoms and to check infections by means of anesthetic and antibiotic rinses. The hypothesis underlying the proposed research is that an appropriate occlusive muco-adhesive will not only reduce the symptoms of mucositis but could provide a means for effective adjunctive therapy of the condition. This application as an R21 exploratory and developmental grant seeks to develop an occlusive muco-adhesive in both gel and film form for the treatment of oral mucositis based on the biocompatible polymer, chitosan. The investigators intend to explore the effectiveness of the muco-adhesive in-vitro for delivering the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory compounds necessary for palliative therapy of mucositis as well as for delivering bioactive peptides that may be able to provide protection or promote healing of the oral mucosa. Finally, they will investigate the acceptability, substantivity and durability of the muco-adhesive in vivo using normal mucosa and examine its effects on ulcerated mucosa in human volunteers. The study will involve collaborative studies between investigators with expertise in pharmaceutical technology, oral mucosal biology and oral medicine so as to develop palliative and therapeutic approaches to mucositis that would be of great benefit in improving the quality of life of those who are frequently at the end-of-life. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: RESOLUTIONS IN BRANCHED ALKANES USING LIPASE IN BEADS Principal Investigator & Institution: Neau, Steven H.; Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Missouri Kansas City Kansas City, Mo 64110 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-2002; Project End 31-JUL-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): The long-term goals of this research are to investigate and characterize fresh and freeze-dried macromolecule-loaded

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polysaccharide-based hydrogel beads for applications in chemical reactions, and their application in macromolecule delivery for therapeutic purposes. The use of these beads for therapeutic peptide and protein delivery will be pursued, in particular for site specific delivery of these agents to the colon following oral administration. Various chemical reactions can be investigated using entrapped enzymes. The long-term goals include applications of these beads in reactions where the catalysis is well characterized, such that the bead performance (and not the reaction) is studied. The proposed research incorporates lipase into these beads for easy recovery and subsequent delivery. The solvents are straight chain and methyl-branched alkanes to test the hypothesis that branching can enhance the activity and enantioselectivity of lipase. The short-term goal is the resolution of the pharmacologically active enantiomer of a drug that is a racemic mixture, ibuprofen, by enantioselective esterification by a lipase that is free or entrapped in the chitosan bead. Isolation of the active, enantiomer will become a regulatory requirement because administration of only the active enantiomer can reduce the toxicity and dose. Resolution using an entrapped lipase offers a rapid, enantioselective reaction; repeated applications since the enzyme can be recovered; and economical terminal resolution in the synthesis sequence. In the first study, the solvent system, consisting of water at a known activity in an alkane, will be optimized for the fastest reactions and the highest enantioselectivity. Michaelis-Menten parameters will be evaluated and compared. In the second study, lipase-loaded chitosan hydrogel beads are fabricated. The successful rugged, spherical matrix can entrap the enzyme, minimally interfere with activity, and allow substrate and product diffusion. Permeability of the bead will be investigated by measuring the substrate diffusion coefficient within the bead. Reaction parameters of the entrapped enzyme will be compared to those of the free enzyme in the third study. The stability of the bead, the efficiency of the lipase entrapment, and the reduction in lipase activity as a function of repeated applications will also be evaluated in the third study. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: TOPICAL RETINOIDS FOR CHEMOPREVENTION OF MELANOMA Principal Investigator & Institution: Cattaneo, Maurizio V.; Ivrea, Inc. 216 Ricciuti Dr Quincy, Ma 02169 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JUN-2000; Project End 31-MAR-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): Malignant melanoma's incidence is increasing by 2.7% annually even as most other cancers are experiencing a decline in incidence. The long-term objective of this project is to commercialize a topical formulation containing retinoic acid (ATRA) for subjects with dysplastic nevi at a higher risk of developing malignant melanoma. However, ATRA is highly irritating to the skin. Several topical delivery systems have been shown to reduce ATRA-induced skin irritation. Phase I studies have shown that the biopolymer chitosan acts as a topical delivery system for ATRA. In this Phase II SBIR study we propose to: (1) standardize the topical formulation containing the ATRA/chitosan delivery system according to our IND 60,073, (2) test the long-term toxicity and irritation of the formulation in both rodents and non-rodents species according to FDA 21 CFR, Part 58, (3) determine whether 6 months of topical ATRA/chitosan will result in a significant clinical improvement of dysplastic nevi, and/or a decrease in the dysplasia grade, and/or a change in the expression of proliferation biomarkers, by performing a multicenter controlled clinical trial involving 16 dysplastic nevi subjects using Internet-based randomization, electronic data capture, coordination and monitoring, and pre and post study clinical and histological assessment.

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Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: UTSA MBRS SCORE PROGRAM Principal Investigator & Institution: Tsin, Andrew T C.; Professor; Biology; University of Texas San Antonio San Antonio, Tx 78249 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-1980; Project End 31-JUL-2003 Summary: The UTSA MBRS SCORE Program is designed to provide support for innovative, cutting-edge biomedical research projects and to enhance the research capabilities of the faculty and institution. The overall goals of the UTSA SCORE Program are to increase the research productivity and competitiveness of the faculty as well as significantly increase the number of minority faculty and students engaged in and pursuing biomedical research careers. The proposed research projects will provide an environment where MBRS faculty and students can actively engage in exciting and challenging biomedical research. UTSA has a proven commitment to the hiring and advancement of minority faculty. Moreover, UTSA enrolls a large, growing number of under-represented minority students (primarily Hispanic 7,797 or 42.4%), and has developed a number of active, federally-supported minority enhancement programs in one of the nation's top five Hispanic education universities. In addition, the UTSA is ranked second in the nation in the number of undergraduate degrees awarded to Hispanics in the Life Sciences. Continued funding of the UTSA MBRS Program will allow UTSA to develop and support 21 basic biomedical research laboratories, providing essential support for research activities, and excellent mentoring and training opportunities for under-represented undergraduate and graduate minority students. This research opportunities will be supported by many existing, shared institutional and divisional resources. MBRS SCORE research will be conducted in state-of-the-art research laboratories in the new Biosciences Building which opened this past Spring (98). This $17.2 million dollar, 3-story, 62,000 square feet research facility has been fully dedicated to research and research training. MBRS SCORE Projects and Principal Investigators include the following: 1) Dr. E. Barea-Rodriguez "Agrin and Integrin Expression in Learning and LTP"; 2) Dr. A. Cassill Derrick "Novelty-Induced Facilitation of Hippocampal LTP; 5) Dr. M. Gdovin "Neurobiology of Respiration in the Developing Amphibian"; 6) Dr. W. Gorski "Enzyme Electrodes Based on Chitosan Scaffolding"; 7) Dr. L. Haro "Biological Significance of 45 kDa Human Growth Hormone Variant"; 8) Dr. H. Heidner "Characterization of the Mosquito Furin Endoprotease"; Dr. R. Lebaron "Functional Properties of Human p68 (BIG-H3) Protein in Cornea"; 1) Dr. A. Martinez "Role of ApoE Isoforms in Development of AD-Like Pathology in Transgenic Mice"; 12) Dr. J. McClusky "Development of Polyurethanes with Enhanced Biostability; 13) Dr. G. Negrete "Conformationally Promoted Degradation of BPDE- DNA Adducts"; 14) Dr. R. Renthal "Membrane Protein Folding"; 15) Dr. A. Tsin "11-cis Retinyl Ester Hydrolase in the Eye"; 16) Dr. J. Walmsley "Metal-Mediated Molecular Aggregates of Guanine and Adenine Nucleotides"; 17) Dr. E. Wheeler "Developing Muscle and Aberrant Trk B Receptor Expression"; Media Exposure and Psychological and Physical Well-being. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Chitosan

E-Journals: PubMed Central3 PubMed Central (PMC) is a digital archive of life sciences journal literature developed and managed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).4 Access to this growing archive of e-journals is free and unrestricted.5 To search, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Pmc, and type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the search box. This search gives you access to fulltext articles. The following is a sample of items found for chitosan in the PubMed Central database: •

Antimicrobial Actions of Degraded and Native Chitosan against Spoilage Organisms in Laboratory Media and Foods. by Rhoades J, Roller S.; 2000 Jan; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=91788

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Bioconversion of Chitin to Chitosan: Purification and Characterization of Chitin Deacetylase from Mucor Rouxii. by Kafetzopoulos D, Martinou A, Bouriotis V.; 1993 Apr 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=46135

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Characteristics of a Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) Extracellular Protein Targeting Chitin and Chitosan. by Saito A, Miyashita K, Biukovic G, Schrempf H.; 2001 Mar; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=92723

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Comparison of the Ability of Partially N-Acetylated Chitosans and Chitooligosaccharides to Elicit Resistance Reactions in Wheat Leaves. by Vander P, Varum KM, Domard A, Eddine El Gueddari N, Moerschbacher BM.; 1998 Dec 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=34751

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Differential Induction of Lipoxygenase Isoforms in Wheat upon Treatment with Rust Fungus Elicitor, Chitin Oligosaccharides, Chitosan, and Methyl Jasmonate. by Bohland C, Balkenhohl T, Loers G, Feussner I, Grambow HJ.; 1997 Jun; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=158352

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Direct Incorporation of Glucosamine and N-Acetylglucosamine into Exopolymers by Gluconacetobacter xylinus (=Acetobacter xylinum) ATCC 10245: Production of Chitosan-Cellulose and Chitin-Cellulose Exopolymers. by Lee JW, Deng F, Yeomans WG, Allen AL, Gross RA, Kaplan DL.; 2001 Sep; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=93117

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Oligogalacturonic Acid and Chitosan Reduce Stomatal Aperture by Inducing the Evolution of Reactive Oxygen Species from Guard Cells of Tomato and Commelina communis. by Lee S, Choi H, Suh S, Doo IS, Oh KY, Jeong Choi E, Schroeder Taylor AT, Low PS, Lee Y.; 1999 Sep 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=59362

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Adapted from the National Library of Medicine: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/about/intro.html.

With PubMed Central, NCBI is taking the lead in preservation and maintenance of open access to electronic literature, just as NLM has done for decades with printed biomedical literature. PubMed Central aims to become a world-class library of the digital age. 5 The value of PubMed Central, in addition to its role as an archive, lies in the availability of data from diverse sources stored in a common format in a single repository. Many journals already have online publishing operations, and there is a growing tendency to publish material online only, to the exclusion of print.

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Oligogalacturonides and Chitosan Activate Plant Defensive Genes Through the Octadecanoid Pathway. by Doares SH, Syrovets T, Weiler EW, Ryan CA.; 1995 May 9; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=41892

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Purification, Characterization, and Gene Analysis of a Chitosanase (ChoA) from Matsuebacter chitosanotabidus 3001. by Park JK, Shimono K, Ochiai N, Shigeru K, Kurita M, Ohta Y, Tanaka K, Matsuda H, Kawamukai M.; 1999 Nov 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=94127

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Suramin inhibits initiation of defense signaling by systemin, chitosan, and a [beta]glucan elicitor in suspension-cultured Lycopersicon peruvianum cells. by Stratmann J, Scheer J, Ryan CA.; 2000 Aug 1; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=34024

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Thermostable Chitosanase from Bacillus sp. Strain CK4: Cloning and Expression of the Gene and Characterization of the Enzyme. by Yoon HG, Kim HY, Lim YH, Kim HK, Shin DH, Hong BS, Cho HY.; 2000 Sep; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=92213

The National Library of Medicine: PubMed One of the quickest and most comprehensive ways to find academic studies in both English and other languages is to use PubMed, maintained by the National Library of Medicine.6 The advantage of PubMed over previously mentioned sources is that it covers a greater number of domestic and foreign references. It is also free to use. If the publisher has a Web site that offers full text of its journals, PubMed will provide links to that site, as well as to sites offering other related data. User registration, a subscription fee, or some other type of fee may be required to access the full text of articles in some journals. To generate your own bibliography of studies dealing with chitosan, simply go to the PubMed Web site at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed. Type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” The following is the type of output you can expect from PubMed for chitosan (hyperlinks lead to article summaries): •

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5-Fluorouracil-loaded chitosan coated polylactic acid microspheres as biodegradable drug carriers for cerebral tumours. Author(s): Chandy T, Das GS, Rao GH. Source: Journal of Microencapsulation. 2000 September-October; 17(5): 625-38. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11038121&dopt=Abstract

PubMed was developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The PubMed database was developed in conjunction with publishers of biomedical literature as a search tool for accessing literature citations and linking to full-text journal articles at Web sites of participating publishers. Publishers that participate in PubMed supply NLM with their citations electronically prior to or at the time of publication.

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A dermal substrate made of collagen--GAG--chitosan for deep burn coverage: first clinical uses. Author(s): Damour O, Gueugniaud PY, Berthin-Maghit M, Rousselle P, Berthod F, Sahuc F, Collombel C. Source: Clin Mater. 1994; 15(4): 273-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10147171&dopt=Abstract

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A glucomannan and chitosan fiber supplement decreases plasma cholesterol and increases cholesterol excretion in overweight normocholesterolemic humans. Author(s): Gallaher DD, Gallaher CM, Mahrt GJ, Carr TP, Hollingshead CH, Hesslink R Jr, Wise J. Source: Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2002 October; 21(5): 428-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12356785&dopt=Abstract

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A phase I/IIa study on intra-articular injection of holmium-166-chitosan complex for the treatment of knee synovitis of rheumatoid arthritis. Author(s): Song J, Suh CH, Park YB, Lee SH, Yoo NC, Lee JD, Kim KH, Lee SK. Source: European Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 2001 April; 28(4): 489-97. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11357500&dopt=Abstract

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A preliminary in vitro study on the fabrication and tissue engineering applications of a novel chitosan bilayer material as a scaffold of human neofetal dermal fibroblasts. Author(s): Ma J, Wang H, He B, Chen J. Source: Biomaterials. 2001 February; 22(4): 331-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11205436&dopt=Abstract

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Alternating bioactivity of polymeric layer-by-layer assemblies: anti- vs procoagulation of human blood on chitosan and dextran sulfate layers. Author(s): Serizawa T, Yamaguchi M, Matsuyama T, Akashi M. Source: Biomacromolecules. 2000 Fall; 1(3): 306-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11710116&dopt=Abstract

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Anticoagulant activity of a sulfated chitosan. Author(s): Vongchan P, Sajomsang W, Subyen D, Kongtawelert P. Source: Carbohydrate Research. 2002 July 16; 337(13): 1239-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12110200&dopt=Abstract

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Anticoagulant activity of oxidized and N- and O-sulfated chitosan. Author(s): Whistler RL, Kosik M. Source: Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 1971 January; 142(1): 106-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5545471&dopt=Abstract

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Applications of chitin and chitosan for biomaterials. Author(s): Shigemasa Y, Minami S. Source: Biotechnol Genet Eng Rev. 1996; 13: 383-420. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8948118&dopt=Abstract

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Article: In the absence of dietary surveillance, chitosan does not reduce plasma lipids.(SC Ho, et al)(SMJ Vol 42 Issue 1 January 2001. Author(s): Peng LH. Source: Singapore Med J. 2001 May; 42(5): 230-1. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11513064&dopt=Abstract

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Attachment and growth of cultured fibroblast cells on PVA/chitosan-blended hydrogels. Author(s): Koyano T, Minoura N, Nagura M, Kobayashi K. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 1998 March 5; 39(3): 486-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9468060&dopt=Abstract

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Biochemistry, histology and clinical uses of chitins and chitosans in wound healing. Author(s): Muzzarelli RA, Mattioli-Belmonte M, Pugnaloni A, Biagini G. Source: Exs. 1999; 87: 251-64. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10906965&dopt=Abstract

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Biocompatibility of potential wound management products: fungal mycelia as a source of chitin/chitosan and their effect on the proliferation of human F1000 fibroblasts in culture. Author(s): Chung LY, Schmidt RJ, Hamlyn PF, Sagar BF, Andrews AM, Turner TD. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 1994 April; 28(4): 463-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8006051&dopt=Abstract

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Biodistribution and anti-tumor efficacy of doxorubicin loaded glycol-chitosan nanoaggregates by EPR effect. Author(s): Son YJ, Jang JS, Cho YW, Chung H, Park RW, Kwon IC, Kim IS, Park JY, Seo SB, Park CR, Jeong SY. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 2003 August 28; 91(1-2): 135-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12932645&dopt=Abstract

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Biomedical and pharmaceutical applications of alginate and chitosan. Author(s): Skaugrud O, Hagen A, Borgersen B, Dornish M. Source: Biotechnol Genet Eng Rev. 1999; 16: 23-40. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10819076&dopt=Abstract

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Blends of stearyl poly(ethylene oxide) coupling-polymer in chitosan as coating materials for polyurethane intravascular catheters. Author(s): Wang DA, Ji J, Sun YH, Yu GH, Feng LX. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2001; 58(4): 372-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11410895&dopt=Abstract

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Blood compatibility and biodegradability of partially N-acylated chitosan derivatives. Author(s): Lee KY, Ha WS, Park WH. Source: Biomaterials. 1995 November; 16(16): 1211-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8589189&dopt=Abstract

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Blood protein adsorption onto chitosan. Author(s): Benesch J, Tengvall P. Source: Biomaterials. 2002 June; 23(12): 2561-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12033604&dopt=Abstract

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Calcium phosphate-chitosan composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Author(s): Zhang Y, Ni M, Zhang M, Ratner B. Source: Tissue Engineering. 2003 April; 9(2): 337-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12740096&dopt=Abstract

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Characterization of binding and TNF-alpha-inducing ability of chitosans on monocytes: the involvement of CD14. Author(s): Otterlei M, Varum KM, Ryan L, Espevik T. Source: Vaccine. 1994 July; 12(9): 825-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7526573&dopt=Abstract

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Chemically modified chitosans as enzyme inhibitors. Author(s): Bernkop-Schnurch A, Kast CE. Source: Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2001 November 5; 52(2): 127-37. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11718936&dopt=Abstract

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Chitin and chitosan fibres. Author(s): Qin Y, Agboh OC. Source: Medical Device Technology. 1998 December; 9(10): 24-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10344876&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan accelerates the production of osteopontin from polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Author(s): Ueno H, Murakami M, Okumura M, Kadosawa T, Uede T, Fujinaga T. Source: Biomaterials. 2001 June; 22(12): 1667-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11374469&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan and chitosan sulfate have opposing effects on collagen-fibroblast interactions. Author(s): Mariappan MR, Alas EA, Williams JG, Prager MD. Source: Wound Repair and Regeneration : Official Publication of the Wound Healing Society [and] the European Tissue Repair Society. 1999 September-October; 7(5): 400-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10564569&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan and its derivatives as intestinal absorption enhancers. Author(s): Thanou M, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2001 October 1; 50 Suppl 1: S91-101. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11576697&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan and its derivatives: potential excipients for peroral peptide delivery systems. Author(s): Bernkop-Schnurch A. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2000 January 20; 194(1): 1-13. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10601680&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan and its derivatives--a promising non-viral vector for gene transfection. Author(s): Guang Liu W, De Yao K. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 2002 September 18; 83(1): 1-11. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12220833&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan and its use as a pharmaceutical excipient. Author(s): Illum L. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1998 September; 15(9): 1326-31. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9755881&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan and sodium alginate-based bioadhesive vaginal tablets. Author(s): El-Kamel A, Sokar M, Naggar V, Al Gamal S. Source: Aaps Pharmsci [electronic Resource]. 2002; 4(4): 44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12646014&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan as a nasal delivery system: the effect of chitosan solutions on in vitro and in vivo mucociliary transport rates in human turbinates and volunteers. Author(s): Aspden TJ, Mason JD, Jones NS, Lowe J, Skaugrud O, Illum L. Source: Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1997 April; 86(4): 509-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9109057&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan as a nonviral gene delivery system. Structure-property relationships and characteristics compared with polyethylenimine in vitro and after lung administration in vivo. Author(s): Koping-Hoggard M, Tubulekas I, Guan H, Edwards K, Nilsson M, Varum KM, Artursson P. Source: Gene Therapy. 2001 July; 8(14): 1108-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11526458&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan as a novel nasal delivery system for vaccines. Author(s): Illum L, Jabbal-Gill I, Hinchcliffe M, Fisher AN, Davis SS. Source: Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2001 September 23; 51(1-3): 81-96. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11516781&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan decreases total cholesterol in women: a randomized, double-blind, placebocontrolled trial. Author(s): Bokura H, Kobayashi S. Source: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2003 May; 57(5): 721-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12771974&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan for enhanced intestinal permeability: prospects for derivatives soluble in neutral and basic environments. Author(s): Kotze AF, Luessen HL, de Boer AG, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences : Official Journal of the European Federation for Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1999 January; 7(2): 145-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9845799&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan for mucosal vaccination. Author(s): van der Lubben IM, Verhoef JC, Borchard G, Junginger HE. Source: Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2001 November 5; 52(2): 139-44. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11718937&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan for weight loss and cholesterol management. Author(s): Shields KM, Smock N, McQueen CE, Bryant PJ. Source: American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy : Ajhp : Official Journal of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 2003 July 1; 60(13): 1310-2, 1315-6. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12901030&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan induces apoptosis via caspase-3 activation in bladder tumor cells. Author(s): Hasegawa M, Yagi K, Iwakawa S, Hirai M. Source: Japanese Journal of Cancer Research : Gann. 2001 April; 92(4): 459-66. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11346469&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan microcapsules as controlled release systems for insulin. Author(s): Aiedeh K, Gianasi E, Orienti I, Zecchi V. Source: Journal of Microencapsulation. 1997 September-October; 14(5): 567-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9292433&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan nanoparticles as delivery systems for doxorubicin. Author(s): Janes KA, Fresneau MP, Marazuela A, Fabra A, Alonso MJ. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 2001 June 15; 73(2-3): 255-67. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11516503&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan supplementation does not affect fat absorption in healthy males fed a highfat diet, a pilot study. Author(s): Gades MD, Stern JS. Source: International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders : Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. 2002 January; 26(1): 119-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11791156&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan supports the expression of extracellular matrix proteins in human osteoblasts and chondrocytes. Author(s): Lahiji A, Sohrabi A, Hungerford DS, Frondoza CG. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2000 September 15; 51(4): 586-95. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10880106&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan: a unique polysaccharide for drug delivery. Author(s): Felt O, Buri P, Gurny R. Source: Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 1998 November; 24(11): 979-93. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9876553&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan: potential use as a bioactive coating for orthopaedic and craniofacial/dental implants. Author(s): Bumgardner JD, Wiser R, Gerard PD, Bergin P, Chestnutt B, Marin M, Ramsey V, Elder SH, Gilbert JA. Source: Journal of Biomaterials Science. Polymer Edition. 2003; 14(5): 423-38. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12807145&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan: properties, preparations and application to microparticulate systems. Author(s): Kas HS. Source: Journal of Microencapsulation. 1997 November-December; 14(6): 689-711. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9394251&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan: some pharmaceutical and biological aspects--an update. Author(s): Singla AK, Chawla M. Source: The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2001 August; 53(8): 1047-67. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11518015&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-alginate films prepared with chitosans of different molecular weights. Author(s): Yan XL, Khor E, Lim LY. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2001; 58(4): 358-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11410893&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-alginate PEC membrane as a wound dressing: Assessment of incisional wound healing. Author(s): Wang L, Khor E, Wee A, Lim LY. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2002; 63(5): 610-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12209908&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan--as a biomaterial. Author(s): Chandy T, Sharma CP. Source: Biomater Artif Cells Artif Organs. 1990; 18(1): 1-24. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2185854&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-based vector/DNA complexes for gene delivery: biophysical characteristics and transfection ability. Author(s): Erbacher P, Zou S, Bettinger T, Steffan AM, Remy JS. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1998 September; 15(9): 1332-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9755882&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-chondroitin sulfate and chitosan-hyaluronate polyelectrolyte complexes: biological properties. Author(s): Denuziere A, Ferrier D, Damour O, Domard A. Source: Biomaterials. 1998 July; 19(14): 1275-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9720891&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-colloidal gold complexes as polycationic probes for the detection of anionic sites by transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Author(s): Horisberger M, Clerc MF. Source: Histochemistry. 1988; 90(3): 165-75. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3063695&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-DNA nanoparticles as gene carriers: synthesis, characterization and transfection efficiency. Author(s): Mao HQ, Roy K, Troung-Le VL, Janes KA, Lin KY, Wang Y, August JT, Leong KW. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 2001 February 23; 70(3): 399-421. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11182210&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-mediated transfection of HeLa cells. Author(s): Venkatesh S, Smith TJ. Source: Pharmaceutical Development and Technology. 1997 November; 2(4): 417-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9552472&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-membrane interactions and their probable role in chitosan-mediated transfection. Author(s): Venkatesh S, Smith TJ. Source: Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry. 1998 June; 27 ( Pt 3): 265-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9664682&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-polyvinyl pyrrolidone hydrogels as candidate for islet immunoisolation: in vitro biocompatibility evaluation. Author(s): Risbud M, Hardikar A, Bhonde R. Source: Cell Transplantation. 2000 January-February; 9(1): 25-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10784063&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosans as absorption enhancers for poorly absorbable drugs. 1: Influence of molecular weight and degree of acetylation on drug transport across human intestinal epithelial (Caco-2) cells. Author(s): Schipper NG, Varum KM, Artursson P. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1996 November; 13(11): 1686-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8956335&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosans as absorption enhancers of poorly absorbable drugs. 3: Influence of mucus on absorption enhancement. Author(s): Schipper NG, Varum KM, Stenberg P, Ocklind G, Lennernas H, Artursson P. Source: European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences : Official Journal of the European Federation for Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1999 August; 8(4): 335-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10425384&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosans for gene delivery. Author(s): Borchard G. Source: Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2001 November 5; 52(2): 145-50. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11718938&dopt=Abstract

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Cholesterol-lowering properties and safety of chitosan. Author(s): Ylitalo R, Lehtinen S, Wuolijoki E, Ylitalo P, Lehtimaki T. Source: Arzneimittel-Forschung. 2002; 52(1): 1-7. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11838268&dopt=Abstract

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Clinical and biochemical evaluation of chitosan for hypercholesterolemia and overweight control. Author(s): Muzzarelli RA. Source: Exs. 1999; 87: 293-304. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10906968&dopt=Abstract

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Collagen-chitosan polymeric scaffolds for the in vitro culture of human epidermoid carcinoma cells. Author(s): Shanmugasundaram N, Ravichandran P, Reddy PN, Ramamurty N, Pal S, Rao KP. Source: Biomaterials. 2001 July; 22(14): 1943-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11426872&dopt=Abstract

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Comparative evaluation of fecal fat excretion induced by orlistat and chitosan. Author(s): Guerciolini R, Radu-Radulescu L, Boldrin M, Dallas J, Moore R. Source: Obesity Research. 2001 June; 9(6): 364-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11399783&dopt=Abstract

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Comparison of the activity of four chitosan derivatives in reducing initial adherence of oral bacteria onto tooth surfaces. Author(s): Sano H, Shibasaki K, Matsukubo T, Takaesu Y. Source: Bull Tokyo Dent Coll. 2001 November; 42(4): 243-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11915301&dopt=Abstract

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Comparison of the effect of different chitosan salts and N-trimethyl chitosan chloride on the permeability of intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2). Author(s): Kotze AF, Luessen HL, de Leeuw BJ, de Boer AG, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 1998 January 23; 51(1): 35-46. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9685902&dopt=Abstract

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Comparison of the hematological effects of a sustained release chitosan formulation of pentoxifylline with a commercial formulation. Author(s): Yamac K, Kaptan KM, Beyan C, Teksin ZS, Agabeyoglu IT, Gokgoz L. Source: Arzneimittel-Forschung. 2000 September; 50(9): 827-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11050700&dopt=Abstract

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Controlled release of interleukin-2 from chitosan microspheres. Author(s): Ozbas-Turan S, Akbuga J, Aral C. Source: Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2002 May; 91(5): 1245-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11977100&dopt=Abstract

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Cytotoxic activity of aminoderivatized cationic chitosan derivatives. Author(s): Lee JK, Lim HS, Kim JH. Source: Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 2002 October 21; 12(20): 2949-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12270181&dopt=Abstract

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Decrease in serum LDL cholesterol with microcrystalline chitosan. Author(s): Wuolijoki E, Hirvela T, Ylitalo P. Source: Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 1999 June; 21(5): 357-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10420392&dopt=Abstract

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Delivery of LMW heparin via surface coated chitosan/peg-alginate microspheres prevents thrombosis. Author(s): Chandy T, Rao GH, Wilson RF, Das GS. Source: Drug Delivery. 2002 April-June; 9(2): 87-96. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12055036&dopt=Abstract

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Development of new hydroactive dressings based on chitosan membranes: characterization and in vivo behavior. Author(s): de Queiroz AA, Ferraz HG, Abraham GA, del Mar Fernandez M, Bravo AL, Roman JS. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2003 January 1; 64A(1): 147-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12483707&dopt=Abstract

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Development of urease-chitosan membrane. Author(s): Krajewska B, Leszko M, Zaborska W. Source: Polim Med. 1990; 20(1-4): 31-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2129516&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of chitosan film containing basic fibroblast growth factor on wound healing in genetically diabetic mice. Author(s): Mizuno K, Yamamura K, Yano K, Osada T, Saeki S, Takimoto N, Sakurai T, Nimura Y. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2003 January 1; 64A(1): 177-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12483711&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of chitosan on a periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis. Author(s): Ikinci G, Senel S, Akincibay H, Kas S, Ercis S, Wilson CG, Hincal AA. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2002 March 20; 235(1-2): 121-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11879747&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of chitosan on epithelial permeability and structure. Author(s): Dodane V, Amin Khan M, Merwin JR. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 1999 May 10; 182(1): 21-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10332071&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of chitosan on plasma lipoprotein concentrations in type 2 diabetic subjects with hypercholesterolemia. Author(s): Tai TS, Sheu WH, Lee WJ, Yao HT, Chiang MT. Source: Diabetes Care. 2000 November; 23(11): 1703-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11092297&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of chitosan on renal function in patients with chronic renal failure. Author(s): Jing SB, Li L, Ji D, Takiguchi Y, Yamaguchi T. Source: The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 1997 July; 49(7): 721-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9255718&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of chitosan on the permeability of monolayers of intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2). Author(s): Artursson P, Lindmark T, Davis SS, Illum L. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1994 September; 11(9): 1358-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7816770&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of chitosan-polyvinyl pyrrolidone hydrogel on proliferation and cytokine expression of endothelial cells: implications in islet immunoisolation. Author(s): Risbud MV, Bhonde MR, Bhonde RR. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2001 November; 57(2): 300-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11484194&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of degree of quaternization of N-trimethyl chitosan chloride for enhanced transport of hydrophilic compounds across intestinal caco-2 cell monolayers. Author(s): Thanou MM, Kotze AF, Scharringhausen T, Luessen HL, de Boer AG, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 2000 February 14; 64(1-3): 15-25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10640642&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of low-molecular-weight chitosans on the adhesive properties of oral streptococci. Author(s): Tarsi R, Corbin B, Pruzzo C, Muzzarelli RA. Source: Oral Microbiology and Immunology. 1998 August; 13(4): 217-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10093536&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of magnesium stearate on chitosan microspheres prepared by an emulsification-coacervation technique. Author(s): Lim LY, Wan LS. Source: Journal of Microencapsulation. 1998 May-June; 15(3): 319-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9608395&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of molecular mass and degree of deacetylation of chitosan on adsorption of Streptococcus sobrinus 6715 to saliva treated hydroxyapatite. Author(s): Sano H, Shibasaki K, Matsukubo T, Takaesu Y. Source: Bull Tokyo Dent Coll. 2002 May; 43(2): 75-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12174667&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of rinsing with phosphorylated chitosan on four-day plaque regrowth. Author(s): Sano H, Shibasaki K, Matsukubo T, Takaesu Y. Source: Bull Tokyo Dent Coll. 2001 November; 42(4): 251-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11915302&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of sulfated derivatives of chitosan on some blood coagulant factors. Author(s): Hirano S, Tanaka Y, Hasegawa M, Tobetto K, Nishioka A. Source: Carbohydrate Research. 1985 March 29; 137: 205-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3986847&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of the degree of quaternization of N-trimethyl chitosan chloride on the permeability of intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2). Author(s): Kotze AF, Thanou MM, Luessen HL, de Boer BG, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics : Official Journal of Arbeitsgemeinschaft Fur Pharmazeutische Verfahrenstechnik E.V. 1999 May; 47(3): 26974. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10382111&dopt=Abstract

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Effects of chitin/chitosan and their oligomers/monomers on migrations of fibroblasts and vascular endothelium. Author(s): Okamoto Y, Watanabe M, Miyatake K, Morimoto M, Shigemasa Y, Minami S. Source: Biomaterials. 2002 May; 23(9): 1975-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11996038&dopt=Abstract

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Effects of low molecular chitosan on pH changes in human dental plaque. Author(s): Shibasaki K, Sano H, Matsukubo T, Takaesu Y. Source: Bull Tokyo Dent Coll. 1994 February; 35(1): 33-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7923509&dopt=Abstract

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Effects of N-trimethyl chitosan chloride, a novel absorption enhancer, on caco-2 intestinal epithelia and the ciliary beat frequency of chicken embryo trachea. Author(s): Thanou MM, Verhoef JC, Romeijn SG, Nagelkerke JF, Merkus FW, Junginger HE. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 1999 August 5; 185(1): 73-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10425367&dopt=Abstract

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Efficacy of lactosaminated and intact N-succinylchitosan-mitomycin C conjugates against M5076 liver metastatic cancer. Author(s): Kato Y, Onishi H, Machida Y. Source: The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2002 April; 54(4): 529-37. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11999131&dopt=Abstract

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Electrochemistry and electrocatalysis with heme proteins in chitosan biopolymer films. Author(s): Huang H, Hu N, Zeng Y, Zhou G. Source: Analytical Biochemistry. 2002 September 1; 308(1): 141-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12234475&dopt=Abstract

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Encapsulation of insulin in chitosan-coated alginate beads: oral therapeutic peptide delivery. Author(s): Onal S, Zihnioglu F. Source: Artificial Cells, Blood Substitutes, and Immobilization Biotechnology. 2002 May; 30(3): 229-37. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12066877&dopt=Abstract

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Enhancement of paracellular drug transport with highly quaternized N-trimethyl chitosan chloride in neutral environments: in vitro evaluation in intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2). Author(s): Kotze AF, Thanou MM, Luebetaen HL, de Boer AG, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1999 February; 88(2): 253-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9950647&dopt=Abstract

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Evaluation of heparin immobilized chitosan-PEG microbeads for charcoal encapsulation and endotoxin removal. Author(s): Chandy T, Rao GH. Source: Artificial Cells, Blood Substitutes, and Immobilization Biotechnology. 2000 January; 28(1): 65-77. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10676578&dopt=Abstract

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Evaluation of modified alginate-chitosan-polyethylene glycol microcapsules for cell encapsulation. Author(s): Chandy T, Mooradian DL, Rao GH. Source: Artificial Organs. 1999 October; 23(10): 894-903. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10564287&dopt=Abstract

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Experimental development of a chitosan-bonded beta-tricalcium phosphate bone filling paste. Author(s): Ito M, Miyazaki A, Yamagishi T, Yagasaki H, Hashem A, Oshida Y. Source: Bio-Medical Materials and Engineering. 1994; 4(6): 439-49. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7833787&dopt=Abstract

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Formulation and in vivo evaluation of chlorhexidine buccal tablets prepared using drug-loaded chitosan microspheres. Author(s): Giunchedi P, Juliano C, Gavini E, Cossu M, Sorrenti M. Source: European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics : Official Journal of Arbeitsgemeinschaft Fur Pharmazeutische Verfahrenstechnik E.V. 2002 March; 53(2): 233-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11880008&dopt=Abstract

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Galactosylated chitosan-graft-dextran as hepatocyte-targeting DNA carrier. Author(s): Park IK, Park YH, Shin BA, Choi ES, Kim YR, Akaike T, Cho CS, Park YK, Park YR. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 2000 October 3; 69(1): 97-108. Erratum In: J Control Release 2001 August 10; 75(3): 433. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11018549&dopt=Abstract

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Galactosylated chitosan-graft-poly(ethylene glycol) as hepatocyte-targeting DNA carrier. Author(s): Park IK, Kim TH, Park YH, Shin BA, Choi ES, Chowdhury EH, Akaike T, Cho CS. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 2001 October 19; 76(3): 349-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11578748&dopt=Abstract

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Galactosylated low molecular weight chitosan as DNA carrier for hepatocytetargeting. Author(s): Gao S, Chen J, Xu X, Ding Z, Yang YH, Hua Z, Zhang J. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2003 April 14; 255(1-2): 57-68. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12672602&dopt=Abstract

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Growth factor releasing porous poly (epsilon-caprolactone)-chitosan matrices for enhanced bone regenerative therapy. Author(s): Im SY, Cho SH, Hwang JH, Lee SJ. Source: Arch Pharm Res. 2003 January; 26(1): 76-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12568363&dopt=Abstract

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Growth of human endothelial cells on different concentrations of Gly-Arg-Gly-Asp grafted chitosan surface. Author(s): Chung TW, Lu YF, Wang HY, Chen WP, Wang SS, Lin YS, Chu SH. Source: Artificial Organs. 2003 February; 27(2): 155-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12580772&dopt=Abstract

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Growth of human endothelial cells on photochemically grafted Gly-Arg-Gly-Asp (GRGD) chitosans. Author(s): Chung TW, Lu YF, Wang SS, Lin YS, Chu SH. Source: Biomaterials. 2002 December; 23(24): 4803-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12361619&dopt=Abstract

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Healing at skin graft donor sites dressed with chitosan. Author(s): Stone CA, Wright H, Clarke T, Powell R, Devaraj VS. Source: British Journal of Plastic Surgery. 2000 October; 53(7): 601-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11000077&dopt=Abstract

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Heparin-chitosan complexes stimulate wound healing in human skin. Author(s): Kratz G, Arnander C, Swedenborg J, Back M, Falk C, Gouda I, Larm O. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery and Hand Surgery / Nordisk Plastikkirurgisk Forening [and] Nordisk Klubb for Handkirurgi. 1997 June; 31(2): 119-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9232696&dopt=Abstract

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In the absence of dietary surveillance, chitosan does not reduce plasma lipids or obesity in hypercholesterolaemic obese Asian subjects. Author(s): Ho SC, Tai ES, Eng PH, Tan CE, Fok AC. Source: Singapore Med J. 2001 January; 42(1): 006-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11361230&dopt=Abstract

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In vitro and in vivo biocompatibility of chitosan-xanthan polyionic complex. Author(s): Chellat F, Tabrizian M, Dumitriu S, Chornet E, Magny P, Rivard CH, Yahia L. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2000 July; 51(1): 107-16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10813751&dopt=Abstract

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In vitro degradation rates of partially N-acetylated chitosans in human serum. Author(s): Varum KM, Myhr MM, Hjerde RJ, Smidsrod O. Source: Carbohydrate Research. 1997 March 26; 299(1-2): 99-101. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9129298&dopt=Abstract

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In vitro evaluation of a chitosan membrane cross-linked with genipin. Author(s): Mi FL, Tan YC, Liang HC, Huang RN, Sung HW. Source: Journal of Biomaterials Science. Polymer Edition. 2001; 12(8): 835-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11718480&dopt=Abstract

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In vitro gene delivery mediated by chitosan. effect of pH, serum, and molecular mass of chitosan on the transfection efficiency. Author(s): Sato T, Ishii T, Okahata Y. Source: Biomaterials. 2001 August; 22(15): 2075-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11432586&dopt=Abstract

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In vitro properties of a chitosan-bonded self-hardening paste with hydroxyapatite granules. Author(s): Maruyama M, Ito M. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 1996 December; 32(4): 527-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8953142&dopt=Abstract

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In vivo evaluation of matrix granules containing microcrystalline chitosan as a gelforming excipient. Author(s): Sakkinen M, Linna A, Ojala S, Jurjenson H, Veski P, Marvola M. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2003 January 2; 250(1): 227-37. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12480288&dopt=Abstract

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Induction of granulocytic differentiation in acute promyelocytic leukemia cells (HL60) by water-soluble chitosan oligomer. Author(s): Pae HO, Seo WG, Kim NY, Oh GS, Kim GE, Kim YH, Kwak HJ, Yun YG, Jun CD, Chung HT. Source: Leukemia Research. 2001 April; 25(4): 339-46. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11248331&dopt=Abstract

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Influence of chitosan microspheres on the transport of prednisolone sodium phosphate across HT-29 cell monolayers. Author(s): Mooren FC, Berthold A, Domschke W, Kreuter J. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1998 January; 15(1): 58-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9487547&dopt=Abstract

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Influence of the degree of acetylation on some biological properties of chitosan films. Author(s): Chatelet C, Damour O, Domard A. Source: Biomaterials. 2001 February; 22(3): 261-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11197501&dopt=Abstract

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Inhibition of Streptococcus mutans adsorption to hydroxyapatite by low-molecularweight chitosans. Author(s): Tarsi R, Muzzarelli RA, Guzman CA, Pruzzo C. Source: Journal of Dental Research. 1997 February; 76(2): 665-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9062560&dopt=Abstract

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Interactions between chitosan and glycosaminoglycans (chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid): physicochemical and biological studies. Author(s): Denuziere A, Ferrier D, Domard A. Source: Annales Pharmaceutiques Francaises. 2000 January; 58(1): 47-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10669813&dopt=Abstract

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Interpolymer complexes of poly(acrylic acid) and chitosan: influence of the ionic hydrogel-forming medium. Author(s): de la Torre PM, Torrado S, Torrado S. Source: Biomaterials. 2003 April; 24(8): 1459-68. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12527287&dopt=Abstract

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Intestinal absorption of octreotide: N-trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC) ameliorates the permeability and absorption properties of the somatostatin analogue in vitro and in vivo. Author(s): Thanou M, Verhoef JC, Marbach P, Junginger HE. Source: Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2000 July; 89(7): 951-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10861597&dopt=Abstract

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Measurement of x-ray attenuation coefficients of aqueous solutions of indocyanine green and glycated chitosan. Author(s): Xu F, Liu H, Wu X, Jiang H, Nordquist RE, Chen WR. Source: Medical Physics. 1999 July; 26(7): 1371-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10435540&dopt=Abstract

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Mesenchymal stem cells, MG63 and HEK293 transfection using chitosan-DNA nanoparticles. Author(s): Corsi K, Chellat F, Yahia L, Fernandes JC. Source: Biomaterials. 2003 March; 24(7): 1255-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12527266&dopt=Abstract

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Mono-N-carboxymethyl chitosan (MCC), a polyampholytic chitosan derivative, enhances the intestinal absorption of low molecular weight heparin across intestinal epithelia in vitro and in vivo. Author(s): Thanou M, Nihot MT, Jansen M, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2001 January; 90(1): 38-46. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11064377&dopt=Abstract

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Nasal delivery of insulin using novel chitosan based formulations: a comparative study in two animal models between simple chitosan formulations and chitosan nanoparticles. Author(s): Dyer AM, Hinchcliffe M, Watts P, Castile J, Jabbal-Gill I, Nankervis R, Smith A, Illum L. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 2002 July; 19(7): 998-1008. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12180553&dopt=Abstract

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Nerve regeneration in a collagen-chitosan tissue-engineered skin transplanted on nude mice. Author(s): Gingras M, Paradis I, Berthod F. Source: Biomaterials. 2003 April; 24(9): 1653-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12559825&dopt=Abstract

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Niosomes and polymeric chitosan based vesicles bearing transferrin and glucose ligands for drug targeting. Author(s): Dufes C, Schatzlein AG, Tetley L, Gray AI, Watson DG, Olivier JC, Couet W, Uchegbu IF. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 2000 October; 17(10): 1250-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11145231&dopt=Abstract

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Novel injectable neutral solutions of chitosan form biodegradable gels in situ. Author(s): Chenite A, Chaput C, Wang D, Combes C, Buschmann MD, Hoemann CD, Leroux JC, Atkinson BL, Binette F, Selmani A. Source: Biomaterials. 2000 November; 21(21): 2155-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10985488&dopt=Abstract

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N-trimethyl chitosan chloride as a potential absorption enhancer across mucosal surfaces: in vitro evaluation in intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2). Author(s): Kotze AF, Luessen HL, de Leeuw BJ, de Boer BG, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1997 September; 14(9): 1197-202. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9327448&dopt=Abstract

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N-trimethyl chitosan chloride: optimum degree of quaternization for drug absorption enhancement across epithelial cells. Author(s): Hamman JH, Schultz CM, Kotze AF. Source: Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 2003 February; 29(2): 161-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12648013&dopt=Abstract

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N-trimethylated chitosan chloride (TMC) improves the intestinal permeation of the peptide drug buserelin in vitro (Caco-2 cells) and in vivo (rats). Author(s): Thanou M, Florea BI, Langemeyer MW, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 2000 January; 17(1): 27-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10714604&dopt=Abstract

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Oral drug absorption enhancement by chitosan and its derivatives. Author(s): Thanou M, Verhoef JC, Junginger HE. Source: Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2001 November 5; 52(2): 117-26. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11718935&dopt=Abstract

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Osteoconduction exerted by methylpyrrolidinone chitosan used in dental surgery. Author(s): Muzzarelli RA, Biagini G, Bellardini M, Simonelli L, Castaldini C, Fratto G. Source: Biomaterials. 1993; 14(1): 39-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8425023&dopt=Abstract

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Permeability and blood compatibility properties of chitosan-poly(ethylene oxide) blend membranes for haemodialysis. Author(s): Amiji MM. Source: Biomaterials. 1995 May; 16(8): 593-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7548609&dopt=Abstract

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pH response of human dental plaque to chewing gum supplemented with low molecular chitosan. Author(s): Shibasaki K, Sano H, Matsukubo T, Takaesu Y. Source: Bull Tokyo Dent Coll. 1994 May; 35(2): 61-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7987965&dopt=Abstract

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Photocrosslinkable chitosan as a biological adhesive. Author(s): Ono K, Saito Y, Yura H, Ishikawa K, Kurita A, Akaike T, Ishihara M. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2000 February; 49(2): 289-95. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10571917&dopt=Abstract

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Pilot study of nasal morphine-chitosan for the relief of breakthrough pain in patients with cancer. Author(s): Pavis H, Wilcock A, Edgecombe J, Carr D, Manderson C, Church A, Fisher A. Source: Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 2002 December; 24(6): 598-602. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12551810&dopt=Abstract

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Polyacrylamide-chitosan hydrogels: in vitro biocompatibility and sustained antibiotic release studies. Author(s): Risbud MV, Bhonde RR. Source: Drug Delivery. 2000 April-June; 7(2): 69-75. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10892406&dopt=Abstract

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Polylysine-immobilized chitosan beads as adsorbents for bilirubin. Author(s): Chandy T, Sharma CP. Source: Artificial Organs. 1992 December; 16(6): 568-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1482326&dopt=Abstract

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Preparation and characterization of freeze-dried chitosan-poly(ethylene oxide) hydrogels for site-specific antibiotic delivery in the stomach. Author(s): Patel VR, Amiji MM. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1996 April; 13(4): 588-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8710751&dopt=Abstract

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Preparation and evaluation of sustained release cross-linked chitosan microspheres containing phenobarbitone. Author(s): al-Helw AA, Al-Angary AA, Mahrous GM, al-Dardari MM. Source: Journal of Microencapsulation. 1998 May-June; 15(3): 373-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9608399&dopt=Abstract

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Preparation and histological evaluation of biomimetic three-dimensional hydroxyapatite/chitosan-gelatin network composite scaffolds. Author(s): Zhao F, Yin Y, Lu WW, Leong JC, Zhang W, Zhang J, Zhang M, Yao K. Source: Biomaterials. 2002 August; 23(15): 3227-34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12102194&dopt=Abstract

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Preparation and performance of chitosan encapsulated activated charcoal (ACCB) adsorbents for small molecules. Author(s): Chandy T, Sharma CP. Source: Journal of Microencapsulation. 1993 October-December; 10(4): 475-86. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8263676&dopt=Abstract

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Preparation of water-soluble chitosan/heparin complex and its application as wound healing accelerator. Author(s): Kweon DK, Song SB, Park YY. Source: Biomaterials. 2003 April; 24(9): 1595-601. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12559819&dopt=Abstract

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Properties of the poly(vinyl alcohol)/chitosan blend and its effect on the culture of fibroblast in vitro. Author(s): Chuang WY, Young TH, Yao CH, Chiu WY. Source: Biomaterials. 1999 August; 20(16): 1479-87. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10458561&dopt=Abstract

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Quaternized chitosan oligomers as novel gene delivery vectors in epithelial cell lines. Author(s): Thanou M, Florea BI, Geldof M, Junginger HE, Borchard G. Source: Biomaterials. 2002 January; 23(1): 153-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11762833&dopt=Abstract

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Randomized, double-blind trial of chitosan for body weight reduction. Author(s): Pittler MH, Abbot NC, Harkness EF, Ernst E. Source: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1999 May; 53(5): 379-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10369493&dopt=Abstract

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Reconstruction of epidermis on a chitosan cross-linked collagen-GAG lattice: effect of fibroblasts. Author(s): Saintigny G, Bonnard M, Damour O, Collombel C. Source: Acta Dermato-Venereologica. 1993 June; 73(3): 175-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8105612&dopt=Abstract

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Reconstruction of parodontal tissue with chitosan. Author(s): Muzzarelli R, Biagini G, Pugnaloni A, Filippini O, Baldassarre V, Castaldini C, Rizzoli C. Source: Biomaterials. 1989 November; 10(9): 598-603. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2611308&dopt=Abstract

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Release behaviour of 5-fluorouracil from chitosan-gel microspheres immobilizing 5fluorouracil derivative coated with polysaccharides and their cell specific recognition. Author(s): Ohya Y, Takei T, Kobayashi H, Ouchi T. Source: Journal of Microencapsulation. 1993 January-March; 10(1): 1-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8383199&dopt=Abstract

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Release of amoxicillin from polyionic complexes of chitosan and poly(acrylic acid). Study of polymer/polymer and polymer/drug interactions within the network structure. Author(s): de la Torre PM, Enobakhare Y, Torrado G, Torrado S. Source: Biomaterials. 2003 April; 24(8): 1499-506. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12527291&dopt=Abstract

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Selective drug delivery to the colon using pectin:chitosan:hydroxypropyl methylcellulose film coated tablets. Author(s): Macleod GS, Fell JT, Collett JH, Sharma HL, Smith AM. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 1999 October 5; 187(2): 251-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10502631&dopt=Abstract

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Small particles of a heparin/chitosan complex prepared from a pharmaceutically acceptable microemulsion. Author(s): Andersson M, Lofroth JE. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2003 May 12; 257(1-2): 305-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12711186&dopt=Abstract

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Stimulation of IgM production in human-human hybridoma HB4C5 cells by chitosan. Author(s): Maeda M, Murakami H, Ohta H, Tajima M. Source: Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 1992 March; 56(3): 427-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1368325&dopt=Abstract

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Studies on alginate-chitosan microcapsules and renal arterial embolization in rabbits. Author(s): Li S, Wang XT, Zhang XB, Yang RJ, Zhang HZ, Zhu LZ, Hou XP. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 2002 December 5; 84(3): 87-98. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12468213&dopt=Abstract

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Study of novel chitosan-gelatin artificial skin in vitro. Author(s): Mao J, Zhao L, De Yao K, Shang Q, Yang G, Cao Y. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2003 February 1; 64A(2): 301-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12522817&dopt=Abstract

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Sulfated N-(carboxymethyl)chitosans: novel blood anticoagulants. Author(s): Muzzarelli RA, Tanfani F, Emanuelli M, Pace DP, Chiurazzi E, Piani M. Source: Carbohydrate Research. 1984 March 15; 126(2): 225-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6713433&dopt=Abstract

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Surface characterization and platelet compatibility evaluation of surface-sulfonated chitosan membrane. Author(s): Lin CW, Lin JC. Source: Journal of Biomaterials Science. Polymer Edition. 2001; 12(5): 543-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11469784&dopt=Abstract

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Surface modification of chitosan membranes by complexation-interpenetration of anionic polysaccharides for improved blood compatibility in hemodialysis. Author(s): Amiji MM. Source: Journal of Biomaterials Science. Polymer Edition. 1996; 8(4): 281-98. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9041042&dopt=Abstract

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Synthesis and characterization of cross-linked chitosan microspheres for drug delivery applications. Author(s): Dini E, Alexandridou S, Kiparissides C. Source: Journal of Microencapsulation. 2003 May-June; 20(3): 375-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12881117&dopt=Abstract

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The effect of carboxymethyl-chitosan on proliferation and collagen secretion of normal and keloid skin fibroblasts. Author(s): Chen XG, Wang Z, Liu WS, Park HJ. Source: Biomaterials. 2002 December; 23(23): 4609-14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12322982&dopt=Abstract

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The effect of chitin and chitosan on fibroblast-populated collagen lattice contraction. Author(s): Howling GI, Dettmar PW, Goddard PA, Hampson FC, Dornish M, Wood EJ. Source: Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry. 2002 December; 36(Pt 3): 247-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12452810&dopt=Abstract

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The effect of chitin and chitosan on the proliferation of human skin fibroblasts and keratinocytes in vitro. Author(s): Howling GI, Dettmar PW, Goddard PA, Hampson FC, Dornish M, Wood EJ. Source: Biomaterials. 2001 November; 22(22): 2959-66. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11575470&dopt=Abstract

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The effect of chitosan on stiffness and glycolytic activity of human bladder cells. Author(s): Lekka M, Laidler P, Ignacak J, Labedz M, Lekki J, Struszczyk H, Stachura Z, Hrynkiewicz AZ. Source: Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. 2001 August 22; 1540(2): 127-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11513974&dopt=Abstract

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The encapsulation of bleomycin within chitosan based polymeric vesicles does not alter its biodistribution. Author(s): Sludden J, Uchegbu IF, Schatzlein AG. Source: The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2000 April; 52(4): 377-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10813546&dopt=Abstract

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The potential of chitosan in enhancing peptide and protein absorption across the TR146 cell culture model-an in vitro model of the buccal epithelium. Author(s): Portero A, Remunan-Lopez C, Nielsen HM. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 2002 February; 19(2): 169-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11883644&dopt=Abstract

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The properties of chitosan-gelatin membranes and scaffolds modified with hyaluronic acid by different methods. Author(s): Mao JS, Liu HF, Yin YJ, Yao KD. Source: Biomaterials. 2003 April; 24(9): 1621-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12559822&dopt=Abstract

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Three-dimensional macroporous calcium phosphate bioceramics with nested chitosan sponges for load-bearing bone implants. Author(s): Zhang Y, Zhang M. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2002 July; 61(1): 1-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12001239&dopt=Abstract

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Topical formulations and wound healing applications of chitosan. Author(s): Ueno H, Mori T, Fujinaga T. Source: Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2001 November 5; 52(2): 105-15. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11718934&dopt=Abstract

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Transport of chitosan microparticles for mucosal vaccine delivery in a human intestinal M-cell model. Author(s): van der Lubben IM, van Opdorp FA, Hengeveld MR, Onderwater JJ, Koerten HK, Verhoef JC, Borchard G, Junginger HE. Source: Journal of Drug Targeting. 2002 September; 10(6): 449-56. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12575734&dopt=Abstract

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Uptake of FITC-chitosan nanoparticles by A549 cells. Author(s): Huang M, Ma Z, Khor E, Lim LY. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 2002 October; 19(10): 1488-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12425466&dopt=Abstract

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Use of chitosan as a biomaterial: studies on its safety and hemostatic potential. Author(s): Rao SB, Sharma CP. Source: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 1997 January; 34(1): 21-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8978649&dopt=Abstract

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Visualization of transfection of hepatocytes by galactosylated chitosan-graftpoly(ethylene glycol)/DNA complexes by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Author(s): Park IK, Kim TH, Kim SI, Park YH, Kim WJ, Akaike T, Cho CS. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2003 May 12; 257(1-2): 103-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12711166&dopt=Abstract

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Water-soluble and low molecular weight chitosan-based plasmid DNA delivery. Author(s): Lee M, Nah JW, Kwon Y, Koh JJ, Ko KS, Kim SW. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 2001 April; 18(4): 427-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11451027&dopt=Abstract

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Water-soluble chitosan inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine in human astrocytoma cells activated by amyloid beta peptide and interleukin-1beta. Author(s): Kim MS, Sung MJ, Seo SB, Yoo SJ, Lim WK, Kim HM. Source: Neuroscience Letters. 2002 March 15; 321(1-2): 105-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11872267&dopt=Abstract

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Wound management with N-carboxybutyl chitosan. Author(s): Biagini G, Bertani A, Muzzarelli R, Damadei A, DiBenedetto G, Belligolli A, Riccotti G, Zucchini C, Rizzoli C. Source: Biomaterials. 1991 April; 12(3): 281-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1854896&dopt=Abstract

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CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND CHITOSAN Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to find studies dedicated specifically to nutrition and chitosan.

Finding Nutrition Studies on Chitosan The National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) offers a searchable bibliographic database called the IBIDS (International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements; National Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 1B29, 31 Center Drive, MSC 2086, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2086, Tel: 301-435-2920, Fax: 301-480-1845, E-mail: [email protected]). The IBIDS contains over 460,000 scientific citations and summaries about dietary supplements and nutrition as well as references to published international, scientific literature on dietary supplements such as vitamins, minerals, and botanicals.7 The IBIDS includes references and citations to both human and animal research studies. As a service of the ODS, access to the IBIDS database is available free of charge at the following Web address: http://ods.od.nih.gov/databases/ibids.html. After entering the search area, you have three choices: (1) IBIDS Consumer Database, (2) Full IBIDS Database, or (3) Peer Reviewed Citations Only. Now that you have selected a database, click on the “Advanced” tab. An advanced search allows you to retrieve up to 100 fully explained references in a comprehensive format. Type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” To narrow the search, you can also select the “Title” field.

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Adapted from http://ods.od.nih.gov. IBIDS is produced by the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the National Institutes of Health to assist the public, healthcare providers, educators, and researchers in locating credible, scientific information on dietary supplements. IBIDS was developed and will be maintained through an interagency partnership with the Food and Nutrition Information Center of the National Agricultural Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

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The following information is typical of that found when using the “Full IBIDS Database” to search for “chitosan” (or a synonym): •

A new lipid emulsion formulation with high antimicrobial efficacy using chitosan. Author(s): Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA. Source: Jumaa, Muhannad Furkert, Franz H Muller, Bernd W Eur-J-Pharm-Biopharm. 2002 January; 53(1): 115-23 0939-6411

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Acceleration of wound contraction and healing with a photocrosslinkable chitosan hydrogel. Author(s): Research Institute, and Departments of Surgery II, Orthopedic Surgery, and Medical Engineering, National Defense Medical College, and NeTech Inc., Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan. [email protected] Source: Ishihara, M Ono, K Sato, M Nakanishi, K Saito, Y Yura, H Matsui, T Hattori, H Fujita, M Kikuchi, M Kurita, A Wound-Repair-Regen. 2001 Nov-December; 9(6): 513-21 1067-1927

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Aging phenomena of chitosan and chitosan-diclofenac sodium system detected by low-frequency dielectric spectroscopy. Author(s): Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University, Lodz, Poland. Source: Bodek, K H Bak, G W Eur-J-Pharm-Biopharm. 1999 September; 48(2): 141-8 09396411

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Alginate encapsulated bioadhesive chitosan microspheres for intestinal drug delivery. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram, India. Source: Ramdas, M Dileep, K J Anitha, Y Paul, W Sharma, C P J-Biomater-Appl. 1999 April; 13(4): 290-6 0885-3282

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Alternating bioactivity of polymeric layer-by-layer assemblies: anti- vs procoagulation of human blood on chitosan and dextran sulfate layers. Author(s): Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kagoshima University, 1-21-40 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan. Source: Serizawa, T Yamaguchi, M Matsuyama, T Akashi, M Biomacromolecules. 2000 Fall; 1(3): 306-9 1525-7797

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Antibacterial activity of chitosan against Aeromonas hydrophila. Author(s): National Center for Radiation Research and Technology, Microbiology Department, P.O. Box 29, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt. [email protected] Source: Taha, S M Swailam, H M Nahrung. 2002 October; 46(5): 337-40 0027-769X

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Anticancer activity of mycobacterial DNA: effect of formulation as chitosan nanoparticles. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Montreal, Que., Canada. Source: Kabbaj, M Phillips, N C J-Drug-Target. 2001; 9(5): 317-28 1061-186X

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Antidiabetic action of low molecular weight chitosan in genetically obese diabetic KK-Ay mice. Author(s): Laboratory of Analytical Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, Nagoya, Japan. Source: Hayashi, Koji Ito, Mikio Biol-Pharm-Bull. 2002 February; 25(2): 188-92 0918-6158

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Antitumour activity and adverse reactions of combined treatment with chitosan and doxorubicin in tumour-bearing mice. Author(s): Second Department of Medical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Ehime University, Onsen-gun, Japan. [email protected] Source: Kimura, Y Sawai, N Okuda, H J-Pharm-Pharmacol. 2001 October; 53(10): 1373-8 0022-3573

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Application of chitosan for treatment of wastewaters. Author(s): Department of Food Science and Technology, Catholic University of TaeguHyosung, Hayang, South Korea. Source: No, H K Meyers, S P Rev-Environ-Contam-Toxicol. 2000; 1631-27 0179-5953

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Behavior of alginate gel beads containing chitosan salt prepared with water-soluble vitamins. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, Japan. [email protected] Source: Murata, Y Kontani, Y Ohmae, H Kawashima, S Eur-J-Pharm-Biopharm. 2002 March; 53(2): 249-51 0939-6411

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Beta-cyclodextrin-linked chitosan beads: preparation and application to removal of bisphenol A from water. Author(s): Division of Bio-science, Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan. Source: Nishiki, M Tojima, T Nishi, N Sakairi, N Carbohydr-Lett. 2000; 4(1): 61-7 10735070

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Biodisposition characteristics of N-succinyl-chitosan and glycol-chitosan in normal and tumor-bearing mice. Author(s): Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Hoshi University, Tokyo, Japan. Source: Kamiyama, K Onishi, H Machida, Y Biol-Pharm-Bull. 1999 February; 22(2): 17986 0918-6158

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Capillary electrophoresis of high-molecular chitosan: the natural carbohydrate biopolymer. Author(s): Bioanalysis and Biotransformation Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul. Source: Ban, E Choi, O K Ryu, J C Yoo, Y S Electrophoresis. 2001 July; 22(11): 2217-21 0173-0835

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Chemical modification of chitosan: preparation and lectin binding properties of alpha-galactosyl-chitosan conjugates. Potential inhibitors in acute rejection following xenotransplantation. Author(s): Department of Chemistry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5. Source: Sashiwa, H Thompson, J M Das, S K Shigemasa, Y Tripathy, S Roy, R Biomacromolecules. 2000 Fall; 1(3): 303-5 1525-7797

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Chemoselective protection of the amino groups of chitosan by controlled phthaloylation: facile preparation of a precursor useful for chemical modifications. Author(s): Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Seikei University, Musashino-shi, Tokyo 180-8633, Japan. Source: Kurita, Keisuke Ikeda, Hiroyuki Yoshida, Yuya Shimojoh, Manabu Harata, Manabu Biomacromolecules. 2002 Jan-February; 3(1): 1-4 1525-7797

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Chitosan and chitosan sulfate have opposing effects on collagen-fibroblast interactions. Author(s): Department of Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas 75235, USA. Source: Mariappan, M R Alas, E A Williams, J G Prager, M D Wound-Repair-Regen. 1999 Sep-October; 7(5): 400-6 1067-1927

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Chitosan and chondroitin microspheres for oral-administration controlled release of metoclopramide. Author(s): Departamento de Farmacia y Tecnologia Farmaceutica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Source: Ganza Gonzalez, A Anguiano Igea, S Otero Espinar, F J Blanco Mendez, J Eur-JPharm-Biopharm. 1999 September; 48(2): 149-55 0939-6411

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Chitosan and its derivatives--a promising non-viral vector for gene transfection. Author(s): Research Institute of Polymeric Materials, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China. [email protected] Source: Guang Liu, W De Yao, K J-Control-Release. 2002 September 18; 83(1): 1-11 01683659

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Chitosan as a nonviral gene delivery system. Structure-property relationships and characteristics compared with polyethylenimine in vitro and after lung administration in vivo. Author(s): Department of Pharmacy, Division of Pharmaceutics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. Source: Koping Hoggard, M Tubulekas, I Guan, H Edwards, K Nilsson, M Varum, K M Artursson, P Gene-Ther. 2001 July; 8(14): 1108-21 0969-7128

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Chitosan based water-resistant adhesive. Analogy to mussel glue. Author(s): Department of Industrial Chemistry, College of Industrial Technology, Nihon University, 1-2-1 Izumi-cho, Narashino, Chiba 275-8575, Japan. Source: Yamada, K Chen, T KuMarch, G Vesnovsky, O Topoleski, L D Payne, G F Biomacromolecules. 2000 Summer; 1(2): 252-8 1525-7797

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Chitosan in dentistry. Source: Sapelli, P.L. Baldassarre, Volume Muzzarelli, R.A.A. Emanuelli, M. Chitin in nature and technology / edited by Riccardo Muzzarelli, Charles Jeuniaux, and Graham W. Gooday. New York : Plenum Press, c1986. page 507-511. ill. ISBN: 0306422115

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Chitosan microspheres prepared by an aqueous process: release of indomethacin. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002, India. Source: Aggarwal, A Kaur, S Tiwary, A K Gupta, S J-Microencapsul. 2001 NovDecember; 18(6): 819-23 0265-2048

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Chitosan nanoparticles as delivery systems for doxorubicin. Author(s): Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, The University of Santiago de Compostela, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Source: Janes, K A Fresneau, M P Marazuela, A Fabra, A Alonso, M J J-Control-Release. 2001 June 15; 73(2-3): 255-67 0168-3659

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Chitosan-induced phospholipase A2 activation and arachidonic acid mobilization in P388D1 macrophages. Author(s): CEPROCOR (Centro de Excelencia en Productos y Procesos de Cordoba), Argentina.

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Source: Bianco, I D Balsinde, J Beltramo, D M Castagna, L F Landa, C A Dennis, E A FEBS-Lett. 2000 January 28; 466(2-3): 292-4 0014-5793 •

Clinical and biochemical evaluation of chitosan for hypercholesterolemia and overweight control. Author(s): Center for Innovative Biomaterials, University of Ancona, Italy. Source: Muzzarelli, R A EXS. 1999; 87293-304

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Combinatorial screening for enzyme-mediated coupling. Tyrosinase-catalyzed coupling to create protein--chitosan conjugates. Author(s): Center for Agricultural Biotechnology, 5115 Plant Sciences Building, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA. Source: Chen, T Vazquez Duhalt, R Wu, C F Bentley, W E Payne, G F Biomacromolecules. 2001 Summer; 2(2): 456-62 1525-7797

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Comparison of the activity of four chitosan derivatives in reducing initial adherence of oral bacteria onto tooth surfaces. Author(s): Oral-Care Research Laboratories, Lion Corporation, 1-3-7 Honjo, Sumida-ku, Tokyo 130-8644, Japan. Source: Sano, H Shibasaki, K Matsukubo, T Takaesu, Y Bull-Tokyo-Dent-Coll. 2001 November; 42(4): 243-9 0040-8891

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Controlled insulin release from chitosan microparticles. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bologna, Italy. Source: Bugamelli, F Raggi, M A Orienti, I Zecchi, V Arch-Pharm-(Weinheim). 1998 April; 331(4): 133-8 0365-6233

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Delivery of LMW heparin via surface coated chitosan/peg-alginate microspheres prevents thrombosis. Author(s): Departments of Cardiology and Lab Medicine Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA. [email protected] Source: Chandy, T Rao, G H Wilson, R F Das, G S Drug-Delivolume 2002 Apr-June; 9(2): 87-96 1071-7544

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Development of new chitosan-cellulose multicore microparticles for controlled drug delivery. Author(s): University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Source: Remunan Lopez, C Lorenzo Lamosa, M L Vila Jato, J L Alonso, M J Eur-JPharm-Biopharm. 1998 January; 45(1): 49-56 0939-6411

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Development of poly(Lactic acid)/chitosan co-matrix microspheres: controlled release of taxol-heparin for preventing restenosis. Author(s): Department of Cardiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455, USA. [email protected] Source: Chandy, T Rao, G H Wilson, R F Das, G S Drug-Delivolume 2001 Apr-June; 8(2): 77-86 1071-7544

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Dissolution studies on tablets of ibuprofen using chitosan. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutics, Periyar College of Pharmaceutical Sciences for Girls, Trichy, India. Source: Ilango, R Kavimani, S Jaykar, B Umamaheshwari, G Indian-J-Exp-Biol. 1999 May; 37(5): 505-8 0019-5189

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Drug physical state and drug-polymer interaction on drug release from chitosan matrix films. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand. [email protected]

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Source: Puttipipatkhachorn, S Nunthanid, J Yamamoto, K Peck, G E J-Control-Release. 2001 July 10; 75(1-2): 143-53 0168-3659 •

Effect of chitosan oligosaccharide on 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin-induced oxidative stress in mice. Author(s): Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine and Intractable Disease Research Center, Dongguk University, Kyongju, Korea. Source: Shon, Y H Park, I K Moon, I S Chang, H W Park, I K Nam, K S Biol-Pharm-Bull. 2002 September; 25(9): 1161-4 0918-6158

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Effect of chondroitin sulfate on the biodegradation and drug release of chitosan gel beads in subcutaneous air pouches of mice. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, Japan. [email protected] Source: Kofuji, Kyoko Ito, Tomohiro Murata, Yoshifumi Kawashima, Susumu BiolPharm-Bull. 2002 February; 25(2): 268-71 0918-6158

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Effect of degree of quaternization of N-trimethyl chitosan chloride for enhanced transport of hydrophilic compounds across intestinal caco-2 cell monolayers. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA, Leiden, The Netherlands. Source: Thanou, M M Kotze, A F Scharringhausen, T Luessen, H L de Boer, A G Verhoef, J C Junginger, H E J-Control-Release. 2000 February 14; 64(1-3): 15-25 0168-3659

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Effect of dietary lobster shrimp chitosan on lipid metabolism in diet-induced hyperlipidemic rats. Author(s): Gyeongsang National University, Chinju (Korea Republic). Department of Food Science and TechnologyGyeongsang Natonal University, Chinju (Korea Republic). Department of Food and Nutrition Source: Chung, G.H. Kim, B.S. Hur, J.W. Chung, S.Y. Journal-of-the-Korean-Society-ofFood-and-Nutrition (Korea Republic). (June 1996). volume 25(3) page 384-391. 0253-3154

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Effect of magnesium stearate on chitosan microspheres prepared by an emulsification-coacervation technique. Author(s): Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore. Source: Lim, L Y Wan, L S J-Microencapsul. 1998 May-June; 15(3): 319-33 0265-2048

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Effect of molecular mass and degree of deacetylation of chitosan on adsorption of Streptococcus sobrinus 6715 to saliva treated hydroxyapatite. Author(s): Oral-Care Research Laboratories, Lion Corporation, 3-7 Honjo, 1-chome, Sumida-ku, Tokyo 130-8644, Japan. Source: Sano, H Shibasaki, K Matsukubo, T Takaesu, Y Bull-Tokyo-Dent-Coll. 2002 May; 43(2): 75-82 0040-8891

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Effect of rinsing with phosphorylated chitosan on four-day plaque regrowth. Author(s): Oral-Care Research Laboratories, Lion Corporation, 1-3-7 Honjo, Sumida-ku, Tokyo 130-8644, Japan. Source: Sano, H Shibasaki, K Matsukubo, T Takaesu, Y Bull-Tokyo-Dent-Coll. 2001 November; 42(4): 251-6 0040-8891

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Effect of the degree of quaternization of N-trimethyl chitosan chloride on the permeability of intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2). Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutics, Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, South Africa. [email protected]

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Source: Kotze, A F Thanou, M M Luessen, H L de Boer, B G Verhoef, J C Junginger, H E Eur-J-Pharm-Biopharm. 1999 May; 47(3): 269-74 0939-6411 •

Effects of the characteristics of chitosan on controlling drug release of chitosan coated PLLA microspheres. Author(s): Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, HsinChu, Taiwan, RO China. Source: Chiou, S H Wu, W T Huang, Y Y Chung, T W J-Microencapsul. 2001 SepOctober; 18(5): 613-25 0265-2048

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Equilibrium and kinetic modeling of adsorption of reactive dye on cross-linked chitosan beads. Author(s): Department of Chemical Engineering, National Lien Ho Institute of Technology, 36003, ROC, Miao-Li, Taiwan. Source: Chiou, M S Li, H Y J-Hazard-Mater. 2002 July 22; 93(2): 233-48 0304-3894

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Experimental evaluation of photocrosslinkable chitosan as a biologic adhesive with surgical applications. Author(s): Department of Surgery II, National Defense Medical College, Saitama, Japan. Source: Ono, K Ishihara, M Ozeki, Y Deguchi, H Sato, M Saito, Y Yura, H Sato, M Kikuchi, M Kurita, A Maehara, T Surgery. 2001 November; 130(5): 844-50 0039-6060

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Facile synthesis of a chitosan hybrid of a laminin-related peptide and its antimetastatic effect in mice. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kobe Gakuin University, Japan. Source: Hojo, K Maeda, M Mu, Y Kamada, H Tsutsumi, Y Nishiyama, Y Yoshikawa, T Kurita, K Block, L H Mayumi, T Kawasaki, K J-Pharm-Pharmacol. 2000 January; 52(1): 67-73 0022-3573

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Formulation and biological activity of antineoplastic proteoglycans derived from Mycobacterium vaccae in chitosan nanoparticles. Author(s): Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 60607, USA. Source: Tian, X X Groves, M J J-Pharm-Pharmacol. 1999 February; 51(2): 151-7 0022-3573

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Formulation and in vivo evaluation of chlorhexidine buccal tablets prepared using drug-loaded chitosan microspheres. Author(s): Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, Universita degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy. [email protected] Source: Giunchedi, P Juliano, C Gavini, E Cossu, M Sorrenti, M Eur-J-Pharm-Biopharm. 2002 March; 53(2): 233-9 0939-6411

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Highly sensitive sensors based on the immobilization of tyrosinase in chitosan. Author(s): Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Mesoscopic Materials and Chemistry, Institute of Analytical Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China. Source: Wang, G Xu, J J Ye, L H Zhu, J J Chen, H Y Bioelectrochemistry. 2002 July; 57(1): 33-8 1567-5394

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Hydrophobic chain conjugation at hydroxyl group onto gamma-ray irradiated chitosan. Author(s): Petroleum and Petrochemical College, Chulalongkom University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand. Source: Yoksan, R Akashi, M Biramontri, S Chirachanchai, S Biomacromolecules. 2001 Fall; 2(3): 1038-44 1525-7797

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Impregnation and release of aspirin from chitosan/poly(acrylic acid) graft copolymer microspheres. Author(s): Departamento de Quimica, Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Brazil. Source: Nascimento, A Laranjeira, M C Favere, V T Josue, A J-Microencapsul. 2001 SepOctober; 18(5): 679-84 0265-2048

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In vitro cellular accumulation of gadolinium incorporated into chitosan nanoparticles designed for neutron-capture therapy of cancer. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences and High Technology Research Center, Kobe Gakuin University, Arise 518, Ikawadani-cho, Nishi-ku, Kobe 651-2180, Japan. Source: Shikata, Futoshi Tokumitsu, Hiroyuki Ichikawa, Hideki Fukumori, Yoshinobu Eur-J-Pharm-Biopharm. 2002 January; 53(1): 57-63 0939-6411

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In vitro evaluation of a chitosan membrane cross-linked with genipin. Author(s): Department of Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Naval Academy, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, ROC. Source: Mi, F L Tan, Y C Liang, H C Huang, R N Sung, H W J-Biomater-Sci-Polym-Ed. 2001; 12(8): 835-50 0920-5063

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In vitro protein-polysaccharide conjugation: tyrosinase-catalyzed conjugation of gelatin and chitosan. Author(s): Center for Agricultural Biotechnology, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, 5115 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, MD 20742-4450, USA. Source: Chen, T Embree, H D Wu, L Q Payne, G F Biopolymers. 2002 September; 64(6): 292-302 0006-3525

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Interactions between chitosan and glycosaminoglycans (chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid): physicochemical and biological studies. Author(s): Laboratoire de chimie Analytique, Faculte de Pharmacie, tour D(2) 3(e) etage, 1, av. J.B. Clement, F 92290 Chatenay-Malabry. Source: Denuziere, A Ferrier, D Domard, A Ann-Pharm-Fr. 2000 January; 58(1): 47-53 0003-4509

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Measurement of x-ray attenuation coefficients of aqueous solutions of indocyanine green and glycated chitosan. Author(s): Department of Radiology and Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22908, USA. Source: Xu, F Liu, H Wu, X Jiang, H Nordquist, R E Chen, W R Med-Phys. 1999 July; 26(7): 1371-4 0094-2405

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Microencapsulation of chlorpheniramine maleate-resin particles with crosslinked chitosan for sustained release. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA. Source: Huang, R G Schwartz, J B Ofner, C M Pharm-Dev-Technol. 1999 January; 4(1): 107-15 1083-7450

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Microspheres of chitosan/poly(vinylalcohol) incorporating tetrasulphonated copper (II) phthalocyanine: preparation and characterization. Author(s): Departamento de Quimica, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, Brazil. Source: Stolberg, J Laranjeira, M C Sanchez, M N Klug, M Favere, V T J-Microencapsul. 1999 Jul-August; 16(4): 431-8 0265-2048

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Modulation of osteoblast function using poly(D,L-lactic acid) surfaces modified with alkylation derivative of chitosan. Author(s): Research Institute of Polymeric Materials, Tianjin University, P.R. China. Source: Cai, K Liu, W Li, F Yao, K Yang, Z Li, X Xie, H J-Biomater-Sci-Polym-Ed. 2002; 13(1): 53-66 0920-5063

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Multiunit controlled-release diclofenac sodium capsules using complex of chitosan with sodium alginate or pectin. Author(s): Department of Manufacturing Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. [email protected] Source: Mitrevej, A Sinchaipanid, N Rungvejhavuttivittaya, Y Kositchaiyong, V PharmDev-Technol. 2001 August; 6(3): 385-92 1083-7450

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Performance modification of chitosan membranes induced by gamma irradiation. Author(s): Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China. Source: Yang, F Li, X Cheng, M Gong, Y Zhao, N Zhang, X Yang, Y J-Biomater-Appl. 2002 January; 16(3): 215-26 0885-3282

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Polymeric chitosan-based vesicles for drug delivery. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK. Source: Uchegbu, I F Schatzlein, A G Tetley, L Gray, A I Sludden, J Siddique, S Mosha, E J-Pharm-Pharmacol. 1998 May; 50(5): 453-8 0022-3573

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Preparation and drug retention of biodegradable chitosan gel beads. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, Japan. Source: Kofuji, K Shibata, K Murata, Y Miyamoto, E Kawashima, S Chem-Pharm-Bull(Tokyo). 1999 October; 47(10): 1494-6 0009-2363

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Preparation and evaluation of sustained release cross-linked chitosan microspheres containing phenobarbitone. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Source: al Helw, A A Al Angary, A A Mahrous, G M al Dardari, M M J-Microencapsul. 1998 May-June; 15(3): 373-82 0265-2048

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Preparation of alginate gel beads containing chitosan nicotinic acid salt and the functions. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, Japan. Source: Murata, Y Toniwa, S Miyamoto, E Kawashima, S Eur-J-Pharm-Biopharm. 1999 July; 48(1): 49-52 0939-6411

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Preparation of chitin and chitosan oligomers and their applications in physiological functional foods. Source: Jeon, Y.J. Shahidi, F. Kim, S.K. Food-rev-int. Monticello, NY : Marcel Dekker, Inc. 2000. volume 16 (2) page 159-176. 8755-9129

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Preparation of gadopentetic acid-loaded chitosan microparticles for gadolinium neutron-capture therapy of cancer by a novel emulsion-droplet coalescence technique. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kobe Gakuin University, Japan. Source: Tokumitsu, H Ichikawa, H Fukumori, Y Block, L H Chem-Pharm-Bull-(Tokyo). 1999 June; 47(6): 838-42 0009-2363

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Prevention by chitosan of myelotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity and immunocompetent organic toxicity induced by 5-fluorouracil without loss of antitumor activity in mice. Author(s): 2nd Department of Medical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Ehime University. [email protected] Source: Kimura, Y Okuda, H Jpn-J-Cancer-Res. 1999 July; 90(7): 765-74 0910-5050

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Preventive effects of chlorophyllin fixed on chitosan towards DNA adduct formation of 3-amino-1-methyl-5H-pyrido [4,3-b]indole in CDF1 mice. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Japan. Source: Sugiyama, C Nakandakari, N Hayatsu, H Arimoto Kobayashi, S Biol-PharmBull. 2002 April; 25(4): 520-2 0918-6158

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Regioselective conjugation of chitosan with a laminin-related peptide, Tyr-Ile-GlySer-Arg, and evaluation of its inhibitory effect on experimental cancer metastasis. Author(s): Department of Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Seikei University, Tokyo, Japan. Source: Nishiyama, Y Yoshikawa, T Kurita, K Hojo, K Kamada, H Tsutsumi, Y Mayumi, T Kawasaki, K Chem-Pharm-Bull-(Tokyo). 1999 March; 47(3): 451-3 0009-2363

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Relation between the degree of acetylation and the electrostatic properties of chitin and chitosan. Author(s): Laboratoire des Materiaux Polymeres et des Biomateriaux (UMR-CNRS 5627), ISTIL, Domaine Scientifique de la Doua, 15 Boulevard Latarjet, 69622, Villeurbanne, France. Source: Sorlier, P Denuziere, A Viton, C Domard, A Biomacromolecules. 2001 Fall; 2(3): 765-72 1525-7797

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Release of PEGylated granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor from chitosan/glycerol films. Author(s): University of Washington, Department of Bioengineering, Box 352255, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. Source: Brown, C D Kreilgaard, L Nakakura, M Caram Lelham, N Pettit, D K Gombotz, W R Hoffman, A S J-Control-Release. 2001 May 14; 72(1-3): 35-46 0168-3659

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Removal of copper from aqueous solution by chitosan in prawn shell: adsorption equilibrium and kinetics. Author(s): School of Engineering and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, P.O. Box 218, Hawthorn, 3122, Victoria, Australia. [email protected] Source: Chu, K H J-Hazard-Mater. 2002 February 14; 90(1): 77-95 0304-3894

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Review of vinyl graft copolymerization featuring recent advances toward controlled radical-based reactions and illustrated with chitin/chitosan trunk polymers. Author(s): Fiber and Polymer Science Program, Box 8301, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-8301, USA. Source: Jenkins, D W Hudson, S M Chem-Revolume 2001 November; 101(11): 3245-73 0009-2665

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Solid state NMR for determination of degree of acetylation of chitin and chitosan. Author(s): Centre de Recherches sur les Macromolecules Vegetales (CNRS), Joseph Fourier University, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble, France. Source: Heux, L Brugnerotto, J Desbrieres, J Versali, M F Rinaudo, M Biomacromolecules. 2000 Winter; 1(4): 746-51 1525-7797

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Stability of chitosan and poly-L-lysine membranes coating DNA-alginate beads when exposed to hydrolytic enzymes. Author(s): Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Source: Quong, D Yeo, J N Neufeld, R J J-Microencapsul. 1999 Jan-February; 16(1): 73-82 0265-2048

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Structural characteristics of size-controlled self-aggregates of deoxycholic acidmodified chitosan and their application as a DNA delivery carrier. Author(s): Biomedical Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 131, Cheongryang, Seoul 130-650, Korea. Source: Kim, Y H Gihm, S H Park, C R Lee, K Y Kim, T W Kwon, I C Chung, H Jeong, S Y Bioconjug-Chem. 2001 Nov-December; 12(6): 932-8 1043-1802

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Surface characterization and platelet compatibility evaluation of surface-sulfonated chitosan membrane. Author(s): Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan. Source: Lin, C W Lin, J C J-Biomater-Sci-Polym-Ed. 2001; 12(5): 543-57 0920-5063

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Sustained release chitosan microspheres prepared by novel spray drying methods. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Nottingham, UK. Source: He, P Davis, S S Illum, L J-Microencapsul. 1999 May-June; 16(3): 343-55 02652048

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Synthesis of chitosan succinate and chitosan phthalate and their evaluation as suggested matrices in orally administered, colon-specific drug delivery systems. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan. Source: Aiedeh, K Taha, M O Arch-Pharm-(Weinheim). 1999 March; 332(3): 103-7 03656233

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The controlled release of a drug from biodegradable chitosan gel beads. Author(s): Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, Japan. Source: Kofuji, K Ito, T Murata, Y Kawashima, S Chem-Pharm-Bull-(Tokyo). 2000 April; 48(4): 579-81 0009-2363

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The effect of chitosan (poly-N-acetyl glucosamine) on lingual hemostasis in heparinized rabbits. Author(s): Section of Periodontics, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA 900951668, USA. Source: Klokkevold, P R Fukayama, H Sung, E C Bertolami, C N J-Oral-Maxillofac-Surg. 1999 January; 57(1): 49-52 0278-2391

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The effect of low molecular weight chitosan on bone resorption in vitro and in vivo. Author(s): Institute of Natural Medicine, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Japan. Source: Li, H Miyahara, T Tezuka, Y Watanabe, M Nemoto, N Seto, H Kadota, S Phytomedicine. 1999 November; 6(5): 305-10 0944-7113

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The encapsulation of bleomycin within chitosan based polymeric vesicles does not alter its biodistribution. Author(s): CRC Department of Medical Oncology, University of Glasgow, UK. Source: Sludden, J Uchegbu, I F Schatzlein, A G J-Pharm-Pharmacol. 2000 April; 52(4): 377-82 0022-3573

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The influence of supplemental components in nutrient medium on chitosan formation by the fungus Absidia orchidis. Author(s): Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Poland. [email protected] Source: Jaworska, M M Konieczna, E Appl-Microbiol-Biotechnol. 2001 July; 56(1-2): 2204 0175-7598

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The potential use of mixed films of pectin, chitosan and HPMC for bimodal drug release. Author(s): School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK. Source: Macleod, G S Collett, J H Fell, J T J-Control-Release. 1999 April 19; 58(3): 303-10 0168-3659

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The release behavior of brilliant blue from calcium-alginate gel beads coated by chitosan: the preparation method effect. Author(s): Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China. Source: Shu, X Z Zhu, K J Eur-J-Pharm-Biopharm. 2002 March; 53(2): 193-201 0939-6411

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The release of model macromolecules may be controlled by the hydrophobicity of palmitoyl glycol chitosan hydrogels. Author(s): Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Strathclyde Institute for Biological Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 27 Taylor St., Glasgow G4 0NR, UK. Source: Martin, Lee Wilson, Clive G Koosha, Fariba Tetley, Laurence Gray, Alexander I Senel, Sevda Uchegbu, Ijeoma F J-Control-Release. 2002 April 23; 80(1-3): 87-100 01683659

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Two types of hydrophobic aggregates in aqueous solutions of chitosan and its hydrophobic derivative. Author(s): Centre de Recherches sur les Macromolecules Vegetales, CNRS, affiliated with Joseph Fourier University, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble Cedex 9, France. Source: Philippova, O E Volkov, E V Sitnikova, N L Khokhlov, A R Desbrieres, J Rinaudo, M Biomacromolecules. 2001 Summer; 2(2): 483-90 1525-7797

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Viscosity of semiflexible chitosan solutions: influence of concentration, temperature, and role of intermolecular interactions. Author(s): CERMAV (CNRS), affiliated with the Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble Cedex 9, France. Source: Desbrieres, J Biomacromolecules. 2002 Mar-April; 3(2): 342-9 1525-7797

Federal Resources on Nutrition In addition to the IBIDS, the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provide many sources of information on general nutrition and health. Recommended resources include: •

healthfinder®, HHS’s gateway to health information, including diet and nutrition: http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/SearchContext.asp?topic=238&page=0

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The United States Department of Agriculture’s Web site dedicated to nutrition information: www.nutrition.gov

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The Food and Drug Administration’s Web site for federal food safety information: www.foodsafety.gov

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The National Action Plan on Overweight and Obesity sponsored by the United States Surgeon General: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/

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The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition has an Internet site sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/

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Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.usda.gov/cnpp/

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Food and Nutrition Information Center, National Agricultural Library sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/

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Food and Nutrition Service sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.fns.usda.gov/fns/

Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering food and nutrition. The following is a representative sample: •

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=174&layer=&from=subcats

•

Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_nutrition.html

•

Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Nutrition/

•

Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

•

Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Nutrition/

•

Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Nutrition/

•

WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/nutrition

•

WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

The following is a specific Web list relating to chitosan; please note that any particular subject below may indicate either a therapeutic use, or a contraindication (potential danger), and does not reflect an official recommendation: •

Food and Diet High Cholesterol Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com

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CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND CHITOSAN Overview In this chapter, we will begin by introducing you to official information sources on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) relating to chitosan. At the conclusion of this chapter, we will provide additional sources.

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National Institutes of Health (http://nccam.nih.gov/) has created a link to the National Library of Medicine’s databases to facilitate research for articles that specifically relate to chitosan and complementary medicine. To search the database, go to the following Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html. Select “CAM on PubMed.” Enter “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the search box. Click “Go.” The following references provide information on particular aspects of complementary and alternative medicine that are related to chitosan: •

A glucomannan and chitosan fiber supplement decreases plasma cholesterol and increases cholesterol excretion in overweight normocholesterolemic humans. Author(s): Gallaher DD, Gallaher CM, Mahrt GJ, Carr TP, Hollingshead CH, Hesslink R Jr, Wise J. Source: Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2002 October; 21(5): 428-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12356785&dopt=Abstract

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A novel method for chemo-enzymatic synthesis of elicitor-active chitosan oligomers and partially N-deacetylated chitin oligomers using N-acylated chitotrioses as substrates in a lysozyme-catalyzed transglycosylation reaction system. Author(s): Akiyama K, Kawazu K, Kobayashi A. Source: Carbohydrate Research. 1995 December 27; 279: 151-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8593620&dopt=Abstract

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Biodegradable chitosan matrix for the controlled release of steroids. Author(s): Chandy T, Sharma CP. Source: Biomater Artif Cells Immobilization Biotechnol. 1991; 19(4): 745-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1810408&dopt=Abstract

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Broiler chicken body weights, feed intakes, plasma lipid and small-intestinal bile acid concentrations in response to feeding of chitosan and pectin. Author(s): Razdan A, Pettersson D, Pettersson J. Source: The British Journal of Nutrition. 1997 August; 78(2): 283-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9301417&dopt=Abstract

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Chemically modified chitosans as enzyme inhibitors. Author(s): Bernkop-Schnurch A, Kast CE. Source: Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2001 November 5; 52(2): 127-37. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11718936&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan and its derivatives: potential excipients for peroral peptide delivery systems. Author(s): Bernkop-Schnurch A. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2000 January 20; 194(1): 1-13. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10601680&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan for weight loss and cholesterol management. Author(s): Shields KM, Smock N, McQueen CE, Bryant PJ. Source: American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy : Ajhp : Official Journal of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 2003 July 1; 60(13): 1310-2, 1315-6. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12901030&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan hydrogel as a base for transdermal delivery of berberine and its evaluation in rat skin. Author(s): Tsai CJ, Hsu LR, Fang JY, Lin HH. Source: Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 1999 April; 22(4): 397-401. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10328561&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan polymer sizes effective in inducing phytoalexin accumulation and fungal suppression are verified with synthesized oligomers. Author(s): Hadwiger LA, Ogawa T, Kuyama H. Source: Mol Plant Microbe Interact. 1994 July-August; 7(4): 531-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8075425&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan supplementation and fecal fat excretion in men. Author(s): Gades MD, Stern JS.

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Source: Obesity Research. 2003 May; 11(5): 683-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12740459&dopt=Abstract •

Chitosan supplementation does not affect fat absorption in healthy males fed a highfat diet, a pilot study. Author(s): Gades MD, Stern JS. Source: International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders : Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. 2002 January; 26(1): 119-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11791156&dopt=Abstract

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Chitosan-EDTA conjugate: a novel polymer for topical gels. Author(s): Valenta C, Christen B, Bernkop-Schnurch A. Source: The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 1998 May; 50(5): 445-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9643436&dopt=Abstract

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Comparative in vitro study of different chitosan-complexing agent conjugates. Author(s): Bernkop-Schnurch A, Freudl J. Source: Pharmazie. 1999 May; 54(5): 369-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10368830&dopt=Abstract

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Determination of EDTA species in water by second-derivative square-wave voltammetry using a chitosan-coated glassy carbon electrode. Author(s): Zhao C, Pan Y, He C, Guo Z, Sun L. Source: Anal Sci. 2003 April; 19(4): 607-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12725401&dopt=Abstract

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Determination of EDTA species in water by square-wave voltammetry using a chitosan-coated glassy carbon electrode. Author(s): Zhao C, Pan Y, Su Y, Zhang Z, Guo Z, Sun L. Source: Water Research. 2003 October; 37(17): 4270-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12946910&dopt=Abstract

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Development and in vitro evaluation of a drug delivery system based on chitosanEDTA BBI conjugate. Author(s): Bernkop-Schnurch A, Krauland A, Valenta C. Source: Journal of Drug Targeting. 1998; 6(3): 207-14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9888307&dopt=Abstract

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Development of novel chitosan derivatives as micellar carriers of taxol. Author(s): Miwa A, Ishibe A, Nakano M, Yamahira T, Itai S, Jinno S, Kawahara H.

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Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1998 December; 15(12): 1844-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9892467&dopt=Abstract •

Development of poly(Lactic acid)/chitosan co-matrix microspheres: controlled release of taxol-heparin for preventing restenosis. Author(s): Chandy T, Rao GH, Wilson RF, Das GS. Source: Drug Delivery. 2001 April-June; 8(2): 77-86. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11400866&dopt=Abstract

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Effect of abiotic factors on the antibacterial activity of chitosan against waterborne pathogens. Author(s): Chung YC, Wang HL, Chen YM, Li SL. Source: Bioresource Technology. 2003 July; 88(3): 179-84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12618038&dopt=Abstract

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Efficacy of a novel chitosan formulation on fecal fat excretion: a double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled study. Author(s): Barroso Aranda J, Contreras F, Bagchi D, Preuss HG. Source: J Med. 2002; 33(1-4): 209-25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12939120&dopt=Abstract

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Evaluation of the conjugate between N4-(4-carboxybutyryl)-1-beta-Darabinofuranosylcytosine and chitosan as a macromolecular prodrug of 1-beta-Darabinofuranosylcytosine. Author(s): Ichikawa H, Onishi H, Takahata T, Machida Y, Nagai T. Source: Drug Des Discov. 1993; 10(4): 343-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8148473&dopt=Abstract

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Immobilized chitosan as a selective absorbent for the nickel removal in water sample. Author(s): Wu JM, Wang YY. Source: Journal of Environmental Sciences (China). 2003 September; 15(5): 633-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14562924&dopt=Abstract

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Immune stimulating activity of two new chitosan containing adjuvant formulations. Author(s): Seferian PG, Martinez ML. Source: Vaccine. 2000 November 8; 19(6): 661-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11090719&dopt=Abstract

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In vivo biocompatibility and degradability of a novel injectable-chitosan-based implant. Author(s): Mi FL, Tan YC, Liang HF, Sung HW.

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Source: Biomaterials. 2002 January; 23(1): 181-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11762837&dopt=Abstract •

Inorganic-organic polymer hybrid scaffold for tissue engineering--II: partial enzymatic degradation of hydroxyapatite-chitosan hybrid. Author(s): Tachaboonyakiat W, Serizawa T, Akashi M. Source: Journal of Biomaterials Science. Polymer Edition. 2002; 13(9): 1021-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12462461&dopt=Abstract

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Isolation of flavonoids from Aleurites moluccana using chitosan modified with benzaldehyde (CH-Bz) as chromatographic support. Author(s): Girardi LG, Morsch M, Cechinel-Filho V, Meyre-Silva C, Rodrigues CA. Source: Pharmazie. 2003 September; 58(9): 629-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14531457&dopt=Abstract

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Kinetic modeling of liquid-phase adsorption of reactive dyes and metal ions on chitosan. Author(s): Wu FC, Tseng RL, Juang RS. Source: Water Research. 2001 March; 35(3): 613-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11228956&dopt=Abstract

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Laminin-1 peptide-conjugated chitosan membranes as a novel approach for cell engineering. Author(s): Mochizuki M, Kadoya Y, Wakabayashi Y, Kato K, Okazaki I, Yamada M, Sato T, Sakairi N, Nishi N, Nomizu M. Source: The Faseb Journal : Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. 2003 May; 17(8): 875-7. Epub 2003 March 05. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12626440&dopt=Abstract

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Leaching of pectin from mixed films containing pectin, chitosan and HPMC intended for biphasic drug delivery. Author(s): Ofori-Kwakye K, Fell JT. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2003 January 2; 250(1): 251-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12480290&dopt=Abstract

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Microencapsulation of lipophilic drugs in chitosan-coated alginate microspheres. Author(s): Ribeiro AJ, Neufeld RJ, Arnaud P, Chaumeil JC. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 1999 September 30; 187(1): 115-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10502618&dopt=Abstract

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Molecular characterization of a pea beta-1,3-glucanase induced by Fusarium solani and chitosan challenge. Author(s): Chang MM, Hadwiger LA, Horovitz D.

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Source: Plant Molecular Biology. 1992 November; 20(4): 609-18. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1450378&dopt=Abstract •

Mucoadhesive polymers as platforms for peroral peptide delivery and absorption: synthesis and evaluation of different chitosan-EDTA conjugates. Author(s): Bernkop-Schnurch A, Krajicek ME. Source: Journal of Controlled Release : Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society. 1998 January 2; 50(1-3): 215-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9685888&dopt=Abstract

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Novel bioadhesive chitosan-EDTA conjugate protects leucine enkephalin from degradation by aminopeptidase N. Author(s): Bernkop-Schnurch A, Paikl C, Valenta C. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1997 July; 14(7): 917-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9244150&dopt=Abstract

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Novel sustained-release implant of herb extract using chitosan. Author(s): Zhao HR, Wang K, Zhao Y, Pan LQ. Source: Biomaterials. 2002 December; 23(23): 4459-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12322964&dopt=Abstract

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Periodontal delivery of ipriflavone: new chitosan/PLGA film delivery system for a lipophilic drug. Author(s): Perugini P, Genta I, Conti B, Modena T, Pavanetto F. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2003 February 18; 252(1-2): 1-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12550776&dopt=Abstract

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Protecting effect of chitin and chitosan on experimentally induced murine candidiasis. Author(s): Suzuki K, Okawa Y, Hashimoto K, Suzuki S, Suzuki M. Source: Microbiology and Immunology. 1984; 28(8): 903-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6094990&dopt=Abstract

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Purification and some enzymatic properties of the chitosanase from Bacillus R-4 which lyses Rhizopus cell walls. Author(s): Tominaga Y, Tsujisaka Y. Source: Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. 1975 November 20; 410(1): 145-55. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=69&dopt=Abstract

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Randomized, double-blind trial of chitosan for body weight reduction. Author(s): Pittler MH, Abbot NC, Harkness EF, Ernst E.

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Source: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1999 May; 53(5): 379-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10369493&dopt=Abstract •

Selective drug delivery to the colon using pectin:chitosan:hydroxypropyl methylcellulose film coated tablets. Author(s): Macleod GS, Fell JT, Collett JH, Sharma HL, Smith AM. Source: International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 1999 October 5; 187(2): 251-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10502631&dopt=Abstract

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Silver-selective sensor using an electrode-separated piezoelectric quartz crystal modified with a chitosan derivative. Author(s): Bao S, Nomura T. Source: Anal Sci. 2002 August; 18(8): 881-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12200833&dopt=Abstract

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Supplement of a Chitosan and ascorbic acid mixture for Crohn's disease. A pilot study. Author(s): Tsujikawa T, Kanauchi O, Andoh A, Saotome T, Sasaki M, Fujiyama Y, Bamba T. Source: Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.). 2003 February; 19(2): 137-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12591545&dopt=Abstract

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Synthesis and in vitro evaluation of chitosan-EDTA-protease-inhibitor conjugates which might be useful in oral delivery of peptides and proteins. Author(s): Bernkop-Schnurch A, Scerbe-Saiko A. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1998 February; 15(2): 263-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9523313&dopt=Abstract

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The effect of low molecular weight chitosan on bone resorption in vitro and in vivo. Author(s): Li H, Miyahara T, Tezuka Y, Watanabe M, Nemoto N, Seto H, Kadota S. Source: Phytomedicine : International Journal of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology. 1999 November; 6(5): 305-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11962535&dopt=Abstract

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The effect of supplementing layer diets with shark cartilage or chitosan on egg components and yolk lipids. Author(s): Nogueira CM, Zapata JF, Fuentes MF, Freitas ER, Craveiro AA, Aguiar CM. Source: British Poultry Science. 2003 May; 44(2): 218-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12828207&dopt=Abstract

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Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering CAM and related topics. The following is a representative sample: •

Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.: http://www.herbmed.org/

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AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=169&layer=&from=subcats

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Chinese Medicine: http://www.newcenturynutrition.com/

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drkoop.com: http://www.drkoop.com/InteractiveMedicine/IndexC.html

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_altn.htm

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Alternative/

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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

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MedWebPlus: http://medwebplus.com/subject/Alternative_and_Complementary_Medicine

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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/

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HealthGate: http://www.tnp.com/

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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/drugs_and_herbs

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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Alternative_Medicine/

The following is a specific Web list relating to chitosan; please note that any particular subject below may indicate either a therapeutic use, or a contraindication (potential danger), and does not reflect an official recommendation: •

General Overview Obesity Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Sprains and Strains Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Wound Healing Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com

•

Herbs and Supplements Chitosan Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Chitosan Source: WholeHealthMD.com, LLC.; www.wholehealthmd.com Hyperlink: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/refshelf/substances_view/0,1525,10016,00.html

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Garcinia Cambogia Alternative names: Citrin, Gambooge Source: Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.; www.amfoundation.org Gymnema Alternative names: Gurmar; Gymnema sylvestre Source: Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.; www.amfoundation.org Rosmarinus Alternative names: Rosemary; Rosmarinus officinalis L. Source: Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.; www.amfoundation.org

General References A good place to find general background information on CAM is the National Library of Medicine. It has prepared within the MEDLINEplus system an information topic page dedicated to complementary and alternative medicine. To access this page, go to the MEDLINEplus site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alternativemedicine.html. This Web site provides a general overview of various topics and can lead to a number of general sources.

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CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON CHITOSAN Overview In this chapter, we will give you a bibliography on recent dissertations relating to chitosan. We will also provide you with information on how to use the Internet to stay current on dissertations. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical dissertations that use the generic term “chitosan” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on chitosan, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical dissertations in this bibliography.

Dissertations on Chitosan ProQuest Digital Dissertations, the largest archive of academic dissertations available, is located at the following Web address: http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations. From this archive, we have compiled the following list covering dissertations devoted to chitosan. You will see that the information provided includes the dissertation’s title, its author, and the institution with which the author is associated. The following covers recent dissertations found when using this search procedure: •

A Study on Chitosan-based Hydrogels: towards the Development of an Artificial Muscle by Sun, Shan Ph.D from Hong Kong Polytechnic University (people's Republic of China), 2002, 156 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3039239

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Characterization of a Biodegradable,ph-sensitive Chitosan-pva Hydrogel by Wang, Tao Ph.D from The University of Wisconsin - Madison, 2002, 260 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3060484

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Chitosan-xanthan Hydrogel: a Matrix for the Inclusion and the Delivery of Drugs by Ishizawa Higuchi, Claudia Ines; Ph.D from Universite De Sherbrooke (Canada), 2002, 212 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NQ74251

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Macromolecular Characterisation of Lignosulfonates and Their Interactions with Chitosans by Fredheim, Guro Elise; Dring from Norges Teknisk-naturvitenskapelige Universitet (norway), 2002, 48 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/f440993

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Preparation and Characterization of Chitosan-containing Hydrogel Beads for Immobilization of Candida Rugosa Lipase with High Retention of Its Hydrolytic Activity by Alsarra, Ibrahim A.; Ph.D from University of Missouri - Kansas City, 2002, 170 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3043433

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Preparation, Characterization and Pharmaceutical Uses of Biodegradable Oxidized Cellulose and Its Adduct with Chitosan by Yang, Tianrun; Ph.D from The University of Iowa, 2002, 211 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3052484

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Rheology of Chitosan Solutions and Chitosan-xanthan Hydrogels by Martinez Ruvalcaba, Agustin; Ph.D from Universite De Sherbrooke (canada), 2002, 189 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NQ74258

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Synthesis of a Fiber-reactive Chitosan Derivative and Its Application to Cotton Fabric As an Antimicrobial Finish and a Dyeing-improving Agent by Lim, Sang-hoon; Ph.D from North Carolina State University, 2003, 166 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3081725

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The Effect of Chitosan and Its Derivatives on the Dyeability of Silk by Wu, Yi Guang Eagle; Ph.D from Hong Kong Polytechnic University (people's Republic of China), 2002, 100 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3080241

Keeping Current Ask the medical librarian at your library if it has full and unlimited access to the ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. From the library, you should be able to do more complete searches via http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations.

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CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON CHITOSAN Overview Patents can be physical innovations (e.g. chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment) or processes (e.g. treatments or diagnostic procedures). The United States Patent and Trademark Office defines a patent as a grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the Patent and Trademark Office.8 Patents, therefore, are intellectual property. For the United States, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date when the patent application was filed. If the inventor wishes to receive economic benefits, it is likely that the invention will become commercially available within 20 years of the initial filing. It is important to understand, therefore, that an inventor’s patent does not indicate that a product or service is or will be commercially available. The patent implies only that the inventor has “the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling” the invention in the United States. While this relates to U.S. patents, similar rules govern foreign patents. In this chapter, we show you how to locate information on patents and their inventors. If you find a patent that is particularly interesting to you, contact the inventor or the assignee for further information. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical patents that use the generic term “chitosan” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on chitosan, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical patents in this bibliography.

Patents on Chitosan By performing a patent search focusing on chitosan, you can obtain information such as the title of the invention, the names of the inventor(s), the assignee(s) or the company that owns or controls the patent, a short abstract that summarizes the patent, and a few excerpts from the description of the patent. The abstract of a patent tends to be more technical in nature, while the description is often written for the public. Full patent descriptions contain much more information than is presented here (e.g. claims, references, figures, diagrams, etc.). We

8Adapted

from the United States Patent and Trademark Office: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/whatis.htm.

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will tell you how to obtain this information later in the chapter. The following is an example of the type of information that you can expect to obtain from a patent search on chitosan: •

Agents, and methods employing them, for the prevention or reduction of tissue adhesion at a wound site Inventor(s): Hansson; Hans-Arne (Hov.ang.s, SE), Johansson-Ruden; Gunilla (Askim, SE), Larm; Olle (Bromma, SE) Assignee(s): Medicarb AB (Bromma, SE) Patent Number: 6,486,140 Date filed: October 5, 1999 Abstract: The use of chitosan and a polysaccharide immobilized thereto selected from heparin, heparan sulphate and dextran sulphate for the manufacture of an agent capable of preventing or substantially reducing undesirable adhesion of damaged tissue with adjacent or surrounding tissues in connection with wound healing; and a process for the use of such agent. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to new anti-adhesion agents, i.e. products having the ability to prevent non-desired adhesion of tissues in connection with wound healing. The product has also the ability to improve healing quality by stimulating regeneration of tissue. The invention also includes a process to prevent such undesired adhesion of tissues. Our ability to move freely as desired and according to the current need is of utmost importance for our life quality. Suitable function of the musculoskeletal system in close cooperation with mainly the skin, mucosal membranes and nervous tissue is a prerequisite for our ability to move and requires per se that different structures such as bone, muscles and tendons are freely moveable relative to each other. Such activities require sliding zones, minimal friction and maximized freedom to move. Sliding systems between for example adjacent muscles and tendons as well as between skin and adjacent tissues are thus required for optimal function. The same is true for visceral structures, such as the gastrointestinal tract, heart, lung, brain and spinal cord. The sliding systems are formed by thin sheets of loose connective tissue, which in the abdomen, thoracic cavity, pericardial space and for the brain and spinal cord are delimited by mesothelial cells. The paratenons show a similar design. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06486140__

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Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory compositions with Inula helenium L. extract and water soluble chitosan Inventor(s): Seo; Chan Seok (Kyungki-do, KR), Seo; Sang Bong (Kyungki-do, KR), You; Hyung Ja (Kyungki-do, KR) Assignee(s): Jakwang Co., Ltd. (Ansung, KR) Patent Number: 6,521,268 Date filed: May 30, 2001 Abstract: The present invention relates to a natural cell control carrier, more specifically to a natural cell control carrier containing water-soluble chitosan (HFP) and elecampane (Inula Helenium L.) extract, which solves problems of conventional synthesized antibacterial agents and provides various superior properties, improved antibacterial

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activity and anti-inflammatory effect with a broad antibacterial spectrum, so that it can be used for food, cosmetics and medicine. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a natural cell control carrier, more specifically to a natural cell control carrier comprising water-soluble chitosan (HFP) and elecampane (Inula Helenium L.) extract, which solves problems of conventional synthesized antibacterial agents and provides various superior properties, improved antibacterial effect and anti-inflammatory effect with a broad antibacterial spectrum, so that it can be used for food, cosmetics and medicine. Generally, microorganisms that contaminate food, cosmetics and medicine may be classified into bacteria and fungi. Bacteria can be classified into Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative bacteria; and fungi can be classified into yeast and mold. These microorganisms are known to flourish in wet environments. Especially, microorganisms flourish in environments with high water activity (Aw) like cosmetics. If microorganisms flourish in food and cosmetics, gas may be generated due to the decomposition of carbohydrates; the food and cosmetics may become rancid due to the generation of fatty acid or ketone residue from oil and fat compounds; and stench may be generated due to the decomposition of proteins. Antibacterial agents are used to prevent from deterioration of products like cosmetics caused by the contamination and multiplication of microorganisms. The common antibacterial agents used in food, cosmetics and medicine are methyl phydroxybenzoate, propyl p-hydroxybenzoate, imidazolinyl urea, citric acid, propylene glycol and phenoxyethanol. These antibacterial agents may be mixed each other in an appropriate content or other substances reinforcing the antibacterial system are arbitrarily incorporated to provide better antibacterial activity. However, synthesized antibacterial agents have the problems such as increased tolerance, side effect, toxicity, carcinogenicity and the generation of unidentified substances. Therefore, restriction of items and limitation of usage about synthesized antibacterial agents are becoming strict and the purchasing power is declining due to the restriction of consumption and decline of warning attractiveness toward customers. Also, a small amount of synthesized antibacterial agent used in medicine, food and cosmetics may cause skin-related side effects like contact dermatitis or allergy, due to irritation and toxicity to skin. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06521268__ •

Antibacterial aqueous ophthalmic formulations containing ofloxacin and use of chitosan for solubilizing ofloxacin suspended in an aqueous media Inventor(s): Felt; Olivia Mireille (St.-Julien-en-Genevois, FR), Gurny; Robert (Geneva, CH) Assignee(s): Laboratoire Medidom S.A. (Geneva, CH) Patent Number: 6,589,999 Date filed: May 17, 2001 Abstract: The aqueous ophthalmic formulation for the treatment and prevention of infections contains ofloxacin as active ingredient and a chitosan having a weight average molecular weight of 500,000-5,000,000 Daltons and a deacetylation degree of 3090% as solubilizing agent of ofloxacin. Chitosan having a deacetylation degree of 3090% may be also used for solubilizing ofloxacin suspended in an aqueous media having a substantially neutral pH in any other applications. Excerpt(s): This Application claims the benefit of European Patent Application No. 00 111 377.8 filed May 26, 2000. The invention relates to an antibacterial aqueous

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ophthalmic formulation containing ofloxacin as an active ingredient and to the use of chitosan for solubilizing ofloxacin suspended in an aqueous media. Ofloxacin [i.e. racemic (.+-.)-9-fluoro-3-methyl-10-(4-methyl-1-piperazinyl)-7-oxo-2,3-dihydro-7Hpyrido[1,2,3-de][1,4]benzoxazine-6-carboxylic acid], first disclosed by Daiichi Seiaku CO., LTD in EP-A-0,047,005, is known to be an excellent antibacterial agent which is active against a broad spectrum of gram positive and gram negative organisms. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06589999__ •

Application of nanoparticles based on hydrophilic polymers as pharmaceutical forms Inventor(s): Alonso Fernandez; Maria Jose (La Coruna, ES), Calvo Salve; Pilar (La Coruna, ES), Remunan Lopez; Carmen (La Coruna, ES), Vila Jato; Jose Luis (La Coruna, ES) Assignee(s): Universidade de Santiago de Compostela (ES) Patent Number: 6,649,192 Date filed: July 18, 2001 Abstract: Application of nanoparticles based on hydrophilic polymers as pharmaceutical forms for the administration of active macromolecules. The nanoparticles (having a nanometric size and a hydrophilic character), also called nanospheres or latex, are colloidal systems comprised of the combination of hydrophilic polymers and an active ingredient having a high molecular weight (active macromolecule, molecular weight higher than 1000 daltons). The hydrophilic polymers are the chitosan (an aminopolysaccharide) or its derivatives and polyoxyethylene or its derivatives. The association of the active macromolecule to said nanoparticles takes place in an aqueous phase without having to use organic solvents or auxiliary toxic substances. The active ingredient charge capacity of the nanoparticles is extremely high and additionally said charge is released in a controlled and time extended way. Additionally, said nanoparticles have a positive surface electric charge whose intensity may vary in relation to its composition. Excerpt(s): Application of nanoparticles based on hydrophilic polymers as pharmaceutical forms for the administration of bioactive molecules. The major constituents of these nanoparticles are two hydrophilic polymers: chitosan, which has a positive charge, and poly(oxyethylene), which has a non-ionic character. The active ingredient, which may be also a major constituent of these nanoparticles, is an antigenic or therapeutic macromolecule (peptide, protein, oligonucleotide, RNA, DNA. ). The electrical charge of these colloidal particles can vary, depending on the ratio of the two hydrophilic polymers, from a highly positive value to a near zero value. The size of the nanoparticles can be modulated as well, from few nanometers to a few microns, by adequately selecting the preparation conditions. Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer produced by deacetylation of the polysaccharide chitin which is obtained from crustacean shells. Chitosan is available in the market in a variety of forms (with different molecular weights and degrees of deacetylation and, also, in the form of chitosan base or chitosan salt: e.g., hydrochlorhydrate, glutamate, lactate). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06649192__

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Cell-culture and polymer constructs Inventor(s): Domb; Abraham J. (Efrat, IL), Frondoza; Carmelita G. (Woodstock, MD), Hungerford; David S. (Cockeysville, MD), Shikani; Alan H. (Ruxton, MD) Assignee(s): Chondros, Inc. (Baltimore, MD), Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore, MD) Patent Number: 6,637,437 Date filed: November 14, 2000 Abstract: The invention is directed to the culture of cells, and particularly chondrocytes for purpose of tissue replacement. The cells are cultured on polymer constructs. Integren expression is used as a measure of chondrocyte viability. Chondrocytes are obtained from the knee, nose and ankle cartilage. Mechanical strain is used to propagate chondrocytes, chitosan and arabinogalactanchitosan are used as scaffolds. Progenitor, pluripotential, stem and mesenchymal cells are operative in this invention. Excerpt(s): The herein disclosed invention finds applicability in the field of cell culture, as well as in the field of tissue substitutes for tissue replacement and for prosthesis. Attempts at replacing or rebuilding diseased or damaged structures in the human body go back to 3000 B.C. It was not until the middle of the 1900's, however, that the use of synthetic materials for rebuilding body structures met with widespread and reproducible success. Advances in material science and biomaterials and science have afforded much of the success. The need for new and better implants exists in every field of medicine in which disease or trauma can be treated surgically. As technology advances continue to improve the state of the art, the standards for successful implants continue to improve including strength, biocompatibility and elasticity. The new research being conducted today on growth factors and controlled drug release tell of the day when implant material will be expected to promote healing, dissipate disease and stimulate tissue regeneration. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06637437__

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Chemical modification of biomedical materials with genipin Inventor(s): Lee; Thomas Chau-Jen (late of Walnut Creek, CA), Lin; Ching-Kuan (Taichung, TW), Sung; Hsing-Wen (Hsinchu, TW) Assignee(s): Challenge Bioproducts Co., Ltd. (Taichung, TW) Patent Number: 6,608,040 Date filed: September 27, 2001 Abstract: Biocompatible cross-linked materials, suitable for use in implants, wound dressings, and blood substitutes, are described. The materials are prepared by crosslinking biological substances, such as collagen, chitosan, or hemoglobin, with genipin, a naturally occurring cross-linking agent. The cross-linking agent has much lower toxicity than conventionally used reagents, and the cross-linked products have good thermal and mechanical stability as well as biocompatibility. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to chemical modification of biomedical materials, such as collagen, chitosan, and hemoglobin, with a naturally occurring crosslinking reagent, genipin, and to biocompatible materials, useful in biological implants, adhesives, wound dressings, and blood substitutes, which are crosslinked or polymerized with genipin. Buchi, G. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 89:2776-7 (1967). Chanda, J. et al., Artif Organs 18(10):752-7 (1994).

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Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06608040__ •

Chitin oligosaccharides and/or chitosan oligosaccharides for preventing or treating common cold or treating pain Inventor(s): Gauthier; Jay H. (Holualoa, HI), Konno; Allen I. (Kailua-Kona, HI), Matahira; Yoshiharu (Shimada, JP) Assignee(s): JDC (Hawaii) Inc. (Kailua-Kona, HI) Patent Number: 6,492,350 Date filed: January 12, 2001 Abstract: A new method is presented which is useful in the prevention of the common cold (also called non-allergic rhinitis, viral upper respiratory tract infection, viral URI, etc and for this presentation will be referred to as the "common cold") in mammals, including humans, and which also lessens the duration and intensity of the symptoms of the said condition should infection occur. Within the scope of the present invention is a method of treating pain in mammals, such as humans. The active ingredient in these methods can be a water soluble mixture available in oral form and selected from the chitin oligomers di N-acetyl chitobiose, tri N-acetyl chitotriose, tetra N-acetyl chitotetraose, penta N-acetyl chitopentaose, and hexa N-acetyl chitohexaose, with the water soluble oral chitosan oligomers selected from chitobiose, chitotriose, chitotetraose, chitopentaose, chitohexaose, and chitoheptaose. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to a method for preventing or treating common cold or treating pain by administering a new agent comprising a) at least one chitin oligosaccharide; b) at least one chitosan oligosaccharide; c) at least one partially deacetylated chitin oligosaccharide, wherein some, but not all, of the N-acetyl glucosamine or 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-glucose subunits are de-acetylated; d) a mixture of at least one chitin oligosaccharide and at least one chitosan oligosaccharide; e) a mixture of at least one chitin oligosaccharide and at least one partially deacetylated chitin oligosaccharide; or f) a mixture of at least one chitosan oligosaccharide and at least one partially deacetylated chitin oligosaccharide to a subject in need of common cold prevention or treatment or pain treatment. The new agent may further comprise Nacetyl glucosamine and/or glucosamine. The new agent may induce analgesia by absorbing, binding, or otherwise inhibiting bradykinin and ions at the nerve endings as its mechanism. This invention also relates to an oral method of delivery. The new agent is useful in the prevention of the common cold (non-allergic rhinitis, viral upper respiratory tract infection, viral URI, etc) and in reducing the duration and severity of the symptoms of such an infection should this occur. Yet despite the prevalence, destructiveness, and costs of the disease, surprisingly little or no progress has been made toward effective cold treatment (7). Antibiotics, which are prescribed with disturbing frequency by practitioners and demanded by patients who want "something done", are ineffective both theoretically and in practice since the common cold is caused by a virus, not a bacteria (see Detailed Description of the Invention for a discussion of the pathology of the common cold) (8, 9, 10). In fact, the misuse and over-prescription of antibiotics for the common cold has led to dangerous mutant resistant strains of microorganisms such as MRSA (methacillin resistant staphylococcus aureus). Vitamin C, as proclaimed by two-time Nobel Prize winner Dr. Linus Pauling, has also been reputed to both prevent colds and decrease the symptoms should a cold occur, when given in socalled "mega doses" ie>5-10 grams per day (RDA=65-130 mg per day). However, numerous studies since Dr. Pauling's work have failed to duplicate his results, and the

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role of vitamin C, if any, is still open to debate (11, 12, 13, 14, 15). Over-the-counter cold prescriptions invariably act to suppress symptoms locally through actions against such things as histamine (the antihistamine group of drugs ie Benadryl) or through various actions on the autonomic nervous system (such as ephedrine-a sympathomimetric amine. It should be noted that these drugs have side effects, some of which can be serious. Other experimental drugs such as BIRR 4 (also called tremacara) must be applied directly to the nose before being exposed to the virus, which does little good for the average individual who has no idea when or where he will come in contact with the cold virus. However, experiments involving tremacara have proven clinically the theoretical efficacy of blocking the rhinovirus/ICAM-1 receptor sites for reducing the severity of rhinovirus cold infections. A variety of alternative and folk remedies (zinc, ecchinacea, etc) have also been used over the years with variable and largely unreproducable results (16,17). Thus, there is a need for an agent effective in preventing and/or treating common cold. The present invention concerns such an agent and a method of preventing and/or treating common cold. Pain and the suffering it causes is one of the oldest afflictions known to man/ The relief of such pain and suffering has long been one of the most solemn duties of the health professional. Between 75-100 million Americans suffer from chronic pain; osteoarthritis alone affects over 25 million Americans and over 40 million experience chronic recurring headaches. Upwards of $4,000,000,000 are spent on pain medication alone (not to mention physician fees, lost work time, hospitalization, etc) and it is estimated that chronic pain may play a factor in up to 50% of suicides. Yet despite the expense and trouble, 60-80% of people say that they are dissatisfied with their pain medication (28). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06492350__ •

Chitosan formulation with azelaic acid and other actives for the treatment of acne Inventor(s): Gates; Jeffrey A. (West Chester, OH), Oester; Dean A. (Cincinnati, OH), Wachter; Rolf (Duesseldorf, DE) Assignee(s): Cognis Corporation (Cincinnati, OH) Patent Number: 6,451,773 Date filed: March 31, 2000 Abstract: A composition for treating acneiform eruption containing: (a) a chitosan having a molecular weight ranging from about 500,000 to about 5,000,000 g/mole and a degree of deacylation greater than 80%; (b) an acid-form active ingredient for treating acne; and (c) water. Excerpt(s): Not Applicable. Acne is a common disease which afflicts the majority of all teenagers, along with a significant number of men and women of adult age. Acne vulgaris occurs most often on oily areas of the skin having high sebaceous gland concentration. These areas include the face, ears, behind the ears, chest, back and occasionally the neck and upper arms. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06451773__

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Chitosan metal complexes and method for controlling microbial growth on plants using same Inventor(s): Ben-Shalom; Noach (Tel-Aviv, IL), Pinto; Riki (Colon, IL) Assignee(s): State of Israel, Ministry of Agriculture (IL) Patent Number: 6,589,942 Date filed: July 24, 2000 Abstract: A method for controlling bacterial and fungal diseases in plants which includes applying a chitosan metal chelate complex having at least two metal ion species to the plant. Chitosan metal complexes for application to control bacterial and fingal diseases in plants are also disclosed. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to agricultural compositions for delivering metals to plants and for controlling microbial diseases in plants. Specifically, the present invention relates to metals chelated with a particular carbohydrate-derived composition and to methods for its use in delivering metals to agricultural crops and in controlling microbial damage to agricultural crops. Historically, microbiological infestations have caused significant losses to agricultural crops and have been the cause of large scale famines and economic displacements. Fungal infections can cause pre-harvest damage to crops by killing them outright or by weakening them so as to decrease yields and render the plants susceptible to other infections. Post-harvest, fungal infections can also result in significant loss of agricultural products during storage, processing, and handling. The need for the control of microbial infections of agricultural products is well established and a number of chemical agents have been developed for this purpose, however, to date, no fully satisfactory chemical agents have been found. Oftentimes, fungal control agents are highly toxic to crops and/or animals; consequently, restrictions are placed on their handling and use. Also, many presently available fungal control agents are of restricted utility; that is to say, a particular agent may be effective only against several types of fungus. As a result, a number of separate materials must often be employed in a particular agricultural setting in order to accommodate different types of fungi or other microbial pathogens. Also, as is common with anti-microbial agents, a number of fungal species have developed resistance to commonly employed fungicides. Clearly, there is a need for an anti-microbial control agent which can be utilized for both bacterial and fungal agents in plants which has broad activity against a variety of fungi and bacteria including those strains resistant to presently employed fungicides. Ideally, the material should be of low toxicity to crops and to animals, stable in composition, easy to employ, and preferably low in cost. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06589942__

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Chitosan microflake and method of manufacturing the same Inventor(s): Son; Tae-won (Daegu, KR), Yoo; Hyun-oh (Seoul, KR) Assignee(s): Ibeks Technologies Co., Ltd. (Seoul, KR) Patent Number: 6,444,797 Date filed: November 10, 2000 Abstract: Disclosed is a chitosan microflake which is exceptionally improved in coatability to the skin. The chitosan microflake is manufactured by dissolving chitosan in a weak acidic, aqueous organic acid solution to give a chitosan solution, extracting

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chitosan from the solution, and solidifying the solution and pulverizing the form film into the microflake which has a width ten fold greater than thickness. With high coatability onto the skin, the chitosan microflake improves the medicinal efficacies of highly pure chitosan, including wound healing, sterilization, prevention or suppression of cicatrix formation, and recuperation from wounds, upon being applied to external traumas such as dermal damages, surgically operated regions and burns. In addition to the medicine and medical industries, the chitosan microflakes can find numerous applications in a broad spectrum of industries, including food, bioengineering, cosmetic, agricultural, chemical engineering, and environmental industries. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to chitosan microflakes which are greatly improved in coatability onto the skin. Also, the present invention is concerned with a method for preparing such a chitosan microflake. Chitin is quantitatively found in the shells of crustaceans, such as crabs and shrimps, and insects, and in the cell walls of fungi, mushrooms and bacteria, and along with potassium carbonate, proteins, lipids, and pigments, serves to support the main structure of the shells and exoskeletons of various animals. Next to cellulose, chitin is the polysaccharide most produced in the world, with as much as ten billion tons of chitin and its derivatives estimated to be produced from living organisms each year. Despite its abundance in nature, chitin has not been effectively utilized because of its low solubility in aqueous solutions. Owing to this problem, chitin is difficult to form into fibers or films and thus, has found limited applications. In an effort to overcome this problem, chitin was converted into chitosan which is soluble in aqueous acid solutions. A deacetylation technique is generally used for the conversion of chitin into chitosan. Industrially, chitosan, which is water-soluble, is more extensively used than chitin, which is non-water soluble. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06444797__ •

Chitosan-based nitric oxide donor compositions Inventor(s): Smith; Daniel J. (Stow, OH), Yazici; Sibel (Karamursel-Izmit, TR) Assignee(s): The University of Akron (Akron, OH) Patent Number: 6,451,337 Date filed: May 22, 2000 Abstract: A chitosan-based polymeric nitric oxide donor composition comprising a modified chitosan polymer and a nitric oxide [N.sub.2 O.sub.2 ] dimer, wherein the nitric oxide [N.sub.2 O.sub.2 ] dimer is bonded directly to the backbone of the modified chitosan polymer without further binding through a nucleophile residue or moiety. The chitosan-based polymeric nitric oxide donor composition is capable of site specific delivery and controlled release of nitric oxide under physiological conditions. The chitosan-based polymeric nitric oxide donor composition further provides a carrier having medically beneficial properties. A method is further included for preparing a chitosan-based polymeric nitric oxide donor composition comprising reacting a nitric oxide dimer (80-100 p.s.i.) with a modified chitosan polymer in the presence of sodium methoxide at room temperature. The chitosan-based polymeric nitric oxide composition can be incorporated into dry powder inhalers, wound dressings, implants, injectables, condoms, wound dressings and prosthesis coatings for use in a variety of medical applications in which an effective dosage of nitric oxide is indicated as a preferred method of treatment.

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Excerpt(s): The present invention is directed to a polymeric composition that is capable of releasing nitric oxide (NO). The present invention is more particularly directed to a chitosan-based polymeric nitric oxide donor composition comprising a modified chitosan polymer and a nitric oxide [N.sub.2 O.sub.2 ].sup.- dimer, which provides site specific delivery and controlled release of nitric oxide under physiological conditions; pharmacological compositions comprising the polymeric composition; and the use of the polymeric composition to treat biological disorders for which an effective dosage of exogenous nitric oxide is indicated as a preferred method of treatment. The chemical versatility of the nitric oxide (NO) molecule allows it to participate in a variety of physiologic processes. Nitric oxide (NO) reacts in biological systems with molecular oxygen (O.sub.2), superoxide (O.sub.2.sup.-) and transition metals to form high nitrogen oxides (NO.sub.x), peroxynitrite (OONO.sup.-) and metal-nitrosyl adducts which have various toxicities and biological activities. The role of the nitric oxide (NO) molecule has been implicated in many physiologic processes, such as regulation of pulmonary hypertension via endothelium derived relaxing factor (EDRF)-induced vascular relaxation, central and peripheral neurotransmission, modulation of intestinal motility, regulation of male erectile function, macrophage-induced cytostasis and cytotoxicity, platelet inhibition, and non specific immune response. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06451337__ •

Chondroitin sulphate and chitosan compositions for treating rheumatic disorders Inventor(s): Derrieu; Guy (Cagnes-sur-Mer, FR), Pougnas; Jean-Luc (Saint Laurent du Var, FR) Assignee(s): Virbac (Carros, FR) Patent Number: 6,599,888 Date filed: February 22, 2002 Abstract: The subject of the present invention is the use of a preparation comprising:a) from 1 to 50% by weight, relative to the total weight of the preparation, of at least one compound chosen from chondroitin sulfates and their salts, andb) from 1 to 66% by weight, relative to the total weight of the preparation, of at least one compound chosen from chitosan, its salts, its derivatives and the salts of these derivatives, for the preparation of a composition for the prevention or treatment of rheumatic conditions by the general route, and, in particular, for the prevention or treatment of degenerative arthropathies. Excerpt(s): The subject of the present invention is the use of preparations based on chondroitin sulfate and chitosan for the preparation of compositions intended for the prevention or treatment of rheumatic conditions and, in particular, degenerative arthropathies, by the general route. The joints and the various connective tissues of which they consist (cartilages, fibrocartilages, synovial membranes, ligaments and the like) are constantly subjected to mechanical stresses and to stresses which may lead to inflammatory pathologies such as arthritis or degenerative pathologies such as osteoarthritis, which are responsible for their blockage. These conditions may be acute at the level of the joints in the neck, the shoulders, the back, the hips, the forelimbs such as the elbows and the wrists, the hindlimbs such as the knees and the ankles, as well as the fingers or the toes. These pathologies are very frequent and affect both humans and animals. Mainly two families of antiinflammatory compounds are used in human and veterinary rheumatology: the glucocorticosteroids and the NSAIDs (or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: salycilates, indoles and related compounds, propionics,

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pyrazoles, anthranylines and the like). Although relieving pain and reducing the inflammatory state of connective tissues during their use, these compounds have only a pain-relieving function and do not allow a return to the normal state by the reconstitution of the tissues. Thus, these treatments are in the long term ineffective, or even harmful, because they block the natural processes for the defence of the body and lead to a destruction of the connective tissues. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06599888__ •

Combinations of psyllium and chitosan for synergistic adsorption of triglyceride Inventor(s): Babish; John G. (Brooktondale, NY) Assignee(s): MetaProteomics, LLC (San Clemente, CA) Patent Number: 6,506,420 Date filed: March 29, 2002 Abstract: A composition and method for minimizing the absorption of triglycerides and fats in the gastrointestinal tract is described. The composition comprises psyllium and chitosan in a ratio range of 2:1 to 11:1 by weight, preferably 2:1 to 9:1, and most preferably 2:1 to 4:1 to provide a synergistic fat-binding effect. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to a composition and a method for weight loss, reduction of serum cholesterol, and normalization of insulin response without requiring added caloric restriction. More specifically, the present invention relates to combinations of psyllium and chitosan, in a proper ratio, which synergistically adsorb dietary fats and inhibit their gastrointestinal absorption. In recent years, people have tended to become less physically active and consume food that has a high fat content. Such sedentary life styles and excessive lipid ingestion cause obesity and along with it a variety complications, for instance, heart and circulatory diseases, respiratory disease, diabetes and the like. It is known that the fat content of foods is a major factor in the problem of obesity. It is also understood that the body tends to store fat for future use rather than utilize it immediately, which leads to weight-gain. Furthermore, it has been shown that there is a connection between the amount of fat stored in the body and the level of serum cholesterol, with a diet high in fat being likely to lead to high serum cholesterol levels. As cholesterol has been implicated as a factor in arteriosclerosis or hardening of the arteries, the risk for heart disease and/or a heart attack is increased when a diet high in fat is followed. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06506420__

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Composition for the oxidation dyeing of keratin fibers and dyeing process using this composition Inventor(s): Lagrange; Alain (Coupvray, FR), Plos; Gregory (Paris, FR) Assignee(s): L'Oreal S.A. (Paris, FR) Patent Number: 6,599,328 Date filed: June 15, 2000 Abstract: A ready-to-use composition for the oxidation dyeing of keratin fibers, and, in particular, human keratin fibers, such as the hair, having at least one oxidation dye, at

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least one oxidoreductase enzyme, and at least one specific salified or chemically modified chitosan, as well as to the oxidation dyeing process using this composition. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to a ready-to-use composition for the oxidation dyeing of keratin fibers, and, in particular, human keratin fibers, such as the hair, comprising, in a medium suitable for dyeing, at least one oxidation dye, at least one enzyme of 2electron or 4-electron oxidoreductase type, and at least one specific salified or chemically modified chitosan, as well as to the dyeing process using this composition. It is known to dye keratin fibers, and, in particular, human hair, with dye compositions containing oxidation dye precursors, in particular, ortho- or para-phenylenediamines, ortho-, or para-aminophenols, and heterocyclic bases, generally known as oxidation bases. The oxidation dye precursors, or oxidation bases, are colorless or weakly colored compounds that, when combined with oxidizing products, can give rise to colored compounds and dyes by a process of oxidating condensation. It is also known that the shades obtained with these oxidation bases can be varied by combining them with couplers or coloration modifiers, the latter being chosen, in particular, from aromatic meta-diamines, meta-aminophenols, meta-diphenols and certain heterocyclic compounds. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06599328__ •

Crosslinked products of biopolymers containing amino groups Inventor(s): Nies; Berthold (Frankisch-Crumbach, DE) Assignee(s): Merck Patent Gesellschaft (Darmstadt, DE) Patent Number: 6,509,039 Date filed: July 21, 2000 Abstract: The invention relates to cross linked products of chitosan or gelatin and of a carboxylic acid di- or polyanhydride. These products form hydrogels with a wide variety of applications, preferably in the medical/pharmaceutical sector. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to cross linked products of biopolymers containing amino groups and of a carboxylic acid di- or polyanhydride such as pyromellitic anhydride or polymaleic anhydride. The biopolymers containing amino groups mean, in particular, chitosan and gelatin. Chitosan is a cationic biopolymer consisting of repeating units of 1,4-linked D-glucosamine. Chitosan is the product of the deacetylation of chitin which is widespread in animate nature as a structural substance in the carapace and shells of crustaceans, insects and the like. Chitosan, as a natural raw material which is obtainable in a straightforward and environmentally compatible manner from natural renewable sources, is increasingly attracting interest for industrial applications. An essential property of chitosan is the ability to form viscous aqueous solutions. Solutions of this type can have a wide variety of applications in chemistry, pharmacy, cosmetics and food technology. Examples thereof include use as a thickener, gel former, binder, film former and adhesive. Chitosan is also used as a naturally degradable flocculation aid for purification of waste water. The property of binding heavy metals is also beneficial for the same application purpose. Chitosan, as a biocompatible and bioabsorbable polymer, is of particular interest in pharmaceutical and medical applications such as, for example, as a component of wound coverings or of materials for endoprostheses. However, the specific solubility characteristics of chitosan set limits to practical use. The only suitable aqueous media for dissolving chitosan are monobasic mineral acids such as hydrochloric acid, and aqueous solutions of some

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organic acids such as, for example, acetic acid and lactic acid. Chitosan is virtually insoluble in other media and conventional solvents. Chitosan solutions can accordingly be employed only where the aqueous acidic dissolving medium is not a problem. The adjustment of particular viscosities is essentially possible only via the concentration of chitosan in the solution. Highly viscous solutions or gels can be obtained only by choosing an appropriately high chitosan concentration which is, on the one hand, difficult and, on the other hand, in turn unwanted or disadvantageous for many applications. It is desirable to have high viscosities in the case of solutions, and gels with a stable consistency at a comparatively low chitosan concentration. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06509039__ •

Devices and method for chemical reactive filtration Inventor(s): Bause; Dan (Flanders, NJ), Rohrbach; Ron (Flemington, NJ), Unger; Peter (Morristownship, NJ) Assignee(s): Honeywell International Inc. (Morristown, NJ) Patent Number: 6,645,447 Date filed: April 11, 2001 Abstract: A gas contaminant is filtered using fibers having internal cavities containing a chemically reactive oxidizing agent, an acid or base, a coordinating agent, a complexing agent, or a deliquescing agent. Where the contaminant is basic, the reagent is preferably an oxidizing agent. Where the contaminant is acidic, the reagent is preferably basic, and more preferably comprises a group 1 or group 2 metal cation. The reagent may also advantageously comprise a phosphate, chitosan, hypochlorite, borate, carbonate, hydroxide, or oxide. Where the contaminant is neutral, the reagent is preferably an oxidizing agent, complexing agent, coordinating agent, or deliquescing agent. The reagent is preferably impregnated into an adsorptive solid, including, for example, carbon powder, zeolite, aluminum oxide, or silica. The fibers are preferably multilobal, and most preferably either trilobal or quadrilobal. It is also preferred that the fibers contain a plurality of T shaped lobes. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a filter system and specifically to a system utilizing solid and liquid reagents. It is conventionally known to use activated charcoal and other materials as adsorptive elements to remove impurities from an air stream. With the advent of effective fiber cross sections, it is possible to produce fibers which are partially hollow. A particularly effective cross section is one having three T-shaped lobes extending from a central core, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,057,368, "Filaments Having Trilobal Or Quadrilobal Cross-Sections" to Largman et al., which is incorporated herein by reference. Conventional filters have used filtering media coated with solid or liquid materials in a variety of applications; however, many of these applications have relied on absorption, rather than adsorption. Adsorption occurs where particles to be removed attach to the surface of the filter material elements; whereas, absorption occurs where molecular motion mobility is harnessed to move unwanted particles from one zone to another in a non-mechanical manner. The multilobal fiber has been particularly effective as a wicking fiber where certain contaminant-removing liquids or solids are filled in cavities formed within the fiber. The multilobal fiber filled with solid filtering particles have been used in adsorptive air filtration and odor-removing applications. Such filtering particles have included the use of carbon particles, zeolites, baking soda, cyclodextrins, and solids which could adsorb certain contaminants (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,759,394, which is incorporated herein by reference). Other applications utilizing

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multilobal-type fibers as wicking fibers also have involved absorptive properties of certain liquids which are filled within the cavities of the fibers. These liquids were typically chosen to lightly absorb odor and gas molecules in a reversible manner from a contaminated air stream to aid in the eventual dispersion of these molecules into a second air stream (see U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,891,221 and 5,704,966, which are incorporated herein by reference). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06645447__ •

Fibrin sealants or adhesives comprising a hyaluronic acid derivative material Inventor(s): Paquin; Marc R. (Sarasota, FL), Whitmore; Elaine (Bradenton, FL) Assignee(s): Haemacure Corporation (Montreal, CA) Patent Number: 6,503,527 Date filed: August 14, 2000 Abstract: A fibrin adhesive or sealant composition comprising a biocompatible, bioabsorbable hyaluronic acid material, chitin material, or chitosan material to which fibrinogen and a fibrinogen-cleaving agent are applied, along with other components such as additional coagulation factors, anti-fibrinolytics, stabilizers and biologically active substances. The fibrinogen, fibrinogen-cleaving agent and other components can take the form of dry preparation, an aqueous or nonaqueous preparation, or a combination thereof. Such a composition can be placed directly on, around, or within a wound site and is fully reabsorbed into the body. Excerpt(s): The fibrinogen component of the composition can be obtained by conventional methodology. Examples of such methods include centrifugation, cryoprecipitation and precipitation using polyethylene glycol, ether, ethanol, glycine or ammonium sulfate. Methods of obtaining suitable fibrinogen are disclosed, for example, by Brennan, "Fibrin Glue," Blood Reviews 5: 240-244 (1991). Further examples of fibrin components are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,290,918 and 5,395,923. The thrombin component of the composition is also well known in the art and can be obtained by conventional methods, including recombinant methods. Bovine and human derived thrombins are illustrative of available thrombins well known in the art. Application of the fibrin glue can be accomplished in a number of ways known in the art. In one method, the admixture is drawn into a syringe and ejected via an appropriate sized needle. In another method a double barrel syringe is used. Other conventional techniques employ a microdrop delivery system, a spray application via a multi-channel catheter which is fixed to a pressurized gas source, or a carrier, such as collagen fleece, dura, or a graft. Additionally, a number of special applicators are commercially available. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06503527__

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Functional aquarium water and a preparation method thereof Inventor(s): Kim; Jung-Sook (Seoul, KR) Assignee(s): Kostarworld Co., LTD (Seoul, KR) Patent Number: 6,528,062 Date filed: June 19, 2001

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Abstract: Aquarium water and a preparation method thereof, including a fermented solution of a mixture of extract from leaves of a ginkgo tree, extract from ganoderma, extract from bark of a chestnut tree, extract from acorns, extract from leaves of an evergreen oak tree, extract from bamboo, extract from leaves of a persimmon tree, extract from leaves of a pine tree, water-soluble chitosan powder extracted from crab shells, barley natural stone powder, bamboo salt, potato starch, and distilled water. Fermentation is by adding yeast, and organic germanium, mineral component extracted from yellow soil, and extract from combustion of an oak tree are added. The solution is then fermented again and refined in a liquid state. Excerpt(s): The present invention is related to aquarium water and a method of its manufacture. Aquarium water refers to the water kept in an aquarium in order to breed fishes, such as aquarium fishes, etc. The water should be replaced regularly since it degenerates after a fixed amount of storage time. When a new aquarium is installed, there occurs the New Tank Syndrome (N.T.S) in which aquarium fishes die a few days later. The main reason for degeneration of the aquarium water is that discharged and secreted materials of all living bodies, dead aquarium fishes, remaining fodder, moss, air-pollution materials, etc. are accumulated directly as they are or after they are decomposed. Most substances that flow into the aquarium water are decomposed by the bacteria that live in the water tank naturally. Among them, proteins are decomposed into ammonia (NH4+) by heterotrophic bacteria, where even a small amount of ammonium nitrogen compounds existing in the water tank acts as a fatal poison to aquarium fishes and corals and induces the New Tank Syndrome. Ammonia is decomposed by the nitrification bacteria, of which representative bacteria include nitrosomonas bacteria, decomposing ammonia into nitrous acid (NO2-), and nitrobacter bacteria, decomposing nitrous acid into non-toxic nitrate (NO3-). Therefore, in order to breed aquarium fishes, ammonia should be removed by replacing the aquarium water, or an environment, in which the nitrification bacteria may be multiplied greatly, should be formed. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06528062__ •

Hydrogels derived from chitosan and poly(ethylene glycol) or related polymers Inventor(s): Bentley; Michael David (Huntsville, AL), Zhao; Xuan (Hunstville, AL) Assignee(s): Shearwater Corporation (Huntsville, AL) Patent Number: 6,602,952 Date filed: June 8, 2000 Abstract: The invention provides a polymeric structure comprising a multifunctional poly(alkylene oxide), such as a poly(ethylene glycol) derivative, covalently cross-linked to a polymer selected from the group consisting of chitosan and conjugates of chitosan and a monofunctional poly(alkylene oxide), such as methoxy poly(ethylene glycol). In aqueous media, the polymeric structure forms a hydrogel that is useful as a drug delivery device, a surgical sealant, or as a delivery system for a medical imaging agent. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to hydrogels for biomedical applications. Chitosan is of increasing interest in drug delivery. It is known, for example, to enhance transport of hydrophilic drugs such as peptides and proteins across the intestinal epithelial barrier (N. G. Schipper, K. M. Varnum, and P. Artursson, Pharm. Res., 13, 1686-1692, 1996). It has also reported to be useful in both colon delivery (H. Tozaki, et. al, J. Pharm, Sci., 86, 1016-1021, 1997) and nasal delivery of insulin (R. Soane, et. al, Proc. 25th International

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Symp. on Controlled Release of Bioactive Materials, 1998). Chitosan is also of current interest as a carrier in gene delivery (MacLaughlin, et. al, J. Controlled Release, 56, 259272, 1998). Hydrogels, which are cross-linked polymers that swell in water, have potential as drug delivery vehicles. However, many of the hydrogels that have been reported have drawbacks and disadvantages that detract from their use as either drug delivery vehicles or in other biomedical applications. Some cross-linking agents are considered to be toxic and could be problematic if released from the hydrogel in vivo. Some gels are prepared with multiple constituents that can unnecessarily complicate of the preparation of the gels. Some gels are not as stable as desired when used in vivo. It would be desirable to develop new hydrogels that reduce or eliminate some of these drawbacks and disadvantages. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06602952__ •

Influenza vaccine composition with chitosan adjuvant Inventor(s): Bacon; Andrew David (London, GB), Makin; Jill Catherine (Liverpool, GB) Assignee(s): West Pharmaceutical Services Drug Delivery & Clinical Research Centre (Nottingham, GB) Patent Number: 6,534,065 Date filed: May 30, 2000 Abstract: A vaccine composition adapted for mucosal administration is provided. The composition includes one or more influenza vaccine antigens and an effective adjuvant amount of an acid addition salt of a chitosan wherein the chitosan is a deacetylated chitin which is at least 80% deacetylated and has a weight average molecular weight of between 10,000 and 100,000. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a vaccine composition for intranasal administration comprising one or more influenza antigens, and a chitosan as a mucosal adjuvant. The invention also relates to methods of immunization using the vaccine compositions, and to the use of certain chitosans for enhancing the immunogenicity of influenza viral antigens, when administered intranasally. Current influenza vaccines consist of either inactivated whole virus, disrupted virus (split vaccines) or purified preparations of the membrane glycoproteins haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) sub-unit vaccines. Haemagglutinin and neuraminidase are the antigens to which protective antibody responses are directed, haemagglutinin being the major protective antigen. Estimates of the efficacy of these parenterally administered vaccines vary greatly. Such vaccines are believed to act primarily by eliciting circulating anti-haemagglutinin IgG antibodies that transudate into the lower respiratory tract. M. L. Clements et al, J. Clinical Microbiology 24, 157-160, 1986, have previously reported that both secretory IgA and serum IgG participate in immunity to influenza virus. Moreover, in mice, a number of published studies have demonstrated the importance of respiratory IgA to protection against influenza infection. It has also been found that an advantage of stimulating a local IgA response to influenza is that it is often of a broader specificity than the serum response and thus can provide cross-protection against viruses possessing haemagglutinin molecules different from those present in the vaccine. Accordingly, influenza vaccines that elicit both local secretory and serum antihaemagglutinin responses should provide superior immunity to current vaccines. However, parenteral vaccination (intramuscular, sub-cutaneous etc.) is not effective at eliciting local antibody production, if there has been no previous mucosal exposure (e.g.

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infection). In order to stimulate the mucosal immune system, the vaccine must be applied topically to a mucosal surface. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06534065__ •

Ionic chitosan -iodine complexes: antiseptic hydrogels and wound healing promoters Inventor(s): Hassan; EmadEldin M. (Philadelphia, PA) Assignee(s): Pharma C and D, Limited (Nicosia, CY) Patent Number: 6,521,243 Date filed: December 22, 2000 Abstract: This invention describes non-staining, pharmaceutically useful compositions of ionic complexes made between the cationic polymer chitosan or its derivatives and the small anionic iodine-iodide complex (ICIC's). Unlike previously disclosed ion transfer chitosan iodine complexes, ICIC's were found to possess dramatically higher viscosity than those of each ingredient separately, and instantly form a gel structure that is easily dispersible upon shaking. In addition to their antiseptic power, ICIC's showed better skin biocompatibility than povidone iodine and effectively promoted wound healing. Excerpt(s): This invention is related to ionic complexes of iodine with chitosan or its derivatives, methods of preparation thereof and pharmaceutically useful compositions containing these complexes. This invention is also related to hydrogels made of chitosan-iodine ionic complexes. This invention further relates to methods of treatments by these preparations, and their use in promoting wound healing and as antiseptics. c. A remodeling phase where the granulation tissue is replaced by collagen and elastin fibers forming a scar. The primary step in wound treatment is to prevent or eliminate microbial contamination of wounds by using disinfectants or antiseptics. Since contaminating microbes release toxins and cause pathological changes at the wound site, delaying the natural healing process, the use of antimicrobials is an essential first step in wound treatment. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06521243__

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Laminated packaging material, a method of producing the same, as well as packaging containers Inventor(s): Berlin; Mikael (Lund, SE) Assignee(s): Tetra Laval Holdings & Finance, SA (Pully, CH) Patent Number: 6,495,223 Date filed: June 10, 1998 Abstract: A laminated packaging material for liquid-tight, dimensionally stable packages has superior gas-barrier properties, particularly oxygen barrier properties. The laminated packaging material includes a core layer and a barrier layer juxtaposed to the core layer. The barrier layer is formed from a polyvinyl alcohol, a polysaccharide and a cross-linking agent, the polysaccharide being chitosan and the cross-linking agent being a dialdehyde compound. A method for making the laminated packaging material is also disclosed.

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Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a laminated packaging material comprising a core layer and a layer of cross-linked polyvinyl alcohol applied on one side of the core layer and acting as gas barrier. The present invention further relates to a method of producing the laminated packaging material, as well as to packaging containers produced from the laminated packaging material and possessing superior tightness properties vis-a-vis liquids and gases, in particular oxygen gas. Within packaging technology, use has long been made of packages of the disposable type (so-called single use packages) for packing and transporting products such as, for example, liquid foods. A predominant group of these single use disposable packages is produced from a laminated packaging material which comprises a core layer of paper or paperboard and outer, liquid-tight coatings of plastic, preferably polyethylene, on both sides of the core layer. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06495223__ •

Medical composition and uses thereof Inventor(s): Johansson; Benny (Malmo, SE), Niklasson; Bo (Malmo, SE) Assignee(s): Noviscens AB (Tygelsjo, SE) Patent Number: 6,562,802 Date filed: June 16, 1999 Abstract: A composition is described, which comprises a cationic, hydrophilic, amine containing cationic derivatives of native chitosan; bound to an anionic scavenger substance, which is either (a) selected from the group consisting of anionic ethylene amine compounds, tetraazacycloalkane-N,N,N,N-tetraacetic acids; and polymer derivatives of porphyrines, or, (b) in the case of use in an UV radiation absorbing formulation, an antiviral, antifungal or anti-inflammatory formulation, an endogenous compound wherein cationic derivatives of native chitosan are not covalently bound to DTPA or EDTA; the amount of EDTA exceeds 0.5 wight percent; and taurine and taurine derivatives are not present. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a medical composition and use thereof for the manufacture of a topical barrier formulation, an UV-radiation absorbing formulation, or an antiviral, antifungal, or antiinflammatory formulation. Since the first epidemiological data on allergic contact dermatitis reported in the thirties, nickel has been the most frequent allergen in women. The primary site for sensitization has changed, from suspenders to metal buttons in jeans to pierced ear lobes. Sensitization may also occur from occupational contact with objects like electrical assembly, cuff links, locksmith tools, dental equipment, scissors, knitting equipment, chemical reagents etc. In the following, the focus is on the severe condition of hand eczema, but obviously, eczema on other sites like the stomach caused by nickel containing jeans buttons or on ear lobes caused by contact with earrings is a big problem. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06562802__

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Method for preparing a filter for removal of leucoclytes coated with chitosan Inventor(s): Jung; Byung-Ok (Seoul, KR), Kim; Jae-Jin (Seoul, KR), Suh; Sang-Bong (Seoul, KR) Assignee(s): Korea Institute of Science and Technology (Seoul, KR) Patent Number: 6,497,927 Date filed: November 13, 2000 Abstract: Filter for removal of leucocytes is provided, wherein the filter is coated with a natural polymer of chitosan which has a good blood compatibility and no side effect in human body on an ultrafine non-woven fabric. This blood filter provides a high removal rate of leucocytes as well as good recovery of platelets and red blood cells due to secondary filtration through electrostatic power between a leucocyte and a cationic residue provided by chitosan on the surface of the non-woven fabric. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a filter for removal of leucocytes coated with a natural polymer of chitosan. More particularly, the invention relates to a filter for removal of leucocytes prepared by applying a natural polymer of chitosan on ultrafine non-woven fabric, wherein said polymer has a good blood compatibility while avoiding negative side-effects in a human body. The filter for removal of leucocytes of the invention has a high removal rate of leucocytes with good recovery of platelets and red blood cells. Blood occupies about 6 to 8% by weight of human body, and about 40 to 45% by volume of blood is solid phase and the rest is liquid phase. The solid cell components of blood consist of red blood cells (RBC), leucocytes and platelets, and the liquid components of blood, so-called plasma, consist of a solution of plasma protein such as fibrinogen, albumin and gamma-globulin, and organic and inorganic salts in water. As disclosed above, blood is important and valuable as a structural component of the human body as well as functional component. Recently, a trend in blood transfusion has been changing from transfusing a whole blood to a active transfusion of only desired blood components, and such transfusion is commonly utilized in blood transfusion therapy. The blood components transfusion therapy has an advantage in that it is possible that sufficient amounts of particular blood components are provided to a patient in need of such components. Additionally, it is possible to use a single unit of donated blood in larger patients, thereby avoiding waste of blood resources. After transfusion of a blood preparation of red cell or platelet concentrates as well as a fresh whole blood, leucocytes contained in the preparation may result in several side effects such as non-hemolytic pyrexia and transfusion refractoriness due to forming of antileucocyte antibodies. In particular, repeated transfusions of platelet concentrates frequently leads to alloimmunization against histocompatible antigen of leucocytes contained therein. Thus, in order to reduce such leucocyte-associated post-transfusion complications, it is desirable to remove leucocytes from platelet concentrates. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06497927__

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Method for producing low acid beverage Inventor(s): Hino; Yoshiko (Osaka, JP), Matsumoto; Nobuya (Osaka, JP), Matsumoto; Shigemi (Osaka, JP), Yokoo; Yoshiaki (Osaka, JP) Assignee(s): Suntory Limited (Osaka, JP) Patent Number: 6,482,456 Date filed: June 16, 2000

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Abstract: A method for producing a low acid beverage in which a deterioration in quality associated with a pH decrease during heat sterilization or long-term storage in a heated condition is eliminated or minimized, and which is characterized by adding at least one of chitosan, chitosan oligosaccharide and glucosamine. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a method for producing a low acid beverage in which deterioration in quality associated with a pH decrease during heat sterilization or during long-term storage in a heated condition is minimized or eliminated. Noncarbonated canned beverages can be generally classified into two types depending on the hydrogen ion concentration exponent (hereinafter referred to as "pH") of the contents: acid beverages having a pH of less than 4.6, which include fruit drinks, sport drinks, tomato juice, and so on; and low acid beverages having a pH of 4.6 or above, which include black coffee, white coffee, milk tea, milk, green tea, soup, and so on (Beverage Japan No. 80, August 1988, "Production of Canned Beverages"). Under the Japanese Food Sanitation Law (Standards for the Foods and Additives, D, each Article), beverages that have a pH of 4.6 or above, and water activity in excess of 0.94 are required to be sterilized by a method such as is effective in destroying microorganisms introduced into beverages from raw material sources, etc. and which have the ability to survive and proliferate in such beverages. Low acid beverages generally require heat sterilization at 100.degree. C. or above. However, heat sterilization causes a decrease in the pH of low acid beverages. Furthermore, long-term storage in a heated condition (55 to 60.degree. C.) such as is employed in vending machines also causes a decrease in pH. In addition, environmental factors may cause a rise in temperature of beverages during storage or distribution, thus similarly affecting the pH thereof. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06482456__ •

Method of and composition for reducing the loss of fluid during well drilling, completion or workover operations Inventor(s): Cowan; Jack C. (Lafayette, LA), Kilchrist; Michael J. (Lafayette, LA) Assignee(s): Venture Chemicals, Inc. (Lafayette, LA) Patent Number: 6,562,762 Date filed: July 3, 2001 Abstract: Disclosed is a composition for and method of reducing the loss of fluid from well drilling, completion, or workover fluids during well drilling, completion, or workover operations, particularly for reducing or overcoming the lost circulation of drilling fluids. The composition comprises an aqueous liquid containing partially hydrated chitosan particles wherein the chitosan particles have been partially hydrated at a pH less than about 4.5, and wherein the aqueous liquid has a pH of at least about 6.5 such that any further solublizing of the chitosan is prevented. The aqueous liquid, preferably when mixed with a drilling, completion, or workover fluid, is effective in decreasing the loss of such fluids after introducing the partially hydrated chitosancontaining liquid or fluid into the flow passages in a well to which such fluids are being lost. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a novel method of controlling the loss of fluid during well drilling, completion and workover operations to permeable subterranean formations encountered during such operations. More particularly the invention relates to the use of partially hydrated polymer particles in an aqueous liquid to reduce the loss of fluid to permeable subterranean formations contacted by the

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aqueous liquid. During the drilling of an oilwell, a usually aqueous fluid is injected into the well through the dill pipe and recirculated to the surface in the annular area between the wellbore wall and the drill string. The functions of the drilling fluid include: lubrication of the drill bit, transportation of cuttings to the surface, overbalancing formation pressure to prevent an influx of oil, gas or water into the well, maintenance of hole stability until casing can be set, suspension of solids when the fluid is not being circulated and minimizing fluid loss into and possible associated damage/instability to the formation through which drilling is taking place. Proper overbalancing of formation pressure is obtained by establishing fluid density at the desired level usually via the addition of barite. Transportation of cuttings and their suspensions when the fluid is not circulating is related to the fluid viscosity and thixotropy which depend on solids content and/or use of a polymer. Fluid loss control is obtained also by the use of clays and/or added polymers. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06562762__ •

Method of coating food products and a coating composition Inventor(s): Ager; Scott P. (Tumwater, WA), Iverson; Carl E. (Olympia, WA) Assignee(s): CH.sub.2 O Incorporated (Olympia, WA) Patent Number: 6,586,029 Date filed: July 13, 2000 Abstract: A virgin chitosan polymer is added to an acid and water solution in an amount sufficient to form an edible composition having a solids content greater than five percent (5%) and a liquid viscosity. The composition is applied to food products, such as fruits, vegetables and nuts, to provide an edible protective coating for the food products. Alternatively, chitosan may be hydrolyzed to a lower molecular weight so that a gel will not be formed when the partially hydrolyzed chitosan is admixed to the acid water solution. An edible wax emulsion and/or a preservative such as sodium benzoate, and/or an adhesion additive such as zinc acetate, and/or a wetting agent, and/or one or more additives from the group consisting of virgin and/or modified carbohydrates, proteins, hydrocolloides, lipids, oils, gums and waxes, natural and/or synthetic, made be added to the composition before it is applied to the food product. In a preferred form, a chitosan polymer is used that has a molecular weight sufficient to form a composition having a solids content of about fifteen percent (15%) or higher. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to protective coatings for food products. More particularly, it relates to a method of preparing and using a protective coating for food products such as fruits, vegetables and nuts, based on chitosan or chitosan derivatives, and to the coating composition itself. It is well known to coat food products, such as fruits, vegetables and nuts, to protect them against mold, rot and water damage and to improve their appearance and, hence, their marketability. Common coatings now in use employ proteins, gums, resins, hydrocolloids, waxes, and oils either alone or in combination, to achieve certain desired objectives. Enhancing appearance, slowing moisture loss, affecting the respiration or ripening process of fruits, nuts, and vegetables, are several of the goals of many modern food coatings. Coating fruit, first with a sorbate and then with a wax, is disclosed by U.S. Pat. No. 4,434,184, granted Feb. 28, 1984 to Paul M. Nelson. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06586029__

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Method of forming a barrier on an epidermal surface Inventor(s): Scimeca; John V. (Kentwood, MI), Zimmerman; Amy C. (Grand Rapids, MI) Assignee(s): Access Business Group International LLC (Ada, MI) Patent Number: 6,461,635 Date filed: February 19, 2002 Abstract: A composition, comprising panthenol or a derivative thereof, chitosan or a derivative thereof, and a carrier, wherein the composition forms a barrier that enhances the removal of an object having an adhesive-containing surface from a another surface to which the composition is applied without substantially interfering with the ability of the adhesive to adhere to the other surface. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a barrier-forming composition. In particular, the present invention is directed to a composition that, when applied to a surface, enhances the removal of an object having an adhesive-containing surface from the surface to which the composition is applied without substantially interfering with the ability of the adhesive to adhere to the surface. Preferentially, the composition is used to pre-treat skin (or hair or nails, all of which are examples of "a surface") before adhering to the skin an object having an adhesive-containing surface. The barrier-forming composition significantly reduces redness and/or irritation that may be caused by the removal of the adhesive-containing surface from the skin. Presently, when an object having an adhesive-containing surface is placed on another surface so that the object adheres to the other surface, removal of the objects may cause harm to the other surface. Such "other surfaces" include but are not limited to skin (mammalian or otherwise), hair and nails. For example, when an object having an adhesive-containing surface is placed on skin, removal of the object causes irritation and redness of the skin. Such "objects" include but are not limited to bandages, anti-smoking patches, and magnet-therapy discs. This irritation can be addressed by pre-treating the other surface with a composition such as an aloe gel. A problem with pre-treating the other surface with aloe gel is that aloe gel can interfere with the ability of the adhesive surface to adhere to the other surface. For example, applying aloe gel to skin before applying a bandage would render the adhesive surface of the bandage useless. The bandage would simply slide off of the skin. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06461635__

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Methods for treatment of impulse control disorders Inventor(s): Sakai; Kazuo (Twin Palace 603, 2-34-8 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, JP) Assignee(s): Kitosan Food Industry Co., Ltd. (Osaka, JP), Sakai; Kazuo (Tokyo, JP) Patent Number: 6,495,142 Date filed: March 13, 2001 Abstract: Methods of treating, and/or improving impulse control disorder, which comprises administering to a living subject, a composition comprising chitosan as an effective ingredient, having a weight-average molecular weight of 80,000 to 100,000 and a number-average molecular weight of 30,000 to 40,000, as measured by gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Also provided are methods for giving an activity of repressing impulse to food products and drinks by putting said chitosan in the food products, drinks and the material therefor.

Patents 87

Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method for treating, improving or preventing impulse control disorder, by administering a composition comprising a specified low-molecular weight chitosan and/or a derivative thereof to a living subject, particularly to a subject suffering from an impulse control disorder. In addition, a drug, a food product including a health food product, and a drink containing the chitosan is also provided by the present invention. Depression and Bulimia are common psychiatric diseases in the stressful current society, and many people suffer from these disorders. Until now, drugs such as anti-depression drugs including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) have been used for treatment of these diseases. However, these drugs cause many side effects and cannot be used safely for children and aged people. Even if adults take the drugs, they must endure many side effects therefrom. Recently, the frequency of crimes committed by teen-agers has been increasing. Such children evidencing aggressive behavior often commit violence in their schools and/or families, and the collapse of the school and the family as social structures is the serious problem in society. These children are affected by a syndrome of impulse control disorder, including borderline personality disorder, emotionally unstable personality disorder, conduct disorder, defiant personality disorder, explosive personality disorder, intermittent explosive disorder, etc. Tranquilizers used for treatment of these children cause side effect such as sleepiness all day long and lack of motivation for study and every day life. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06495142__ •

Microcapsules Inventor(s): Garces Garces; Josep (Barcelona, ES), Viladot Petit; Josep-Lluis (Barcelona, ES) Assignee(s): Cognis Iberia S. L. (Castellbisbal, ES) Patent Number: 6,534,091 Date filed: May 14, 2002 Abstract: A microcapsule having a mean diameter of from about 0.1 to about 5 mm, a membrane and a matrix containing at least one active principle wherein the microcapsule is the product of the process comprising the steps of (a) forming an aqueous matrix by heating an aqueous solution comprised of a gel former, a chitosan and active principle; (b) adding the aqueous matrix to an aqueous solution of an anionic polymer selected from the group consisting of a salt of alginic acid and an anionic chitosan derivative. Excerpt(s): This invention relates generally to the encapsulation of active principles and more particularly to new microcapsules, to a process for their production using various polymers and chitosans and to their use for the production of, for example, surfaceactive preparations. Examples of known microcapsules are the following commercial products (the membrane material is shown in brackets) Hallcrest Microcapsules (gelatin, gum arabic), Coletica Thalaspheres (maritime collagen), Lipotec Millicapseln (alginic acid, agar agar), Induchem Unispheres (lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose), Unicerin C30 (lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose), Kobo Glycospheres (modified starch, fatty acid esters, phospholipids), Softspheres (modified agar agar) and Kuhs Probiol Nanospheres (phospholipids). Reference is also made in this connection to German patent application DE 19712978 A1 (Henkel) which describes chitosan microspheres obtained by mixing chitosans or chitosan derivatives with oil components and introducing the resulting

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mixtures into alkalized surfactant solutions. In addition, the use of chitosan as an encapsulating material for tocopherol is known from German patent application DE 19756452 A1 (Henkel). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06534091__ •

Modulators of polysaccharides and uses thereof Inventor(s): Mohamadzadeh; Mansour (Plano, TX), Mummert; Mark E. (Dallas, TX), Takashima; Akira (Coppel, TX) Assignee(s): The University of Texas System (Austin, TX) Patent Number: 6,653,285 Date filed: March 22, 2000 Abstract: The present invention provides peptides with a specific affinity for glycosaminoglycan molecules. These peptides may have any number of functions, including but not limited to use as inhibitors of glycosaminoglycan-mediated processes, enhancers of glycosaminoglycan-mediated processes, and as molecular probes to identify the presence of a specific glycosaminoglycan. Peptides of the invention may be directed against any glycosaminoglycan, including hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate A, chondroitin sulfate C, dermatan sulfate, heparin, keratan sulfate, keratosulfate, chitin, chitosan 1, and chitosan 2. These isolated peptides may have therapeutic uses in the treatment or prevention of diseases involving infection, inflammatory diseases, cancer, infections, etc. The peptides may also have other biological functions such as contraception. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to peptide inhibitors of glycosaminoglycans. This invention also relates to formulations, uses and methods of identifying such inhibitors. The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a dynamic assemblage of interacting molecules that regulate cell functions and interactions in response to stimulation. One class of extracellular matrix macromolecules, the glycosaminoglycans, are molecules known to be involved in a wide array of both normal and abnormal biological processes, including cell migration, differentiation, proliferation, immune response and cytoskeletal organization. The glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) is a repeating disaccharide of [GlcNAc.beta.1-4GlcUA.beta.1-3].sub.n that exists in vivo as a high molecular weight linear polysaccharide. HA is found in mammals predominantly in connective tissues, skin, cartilage, and in synovial fluid, and is also the main constituent of the vitreous of the eye. In connective tissue, the water of hydration associated with HA creates spaces between tissues, thus creating an environment conducive to cell movement and proliferation. HA plays a key role in biological phenomena associated with cell motility including rapid development, regeneration, repair, embryogenesis, embryological development, wound healing, angiogenesis, and tumorigenesis (Toole, Cell Biol. Extracell. Matrix, Hay (ed), Plenum Press, New York, 1384-1386 (1991); Bertrand et al. Int. J. Cancer 52:1-6 (1992); Knudson et al, FASEB J. 7:1233-1241 (1993)). HA levels have been shown to correlate with tumor aggressiveness (Ozello et al., Cancer Res. 20:600-604 (1960); Takeuchi et al., Cancer Res. 36:2133-2139 (1976); Kimata et al., Cancer Res. 43:1347-1354 (1983)), and can be indicative of the invasive properties of tumor cells. M. M. Knupfer et al., Anticancer Res 18:353-6 (1998). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06653285__

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Pharmaceutical compositions of chitosan with type-A gelatin Inventor(s): Illum; Lisbeth (Nottingham, GB), Watts; Peter James (Nottingham, GB) Assignee(s): West Pharmaceutical Services Drug Delivery and Clincal Research Centre, (Nottingham, GB) Patent Number: 6,465,626 Date filed: August 18, 1999 Abstract: A drug delivery composition for nasal administration is provided which comprises the antiviral agent ICAM-1 and a bioadhesive material. The bioadhesive material may be a chitosan solution, a liquid formulation comprising a polymeric material or a plurality of bioadhesive microspheres. The polymeric material is preferably gellan gum or alginate. The microspheres may comprise starch, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, or gelatin. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to novel drug delivery compositions which provide for the improved uptake of therapeutic agents across mucosal surfaces. Polar drugs, including high molecular weight peptides, proteins and polysaccharides, are typically not effectively absorbed across mucosal membranes, such as the gastrointestinal tract, the eye, the vagina, the nasal cavity or the rectum. Such molecules are thus normally only given by injection, which inevitably gives rise to well known problems associated with patient compliance, the cost of treatment, as well as the potentially harmful effects, such as phlebitis and pain, of the injection. Formulations based on microspheres for mucosal delivery have been described in WO 88/09163. The formulations contain certain enhancers to aid effective penetration of the mucosa by the drug. WO 89/03207 describes microsphere formulations which do not require an enhancer. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06465626__

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Polymer constructs Inventor(s): Domb; Abraham J. (Efrat, IL) Assignee(s): Chondros, Inc. (Towson, MD) Patent Number: 6,514,522 Date filed: August 14, 2001 Abstract: Polysaccaride polymers are employed in various medical applications. For example, chitosan--arabinogalactan and polysaccharide amine polymers are disclosed. The polymers can be used to prevent wound adhesion, to provide scaffolds for tissue transplantation and carriers for cell culture. Excerpt(s): The invention is involved with making improved polymers and compositions employing these polyers. The herein disclosed invention is concerned with making improved polymer compositions for use as scaffolds for incorporating cells to be used for tissue repair. The invention is also concerned with making improved polymer compositions for use as agents to prevent tissue adhesion after surgery and as wound healing agents. The polymer compositions can also be used as aids to cell culture. An object of this invention is to produce polymer constructs upon which cells can be cultured. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06514522__

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Process for the production of enantiomerically pure or optically enriched sertralinetetralone using continuous chromatography Inventor(s): Dapremont; Oliver (Folsom, CA), Geiser; Fiona (Glenn Mills, PA), Guhan; Subramanian S. (Niantic, CT), Guinn; Robert M. (Mystic, CT), Quallich; George J. (North Stonington, CT), Zhang; Tong (Strasbourg, FR) Assignee(s): Chiral Technologies Europe (Illkirch Cedex, FR) Patent Number: 6,444,854 Date filed: May 1, 2001 Abstract: A process for the production of enantiomerically pure or optically enriched sertraline-tetralone from a mixture containing two enantiomers using continuous chuomatography. The chromatography comprises a liquid mobile phase comprising at least one polar solvent and a solid chiral stationary phase comprising a derivatized polysaccharide that is selected from amylosic, cellulosic, chitosan, xylan, curdlan, and inulan class of polysaccharide. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to the process for the production of enantiomerically pure or optically enriched sertraline-tetralone from a mixture containing two enantioners using continous chromatography or single column high performance chromatography. Some examples of continuous chromatography are liquid chromatography technologies know by the names cyclojet, and simulated moving bed chromatography (SMB). The concept of SMB was described in the late 1950's (U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,957,927 and 2,985,589) and has long been used in the petrochemical and sugar industries, Nicoud, R. M., LC-GC Intl. 5 (5), 43 (1992). Further reference can be made to U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,205,166; 3,291,726; and 3,310,486. A high efficiency continuous separation process using SMB is disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,402,832; 5,518,625; 5,434,298: 5,434,299; 5,498,752; and Re 35,919 which are all incorporated by reference. In addition, "Chiral Discrimination on Polysacchride Derivatives", Yashima and Okamoto, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 68, 3289-3307(1995) discusses separation characteristics useful in chiral chromatography phases. Further discussion by Okamoto et. al. are included in The Journal of Chromatography, Part A, Volume 694, pp 101-109 (1995). Sertralinetetralone is the starting raw material In the synthesis of Zoloft (sertraline hydrochloride), a drug currently marketed for the treatment of depression as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,536,518; 5,196,607; 5,442,116; and 4,777,288, all incorporated by reference. Current processes for preparing this compound as described in the above patents resolve the racemic mixture at a late stage. This late stage resolution requires the undesired enantiomer to be carried through several steps. A significant benefit is obtained if an enantiomerically pure sertaline-tetralone is used as the starting material. A process for chromatographically resolving an enantiomerically pure or optically enriched sertraline-tetralone from a mixture containing two enantiomers uses continuous chromatography or single column high performance chromatography. The continuous chromatography comprses a liquid mobile phase comprising at least one polar solvent and a solid chiral stationary phase comprising a derivatized polysaccharide that is selected from the amylosic, cellulosic, chitosan, xylan, curdlan, dextran and inulan class of polysaccharides. Some examples of the continuous chromatography methods are the cyclojet process or simulated moving bed chromatography process. The simulated moving bed chromatography process is preferred. The process uses a chiral stationary phase which is a member of the amylosic or cellulosic class of polysaccharides selected from cellulose tribenzoate, cellulose tricinnamate, amylose tricinnamate, amylose tris[(S).alpha.-methyl benzyl carbamate], amylose 3,4-substituted phenyl carbamate and amylose 4-substituted phenyl-carbamate.

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Preferably the chiral stationary phase is an analog of amylose (3,4-substituent phenyl carbamate) wherein the subsfituent is selected from 3-chloro-4-methyl, 3-methyl-4chloro or 3-fluoro-4-methyl. The chiral stationary phase can also preferably be a cellulose tricinnamate polysaccharide analog. The mobile phase comprises a solvent that is selected from heptane, hexane, isopropyl, ethanol, methanol. methyl acetate, acetonitrile, methyleno chloride, ethyl acetate and/or mixtures thereof. Preferably the mobile phase is selected from acetonitrile and/or a mixture of acetonitrile and methanol or ethanol and/or a mixture of ethanol and ethyl acetate. In one embodiment the chiral stationary phase is cellulose tricinnamate with a mobile phase of ethanol/ethyl acetate wherein the percentage of ethanol in the mobile phase mixture is greater than 50%. Preferably the chiral stationary phase is amylose (3-chloro-4-methylphenyl carbamate) and the mobile phase is acetonitrile/methanol wherein the percentage of acetonitrile in the mobile phase mixture is greater than 50%. The chromatographic retention times are increased or decreased by varying the mobile phase components. The separation affords at least one of the enantiomers a recovery of greater than or equal to 90 percent. The temperature range is about 5 to 45.degree. C., preferably 20 to 40.degree. C. The separation factor.alpha. is about 1.2 to 5.0. Using a temperature of about 40.degree. C. takes advantage of an increased solubility of sertratine tetralone in the mobile phase. The chiral stationary phase polysaccharide derivative can also be immobilized on silica gel, zirconium, alumina, ceramics and other silicas. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06444854__ •

Process of making chitosan-containing acrylic fibers Inventor(s): Capone; Gary J. (Decatur, AL), Emerson; Charles W. (Hartselle, AL), Fujii; Yasuyuki (Otake, JP), Hosokawa; Hiroshi (Otake, JP), Itoh; Hajime (Otake, JP), Iwamoto; Masako (Otake, JP), Nishihara; Yoshihiro (Otake, JP), Ohnishi; Hiroaki (Otake, JP), Ohsuga; Naoto (Nagoya, JP), Oishi; Seizo (Otake, JP) Assignee(s): Mitsubishi Rayon Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, JP), Solutia Inc. (St. Louis, MO) Patent Number: 6,524,508 Date filed: June 27, 2000 Abstract: The present invention is directed to chitosan-containing acrylic fibers having a total chitosan content of 0.05 to 2% by weight and an extractable chitosan content of not less than 0.03% by weight to less than the total chitosan content. The antimicrobial activity of the chitosan-containing acrylic fibers of the present invention can persist for a long period of time and is not deteriorated even when subjected to posttreatments, such as dyeing and bleaching of fibers, and treatments in usual service environments of fiber products, such as washing and ironing. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to antimicrobial acrylic fibers which can be used as clothes, fancy goods, interior decorations and materials without exerting a bad influence on the human body and environment, and a process for preparing the same. Recently, antimicrobial fibers have widely been used as clothes and fiber products for infant and old people for the purpose of inhibiting the growth of various bacteria, thereby to prevent the occurrence of unpleasant odor. Now, the antimicrobial fibers are widely distributed in a market as a product for general consumers in response to consumers' strong requirements for health and comfort. In these antimicrobial fibers, various antimicrobial agents are used and a process of incorporating the antimicrobial agents in the fiber products varies with purposes. As the antimicrobial agent, for example, there have been known those disclosed in a technique using an inorganic

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metal substance including a silver-zeolite system (Japanese Patent Kokai Publication No. 5-272008, etc.), a process of adding fine powders of copper compound or metals such as copper and zinc (Japanese Patent Kokai Publication No. 115440/80, etc.), a process using a derivative of a quaternary ammonium salt (Japanese Patent Kokai Publication No. 130371/84), a process using a halodiallyl urea compound such as trichlorocarbanilide (Japanese Patent Kokai Publication No. 259169/90), and processes using other compounds such as thiabendazole type compound (Japanese Patent Kokai Publication No. 616/86), phenol type compound (Japanese Patent Kokai Publication No. 252713/85, etc.) and fatty acid ester compound (Japanese Patent Kokai Publication No. 6173/88, etc). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06524508__ •

Production of chitosan and chitin Inventor(s): Chan; Hing-Yuen (Miaoli, TW), Chen; Mei-Huei (Hsinchu, TW), Chen; YenLin (Taoyuan, TW), Chuang; Su-Hui (Hsinchu, TW), Hwang; Ing-Er (Kaohsiung, TW), Wu; Chih-Lu (Hsinchu, TW), Yuan; Gwo-Fang (Hsinchu, TW) Assignee(s): Food Industry Research and Development Institute (Hsinchu, TW) Patent Number: 6,485,946 Date filed: June 3, 2002 Abstract: The invention relates to a method of producing chitin or chitosan by culturing a Rhizopus azygosporus fungus or an Actinomucor taiwanensis fungus and isolating chitosan or chitin from the culture. Excerpt(s): Chitin is a highly insoluble N-acetylated polymer of.beta.-(1,4)-Dglucosamine. Chitosan is an acid-soluble deacetylated form of chitin. Chitin, chitosan, and derivatives thereof are used in a number of industrial applications, including the production of viscosity control agents, adhesives, chromatography carriers, paperstrengthening agents, flocculent agents, food additives, drugs, and cosmetics. Chitin can be manufactured by the deproteination and decalcification of crab or shrimp shells. Chitosan can then be obtained by deacetylating chitin with a hot alkali solution. This chitosan production process has a number of unfavorable characteristics. For example, the process requires expensive heat energy and caustic alkali, which is a potential health hazard. The process also produces large amounts of waste, thereby necessitating significant disposal costs. In addition, the supply of shrimp or crab shells is highly dependent upon seasonal and environmental factors, leading to unpredictable limitations on production capacity. The invention is based on the discovery that unexpectedly high yields of chitosan and chitin can be produced from the fungus Actinomucor taiwanensis and from the fungus Rhizopus azygosporus. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06485946__

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Production of chitosan-and chitin-like exopolymers Inventor(s): Allen; Alfred L. (Pascoag, RI), Deng; Fang (Drexel Hill, PA), Gross; Richard A. (Plainview, NY), Kaplan; David L. (Concord, MA), Lee; Jin Woo (Pusan, KR), Yeomans; Walter G. (Framingham, MA) Assignee(s): Trustees of Tufts College (Medford, MA), University of Massachusetts Lowell (Lowell, MA) Patent Number: 6,534,294 Date filed: November 28, 2000 Abstract: A method of producing biosynthetic copolymers comprising glucose and glucose analogs is provided. Glucose:glucose analog copolymers such as glucose:glucosamine, glucose:N-acetylglucosamine and glucose:glucosamine:Nacetylglucosamine are also provided. Excerpt(s): Cellulose, (1-4)-linked-.beta.-D-glucan, is a major structural component of the cell walls of higher plants (Delmer, D. P., and Amor, Y., Plant Cell 7:987-1000 (1995)). Some microorganisms also produce unbranched (1-4)-linked-.beta.-D-glucan, named microbial cellulose (MC) (Schramm, M. and Hestrin, S., Biochem. J., 56:163-166 (1954); Carr, J. G., Nature (London), 182:265-266 (1958) and Canale-Parola, E. and Wolfe, R. S., Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 82:403-405 (1964)). Cellulose is important industrially, for example, in the production of paper. Cellulose can be chemically detergents, varnishes, adhesives and for gelling or thickening of food stuffs or pharmaceuticals, depending on the extent of etherification. Structurally related polysaccharides, such as chitin and chitosan, are also found in the biosphere. Chitin occurs as a major cuticular or skeletal component in all arthropods, in some invertebrates, and in the cell walls of some fungi. Chitin is a polysaccharide of high molecular weight and consists of unbranched chains of (1-4)-linked 2- acetamino-2-deoxy-.beta.-D-glucose residues (Hackman, R. H. and Goldberg, M., Carbohydr. Res. 38:35-45 (1974)). Because of its abundance as a waste material from the canning food industry from crab, shrimp and lobster, chitin is an attractive starting material for the production of chitosan. Chitosan is the fully or partially deacetylated form of chitin (Anthosen, M. W., et al., Carbohydr. Polym. 22:193201 (1993)). It contains.beta.-(1-4)-linked 2-amino-2-deoxy-.beta.-D-glucopyranose and 2acetamido-2-deoxy-.beta.-D-glucopyranose residues (Hirano, S., et al., Carbohydr. Res. 47:315-320(1976)). Chitosan is found in the cell walls of some fungi such as Mucor rouxii (Bartnicki-Garcia, S. and Nickerson, W. J., J. Bacteriol. 84:841-858 (1962)). However, like cellulose, chitin is generally insoluble in water and in most conventional solvent systems. Furthermore, the starting material, chitin, is easily degraded in the presence of acid. Commercially, chitosan is derived by the chemical deacetylation of chitin from waste crustacean exoskeletons with strong alkali. This harsh conversion process, as well as variability in source material, leads to inconsistent physicochemical characteristics (Arcidiacono, S. and Kaplan, D. L. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 39:281-286 (1992).). The purification of chitosan derived from the cell wall of some fungi also requires strong alkaline treatment with heat, which leads to inconsistent material (White, S. A., et al., Environ. Microbiol., 38:323-328 (1979); Arcidiacono, S. and Kaplan, D. L. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 39:281-286 (1992)). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06534294__

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Soft capsule containing mastic oil therein Inventor(s): Shioya; Masaaki (Numazu, JP) Assignee(s): California Functional Foods, Inc. (Ashland, OR), Nihonyakugyo Co., Ltd. (Numazu, JP), Sansho Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (Shimizu, JP) Patent Number: 6,506,406 Date filed: November 7, 2000 Abstract: A soft capsule containing oil produced by dissolving mastic in oils and fats. The capsule may further contain amphipathic substance, chitin or chitosan. The capsule serves to remove and inhibit helicobacter pyloric bacteria, as well as to remove smell of feces. The soft capsule containing mastic conceals strong and unacceptable taste of mastic, is easy to be ingested, and has long and direct effect to the stomach. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a soft capsule containing mastic oil therein, and more particularly, the present invention relates to a soft capsule in which oil produced by dissolving mastic into oils and fats is contained. Mastic is a kind of resin in transparent and colorless, or somewhat in light-yellow color. Mastic is originally in a form of pine-tree gum produced from an anacardiaceous plant which is native in Khios Island, Greece, and is used as the material for chewing gums, that is, as the natural base for producing the gum. Recently, it has been reported several times that mastic has effects of removal and inhibitory action against helicobacter pyloric bacteria. Consequently, mastic attracts a great deal of attention as one of the material for health food. The helicobacter pyloric bacterium is a Gram-negative bacterium which has been supposed to cause several kinds of digestive organ disease such as the chronic gastris, gastric ulcer, duodenal ulcer, stomach cancer, etc., and it has been said that the helicobacter pyloric bacteria live in the stomach of more than 80% of Japanese people who are 50 years old or more. Thus the removal and inhibition of multiplication of the helicobacter pyloric bacteria are believed to be one of the most practical and effective measures to prevent the occurrence of digestive organ disease. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06506406__

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Stable salts of S-adenosyl-l-methionine Inventor(s): Hebert; Rolland F. (427 Belleuve Ave. E. #301, Seattle, WA 98102) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,635,615 Date filed: November 16, 2000 Abstract: Stable salts of S-adenosyl-1-methionine with polycations such as chitosan are described. The salts according to the invention are very stable and are valuable for use as active constituents in pharmaceutical compositions. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to new salts of S-adenosyl-1-methionine. This patent relates to new salts of S-adenosyl-1-methionine (known as SAM-e) with polycations, the processes for obtaining them and to therapeutic uses of these new salts. More particularly, the invention relates to salts deriving from the reaction between SAM-e, SAM-e salts and polycations such as chitosan, their production process, and pharmaceutical compositions that contain them as active principles. Administration of new SAM-e salts of the present invention would have significant utility over a wide range of disorders or conditions associated with low levels of SAM-e. These new salts

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would not cause gastrointestinal upset often associated with the current SAM-e salts. In this regard, and in view of the molecular instability of SAM-e at room temperature over time, it has been suggested that a more ideal salt of SAM-e would be able to withstand the conditions of room temperature over long periods of time which would duplicate the shelf life conditions under which these new SAM-e salts would be stored. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06635615__ •

Sterilization-protecting agent and sterilization method Inventor(s): Onodera; Hirokazu (Oita, JP), Suemitsu; Junsuke (Oita, JP) Assignee(s): Asahi Medical Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, JP) Patent Number: 6,572,820 Date filed: August 4, 1998 Abstract: A material comprising a biologically active substance (or ligand) to be sterilized, including proteins (e.g., antibodies and enzymes), peptides, DNA, RNA, and glycoproteins, with or without a carrier, and sterilization-protecting agent comprising a trisaccharide or higher saccharide ("polysaccharide") having a positive charge, is provided. The skeletal background of the polysaccharide confers stability to the ligand and its positive charge traps destructive radicals produced during the sterilization process. The molecular weight ratio of sterilization-protecting agent to the ligand should be at least 1/500 but less than 1/2 to protect the ligand effectively without obstructing the ligand's activity. In particular, polysaccharides, such as chitosan (a polymer of Dglucosamine) and chitin which is partially converted into chitosan, are preferable as a sterilization-protecting agent. The biologically active substance in such a material is stabilized against various sterilization methods, including irradiation, wet heat, and chemical sterilization, either in a wet state or a dry state. Further, a method for sterilizing a biologically active substance in the presence of the above-described sterilization-protecting agent is provided. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a material comprising a material to be sterilized and a sterilization-protecting agent comprising a trisaccharide or higher saccharide having a positive charge(s); a sterilization method using said sterilizationprotecting agent; and said sterilization-protecting agent. In recent years, attempts have been made on selective separation, division, removal, etc. of a substance interacting with a biologically active substance (hereinafter referred to simply as an active substance or a ligand), using said active substance; and research has been done on active materials obtained by immobilizing, as a biologically active substance, a ligand such as a peptide, protein, synthetic substance or the like onto a carrier. Investigations have been made particularly on techniques for specifically removing blood cells using an active material obtained by immobilizing a protein such as an enzyme, antibody or the like onto a carrier, or for using said active material as a bioreactor. These active materials, however, are very unstable to sterilization; particularly in the case of an active material having a ligand immobilized thereon, the interactivity of the ligand with a substance to be affected is reduced by sterilization in many cases and it has been difficult to conduct sufficient sterilization of the active material without impairing the activity of the ligand. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,283,034, a sterilization method is disclosed which comprises conducting sterilization in the presence of a substance (e.g. human serum albumin) used as a surface stabilizer, and a mono- or di-saccharide (e.g. glucose, sucrose, lactose, trehalose or amylose) or a glycoprotein (e.g. immunoglobulin) used as an oxygen radical-capturing agent. In this sterilization method, however, sterilization is possible

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only in a dry state of less than 1% of water content; consequently, the sterilized material has an inferior priming property and has been difficult to handle. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06572820__ •

Teat dipping agent Inventor(s): Back; Marcus (Vallingby, SE), Larm; Olle (Bromma, SE) Assignee(s): Medicarb AB (Bromma, SE) Patent Number: 6,630,458 Date filed: January 19, 1999 Abstract: Use of a composition comprising chitosan in combination with a polysaccharide selected from heparin, heparan sulphate and dextran sulphate, as an active component in a solvent, for the manufacture of a teat dipping solution for lactating animals, particularly cows. The invention also relates to a process for prophylactic or wound healing treatment of lactating animals, particularly cows, against mastitis. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the area teat dipping agents for lactating animals. More in particular it relates to a teat dipping agent based on components which are new within this technical area. This new teat dipping agent possesses several advantages in relation to known teat dipping agents. Mastitis is an inflammatory reaction of udder tissue and is the most common and most costly disease among lactating cows over the world. The inflammation is a reaction of the lactating tissues on the presence of infectious microorganisms. A large number of different bacteria have been identified as mastitis pathogens. They have been divided into four different groups, contagious, environmental, opportunistic and other bacteria. The majority of the mastitis infections are caused by S. aureus. Another contagious mastitis pathogen is Streptococcus agalactiae. Among the environmental bacteria there are other streptococci and the coliform bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Klebsielle pneumoniae. A large number of different disinfectants (most frequently chlorohexidine or iodophors) are used for dipping the teats immediately after milking in order to prevent bacteria from penetrating into the teat canal and further to lactating tissues. These disinfectants have a killing effect in direct contact between disinfectant and bacterium. In spite of routine use of these agents a number of bacteria escaped the killing effect, i.e. the known agents are not sufficiently effective, which can be due to insufficient amount of active components and the fact that the agents do not reach sufficient contact with the infected sites. It is also known that the effect of these agents fades out very quickly and that renewed contamination of the teats takes place shortly after the treatment. Small wounds and skin tissues on the teats can act as reservoirs for certain bacteria, and live stock with infected teat wounds often show higher mastitis frequencies than other live stock. Furthermore, iodine and chlorohexidin can result in taste changes of the milk and relatively small quantities of iodine and chlorohexidin in milk can cause problems in the manufacture of dairy products. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06630458__

Patents 97

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Treatment of oncologic tumors with an injectable formulation of a golgi apparatus disturbing agent Inventor(s): Singh; Saira Sayed (15875 Wood Acres Rd., Los Gatos, CA 95030) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,497,904 Date filed: July 23, 2001 Abstract: Novel pharmaceutical formulations for treating a cellular proliferative disease are provided comprising: a therapeutically effective amount of a Golgi apparatus disturbing agent; a biocompatible carrier; and a solvent. In preferred formulations, the Golgi apparatus disturbing agent is brefeldin A (BFA) and the biocompatible carrier is a polymer such as chitin or chitosan. Methods of treating cellular proliferative diseases using the pharmaceutical formulations are also described. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to pharmaceutical formulations comprising pharmacologically active agents, biocompatible carriers, and solvents and the like. More particularly, the invention relates to pharmaceutical formulations containing Golgi apparatus disturbing agents such as, for example, brefeldin A. This invention also relates to methods of treating cellular proliferative diseases in patients in need of such therapy. Local cancer chemotherapy involves the introduction of an anti-cancer agent near or within a tumor. As a potential cure for some cancers, local chemotherapy has generated a tremendous interest among researchers and health care providers, in part because local chemotherapy (in contrast to systemic delivery) avoids or minimizes the potential for systemic toxicity, and in part because the target site can be exposed to higher concentrations of the active agent than possible with conventional chemotherapy. Thus, local chemotherapy can provide a useful tool in the treatment of some cancers. Local chemotherapy is not, however, without drawbacks. One problem associated with local chemotherapy is insufficient retention of the chemotherapeutic agent at the target site (i.e., the diseased organ or tissue). Another problem with local chemotherapy (and many types of chemotherapy, for that matter) is the insoluble or slightly soluble nature of the active agent. Thus, the ability of local chemotherapy to offer a cure for some cancers has been compromised by retention and/or solubility problems associated with previously known or suggested chemotherapeutic agents and formulations. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06497904__

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Use of mixtures of active substances, containing phytostenols and/or phytostenol esters and potentiators, for the production of hypocholesterolemic agents Inventor(s): Fabry; Bernd (Korschenbroich, DE), Weitkemper; Norbert (Leverkusen, DE) Assignee(s): Cognis Deutschland GmbH (Duesseldorf, DE) Patent Number: 6,444,659 Date filed: May 28, 1999 Abstract: A hypocholesterolemic composition containing: (a) an active ingredient selected from the group consisting of a phytostenol, a phytostenol ester, and mixtures thereof; and (b) a potentiating agent selected from the group consisting of a chitosan, a phytostenol sulfate, a (deoxy)ribonucleic acid, and mixtures thereof. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to the use of mixtures of phytostenols or phytostenol esters and selected potentiating agents for the production of preparations for reducing

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the serum cholesterol content of warm-blooded organisms. Hypocholesterolemic agents are understood to be agents which lead to a reduction in the serum cholesterol level of warm-blooded organisms without either inhibiting or reducing the formation of cholesterol in the blood. Phytostenols, i.e. vegetable stenols, and esters thereof with fatty acids have already been proposed for this purpose by Peterson et al. in J. Nutrit. 50, 191 (1953). U.S. Pat. No. 3,089,939, U.S. Pat. No. 3,203,862 and DE-OS 2 035 069 (Procter & Gamble) also point in the same direction. The active substances are normally added to frying oils or edible oils and, accordingly, are absorbed through the food. However, the quantities used are generally minimal and, normally, amount to less than 0.5% by weight to prevent the edible oils from clouding or the stenols from precipitating on the addition of water. For use in food, in cosmetics, in pharmaceutical preparations and in the agricultural sector, storable emulsions of the stenol esters in sugar or polyglycerol esters are proposed in European patent application EP-A1 0 289 636 (Ashai). The incorporation of sitostanol esters in margarine, butter, mayonnaise, salad creams and the like for reducing the blood cholesterol level is proposed in European patent EP-B1 0 594 612 (Raision). Unfortunately, a disadvantage of phytostenol esters is that, normally, they can only be added to foods in small quantities because otherwise they are in danger of affecting the taste and/or consistency of foods. However, if the blood cholesterol level is to be lastingly influenced, relatively large quantities of phytostenols or phytostenol esters would have to be absorbed. The rate at which the substances reduce serum cholesterol is also in need of improvement. Accordingly, the problem addressed by the present invention was to remedy these deficiencies. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06444659__

Patent Applications on Chitosan As of December 2000, U.S. patent applications are open to public viewing.9 Applications are patent requests which have yet to be granted. (The process to achieve a patent can take several years.) The following patent applications have been filed since December 2000 relating to chitosan: •

Absorbent articles for feminine protection with gel-forming polysaccharidecomprising wings Inventor(s): Carlucci, Giovanni; (Chieti, IT), Di Cintio, Achille; (Pescara, IT), Pesce, Antonella; (Pescara, IT) Correspondence: The Procter & Gamble Company; Intellectual Property Division; Winton Hill Technical Center - Box 161; 6110 Center Hill Avenue; Cincinnati; OH; 45224; US Patent Application Number: 20030068944 Date filed: October 7, 2002 Abstract: The present invention relates to absorbent articles, in particular sanitary napkins and panty liners, which offer improved protection and comfort to the wearer by having side panels, so-called wings, which comprise a gel-forming polysaccharide, preferably a chitosan material.

9

This has been a common practice outside the United States prior to December 2000.

Patents 99

Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to absorbent articles for feminine protection, in particular sanitary napkins and panty liners, which offer improved protection and comfort to the wearer by having side panels, so-called wings, which comprise a gelforming polysaccharide, preferably a chitosan material. An increasingly important consumer need, which underlies development in the field of sanitary absorbent article, in particular catamenials, is the provision of products with higher protection and comfort level during use. Numerous developments in the area of absorbent articles address a great variety of different consumer needs associated with sanitary absorbent articles. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Aluminum alloy heat exchanger resistive to tobacco odor impregnation Inventor(s): Hamamura, Kazunari; (Tokyo, JP), Kasebe, Osamu; (Okazaki-city, JP), Kobayashi, Kengo; (Nagoya-city, JP), Sugawara, Hiroyoshi; (Anjo-city, JP), Uchiyama, Kazuhisa; (Nagoya-city, JP) Correspondence: Nixon & Vanderhye, PC; 1100 N Glebe Road; 8th Floor; Arlington; VA; 22201-4714; US Patent Application Number: 20030150600 Date filed: January 2, 2003 Abstract: An aluminum alloy heat exchanger having excellent hydrophilicity and resistance to absorption or impregnation of tobacco odorous components has an organic hydrophilic coating layer formed on at least a portion of a base body of the heat exchanger and containing (A) at least one chitosan compound, (B) at least one two or more carboxyl group-containing organic compound and (C) at least one hydrophilic polymeric substance different from the components (A) and (B), in which the total solid content of components (A) and (B) is 20 mass % or more and the solid content of component (C) is 0.1 to 10 mass %. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an aluminum alloy heat exchanger resistive to tobacco odor impregnation, absorption and sticking. In particular, the present invention relates to an aluminum alloy heat exchanger with a coating having a reduced absorption of the odorous components of tobacco, etc. When an aluminum alloy heat exchanger usable as an air conditioner for a motor car is operated, condensed water adheres to the surfaces of fins. When the fin surfaces have a low wetting property, the condensed water forms water droplets substantially in the form of semispheres on the fin surfaces, or water bridges are formed between the fin surfaces. The semispheric water drops and the water bridges form resistance to airflow and other problems, for example, a reduction in heat exchange efficiency and generation of noise. In the prior art for solving the above-mentioned disadvantages, an organic hydrophilic coating is usually formed on the surface of the heat exchanger. For example, Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 1-299,877 discloses a coating formed from a combination of polyvinyl alcohol with a specific water-soluble polymer and a crosslinking agent, Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 1-270,977 discloses use of polyacrylamide resins, Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 6-306,247 discloses copolymerization of specific hydrophilic monomers, and Japanese Patent No. 2520308 (JP-A-2-258874) discloses use of organic hydrophilic treating agents comprising carboxymethylcellulose polymers, N-methylolacrylamide, polyacrylic acid and a zirconium compound. It is also known that odorous components contained in the ambient atmospheric air or air contained in the heat exchanger are absorbed by the

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condensed water adhered to the surface of the heat exchanger and are gradually accumulated on the heat exchanger surface over time, and then the odorous components are released from the heat exchanger surface during operation of the air conditioner, and give off an offensive odor. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Anhydride-modified chitosan, method of preparation thereof, and fluids containing same Inventor(s): Cowan, Jack C.; (Lafayette, LA), House, Roy F.; (Houston, TX), Rodrigue, Tammy L.; (St. Martinville, LA) Correspondence: Roy F. House; 5726 Ettrick Drive; Houston; TX; 77035; US Patent Application Number: 20030153467 Date filed: January 21, 2003 Abstract: The invention provides an organic diacid anhydride-modified chitosan and a method of preparing the same under high shear conditions which eliminates the use of solvents and excessive amounts of aqueous liquids. Also provided are organic diacid anhydride-modified chitosans containing an inorganic basic material which enhances the aging stability thereof. The invention also provides fluids useful in various well drilling and servicing operations comprising an alkaline aqueous liquid containing an organic diacid anhydride-modified chitosan, as well as a method of drilling wells therewith. Excerpt(s): The present patent application is a continuation-in-part application of copending patent application Ser. No. 10/035,262 filed Jan. 3, 2002, incorporated herein by reference, which is a continuation-in-part application of patent application Ser. No. 09/782,633 filed Feb. 13, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,358,889, incorporated herein by reference, which is a continuation-in-part application of patent application Ser. No. 09/222,293 filed Dec. 28, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,258,755. The invention pertains to the modification of chitosan to produce viscosifiers (thickeners) for aqueous liquids, and to viscosified aqueous fluids containing such modified chitosans dispersed therein, and to methods of drilling a well utilizing such fluids. Many viscosifiers for, and methods of, increasing the viscosity of aqueous liquids are known. Such viscosifiers may be so-called water-soluble polymers such as biopolymers, gums, cellulose derivatives, alginates, and other polysaccharides or polysaccharide derivatives, and various synthetic polymers. Representative polymers are set forth in the book "Handbook of Water Soluble Gums and Resins," Robert L. Davidson, Ed., 1980. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Antibacterial solid surface materials containing chitosan-metal complexes Inventor(s): Appleton, Gerry Thorn; (Hockessin, DE), Joerger, Melissa C.; (Newark, DE), Sabesan, Subramaniam; (Wilmington, DE) Correspondence: E I DU Pont DE Nemours And Company; Legal Patent Records Center; Barley Mill Plaza 25/1128; 4417 Lancaster Pike; Wilmington; DE; 19805; US Patent Application Number: 20030152632 Date filed: December 20, 2002

Patents 101

Abstract: A solid surface material with an antimicrobial agent in a thermoset and/or thermoplastic resin matrix where the antimicrobial agent comprises a chitosan-metal complex. Excerpt(s): This invention is directed to solid surface materials having antimicrobial properties. Artificial or synthetic marble is a general designation for various types of materials used as building products, such as bathroom vanity tops, sinks, shower stalls and kitchen counter tops, and other decorative surfaces. It is also a suitable material for use in furniture, lining materials, and in stationary small articles. The artificial marble is easily kept clean and neat. Therefore, it has increasingly been used in hospitals, nursing homes, as well as in commercial and residential food preparation facilities. Artificial marbles encompass cultured marble, onyx and solid surface materials typically comprising some kind of resin matrix and either with or without a filler present in the resin matrix. Typically, cultured marble is made of a gel coating of unfilled unsaturated polyester on a substrate of a filled unsaturated polyester. The filler may be calcium carbonate or a similar material. Onyx typically consists of a gel coat of unfilled unsaturated polyester on a substrate of filled unsaturated polyester. The filler in this case is typically alumina trihydrate (ATH). Solid surface materials are typically filled resin materials and, unlike cultured marble or onyx, do not have a gel coat. Corian.RTM. material available from E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (DuPont), Wilmington, Del., is a solid surface material comprising an acrylic matrix filled with ATH. Another solid surface DuPont material, known by the brand name Zodiaq.RTM., is alternatively described as an engineered stone or artificial granite. Such materials are made from an unsaturated polyester matrix filled with quartz or other similar fillers. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Antimicrobial polyolefin articles and methods for their preparation Inventor(s): Sabesan, Subramaniam; (Wilmington, DE) Correspondence: E I DU Pont DE Nemours And Company; Legal Patent Records Center; Barley Mill Plaza 25/1128; 4417 Lancaster Pike; Wilmington; DE; 19805; US Patent Application Number: 20030091612 Date filed: November 6, 2002 Abstract: This invention relates to antimicrobial polyolefin articles utilizing chitosan and chitosan-metal complexes as the antimicrobial agent and methods for making same. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to the use of chitosan and chitosan-metal complexes to generate polyolefin articles having antimicrobial properties. As evidenced by the presence in the market of numerous materials for eliminating or minimizing human contact with bacteria, there is clearly a demand for materials and/or processes that either minimize or kill bacteria encountered in the environment. Such materials are useful in areas of food preparation or handling and in areas of personal hygiene, such as bathrooms. Similarly, there is a use for such antibacterial materials in hospitals and nursing homes where people with lowered resistance are especially vulnerable to bacteria. Chitosan is the commonly used name for poly-[1-4]-.beta.-D-glucosam- ine. Chitosan is chemically derived from chitin which is a poly-[1-4]-.beta.-N-acetyl-Dglucosamine, which, in turn, is derived from the cell walls of fungi, the shells of insects and, especially, crustaceans. Thus, it is inexpensively derived from widely available materials. It is available as an article of commerce from, for example, Biopolymer

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Engineering, Inc. (St. Paul, Minn.); Biopolymer Technologies, Inc. (Westborough, Mass.); and CarboMer, Inc. (Westborough, Mass.). Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Bioagent compositions for plant care Inventor(s): Kucharska, Magdalena; (Lodz, PL), Niekraszewicz, Antoni; (Lodz, PL), Pospieszny, Henryk; (Poznan, PL), Struszczyk, Henryk; (Zgierz, PL), Urbanowski, Alojzy; (Lodz, PL), Wisniewska-Wrona, Maria; (Lodz, PL) Correspondence: The Procter & Gamble Company; Intellectual Property Division; Winton Hill Technical Center - Box 161; 6110 Center Hill Avenue; Cincinnati; OH; 45224; US Patent Application Number: 20030119672 Date filed: November 12, 2002 Abstract: Disclosed are bioagent compositions for plant care which can be used for treatment of plants and seeds. Such treatment serves to inhibit the activity of plant pathogens against the treated plants, stimulate natural plant immunity against such pathogens and provides plant growth biostimulation. The compositions comprise a chitosan polymer which can either be in the form of particles of microcrystalline chitosan which are in a composition of pH greater than 6.9, or in the form of a chitosan salt gel which are in a composition of pH of from 5.0 to 6.9. In either form, the chitosan polymer has specified molecular weight, polydispersity degree and degree of deacetylation characteristics. Preferably the chitosan polymer has a bimodal molecular weight distribution and contains a fraction of water-soluble oligoaminocarbohydrates. The characteristics of the chitosan polymer used in the compositions are obtained by the step-wise neutralization of, and chitosan preciptation from, acid solutions of chitosan under controlled conditions. Excerpt(s): This is a continuation of International Application PCT/US01/15181, with an international filing date of May 10, 2001, and published in English. The present invention relates to bioagent compositions for plant care. Treatment of plants with the compositions herein serves to inhibit the activity of pathogens toward the plants so treated and further stimulates the natural immunity of the treated plants against such pathogens. The compositions herein also provide growth biostimulation for plants treated therewith. The publications "Experimental Mycology" Vol. 3, p.285-287, 1979; "Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology", Vol. 41, p.33-52, 1992; "Phytopathology", Vol. 84, p. 312-320, 1994; "Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions", Vol. 7, p.531-533, 1994; "Experimental Mycology", Vol. 8, p 276-281, 1984; and "Physiological Plant Pathology", Vol. 20, p. 119-123, 1982 all disclose the application of chitosan to plants as an elicitor or agent protecting plants against fungal diseases like Fusarium solani, Capsicum annum, Catharanthus roseus, and Aphanomyces enteiches. In these applications, the chitosan is used in aqueous solutions, chiefly in organic acids. Such known chitosan-based agents may, as a consequence of their formulation, show phytotoxic action toward plants. Furthermore such formulations act insufficiently on fungal diseases in vivo. Given their form, such preparations selectively act on pathogenic fungi and do not display a controlled action on fungi in vivo without the possibility of simultaneously affecting various fungi strains. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Chitosan compositions Inventor(s): Davison, Gordon Robert; (Warfield, GB), Gibbons, Clyde; (Staines, GB), Konig, Axel; (Wemmel, BE), MacGilp, Neil Archibald; (Bramley, GB), Milich, Georgina Lyndsey Claire; (Harefield, GB), Pretswell, Emma Louise; (Bracknell, GB), Ripley, Mark Brian; (Twickenham, GB) Correspondence: The Procter & Gamble Company; Intellectual Property Division; Winton Hill Technical Center - Box 161; 6110 Center Hill Avenue; Cincinnati; OH; 45224; US Patent Application Number: 20030104020 Date filed: October 25, 2002 Abstract: Compositions comprising chitosan in the form of a network of nano-sized fibres. There is also provided a process for making such compositions. The compositions have improved solubility and activity. The compositions are useful in hair care, skin care, odour control, wound care, blood management, sanitary compositions, oral care, film formation, hard surface treatment, fabric treatment, release of hydrophobic or hydrophilic materials, plant care, water purification and drug delivery. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to chitosan compositions, especially to chitosan compositions comprising nano-sized chitosan. The compositions present improved bioactivity, solubility and other properties over traditional chitosan. The invention also relates to a process for making the compositions and uses thereof. Chitin is the main constituent in the shells of crustaceans and is the most abundant naturally occurring biopolymer other than cellulose. Chitosan is derived from chitin and can be formed by deacetylation of chitin. Chitosan is commercially available in a wide variety of molecular weights (e.g., 10-1,000 kDa) and usually has a degree of deacetylation ranging between 70% and 90%. Chitosan is used for a wide variety of purposes including plant care, cosmetics additives, food and nutrition supplements and medical care. The properties and applications of chitosan are strongly linked to its morphology, structure and size and these are directly related to the process used for obtaining chitosan. For reasons of clarity, the chitosan obtained as the initial product from chitin will be referred to herein as primary chitosan and the chitosan obtained from the subsequent treatment of this primary chitosan will be referred as modified chitosan. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Chitosan coupling with removable lid Inventor(s): Allard, Douglas Paul; (Santa Rosa, CA) Correspondence: Howrey Simon Arnold & White; 750 Bering Drive; Houston; TX; 77057; US Patent Application Number: 20030141233 Date filed: January 25, 2002 Abstract: A chitosan enhanced coupling capable of assisting in the removal of silt, sedimentation and suspended solids from incoming water is disclosed. The inventive coupling generally comprises a first end defining an opening therethrough, a second end defining an opening therethrough, a midsection located between said first end and said second end, an auxiliary opening having a removable sealed lid and located along said midsection, and one or more applications of chitosan located within said

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midsection. A fabric sock containing one or more bars of chitosan gel is anchored to the removable lid for maximized exposure to incoming fluid. The midsection of the coupling has a diameter that is about twice the diameter of either the first or second ends, such that passing fluid slows as it passes through the midsection. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to treating or clarifying polluted or dirty water and more particularly to devices and apparatuses for use in reducing the amount of silt, sedimentation and pollution in storm water runoff or other water being pumped or otherwise dispersed. In response to tighter guidelines recently imposed by the federal Environmental Protection Agency under the Clean Water Act, controlling pollution, silt and sediment found in storm water runoff and other sources of water is receiving ever-increasing attention at all levels of government, federal, state and local. Federal and state agencies have issued mandates and developed guidelines regarding the prevention of non-point source (storm water caused) pollution that require local governments to act upon or initiate. These mandates affect water runoff from storms and also from other sources on slopes and construction sites. In addition, there are many other laws and regulations in place that restrict how any significant amount of water may be moved or disposed. Such laws and regulations have a significant impact on not only how storm water may be channeled and diverted, but also on, for example, the ways that contractors can dispose of excess or unwanted water from constructions sites. Regulations also exist as to how clean water must be as it is pumped away or "dewatered" from lakes, ponds and water filled trenches, such that undesirable excess silt and particles are not introduced into streams, storm sewers and surrounding property. Dewatering bags, also known as "dirt bags," are a common way of filtering or treating dirty water that must be pumped or otherwise moved from one location to another. Such dewatering bags are manufactured and sold commercially by numerous entities, with examples including ACF Environmental of Richmond, Vir., and Dandy Products, Inc. of Grove City, Ohio. Dewatering bags generally resemble a large bladder comprised of a permeable filtering membrane, such as a non-woven geotextile fabric, and are typically rectangular in nature, although other shapes may be available. Sizes vary widely according to anticipated fluid flow rates, and range anywhere from about four feet square to about fifteen feet square. An inlet spout extending from one side of the dewatering bag is typically able to accept an inlet hose, pipe or other type of coupling that is up to six inches in diameter. Water may be pumped into the dewatering bag from the desired source through this inlet hose or pipe at rates up to 1500 gallons per minute, depending upon factors such as the size of the bag and the permeability of the membrane. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Chitosan/anionic surfactant complex membrane Inventor(s): Huang, Robert Y.M.; (Waterloo, CA), Moon, Go Young; (Seongnam City, KR), Pal, Rajinder; (Waterloo, CA) Correspondence: Gowling Lafleur Henderson Llp; Commerce Court West; Suite 4900; Toronto; ON; M5l1j3; CA Patent Application Number: 20030176310 Date filed: March 15, 2002 Abstract: A composite membrane material is provided comprising an active membrane including chitosan complexed with an anionic surfactant, and porous substrate membrane including a hydrophobic polymer. The active membrane is physically

Patents 105

adhered to the porous substrate membrane. The active membrane and the porous substrate define an interface, wherein the porous substrate membrane includes an interfacial surface disposed at the interface, and wherein the hydrophobic polymer of the porous substrate membrane is disposed at the interfacial surface. The chitosan is bonded to the anionic surfactant. The porous substrate membrane is characterized by no more than 0.3% water absorption according to ASTM-D570. The hydrophobic polymer includes any of polysulfone, polyetherimide, polyvinylidene fluoride, or polystyrene. The anionic surfactant is a non-linear, branched chain surfactant. The anionic surfactant includes any one of sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium laurate, sodium stearate, dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, and amphoteric sodium N-lauroyl sarcosinate. The composite membrane is formed by a method comprising the steps of (i) providing a porous substrate membrane including a hydrophobic polymer, (ii) casting a solution comprising chitosan complexed with an anionic surfactant on a surface of the porous substrate membrane to form a first intermediate; and (iii) drying the first intermediate to form the composite membrane. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a novel composite membrane material and, more particularly, a novel composite membrane material comprising a surfactant modified chitosan membrane supported by a porous substrate. In recent years, there has been increased interest in the use of pervaporation membrane separation techniques for the selective separation of organic liquid mixtures because of their high separation efficiency and flux rates coupled with potential savings in energy costs. Pervaporation is the separation of liquid mixtures by partial vaporization through a non-porous permselective membrane. During its transport through the membrane, components of the liquid mixture diffusing through the membrane undergo a phase change, from liquid to vapor. This phase change occurring through the membrane makes the pervaporation process unique among membrane processes. The permeate, or product, is removed as a low-pressure vapor, and, thereafter, can be condensed and collected or released as desired. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Cleaning compositions containing chitosan Inventor(s): McKechnie, Malcolm Tom; (Driffield, GB) Correspondence: Andrew N Parfomak; Norris Mclaughlin & Marcus; 30th Floor; 220 East 42nd Street; New York; NY; 10017; US Patent Application Number: 20030176306 Date filed: May 23, 2003 Abstract: An aqueous cleaning composition for the removal of mould and mildew is provided. The composition includes a water soluble source of chlorine, a surfactant, chitosan and water and has improved anti-fungal activity. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to aqueous cleaning compositions. In particular, the present invention relates to aqueous cleaning compositions for the removal of mould and mildew. Aqueous cleaning compositions for the removal of mould and mildew from a surface are well known and popular with consumers. Typically the compositions are used to clean hard surfaces such as ceramics, tiles and/or glass in damp and/or humid environments such as bathrooms and kitchens. Such compositions may also be used in toilet bowls and/or bidets. A need exists, however,

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for the cleaning compositions to impart residual anti-fungal activity to a surface cleaned with the composition. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Coating composition for food products Inventor(s): Ager, Scott P.; (Tumwater, WA), Iverson, Calrl E.; (Olympia, WA) Correspondence: Delbert J. Barnard; Barnard, Loop & Mccormack Llp; P.O. Box 58888; Seattle; WA; 98138; US Patent Application Number: 20030203084 Date filed: May 12, 2003 Abstract: A virgin chitosan polymer is added to an acid and water solution in an amount sufficient to form an edible composition having a solids content greater than five percent (5%) and a liquid viscosity. The composition is applied to food products, such as fruits, vegetables and nuts, to provide an edible protective coating for the food products. Alternatively, chitosan may be hydrolyzed to a lower molecular weight so that a gel will not be formed when the partially hydrolyzed chitosan is admixed to the acid water solution. An edible wax emulsion and/or a preservative such as sodium benzoate, and/or an adhesion additive such as zinc acetate, and/or a wetting agent, and/or one or more additives from the group consisting of virgin and/or modified carbohydrates, proteins, hydrocolloides, lipids, oils, gums and waxes, natural and/or synthetic, made be added to the composition before it is applied to the food product. In a preferred form, a chitosan polymer is used that has a molecular weight sufficient to form a composition having a solids content of about fifteen percent (15%) or higher. Excerpt(s): This application claims priority to provisional application Serial No. 60/143,606, filed Jul. 13, 1999, to provisional application Serial No. 60/169,773, filed Dec. 9, 1999, and to provisional application Serial No. 60/202,666, filed May 8, 2000. This invention relates to protective coatings for food products. More particularly, it relates to a method of preparing and using a protective coating for food products such as fruits, vegetables and nuts, based on chitosan or chitosan derivatives, and to the coating composition itself. It is well known to coat food products, such as fruits, vegetables and nuts, to protect them against mold, rot and water damage and to improve their appearance and, hence, their marketability. Common coatings now in use employ proteins, gums, resins, hydrocolloids, waxes, and oils either alone or in combination, to achieve certain desired objectives. Enhancing appearance, slowing moisture loss, affecting the respiration or ripening process of fruits, nuts, and vegetables, are several of the goals of many modern food coatings. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Composite biosorbent for treatment of waste aqueous system(s) containing heavy metals Inventor(s): Boddu, Veera M.; (Champaign, IL), Smith, Edgar Dean; (Seymour, IL) Correspondence: Thompson Coburn Llp; One Firstar Plaza; ST. Louis; MO; 63101-1693; US Patent Application Number: 20030150802 Date filed: March 10, 2003 Abstract: A biosorbent composition, process of preparing and use thereof wherein the biosorbent composition comprises a chitosan-coated substrate. Useful substrates include support materials such as a ceramic support material. The biosorbent composition of the instant invention is useful in treating aqueous systems, including wastewater and aqueous waste streams, by removing undesired heavy metals. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a novel method of effective wastewater treatment using a novel composite biosorbent. More in particular, this invention relates to a new and effective method of wastewater treatment utilizing a chitosan-coated biosorbent to remove heavy metals from wastewater containing the same. In one embodiment this invention relates to a novel method for preparing a novel chitosan-coated biosorbent. In another embodiment this invention relates to a novel biosorbent composition. In yet another embodiment, this invention presents a novel composite biosorbent prepared from a biological material with a high affinity for heavy metals. A chitosan-coated biosorbent has a high affinity for heavy metal adsorption. Chitosan is coated on to a support material, such as a ceramic support material, to provide support and stability to the biomaterial and to facilitate column flow conditions and enhance mass transfer characteristics of the biosorbent material. It is not uncommon for some industrial processes, businesses or even naturally occurring geographical or weather phenomena to produce aqueous waste streams which contain one or more undesirable heavy metals. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Composite stimulating iNOS enzyme which induce immuno-reactant nitric oxide synthesis and process for preparing the same Inventor(s): Seo, Chan Seok; (Kyungki-do, KR), Seo, Sang Bong; (Kyungki-do, KR), You, Hyung Ja; (Kyungki-do, KR) Correspondence: Pennie And Edmonds; 1155 Avenue OF The Americas; New York; NY; 100362711 Patent Application Number: 20030109490 Date filed: July 9, 2002 Abstract: The present invention relates to a composite stimulating iNOS enzyme which induce immuno-reactant Nitric Oxide (NO) synthesis and a process for preparing the same. More particularly, it relates to a composite stimulating iNOS enzyme which is inducible immuno-reactant NO synthase prepared by nano-coating and binding water soluble.beta.-glucosamin with immuno-protein where the water soluble.beta.glucosamin is produced by ultrasonic degradation of chitin/chitosan in NaCl solution, degradation employing lysozyme, washing with ethanol, and ion-exchange, thus containing distinctive functional element from the conventional chitosan.

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Excerpt(s): Fiber and natural biomaterial is a complex composite of substances which is a high molecular weight compound having greater than 100,000 Da of a molecular weight and represents the content of substances that cannot be digested by the human digestive enzymes. Fiber is divided into two categories, water soluble and water insoluble. Even though the water soluble fiber provides more benefits compared to the water insoluble fiber, numbers of known water soluble fibers are very limited, thus the demand is therefore highly increased. Of fibers, dietary fibers can improve the movement of food/fluid through the intestinal tract, strengthen immunity pharmacologically, lower cholesterol level, prevent cardiovascular disease, and be used as diet because it delays nutrient absorption. Further, it obstructs fat absorption and slows down absorption of glucose (sugar), thus being effective for diabetes. Therefore, the value of the dietary fibers will be increased as natural products when functionalities for biological properties are more investigated. Dietary fiber comes mostly from of the plant products but glucosamin fiber comes from the animal products of which structure is a little different from that of cellulose. Pectin, collagen and a few derivatives are the only water insoluble dietary fibers treated for being water soluble. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Composition and method to homogeneously modify or cross-link chitosan under neutral conditions Inventor(s): Berrada, Mohammed; (Montreal, CA), Chaput, Cyril; (Montreal, CA), Chenite, Abdellatif; (Kirkland, CA), Dabbarh, Fouad; (Montreal, CA), Selmani, Amine; (Laval, CA) Correspondence: Nixon Peabody Llp; Attention: David Resnick; 101 Federal Street; Boston; MA; 02110; US Patent Application Number: 20030129730 Date filed: November 15, 2002 Abstract: In accordance with the present invention there is provided a new composition and method for chemically modifying chitosan, including N-substituting or N-crosslinking, under homogeneous conditions by providing neutral aqueous chitosan solutions with enhanced reactivity. The method comprises the steps of i) preparing a clear aqueous solution of chitosan, said solution comprising 0.1 to 10% by weight of a chitosan, and 0.1 to 20% by weight of at least one buffering agent having a pKa between 6.0 and 7.6, said solution having a pH ranging from 6.8 to 7.2; and ii) dissolving homogeneously at least one reagent into the solution of step a), said reagent being reactive toward amine groups of chitosan; and said reagent being at a concentration from 0.01 to 10% by weight. The chitosan in the aqueous solution is chemically modified or cross-linked by a selective substitution on the amino group of chitosan. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method for chemically modifying chitosan, including N-substituting or N-cross-linking, under homogeneous conditions by providing neutral aqueous chitosan solutions with enhanced reactivity. Chitosan is an amino-polysaccharide obtained by alkaline deacetylation of chitin, a natural polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of shellfish and insects. Chitin cannot be dissolved in water except in concentrated mineral acid aqueous solutions, during which dissolution there is a decrease in the degree of polymerization and probably removal of some acetyl groups. Such characteristics have undoubtedly limited its investigation and utilisation in many fields, in spite of the advantages claimed for chitin and its great abundance in nature. In contrast, the numerous industrial applications claimed for

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chitosan, are in part attributed to its good solubility in mild acidic media, via the formation of ammonium groups. Conventionally, chitosan is dissolved in aqueous acidic media and can be maintained in solution up to a pH near 6.2 (just below its pKa of.about.6.3). Under these conditions, the reactivity of chitosan is significantly decreased, because of the predominance of non-reactive NH.sub.3.sup.+ groups compared to NH.sub.2 groups, and the latter are known as nucleophilic and therefore susceptible to react with various electrophiles due to their unshared pair of electrons. Nonetheless, a variety of chemical approaches have been employed to homogeneously modify chitosan under acidic conditions (pH<6), specifically by reacting aldehydes, acid chlorides, acid anhydrides and epoxides, and the like, with chitosan's amino groups. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Composition and process for inhibiting corrosion of metallic substrates Inventor(s): Wojcik, Gerald; (Thomaston, CT) Correspondence: John L. Cordani; Carmody & Torrance Llp; 50 Leavenworth Street; P.O. Box 1110; Waterbury; CT; 06721-1110; US Patent Application Number: 20030143420 Date filed: December 23, 2002 Abstract: A composition and process for inhibiting the corrosion of metallic substrates is revealed. The process utilizes an aqueous treatment solution comprising chitosan which has been reacted with an additive selected from the group consisting of phosphoruscontaining compounds and sulfur-containing compounds and mixtures thereof. More preferably, the phosphorus-containing compound is a phosphonic acid and the sulfurcontaining compound is a mercapto, thio, or thienyl containing compound or a mercapto functional silane. The composition and process are particularly useful in providing corrosion protection for aluminum and aluminum alloys. Excerpt(s): This application is a continuation-in-part of copending application Ser. No. 09/906,370, filed on Jul. 16, 2001. The present invention relates to compositions and processes for providing corrosion protection for metal substrates, particularly substrates comprised of aluminum or aluminum alloys, using treatment solutions comprising chitosan, which has been reacted with selected acids. Many metals are susceptible to corrosion. In this regard, atmospheric corrosion is of particular concern. Corrosion may affect the performance and/or appearance of the metals affected, and the products produced therefrom. In addition, when polymer coatings such as paints, adhesives or sealants are applied to the metal, corrosion of the underlying metal may cause loss of adhesion between the polymer coating and the base metal. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Compositions containing peptide and electrolyte excretion promoter and foods containing the same Inventor(s): Takahashi, Ryuji; (Takaoka-shi, JP), Yomoda, Satoshi; (Takaoka-shi, JP) Correspondence: Merchant & Gould PC; P.O. Box 2903; Minneapolis; MN; 55402-0903; US Patent Application Number: 20030144179 Date filed: October 22, 2002 Abstract: Compositions containing peptide(s) and electrolyte excretion promoter(s) characterized by comprising a peptide or a peptide mixture, which is obtained by digesting cow's milk-origin protein with a protease and has an activity of inhibiting angiotensin converting enzyme, and one or more electrolyte excretion promoters selected from among chitosan, alginic acid and salts thereof. Owing to the synergistic effects of the components, these compositions exert an excellent effect of inhibiting increase in blood pressure. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a composition containing a peptide and an electrolyte excretion promoter and a food containing the same. More particularly, it relates to a composition containing a peptide and an electrolyte excretion promoter, which comprises a peptide or a peptide mixture which is obtained by lysing a foodorigin protein with a protease and has an activity of inhibiting angiotensin converting enzyme, and one or more electrolyte excretion promoters selected from chitosan, alginic acid and a salt thereof, and further relates to a food containing the same. Movement for healthy life has recently positively been taken in Japan aiming at improvement of lifestyle, reduction of risk factors, or reduction of diseases, and awareness for healthy life has been raised globally. Particularly, with respect to circulatory diseases, it is assumed that for example, when the blood pressure of people of Japan is lowered in the degree of 2 mmHg in average, fatalities due to cerebral stroke will be reduced about 10,000 persons, and lowering of activities of daily living (ADL) of 3,500 persons can be prevented. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Compositions for appetite control and related methods Inventor(s): Dartey, Clemence; (Ambler, PA), Leveille, Gilbert; (Denville, NJ), Sox, Thomas E.; (Ambler, PA) Correspondence: Audley A. Ciamporcero JR.; Johnson & Johnson; One Johnson & Johnson Plaza; New Brunswick; NJ; 08933-7003; US Patent Application Number: 20030059495 Date filed: September 17, 2001 Abstract: The present invention is directed to a composition for oral administration that includes chitosan and GMP, wherein the chitosan and GMP are in other than a cationic gum or polysaccharide/protein complex. Also included herein are methods for controlling appetite in humans and animals by orally administering a composition that includes chitosan and GMP, wherein the chitosan and GMP are in other than a cationic gum or polysaccharide/protein complex. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the use of chitosan and glycomacropeptide for the preparation of food, beverage, and dietary supplement products intended for

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promoting weight loss through appetite control, e.g., inducing satiety and reducing appetite, as well as lowering of serum cholesterol and lipids. Appetite control in animals is physiologically complex. Some important factors include emotional state, the physical state of the stomach and intestine, and the levels of multiple hormones. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a hormone produced by cells of the intestinal epithelium in response to signals triggered by intake of nutrients. It is believed to be an important hormone for appetite regulation. CCK acts at multiple sites in the body, including the brain. It is known that increased CCK levels decreases appetite and slows the rate of gastric emptying. Therefore, enhancing the onset of CCK production increases the total levels of CCK secreted, which results in a reduction of appetite, thereby decreasing the total amount of food consumed. Additionally, increased levels of CCK also result in inducing satiety, which is a state characterized by a reduced interest and perceived need for food. Long term increases in CCK result in a benefit of weight loss or reduced weight gain. Additionally, decreasing food consumption generally provides an improvement in the levels of serum cholesterol and total lipids. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Conjugate of polyethylene glycol and chitosan Inventor(s): Bignotti, Fabio; (Brescia, IT), Davis, Stanley Stewart; (Nottingham, GB), Ferruti, Paolo; (Milano, IT), Lin, Wu; (Nottingham, GB) Correspondence: Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld L.L.P.; One Commerce Square; 2005 Market Street, Suite 2200; Philadelphia; PA; 19103-7013; US Patent Application Number: 20030166783 Date filed: January 24, 2003 Abstract: PEG-chitosan conjugates comprising chitosan and polyethylene glycol moieties or derivatives thereof which are bonded together and their use in medicine is described. In one embodiment, the conjugate comprises a chitosan moiety or a derivative thereof and a polyethylene glycol moiety or a derivative thereof which are bonded together via the amino function on the chitosan by the use of an activated chitosan species. In another embodiment, the conjugate comprises a chitosan moiety or a derivative thereof and a polyethylene glycol moiety or a derivative thereof which are bonded together, the chitosan portion of the conjugate having a molecular weight in the range of from 10 kilodaltons to 1000 kilodaltons. Excerpt(s): This application claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 09/462,189 filed Sep. 29, 2000, which in turn is an entry under.sctn.371 of International Application No. PCT/GB98/01971, filed Jul. 3, 1998, and published in the English language on Jan. 14, 1999, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference. The present invention concerns a novel conjugate between chitosan and polyethylene glycol (PEGchitosan conjugate) that may be used in biomedical applications and particularly in the fields of antisense and gene therapy, drug absorption enhancement and targeting using particulate carriers. Chitosan is a biopolymer material that is derived from chitin. Chemically, chitosan is a polyglucosamine, a linear polymer of.beta. (1.fwdarw.4) linked 2-amino-2-deoxy-D glucopyranose. Chitosan can be derived from chitin through a process of deacetylation. While chitin is insoluble, chitosan in its salt form can demonstrate acceptable solubilities at pHs below 7.0. Chitosan is believed to be nontoxic and can be administered to mucosal surfaces. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Cosmetic preparations Inventor(s): Conesa Amela, Cristina; (Cerdanyola del Valles, ES), De Moragas, Maria; (Barcelona, ES), Fabry, Bernd; (Korschenbroich, DE), Prat Queralt, Esther; (Alella, ES), Somigliana, Christian; (Torno, IT) Correspondence: Cognis Corporation; 2500 Renaissance BLVD., Suite 200; Gulph Mills; PA; 19406 Patent Application Number: 20030147963 Date filed: February 27, 2003 Abstract: The invention relates to cosmetic preparations comprising chitosan microcapsules charged with active ingredients. Excerpt(s): Cosmetic stick preparations marketed as antiperspirant or deodorant products contain mainly soap (sodium stearate), oil components and bactericides. They have an alkaline pH value of ca. 9. The soapy feeling on the skin associated with these sticks is regarded as a disadvantage by the consumer. A more recent development concerns sticks which contain known antiperspirant agents such as, for example, aluminium chlorohydrate (ACH). They have to be formulated at an acidic pH of ca. 4 and, to this end, require special thickener systems such as, for example, polydiols in combination with dibenzylidene sorbitol which the use of alkalis seriously affects. In addition, various antiperspirant sticks based on natural or synthetic waxes in which the active substance is introduced into the wax matrix as a powder have been available on the market for many years. The disadvantage of such sticks is that they are very greasy and often leave a white residue on the skin. Accordingly, the complex problem addressed by the invention was to provide stick preparations which would be free from the disadvantages mentioned above. In particular, the sticks would be formulated in such a way that, even in the presence of alkaline constituents, such as soaps for example, acidic ingredients could be incorporated without any troublesome salts being formed. At the same time, the sticks would be distinguished by an improved skin feel, high consistency and temperature resistance and transparency or whiteness. The present invention relates to preferably clear or transparent stick preparations containing microcapsules charged with active ingredients. The sticks may contain water, but are preferably water-free or substantially water-free, i.e. have a water content below 2% by weight and preferably below 1% by weight. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Deodorizing preparations containing nanosacle chitosans and/or chitosan derivatives Inventor(s): Panzer, Claudia; (Grevenbroich, DE), Wachter, Rolf; (Duesseldorf, DE) Correspondence: Cognis Corporation; 2500 Renaissance BLVD., Suite 200; Gulph Mills; PA; 19406 Patent Application Number: 20030133891 Date filed: September 23, 2002 Abstract: The invention relates to novel deodorizing preparations that contain nanoscale chitosans and/or chitosan derivatives.

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Excerpt(s): This invention relates generally to cosmetic preparations and more particularly to the use of nanoscale chitosans and/or chitosan derivatives in deodorizing preparations. In the field of personal care, deodorants are used to eliminate unpleasant body odors. Typical examples of such substances are aluminium compounds, such as aluminium sulfate or aluminium chlorohydrate, zinc salts and citric acid compounds. Since the problem of odor inhibition has by no means been completely solved, there is still a need for new preparations which contain dermatologically compatible deodorants with a long-lasting effect. It is known from DE 19540296C2 that chitosans inhibit the activity of esterase-producing bacteria and that a synergistic deodorizing effect is obtained together with esterase inhibitors and aluminium chlorohydrates. The chitosans have a bacteriostatic effect, i.e. the population of the particular germs is controlled but not killed off in order not to impair the biological equilibrium of the skin flora. The effect of the chitosans or chitosan derivatives and its duration are always associated with the rate at which the compounds are incorporated and absorbed. So far as the compounds hitherto available are concerned, there is considerable potential for improvement in this regard. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Gene expression vaccine Inventor(s): Huang, Shua-ku; (Towson, MD), Kumar, Mukesh; (Norwood, MA), Leong, Kam; (Ellicott City, MD), Mohapatra, Shyam S.; (Tampa, FL) Correspondence: Jeff Lloyd, ESQ.; Saliwanchik, Lloyd & Saliwanchik; 2421 N. W. 41st Street, Suite A-1; Gainesville; FL; 32606-6669; US Patent Application Number: 20030068333 Date filed: February 12, 2002 Abstract: An effective prophylactic mucosal gene expression vaccine (GXV), made up of a cocktail of at least 4 different plasmid DNAs encoding corresponding RSV antigens, coacervated with chitosan to formulate nanospheres. In a murine model of RSV infection, intranasal administration with GXV results in significant induction of RSVspecific antibodies, nasal IgA antibodies, cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and IFN-.gamma. production in the lung and splenocytes. A single dose of GXV induces a drastic reduction of viral titers. Excerpt(s): This application claims priority from U.S. Serial No. 60/325,573, filed Sep. 28, 2001. The invention relates generally to gene expression vaccines. More specifically, the invention relates to gene expression vaccines that can be administered intra-nasally or orally. The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common cause of viral lower respiratory tract infections in infants and children, affecting about 4 million children globally and leading to about 100,000 hospitalizations and 4,500 deaths per annum in the United States alone. RSV infection is associated with recurrent episodes of bronchiolitis, bronchial obstruction and exacerbation of asthma in children. Incidence of RSV infection-induced bronchiolitis has been increasing. There is no effective prophylaxis available against RSV infection. Previous attempts to develop a vaccine using a formalin-inactivated RSV vaccine not only failed but also exacerbated the disease when subsequent RSV infection occurred. (Chanock et al, Serious respiratory tract disease caused by respiratory syncytial virus: prospects for improved therapy and immunization, Pediatrics 1992; 90:137-43). Further, development of therapy against RSV has been limited by the short incubation period. Thus, development of an RSV vaccine has been a high priority at a global level.

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Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Hard surface cleaners containing chitosan and furanone Inventor(s): Avery, Richard W.; (Radnage, GB), Robb, Ian; (Duncan, OK), Wick, Roberta A.; (Racine, WI) Correspondence: S.C. Johnson & Son, INC.; 1525 Howe Street; Racine; WI; 53403-2236; US Patent Application Number: 20030083224 Date filed: October 26, 2001 Abstract: Disclosed herein are acidic aqueous hard surface cleaners and methods for using them. The cleaners include a poly D-glucosamine such as chitosan and also a furanone. The cleaners provide residual benefits on the hard surface such as soil resistance and resistance to bacteria, molds and biofilms. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to cleaning compositions for hard surfaces. They appear to be especially well suited for use in cleaning toilets, baths, shower surrounds and other plumbing fixtures, bathroom and kitchen hard surfaces, drains and floor surfaces. The art has developed a variety of hard surface cleaning compositions, including some which are acidic. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,008,030 discloses cleaning compositions that contain nonionic surfactants, a monocarboxylic acid, water, and other additives. The disclosure of this patent and of all other patents described herein are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Also, U.S. Pat. No. 5,061,393 teaches a hard surface cleaner that is a mixture of a zwitterionic surfactant, nonionic surfactant, citric acid, and various other components, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,851,980 teaches aqueous acidic liquid hard surface cleaners having nonionic surfactants, glycolic and lactic acids, N-alkyldimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride, and fragrance. Ether solvents are also taught in the last of these patents. U.S. Pat. No. 5,061,397 also teaches hard surface cleaners with butyl cellosolve, citric acid, and colorants. Other publications describe the use of sulfamic acid, amine oxides and cellulosic thickeners and hard surface cleaners. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Hemostatic agent delivery system Inventor(s): Gross, T. Daniel; (Los Gatos, CA), Hammersmark, Dan J.; (San Mateo, CA) Correspondence: T. Gene Dillahunty, ESQ.; Burns, Doane, Swecker & Mathis, L.L.P.; P.O. Box 1404; Alexandria; VA; 22313-1404; US Patent Application Number: 20030109820 Date filed: December 7, 2001 Abstract: A hemostatic agent delivery system, comprising: a suture, pledget or introducer sheath coated or impregnated with a hemostatic agent. A hemostatic agent delivery system, comprising: an introducer sheath; a flow blocking system positioned at the distal end of a deployment device; and a hemostatic agent injection system. A hemostatic agent delivery system, comprising: an introducer sheath; and (a) a plug delivery shaft positionable within the introducer sheath, the plug delivery shaft dimensioned to push hemostatic material in the introducer sheath to a location adjacent to a vessel wall, or (b) a delivery sleeve receivable over the introducer sheath, delivery sheath dimensioned to push a cuff of hemostatic material to a location adjacent to a vessel wall. The hemostatic agent may comprises chitosan.

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Excerpt(s): The present invention relates in general to systems for achieving hemostasis at a cut or puncture in a vessel, and in particular to systems for closing an opening in the wall of a femoral artery following a catheterization procedure. A number of diagnostic and interventional procedures require vascular access in which a catheter is introduced to the vascular system at a convenient access location and guided through the vascular system to a target location. When vascular access is no longer required, the catheter introducer sheath is removed and bleeding at the puncture site is stopped. Typically, such interventional catheterization procedures are performed by inserting the catheter through a puncture into the patient's femoral artery. Following such catheterization procedures, it is then necessary to close the hole or puncture into the femoral artery. Various methods exist for closing such a puncture in the femoral artery. The primary method is the use of direct compression over the puncture to provide hemostasis (i.e. cessation of bleeding) until the patient's natural healing mechanisms form a blood clot at the puncture. To attain hemostasis, direct compression may need to be applied for a time period ranging from 20 minutes to as long as 90 minutes. Following the formation of a blood clot, the patient may be required to remain immobile for as long as 24 hours. Unfortunately, since such direct compression procedures rely upon clot formation, delays may be encountered since anticoagulants used in the vascular therapy process may need to first wear off. A further disadvantage of direct compression techniques to achieve hemostasis is that they are uncomfortable for the patient. Yet another disadvantage of direct compression techniques to achieve hemostasis is that they may result in occlusion of the blood vessel, thereby resulting in ischemia or thrombosis. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Macroporous chitosan beads and preparation method thereof Inventor(s): Bae, Eunhee; (Seoul, KR), Choi, Kuiwon; (Seoul, KR), Jeong, Seo Young; (Koyang-si, KR), Kwon, Ick Chan; (Seoul, KR) Correspondence: Squire Sanders & Dempsey; 801 South Figueroa Street 14th Floor; Los Angeles; CA; 90017-5554; US Patent Application Number: 20030119157 Date filed: June 17, 2002 Abstract: The present invention relates to macroporous chitosan beads having 5200.mu.m in size of relatively large and uniform pores that are distributed from surface to core region, and a preparation method thereof compring the following steps; by dropping chitosan solution, aqueous chitosan solution or their mixture into the lowtemperature of organic solvent or liquid nitrogen; and by regulating pore size by phase separation method via temperature difference.The macroporous chitosan beads of the present invention make cell culture more efficient than the previous substrate, since cell can attach to them efficiently due to their large surface area, it is easy for cell to be injected into them and cell attached to them can exist longer due to their threedimensional structure, therefore they can be used for a study about production of protein, abtibiotics, anticancer agent, polysaccharide, physiologically active agent, animal hormone, or plant hormone as well as a study about substitution of metabolic organs, cartilage or bone. Excerpt(s): The present application is the U.S. National Phase Application of PCT/KR00/01388, filed under 35 U.S.C.sctn. 371. The present invention relates to macroporous chitosan beads and a method for preparing the macroporous chitosan beads. More particularly, the present invention relates to macroporous chitosan beads

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which are superior in cell attachment, biocompatibility, and biodegradability and thus useful in cell growth, angiogenesis and nutrient diffusion, and a method for preparing the macroporous chitosan beads. Also, the present invention is concerned with a method for culturing animal and plant cells using the macroporous chitosan beads. Recently, active research has been directed to cell cultures for preparing substitutes for metabolic tissues such as the liver and the pancreas, as well as cartilage or bones. To efficiently culture cells, culture matrices are required to have ability of cell attachment, facilitate cell growth, and aid cells to maintain their functions, in addition to being of biocompatibility, biodegradability, plasticity, and porosity. Particularly, cell matrices must be porous in order to accommodate as many cells in a limited space as possible. In this regard, the size and three-dimensional structure of pores must be determined in careful consideration of cell growth, angiogenesis, and nutrient diffusion. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Method and device for applying external pressure in combination with coagulant treatment of puncture wounds Inventor(s): Mathisen, Torbjorn; (Alvsjo, SE), Stalemark, Jan; (Taby, SE) Correspondence: Foley And Lardner; Suite 500; 3000 K Street NW; Washington; DC; 20007; US Patent Application Number: 20030114881 Date filed: December 18, 2001 Abstract: Following a catheterisation of the artery, the flow of blood through the puncture wound has to be stopped. With the method according to the invention, the time for achieving haemostasis can be reduced by combining the normal clotting mechanism with a chitosan induced clogging mechanism. A compression device (1; 8; 16) for achieving haemostasis in a puncture wound comprises a compressor (2; 9; 17) and a pressure element (3; 10; 18) connected to said compressor (2; 9; 17) so that the bottom side of the pressure element (3; 10; 18) is in contact with the puncture wound, characterized in that the bottom side of the pressure element (3; 10; 18) is provided with chitosan, so that the chitosan and the external compression pressure are applied simultaneously on the puncture wound when the compressor (2; 9; 17) applies an external compression pressure on the puncture wound via the pressure element (3; 10; 18). Excerpt(s): The present invention relates in general to a method for achieving haemostasis by applying an external compression pressure on a puncture wound in combination with a coagulant treatment of said puncture wound. The invention also relates to a device with which the coagulant and the external compression pressure can be applied simultaneously on the puncture wound. Following an invasive medical procedure, such as catheterisation or similar invasive medical procedure, the flow of blood through the puncture wound has to be stopped, so that haemostasis can begin as soon and fast as possible after the completion of the invasive medical procedure. Several devices have been suggested that facilitate and accelerate this haemostasis by providing a compression pressure that compresses the blood vessels at the puncture site to stop the flow of blood therethrough. Examples of femoral compression devices may be found in the U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,957,105, 5,307,811, 5,799,650 and 5,997,564, while examples of devices for the compression of the radial artery may be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,798,199, 5,569,297 and 5,601,597. The entire contents of all of these patents are incorporated herein by reference. Although there exist numerous compression devices having very

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different designs and types of mechanical or pneumatical pressure applying means, the basic working principle is the same: a pressure element is positioned at the wound site and some kind of compressing means is provided which presses the pressure element against the puncture wound, thereby stopping the flow of blood therethrough so that haemostasis can begin. Normally it takes about 20 minutes to achieve haemostasis. If, however, a patient has been given heparin to, for example, avoid blood clots, the time for achieving haemostasis may be as long as 1.5 hours. Besides being uncomfortable for the patient and being expensive for the medical service, a long compression time involves the risks of vein thrombosis, tissue necrosis, nervous damages, and other more or less severe complications. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Method for decreasing lost circulation during well operations using water absorbent polymers Inventor(s): Cowan, Jack C.; (Lafayette, LA), Kilchrist, Michael J.; (Lafayette, LA), Verret, Robin J.; (Youngsville, LA) Correspondence: Roy F. House; 5726 Ettrick Drive; Houston; TX; 77035; US Patent Application Number: 20030141062 Date filed: January 27, 2003 Abstract: Disclosed is a method and gellable composition for decreasing the loss of fluid during well drilling or servicing operations. The gellable composition comprises a superabsorbent polymer in an acidic aqueous liquid in which the superabsorbent is not swellable. Preferably the gellable composition also contains a viscosifier, preferably chitosan. The method is practiced by forming the gellable composition, placing it at the location of fluid loss in a well, and mixing it with a basic aqueous liquid to raise the pH and thus allow the superabsorbent to expand in volume. Advantageously, the superabsorbent, chitosan, and an acid, preferably a solid acid, preferably sulfamic acid, are admixed to form an additive for preparing the gellable composition. Excerpt(s): This patent application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/353,101 filed Jan. 30, 2002 whose applicants and title are the same as for this utility patent application. The invention concerns a method for reducing lost circulation when aqueous or oil based drilling fluids are used. More particularly, the method involves dispersing a water absorbent polymer in an acidic aqueous liquid which will prevent the polymer from absorbing water and expanding to plug fissures and thief zones until water absorption is desired. Drilling fluids, or drilling muds as they are sometimes called, are generally slurries of clay solids or polymers used in the drilling of wells in the earth for the purpose of recovering hydrocarbons and other fluid materials. Drilling fluids have a number of functions, the most important of which are: lubricating the drilling tool and drill pipe which carries the tool, removing formation cuttings from the well, counterbalancing formation pressures to prevent the inflow of gas, oil or water from permeable rocks which may be encountered at various levels as drilling continues, and holding the cuttings in suspension in the event of a shutdown in the drilling and pumping of the drilling fluid. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Method for production of chitosan-based films with enhanced cell adhering capacity, resulting product and applications Inventor(s): Cantalejo, Jesus Manuel Garcia; (Madrid, ES), Lopez Lacomba, Jose Luis; (Madrid, ES), Ramos, Viviana Monica; (Madrid, ES), Sanz Casado, Jose Vicente; (Madrid, ES) Correspondence: Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld L.L.P.; One Commerce Square; 2005 Market Street, Suite 2200; Philadelphia; PA; 19103-7013; US Patent Application Number: 20030124172 Date filed: February 10, 2003 Abstract: A method is provided for producing chitosan-based films with enhanced celladhering capacity which comprises, in general, the formation of a chitosan-based film, the stabilization of the film and the activation of the cell adherence capacity by means of drying the stabilized and washed film. Additionally, the film may be biologically activated by means of fixing with a substance with biological activity. The films obtained have an increased cell adherence capacity, and, optionally, are biologically activated. These films may be used to induce a biological activity in a recipient organism, and/or for enhancing the osteointegration of implants of dental or traumatologic use and/or for regenerating osseous tissue. Excerpt(s): This application is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/ES01/00322, filed Aug. 10, 2001, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. The invention fits into the technical field of production of chitosan-based films and its applications in the pharmaceutical, food and biotechnology industries. More specifically, the invention proposes a new method for treatment of chitosan that allows chitosan films to be obtained with increased cell adherence, conferring on it important applications in medicine, pharmacy and biotechnology not achieved until present. Chitosan is a polymer of natural origin obtained by partial deacetyllation of chitin, homopolymer of.beta.-1, 4-2-acetamide-D-glucosamine, the latter of these being the most abundant polysaccharide in nature after cellulose. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Method of adsorbing dye in aqueous solution by chemical cross-linked chitosan beads Inventor(s): Chiou, Ming-Shen; (Taoyuan, TW), Li, Hsing-Ya; (Hsinchu, TW) Correspondence: Perkins Coie Llp; Patent-sea; P.O. Box 1247; Seattle; WA; 98111-1247; US Patent Application Number: 20030101521 Date filed: May 16, 2002 Abstract: The present invention provides a method of adsorbing dye by cross-linked chitosan beads comprising the steps of providing chitosan and dissolving the chitosan to form a chitosan solution, mixing the chitosan solution with a tripolyphosphate (TPP) solution to form ionic cross-linked chitosan beads, cross-linking the ionic cross-linked beads to form the cross-linked chitosan beads by adding NaOH and cross-linking agent and shaking for about a first period at temperature about 25-55 centigrade; and adding the cross-linked chitosan beads in dye solution to adsorb the dye. The cross-linked

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chitosan beads is used in acid or neutral solution to adsorb reactive type dye, acid type dye or direct type dye. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method of adsorbing dye in aqueous solution, and more specifically, to a method of adsorbing dye by using cross-linked chitosan beads. The effluents of wastewater in some industries such as dyestuff, textiles, leather, paper, plastics, etc. contain various kinds of synthetic dyestuffs. A very small amount of dye in water is highly visible and can be toxic to creatures in water. Environmental legislation has imposed strict limits on the concentrations of dyes which may be discharged into nature bodies. Hence, the removal of color from process or waste effluents becomes environmentally important. Among several chemical and physical methods, adsorption process is an effective method to remove dyes from wastewater. Many studies have been made on the possibility of adsorbents to lower dye concentrations from aqueous solutions, such as activated carbon (McKay, 1983; Allen, 1996), please refer to Allen, S. J., 1996. Types of adsorbent materials. In: McKay, G. (Ed.), Use of Adsorbents for the Removal of Pollutants from Wastewaters. CRC, Boca Raton, USA, pp. 59-97. Ramakrishna disclosed a method of removing dye by using peat, please refer to Ramakrishna, K. R., Viraraghavan, T., 1997. Dye removal using low cost adsorbents. Wat. Sci. Tech. 36, 189-196. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Method of preparing microsphere composite of collagen and bioceramic powder Inventor(s): Chang, Wen Chung; (Taipei, TW), Huang, Hsiu-Hsuan; (Taipei, TW), Tsai, Shiao-Wen; (Taipei, TW), Wang, Yng-Jiin; (Taipei, TW) Correspondence: Supreme Patent Services; Post Office Box 2339; Saratoga; CA; 95070; US Patent Application Number: 20030071380 Date filed: October 13, 2001 Abstract: This invention provides a method of preparing microsphere composite of collagen and bioceramic powder. This method first mixes a collagen solution with bioceramic powder and alginate, and squeezes the mixture solution to spherical droplets being discharged into a divalent cation solution undergoing gelling to form microspheres. Next, the microsphere is coated with a chitosan solution. Then, interior alginate and surface chitosan of the microsphere are liquefied and washed out with an aqueous buffer solution such as phosphate based buffer, and collagen in the microsphere is reconstituted to fiber network at the same time. The prepared microsphere composite has similar composition components of bone tissue, and the collagen thereof has a network of reconstituted fibers. The microsphere composite of this invention provides a similar growth environment of bone tissue cells, is used as a carrier to carry cells, coat and fix bone growth factors, and is applied in bone repair. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a method of preparing microsphere composite and in particular to a method of preparing microsphere composite of collagen and bioceramic powder, the interior and the surface of the microsphere have a three dimensional network of collagen fibers. Human bone tissue needs to be repaired as it has defects due to damages or diseases. If bone implant material is added to the defect to bear stress and provide a scaffold for cell culturing, which can effectively augment bone structures and induce bone tissue regeneration and repair. The best method to get bone implant material is autogenous implant, but this source is limited and the patient

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suffers a second operation. Allogenous bone graft has problems of immune response and other side effects. Therefore, the synthetic bone tissue material gives another choice. The conventional synthetic implant material has inertia in order to coexist with living tissues. But the inertia material induces fibers around the implant, therefore the implant is not fixed or the tissues around it become fibers or die. Prior arts have discovered there is biological binding between tissue and biomaterial, and the biomaterial has better biocompatibility. Collagen is the most abundant protein of bone matrix, has biocompatibility and low immune response causing property, and provides a suitable matrix for regenerated osteocyte's anchorage. Adding bioceramic powder such as tricalcium phosphate (TCP), hydroxyapatite (HAP) to collagen forms composite material, this composite material has larger mechanical strength and further simulates the composition components of bone tissue. Such composite material can be used as carriers for cells and growth factors which induce tissue regeneration and speed up bone repair rate. There are many shapes of implant materials such as bulk shape, cement shape, and microsphere shape. Each shape has its own disadvantages. Bulk shape bone implant has larger mechanical strength, so it is not suitably applied in various shapes of bone defect in operation. As per cement shape and microsphere shape bone implants, which can be conveniently operated, molded in accordance with the shape of the defect, and injected to the location of bone defect to reduce patient's pain in the operation. The disadvantages of materials of these shapes are such materials can not be easily fixed at the defect and have smaller mechanical strength. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Method of producing low molecular weight chitin/chitosan and method of producing an osteoconduction substance Inventor(s): Ito, Michio; (Nagano, JP) Correspondence: Foley And Lardner; Suite 500; 3000 K Street NW; Washington; DC; 20007; US Patent Application Number: 20030078394 Date filed: October 23, 2002 Abstract: By irradiating.sup.60Co.gamma. ray to chitin/chitosan, chitin/chitosan having high molecular weight is separated or decomposed into low molecular weight chitin/chitosan. A method of producing an osteoconduction substance comprises the steps of irradiating.sup.60Co.gamma. ray to chitin/chitosan to produce low molecular weight chitin/chitosan; preparing chitosan sol by dissolving low molecular weight chitin/chitosan in an acidic aqueous solution to obtain a chitosan acidic aqueous solution and kneading the chitosan acidic aqueous solution and apatite powder; and neutralizing the chitosan sol by the use of a neutralizing agent. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a method of producing low molecular weight chitin/chitosan and a method of producing an osteoconduction substance and, in particular, to a method of producing low molecular weight chitin/chitosan by irradiation of.sup.60Co.gamma. (cobalt 60 gamma ray) and a method of producing an osteoconduction substance using the low molecular weight chitin/chitosan. Generally, an osteoconduction substance is used in the field of dental treatment and orthopedics. The osteoconduction substance has a nature of helping or promoting creation of a new bone when it is filled in or around a bone. The osteoconduction substance is excellent in affinity to a tooth and a bone in a human body. The osteoconduction substance has a neutral pH value. In an existing method of producing an osteoconduction substance,

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chitin/chitosan is at first dissolved in an acidic aqueous solution to obtain an acidic aqueous solution of chitosan as chitosan sol. The chitosan sol and apatite powder are kneaded together. An acid used in dissolving chitin/chitosan may be acetic acid, lactic acid, malic acid, citric acid, adipic acid, tartaric acid, malonic acid, stearic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, aspartic acid, and glycin. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Methods and compositions comprising biocompatible materials useful for the administration of therapeutic agents Inventor(s): Burt, Helen M.; (Vancouver, CA), Jackson, John K.; (Vancouver, CA), Springate, Chris; (Vancouver, CA), Winternitz, Charles; (Delta, CA) Correspondence: Graybeal, Jackson, Haley Llp; 155 - 108th Avenue NE; Suite 350; Bellevue; WA; 98004-5901; US Patent Application Number: 20030134810 Date filed: September 26, 2002 Abstract: Compositions and methods for in vivo delivery of pharmacologically active agents associated with polymeric biocompatible materials. Compositions comprising a first, negatively charged pharmacologically active agent such as an oligonucleotide and a polycationic polymer such as chitosan or chitosan derivatives, optionally in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier the composition providing controlled release and/or protection from degradation of the first, negatively charged pharmacologically active agent when introduced into the body. The pharmaceutically acceptable carrier can be a polymer paste or gel which may contain a second pharmacologically active agent which may be an anti-inflammatory and/or an anti-proliferative agent. Methods of making and administering a controlled release and/or protective from degradation compositions for the delivery of a pharmacologically active agent, such as a nucleic acid, in combination with a polycationic polymer and in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, to a mammal in a pharmaceutically effective amount. Excerpt(s): The present application claims priority from U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/328,175, filed Oct. 9, 2001, and from U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/328,208, filed Oct. 9, 2001. One way to treat proliferative disorders, such as cancer, and inflammatory disorders, such as arthritis, is with oligonucleotide drugs (therapeutics) such as DNA or RNA used as antisense agents (ASOs), ribozymes, RNA inhibitors and immune modulating oligonucleotides. These oligonucleotide therapeutics can be specific and relatively non-toxic, and depending on the desired use, they can, generate lacking proteins or inhibit over-produced proteins. The effective use of oligonucleotide therapeutics, however, is limited by ineffective delivery to the diseased tissues. Significant issues include oligonucleotide degradation, rapid removal, also known as clearance, of the oligonucleotide therapeutics from the disease site or organism, and the inability to get the product across the cell membranes of the target tissue, which inhibits the drug's work at sites inside cells. Degradation or catabolism and/or rapid removal or clearance of oligonucleotide therapeutics results in increased doses, increased duration of therapy, and increased cost to patients receiving these oligonucleotide therapeutics. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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METHODS AND KITS FOR ABSORBING FAT Inventor(s): Nichols, Everett J.; (Edmonds, WA) Correspondence: Christensen, O'connor, Johnson, Kindness, Pllc; 1420 Fifth Avenue; Suite 2800; Seattle; WA; 98101-2347; US Patent Application Number: 20030069206 Date filed: December 29, 1999 Abstract: In one aspect, the present invention provides kits for reducing absorption of lipids by the gastrointestinal tract of a mammalian body. The kits include chitosan, packaging, and instructions indicating that the chitosan may be consumed with food. Chitosan useful for incorporation into kits of the present invention dissolves sufficiently rapidly in gastric juice that it does not have to be consumed in advance of a meal in order to dissolve within the stomach and thereafter effectively entrap lipids in the gastrointestinal tract of the consumer. In a particular embodiment of the kits of the present invention, the chitosan possesses the property of dissolving in a 100-fold (w/w) excess of 0.16N hydrochloric acid, at a temperature in the range of from 16.degree. C. to 25.degree. C., so that the maximum viscosity of the dissolved chitosan solution is reached within 5 minutes after the acid contacts the chitosan. It is desirable to utilize chitosan having a high tap density and/or high bulk density in the kits of the present invention. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for reducing absorption of lipids by the gastrointestinal tract of a mammalian body. The methods include the step of providing a consumer with a kit including chitosan, packaging, and instructions indicating that the chitosan may be consumed with food. The kits of the present invention are useful in the practice of the methods of the present invention. By utilizing the kits and/or methods for lipid absorption reduction of the present invention a consumer does not have to remember to consume lipid-absorbing chitosan in advance of food consumption. Excerpt(s): The present application is a continuation-in-part of copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/114,023, filed Jul. 10, 1998 from which benefit of priority is claimed. This invention relates to chitosan, to kits containing chitosan and to the use of chitosan as a dietary supplement to reduce the absorption of lipids by a mammalian body. Chitin is a linear polysaccharide composed of.beta.-(1-4)-linked 2-acetamido-2deoxy-D-glucose units that occurs naturally in the exoskeleton of invertebrates, in particular the carapace of marine crustaceans. Chemical deacetylation of chitin yields chitosan which is a copolymer of 2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose and 2-acetamido-2-deoxyD-glucose units. Chitosan has numerous uses including: an absorbent useful in water purification; a paper wet web strength enhancer; a blood cholesterol lowering compound; a compound useful in adjusting viscosity; a cosmetics additive; a pharmaceutical adjuvant and a dietary supplement. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Methods for processing crustacean material Inventor(s): Nielsen, Per Munk; (Hillerod, DK) Correspondence: Novozymes North America, INC.; 500 Fifth Avenue; Suite 1600; New York; NY; 10110; US Patent Application Number: 20030185939 Date filed: March 11, 2003

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Abstract: The inventor has found that enzymatic treatment of crustaceans with lipolytic enzymes promotes the extraction of coloured pigment. Accordingly, the invention relates to a method for recovering coloured pigment, e.g. astaxanthin, and/or chitin or chitosan and/or lysolecithins from crustaceans. Lipolytic enzyme(s) may e.g. be lipase or phospholipase. The lipolytic enzyme treated crustacean material may be subjected to additional process steps, including treatment with non-lipolytic enzymes such as e.g. protease. The process of the invention provides several suitable products and several uses of such products. Furthermore, the invention also relates to the cosmetic and consumable products (feed and food (including beverages) products and additives produced therefrom. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to methods for enzymatically processing crustaceans in order to provide useful products therefrom. The usage of carotenoid pigments such as astaxanthin is increasing in the field of food and feed additives as a colorant and/or as an anti-oxidant, in particular for aquacultered fish. Aquatic animals, like terrestrial animals, generally cannot synthesize astaxanthin or other carotenoids but several of these animals, including crustaceans, accumulate astaxanthin present in their diet. Crustaceans have the capability of converting carotenes to astaxanthin. Salmonid fish and red sea bream fish accumulate dietary astaxanthin but these fish cannot convert other carotenes to astaxanthin. Thus, the astaxanthin present in salmonid fish must be derived directly from dietary source. Currently synthetic astaxanthin is employed as feed additive for coloration of farmed fish for providing its desired characteristic reddish colour. However, consumer concerns have resulted in an increased demand for providing natural astaxanthin to substitute the synthetically produced astaxanthin. This should also be seen in the light of the current general preference for natural products. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Microcapsules-vi Inventor(s): Garces, Josep; (Martorell Barcelona, ES), Viladot-Petit, Josep-Luis; (Barcelona, ES) Correspondence: Cognis Corporation; 2500 Renaissance BLVD., Suite 200; Gulph Mills; PA; 19406 Patent Application Number: 20030064106 Date filed: September 4, 2002 Abstract: The invention relates to microcapsules with an average diameter of 0.1 to 5 mm, which can be obtained by (a) processing aqueous preparations of active agents with oil bodies in the presence of emulsifiers in order to produce O/W/ emulsions, (b) treating the resulting emulsions with aqueous solutions of anionic polymers, (c) bringing the resulting matrix into contact with aqueous chitosan solutions and (d) separating the resulting encapsulation products from the aqueous phase. Excerpt(s): The invention is in the field of encapsulation of active ingredients and relates to novel microcapsules, to a process for their preparation, and to their use in the field of cosmetics, pharmacy and food additives. The term "microcapsule" is to be understood as meaning spherical aggregates with a diameter in the range from about 0.1 to about 5 mm which comprise at least one solid or liquid core which is surrounded by at least one continuous shell. More precisely, they are finely disperse liquid or solid phases surrounded by film-forming polymers, during the preparation of which the polymers, following emulsification and coacervation or interfacial polymerization, are deposited

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onto the material to be enclosed. In another process, liquid active ingredients are taken up in a matrix ("microsponge") which, as microparticles, may additionally be coated with film-forming polymers. The microscopically small capsules, also called nanocapsules, can be dried like powders. As well as single-core microcapsules, multicore aggregates, also called microspheres, are also known which contain two or more cores distributed in the continuous shell material. Single- or multicore microcapsules can additionally be surrounded by an additional second, third etc. shell. The shell can consist of natural, semisynthetic or synthetic materials. Natural shell materials are, for example, gum arabic, agar agar, agarose, maltodextrins, alginic acid and its salts, e.g. sodium alginate or calcium alginate, fats and fatty acids, cetyl alcohol, collagen, chitosan, lecithins, gelatin, albumin, shellac, polysaccharides, such as starch or dextran, polypeptides, protein hydrolyzates, sucrose and waxes. Semisynthetic shell materials are, inter alia, chemically modified celluloses, in particular cellulose esters and ethers, e.g. cellulose acetate, ethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellu- lose and carboxymethylcellulose, and starch derivatives, in particular starch ethers and esters. Synthetic shell materials are, for example, polymers, such as polyacrylates, polyamides, polyvinyl alcohol or polyvinylpyrrolidone. Examples of microcapsules of the prior art are the following commercial products (the shell material is in each case given in brackets): Hallcrest Microcapsules (gelatin, gum arabic), Coletica Thalaspheres (maritime collagen), Lipotec Millicapseln (alginic acid, agar agar), Induchem Unispheres (lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose); Unicerin C30 (lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose), Kobo Glycospheres (modified starch, fatty acid esters, phospholipids), Softspheres (modified agar agar) and Kuhs Probiol Nanospheres (phospholipids). Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Mineral-polymer hybrid composition Inventor(s): Chaput, Cyric; (Montreal, CA), Chenite, Abdellatif; (Kirkland, CA) Correspondence: Nixon Peabody; 101 Federal Street; Boston; MA; 02110; US Patent Application Number: 20030158302 Date filed: December 3, 2002 Abstract: Self-forming hybrid compositions consisting in admixed liquid and solid components enable the formation of bio-materials. The present invention proposes a) a thermo-sensitive self-forming liquid component, being water-based and containing at least a polycationic polymer such as chitosan, and an organic mono-phosphate source, which is a solution at a pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.4; b) a solid component being mineral and composed of at least one of calcium, fluoride, strontium, carbonate and phosphate salts. Solid mineral salts preferentially have a recognized bioactive potential such as the calcium phosphate salts for bones. Both solid and liquid components are admixed to form an injectable liquid slurry or pre-gelled paste that turn in situ into a hybrid uniform gel-like bio-material. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to the preparation and use of injectable self-forming mineral-polymer hybrid compositions for repairing, replacing or therapeutically treating tissues and body parts. More particularly, the present invention proposes selfgelling mineral-polymer hybrid formulations. More specifically, the present invention comprises self-gelling mineral-polymer hybrid formulations that comprises osteoconductive or osteoinductive agents, drugs or therapeutic and/or healing-

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accelerator components. A large quantity of bio-materials have been introduced for hard-tissue repair and formation, including natural or synthetic materials, pure organic or inorganic materials, and organo-inorganic biohybrid or hybrid materials. Conductive hard-tissue implants are passive bio-materials that provide a matrix to favor and support a new hard-tissue ingrowth and repair. They generally do not provide any osteogenesis property, in the meaning that such materials do not supply, by themselves, any osteogenesis or hard-tissue inductive factors, or any hard-tissue healing accelerators. Conductive structures have typically to favor the own ingrowth and reorganization of hard-tissues (Ex: osteoconductive materials). Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Natural fiber coated with chitosan and a method for producing the same Inventor(s): Kim, Won-Ki; (Daegu, KR), Kim, Young-Jun; (Los Angeles, CA), Son, TaeWon; (Daegu, KR), Yoo, Hyun-Oh; (Seoul, KR) Correspondence: Nathan J. Prepelka; 700 Koppers Building; 436 Seventh Avenue; Pittsburgh; PA; 15219-1818; US Patent Application Number: 20030134120 Date filed: July 12, 2002 Abstract: Disclosed is a chitosan-coated natural fiber, comprising 70-99.9% by weight of a core consisting of a natural fiber; and 0.1-30% by weight of a sheath layer consisting of chitosan, uniformly coated over the surface of the natural fiber core. The chitosancoated natural fiber is prepared by pretreating a natural yarn to improve affinity for chitosan, coating the pretreated natural fiber with chitosan, and stabilizing the fiber by heating or with an alkaline solution. The chitosan-coated fiber is 5-10.mu.m in fineness and 1-300 mm in length and shows desirable fiber properties as well as beneficial functions of chitosan, including antibacterial, deodorization and hemostatic activities. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates, in general, to a natural fiber containing chitosan and, more particularly, to a natural fiber uniformly coated with chitosan, which can be used as a raw material not only for clothing with medical functions including antibacterial activity, hemostatic activity and tissue culture, but also for clothes, sheets and paper with antibacterial and deodorization activities. Also, the present invention is concerned with a method for producing such a natural fiber. The term "natural fibers" as used herein comprises cellulose fibers such as cotton and linen, regenerated fibers such as rayon and acetate, and protein fibers such as wool and silk, as well as regenerated protein fibers such as meat protein fibers and casein fibers. Useful as a raw material for clothing, paper, wooden products, etc., cellulose such as cotton, linen and pulp, which naturally occur in plants, are closely related to human daily life and are expected to find new and continuing various applications in the future, as before. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Polymer blends that swell in an acidic environment and deswell in a basic environment Inventor(s): Bark, Jong-Seok; (Salt Lake City, UT), Liu, Feng; (Salt Lake City, UT), Zentner, Gaylen M.; (Salt Lake City, UT) Correspondence: Thorpe North Western; 8180 South 700 East, Suite 200; P.O. Box 1219; Sandy; UT; 84070; US Patent Application Number: 20030124189 Date filed: December 20, 2002 Abstract: A polymer blend is prepared by dissolving chitosan and a second polymer in an acidic aqueous solution to form an aqueous polymer blend, dehydrating said aqueous polymer blend, and recovering said polymer blend. The second polymer may be selected from the group consisting of polyether glycols including polyethylene glycols; cellulose esters including cellulose acetate; poloxamers; polysaccharides including dextran and guar; polyvinylpyrrolidones; polyvinyl alcohols; and mixtures or copolymers thereof. These polymer blends swell in an acidic environment and deswell in a more neutral or basic environment. This technology is valuable for the dispensing of biologically active material or drugs into a surrounding environment, especially the environment as is found in the gastrointestinal tract. Since the various polymer blends of the present invention are not covalently or ionically crosslinked, but are physically combined, each polymer in the physical blend maintains its original chemical structure, and therefore, is safe for oral administration. Excerpt(s): This is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/438,884 filed on Nov. 12, 1999. The present invention relates to various polymer blends that, when exposed to aqueous conditions, become hydrogels. These hydrogels are used for carrying and delivering bioactive agents or drugs in a biological environment. More specifically, the invention relates to polymer blends that, when exposed to aqueous conditions, form hydrogels that swell when exposed to an acidic environment (such as that found in the stomach) and deswell when exposed to a more neutral to alkaline environment (such as that found in the small and large intestines). When the hydrogel swells and deswells, the release of biologically active material contained in the hydrogel is modulated. There have been many approaches to meet the problems of regulating the delivery of bioactive agents or drugs to biological systems in the proper place, at the proper time and at the proper dose to achieve a desired effect. These systems depend on the utilization of physical or chemical stimuli in the surrounding environment. Further, these environmental stimuli are usually of an external nature to the drug delivery system. Mechanisms that respond to such stimuli or signals include protein binding, hydrogel expanding or swelling, polymer erosion, membrane reorganization, solubility change, energy conversion, supply of activation energy for permeation, physical property changes of the materials that comprise the system, or phase transition phenomena, and the like. Examples are presented by Heller, Chemically self-regulated drug delivery systems, J. Control. Rel., 8, 111-125 (1988). Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Powders having contact biocidal properties Inventor(s): Roberts, George Andrew Francis; (Southwell, GB), Taylor, Alan; (Chesterfield, GB), Wood, Frances Ann; (Loughborough, GB) Correspondence: Peter S. Gilster; Greensfelder, Hemker & Gale, P.C.; Intellectual Property Group; 10 South Broadway, Suite 2000; ST. Louis; MI; 63102-1774; US Patent Application Number: 20030091653 Date filed: November 7, 2002 Abstract: Powders having contact biocidal properties comprise a polysacharide carrying atomic/metallic silver. The preferred polysaccharide is chitin, although other polysaccharides including chitosan, carboxymethyl celluloses and carrageenans can be used. The chitin may be obtained from deproteinated crustacean shells without demineralisation, thus being admixed with calcium carbonate and other naturally occurring minerals present in the shells, and may be enzyme deacetylated. The powders of the invention can be used as biocidal dusting powders, formulated into pastes, gels, hydrogels, creams, foams and aerosol sprays for pharmaceutical applications, or dissolved to form solutions for coating substrates such as skin, fabrics, glass, leather and paper to give a bactericidal surface. A particular application of such a solution is as a protective, post-wash treatment for workwear in a laundering process. The powders of the invention may be prepared by slurrying a polysaccharide, which is capable of interacting with silver ions and which is in powder form, in a liquid in which the polymer is insoluble, which liquid contains silver ions, filtering off the powder, washing the powder, reducing the silver ions which have interacted with the polysaccharide to atomic/metallic silver, and drying the powder. According to the polysaccharide chosen, the liquid is suitably water or aqueous ethanol. The silver ions may derive from silver nitrate. The reduction of the silver ions which have interacted with the polysaccharide to atomic/metallic silver can be effected photochemically through exposure to light. To hasten the reduction, however, the washed powder is preferably slurried in a solution of an alkali metal halide, irradiated under stirring with natural or artificial light containing an ultraviolet component, and again filtered off and washed, before drying it. Excerpt(s): This application is based upon UK Patent Application No. 0126866.3 dated 08 November 2001, entitled "Powders Having Contact Biocidal Properties", the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety and continued preservation of which is requested. The invention relates to powders having contact biocidal properties, to pastes, gels, hydrogels, creams, foams, aerosol sprays and other pharmaceutical application forms containing them, to solutions prepared from them, and to a process for their preparation. In our earlier International Patent Application No WO 02/15698, we described the preparation of articles having a contact biocidal property. A polymer solution which contains atomic/metallic silver in suspension or complexed with the polymer is applied to a substrate by impregnation or surface deposition and the article is dried. Alternatively the polymer solution contains a silver compound in solution, in suspension or complexed with the polymer instead of the atomic/metallic silver, and the silver compound is reduced to atomic/metallic silver after the application to the substrate. A second alternative is to convert the polymer solution to a fibre, film, powder or foam, effectively forming the article from the polymer solution instead of coating an existing article. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Process for producing chitin derivatives and/or chitosan derivatives having a crosslinked structure Inventor(s): Kume, Tamikazu; (Gunma, JP), Mitomo, Hiroshi; (Gunma, JP), Nagasawa, Naotsugu; (Gunma, JP), Yoshii, Fumio; (Gunma, JP) Correspondence: Banner & Witcoff; 1001 G Street N W; Suite 1100; Washington; DC; 20001; US Patent Application Number: 20030125532 Date filed: November 27, 2002 Abstract: A process for producing a chitin derivative and/or a chitosan derivative that have a crosslinked structure, which comprises irradiating a paste of a mixture consisting of 100 parts by weight of a chitin derivative and/or a chitosan derivative and 3.about.1,000 parts by weight of purified water. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a process for producing chitin derivatives and/or chitosan derivatives with a crosslinked structure by adding purified water to chitin derivatives and/or chitosan derivatives, kneading the mixture well and applying an ionizing radiation to the kneaded mixture. The chitin derivatives having a crosslinked structure are hydrogels and the chitosan derivatives having a crosslinked structure are hydrogels having antimicrobial activity. Hydrogels can hold a large amount of water within the three-dimensional network structure generated by crosslinking with radiation. The retained water will not seep out under slight pressure. Such hydrogels are already in use as disposable diapers and as humectants in cosmetics. Carboxymethylchitin (CM-chitin) and carboxymethyl-chitosan (CM-chitosan), if they are irradiated in either a solid form or as a dilute (.ltoreq.5%) aqueous solution, preferentially undergo decomposition and no hydrogels will form. If they are irradiated in a concentrated paste form (that will not flow out if the container is tilted), a crosslinked structure can be introduced and the resulting gel will absorb water upon immersion in it to become a hydrogel. In the case of a CM-chitosan hydrogel, it has been found to have a new feature, antimicrobial activity, in spite of it being a hydrogel. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Process for producing foods having good keeping qualities and food keeping agents Inventor(s): Fujisue, Mami; (Kagoshima-shi, JP), Muroya, Kenkou; (Kagoshima, JP), Nozaki, Kazuhiko; (Tokyo, JP), Yajima, Mizuo; (Tokyo, JP), Yoshinaga, Kazuhiro; (Kagoshima-shi, JP) Correspondence: Wenderoth, Lind & Ponack, L.L.P.; 2033 K Street N. W.; Suite 800; Washington; DC; 20006-1021; US Patent Application Number: 20030152676 Date filed: July 31, 2002 Abstract: The present invention provides a food preservative which contains an antibacterial substance having a high safety and which enhances the preservability of a food without exerting an adverse influence to the taste and flavor of the food; and a method for preserving a food.The following substances are used alone or in combination for a food additive: 1,5-D-anhydrofructose, and one or two or more of substances having an antibacterial activity and each capable of being used as a food additive such as amino acids such as glycine, alanine and the like; glycerin lower fatty

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acid esters; sugar esters; salts of vitamin B1; polyphosphates; ethanol; basic proteins and peptides such as protamine or the like; antibacterial extract from licorice; extract from red pepper; extract from hop; extract from yucca; extract from moso bamboo (thickstemmed bamboo); extract from grape fruit seed; extract from wasabi (Japanese horseradish) or mustard; organic acids such as acetic acid or the like and the salts thereof; sorbic acid, benzoic acid and the salts and esters thereof; propionic acid and the salt thereof; chitosan and bacterium DNA. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a process for producing a food having excellent preservability, and a food preservative. The storage and preservation of foods in stores and homes in the course of distribution of foods are themes required to be always solved. Various physical and chemical processes have been conceived as measures for such themes. Examples of the measures taken hitherto are freezing, refrigeration, drying, preservation in salt, preservation in sugar, heat sterilization, heat pasteurization (bottling and canning), heating packages, gas substitution of the inside of the packages, and use of a chemical preservative such as benzoic acid, sorbic acid and the like. The safety is first of all required at all times, but in recent years, particularly, the interest in health and foods is heightened and in addition, the interest in natural foods or foods close to natural foods is growing. Such a tendency to the foods in the recent years exerts a remarkable influence to food-preserving processes. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Stabilized concentrated formulations for enhancing plant defensive responses Inventor(s): Doostdar, Hamed; (Ft. Pierce, FL) Correspondence: Banner & Witcoff; 1001 G Street N W; Suite 1100; Washington; DC; 20001; US Patent Application Number: 20030139295 Date filed: December 13, 2001 Abstract: The invention provides stable, aqueous formulations comprising high concentrations of salicylic acid and hydrolyzed chitosan, which can be used to prepare diluted, working formulations for enhancing plant defensive responses. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to the development of a chemically stable formulation of plant defensive response elicitors and their use in agricultural and horticultural crops. Plants have developed a number of defensive strategies against pathogens and herbivores. These include structural modifications such as leaf shape, thorns, and trichomes, as well as varied biochemical strategies developed by plants to deter insect and pathogen attacks. The innate ability of plants to resist insect feeding and pathogen infection is known but little understood. It has, however, been used as selection criteria by classical plant breeders in developing new resistant crop varieties. In recent years, using new technologies scientists have made great strides in understanding the mechanisms of plant defenses and the molecular components involved. To date, four distinct but overlapping plant defensive responses have been identified. These are the hyper sensitive response (HR), the wounding response (WR), the systemic acquired resistance response (SAR), and the induced systemic resistance response (ISR) (1,2). Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Substance and method for reduction of lipids and cholesterol Inventor(s): Hakli, Harri; (Vantaa, FI), Kivekas, Olli; (Tampere, FI), Saynatjoki, Elina; (Kuhmoinen, FI), Struszczyk, Henryk; (Zgierz, PL) Correspondence: Connoly Bove Lodge & Hutz Llp; Suite 800; 1990 M Street, N.W.; Washington; DC; 20036-3425; US Patent Application Number: 20030092673 Date filed: August 6, 2001 Abstract: A substance for reduction of absorption of lipids and for reduction of serum cholesterol content in mammals comprising microcrystalline chitosan. The microcrystalline chitosan can be administered orally in food products or in dose units containing a predetermined amount of microcrystalline chitosan. The microcrystalline chitosan has an average particle size not higher than 100.mu.m. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to a substance and method for reduction of lipids by reducing their absorption in a living body. The invention also includes a substance and method for reduction of serum cholesterol content. Lipids play an important role in many biological processes, and quite often such components as triglycerides, fatty and bile acids as well as cholesterol and other sterols act negatively for certain mammals, especially humans. The negative effects of lipids in many biological processes are described inter alia in: Laboratory Investigation; vol 39, pages 574-583, 1978, Biochimica Biophysica Acta, vol, 515, pages 163205, 1978 and International Journal of Pharmacy, vol. 74, pages 137-146, 1991. The subsequent digestion and absorption of lipids affects negatively the weight control as well as causes health problems. Cholesterol, classified in lipid classification among precursor and derived lipids, an essential component of cell membranes and a precursor for steroid hormone synthesis and triglycerides, an important energy source, are transported as lipoproteins in the blood, Hyperlipoproteinemias are disturbances of lipid transport that result from accelerated synthesis or retarded degradation of lipoproteins. This abnormal phenomenon known as hyperlipidemia is detected by finding an elevated concentration of cholesterol and triglycerides in serum. High contents of serum lipoproteins are clinically very important, because they may cause two life-threatening problems: atherosclerosis and pancreatitis. Suitable reduction of the cholesterol-carrying lipoproteins, through diet and drugs, decreases a risk of myocardial infarction in subjects of hyperlipoproteinemia and hyperlipidemia. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Synergistic combinations of natural of compounds that control decay of fruits and vegetables and reduce contamination by foodborne human pathogens Inventor(s): El Ghaouth, Ahmed; (Frederick, MD), Wilson, Charles L.; (Shepherdstown, WV), Wisniewski, Michael E.; (Shepherdstown, WV) Correspondence: Usda, Ars, Ott; 5601 Sunnyside Ave; RM 4-1159; Beltsville; MD; 207055131; US Patent Application Number: 20030113421 Date filed: July 26, 2001 Abstract: Plant essential oils and chitosan salts were tested individually and in combination against a postharvest pathogen Botrytis cinerea and two foodborne human

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pathogens Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes. Four essential oils (cinnamon, allspice, savory, red thyme) in combination with two chitosan salts (chitosan sorbate and chitosan propionate) demonstrated synergistic antimicrobial activity against all three organisms. The synergistic combinations of essential oils and chitosan salts also demonstrated an eradicant activity against E. coli on apple disks previously inoculated with the organism. Synergistic combinations of essential oils and chitosan salts hold promise of giving superior control of both postharvest decay organisms and foodborne human pathogens. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to synergistic combinations of natural antimicrobial compounds that are effective against postharvest and foodborne human pathogens. Postharvest decay and contamination of fruits and vegetables with foodborne pathogens have been and continue to be of major concern to the fruit and vegetable industry. Conservative estimates place U.S. and Canadian losses of fruits and vegetables from postharvest decay at around 25% of the harvested crops. This problem has been further compounded by the risk of contamination of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables with foodborne pathogens. Several pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella spp, Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium botulinum, and Escherichia coli 0157:H7 have been shown to occur at base levels on the outer surfaces of a wide variety of harvested commodities (1988. Microorganisms in Foods: Application of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) System to Insure Microbiological Safety and Quality, Silliker et al., Eds. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, England). Recent outbreaks of foodborne illness associated with consumption of fresh horticultural products and non-pasteurized fruit juices have weakened consumers confidence in the wholesomeness of fresh produce (Fairchild et al. 1990. The Packer 33: 1-7; Schwartz et al. 1995. The Packer 27: 6; Wells et al. 1997. Plant Dis. 81: 867-872; Parish et al. 1998. J. Food Protection 61: 280-284). Presently, chlorinated washes in conjunction with proper refrigeration, stringent sanitation, and synthetic fungicides are the primary means of controlling foodborne pathogens and postharvest decay. However, the carcinogenicity of trihalomethanes and the possible regulatory restriction of chlorine present major challenges for the fresh produce industry to find safe alternatives. Similar public concern has been raised regarding fungicide safety. As a result, a number of key postharvest fungicides have been recently banned or are undergoing critical re-registration. In addition, some of the fungicides registered for postharvest use, particularly benzimidazole, are becoming ineffective because of the development of fungicide-resistant strains of postharvest pathogens (Spotts et al. 1986. Plant Dis. 70: 106-108; Eckert, J. W. 1991. In: Role of Chemical Fungicides and Biological Agents in Postharvest Disease Control. Proceedings of the Workshop on Biological Control of Postharvest Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables, Shepherdstown, W. Va., USA, Sep. 12-14, 1990, U.S.D.A. and A.R.S. Publication Vol. 92, page 310.). Thus, it has become apparent that new, safe methodologies are needed to reduce both decay and contamination of our food supply by foodborne human pathogens. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

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Topical agent for dermatological use Inventor(s): Kuriki, Takashi; (Osaka, JP), Nakae, Takashi; (Hyogo, JP), Nakayama, Hiroki; (Tokyo, JP), Nishimura, Takahisa; (Nara, JP) Correspondence: Pennie And Edmonds; 1155 Avenue OF The Americas; New York; NY; 100362711 Patent Application Number: 20030198610 Date filed: June 4, 2003 Abstract: The objetive of the present invention was to enhance the skin whitening effects and blackening prevention effects and supply safe and stable topical agents for dermatological use. For that purpose 4-Hydroxyphenyl-.alpha.-D-glucopyranoside was combined with auxiliary agents such as ascorbic acid and its derivatives, crude drugs and its extracts, hydroxycarboxylic acid and its salts, oil soluble glycyrrhiza extract, gentian extract, phenol derivatives and their salts, placenta extract, kojic acid and its derivative, glucosamine and its derivatives, azelaic acid and its derivatives, retinol and its derivatives, pyridoxin and its derivatives, tocopherol and its derivatives, chitosan and its decomposition products, caffeic acid derivatives, hydroxycinnamate and its derivatives, Umbelliferae plant extracts, mycelial cultures and their extracts, plant leaves and their extracts. Excerpt(s): The present invention is related to topical agents for dermatological use which whiten the skin color or prevent its blackening and prevent or relieve liver spots, freckles, etc. and which show generally desirable formulation properties in terms of the safety and stability. Various melanin formation preventing agents have been used to whiten the skin color or prevent its blackening and prevent or relieve skin troubles such as liver spots and freckles caused due to excessive exposure to UV rays. These agents include 1,4-dihydroxybenzene,.beta.-arbutin, vitamin C and its derivatives, and kojic acid. However, vitamin C, 1,4-dihydroxybenzene and kojic acid are extremely unstable with respect to heat and oxidation in water. When added to topical agents for dermatological use, therefore, these compounds decompose over time and cause coloration. Their derivatives, such as phosphate-ascorbyl magnesium and.beta.-arbutin, which is obtained as a result of the.beta.-binding of glucose to one of the hydroxy groups of 1,4-dihydroxybenzene, are not necessa-rily satisfactory in terms of efficacy although they are more stable than their parent compounds with respect to heat and oxidation. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

Keeping Current In order to stay informed about patents and patent applications dealing with chitosan, you can access the U.S. Patent Office archive via the Internet at the following Web address: http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. You will see two broad options: (1) Issued Patent, and (2) Published Applications. To see a list of issued patents, perform the following steps: Under “Issued Patents,” click “Quick Search.” Then, type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the “Term 1” box. After clicking on the search button, scroll down to see the various patents which have been granted to date on chitosan.

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You can also use this procedure to view pending patent applications concerning chitosan. Simply go back to http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. Select “Quick Search” under “Published Applications.” Then proceed with the steps listed above.

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CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON CHITOSAN Overview This chapter provides bibliographic book references relating to chitosan. In addition to online booksellers such as www.amazon.com and www.bn.com, excellent sources for book titles on chitosan include the Combined Health Information Database and the National Library of Medicine. Your local medical library also may have these titles available for loan.

Book Summaries: Online Booksellers Commercial Internet-based booksellers, such as Amazon.com and Barnes&Noble.com, offer summaries which have been supplied by each title’s publisher. Some summaries also include customer reviews. Your local bookseller may have access to in-house and commercial databases that index all published books (e.g. Books in Print). IMPORTANT NOTE: Online booksellers typically produce search results for medical and non-medical books. When searching for “chitosan” at online booksellers’ Web sites, you may discover non-medical books that use the generic term “chitosan” (or a synonym) in their titles. The following is indicative of the results you might find when searching for “chitosan” (sorted alphabetically by title; follow the hyperlink to view more details at Amazon.com): •

Advances in Chitin and Chitosan by Charles J. Brine, et al; ISBN: 1851668993; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1851668993/icongroupinterna

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Applications of Chitan and Chitosan by Mattheus F.A. Goosen (Editor); ISBN: 1566764491; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1566764491/icongroupinterna

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Chitin and chitosan : the versatile environmentally friendly modern materials; ISBN: 9679423034; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9679423034/icongroupinterna

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Chitin and Chitosan: An Expanding Range of Markets Await Exploitation, 3rd Edition by John Wiley & Sons; ISBN: 0471329282; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471329282/icongroupinterna

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Chitin, Chitosan, and Related Enzymes by John Zikakis (Editor); ISBN: 0127809503; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0127809503/icongroupinterna

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Chitin-Chitosan: The Choice Food Supplement for over 10,000 Physicians in Japan by Koji Asaoka (1999); ISBN: 0533118794; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0533118794/icongroupinterna

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Chitosan (Woodland Health Series) by William J. Hennen, Rita Elkins (1996); ISBN: 1885670273; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1885670273/icongroupinterna

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Chitosan: The Ultimate Health Builder by Akira Matsunaga, et al; ISBN: 0533126290; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0533126290/icongroupinterna

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Frequently Asked Questions: All About Chitosan by Carol N. Simontacchi; ISBN: 0895299771; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0895299771/icongroupinterna

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Natural Chelating Polymers: Alginic Acid, Chitin, and Chitosan by Riccardo A. A. Muzzarelli; ISBN: 0080172350; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0080172350/icongroupinterna

The National Library of Medicine Book Index The National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health has a massive database of books published on healthcare and biomedicine. Go to the following Internet site, http://locatorplus.gov/, and then select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once you are in the search area, simply type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the search box, and select “books only.” From there, results can be sorted by publication date, author, or relevance. The following was recently catalogued by the National Library of Medicine:10 •

Chitin and chitosan: sources, chemistry, biochemistry, physical properties, and applications Author: Skjåk-Braek, Gudmund.; Year: 1989; London; New York: Elsevier Applied Science, c1989; ISBN: 1851663959

•

Chitosan per os: from dietary supplement to drug carrier Author: Muzzarelli, Riccardo A. A.,; Year: 2000; Grottammare, Italy: Atec Edizioni, 2000; ISBN: 8886889038

10

In addition to LOCATORPlus, in collaboration with authors and publishers, the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) is currently adapting biomedical books for the Web. The books may be accessed in two ways: (1) by searching directly using any search term or phrase (in the same way as the bibliographic database PubMed), or (2) by following the links to PubMed abstracts. Each PubMed abstract has a "Books" button that displays a facsimile of the abstract in which some phrases are hypertext links. These phrases are also found in the books available at NCBI. Click on hyperlinked results in the list of books in which the phrase is found. Currently, the majority of the links are between the books and PubMed. In the future, more links will be created between the books and other types of information, such as gene and protein sequences and macromolecular structures. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books.

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Chapters on Chitosan In order to find chapters that specifically relate to chitosan, an excellent source of abstracts is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to book chapters and chitosan using the “Detailed Search” option. Go to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find book chapters, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Book Chapter.” Type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box.

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CHAPTER 7. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON CHITOSAN Overview In this chapter, we suggest a number of news sources and present various periodicals that cover chitosan.

News Services and Press Releases One of the simplest ways of tracking press releases on chitosan is to search the news wires. In the following sample of sources, we will briefly describe how to access each service. These services only post recent news intended for public viewing. PR Newswire To access the PR Newswire archive, simply go to http://www.prnewswire.com/. Select your country. Type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the search box. You will automatically receive information on relevant news releases posted within the last 30 days. The search results are shown by order of relevance. Reuters Health The Reuters’ Medical News and Health eLine databases can be very useful in exploring news archives relating to chitosan. While some of the listed articles are free to view, others are available for purchase for a nominal fee. To access this archive, go to http://www.reutershealth.com/en/index.html and search by “chitosan” (or synonyms). The NIH Within MEDLINEplus, the NIH has made an agreement with the New York Times Syndicate, the AP News Service, and Reuters to deliver news that can be browsed by the public. Search news releases at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alphanews_a.html. MEDLINEplus allows you to browse across an alphabetical index. Or you can search by date

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at the following Web page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/newsbydate.html. Often, news items are indexed by MEDLINEplus within its search engine. Business Wire Business Wire is similar to PR Newswire. To access this archive, simply go to http://www.businesswire.com/. You can scan the news by industry category or company name. Market Wire Market Wire is more focused on technology than the other wires. To browse the latest press releases by topic, such as alternative medicine, biotechnology, fitness, healthcare, legal, nutrition, and pharmaceuticals, access Market Wire’s Medical/Health channel at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_index?channel=MedicalHealth. Or simply go to Market Wire’s home page at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/home, type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click on “Search News.” As this service is technology oriented, you may wish to use it when searching for press releases covering diagnostic procedures or tests. Search Engines Medical news is also available in the news sections of commercial Internet search engines. See the health news page at Yahoo (http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/News_and_Media/), or you can use this Web site’s general news search page at http://news.yahoo.com/. Type in “chitosan” (or synonyms). If you know the name of a company that is relevant to chitosan, you can go to any stock trading Web site (such as http://www.etrade.com/) and search for the company name there. News items across various news sources are reported on indicated hyperlinks. Google offers a similar service at http://news.google.com/. BBC Covering news from a more European perspective, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) allows the public free access to their news archive located at http://www.bbc.co.uk/. Search by “chitosan” (or synonyms).

Newsletter Articles Use the Combined Health Information Database, and limit your search criteria to “newsletter articles.” Again, you will need to use the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. Go to the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language that you prefer. For the format option, select “Newsletter Article.” Type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database as it is updated every three months. The following is a typical result when searching for newsletter articles on chitosan:

Periodicals and News

•

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Ask the Experts Source: University of California, Berkeley, Wellness Letter. 17(3):3. December 2000. Contact: Health Letter Associates. P.O. Box 412, Prince Street Station, New York, NY 10012-0007. www.wellnessletter.com. Summary: This question-and-answer column addresses whether chitosan supplements eliminate fat eaten in order to promote weight loss. Chitosan most likely has little if any effect on weight loss and can cause side effects. Chitosan comes from the shells of shellfish and can cause a reaction in people allergic to shellfish. Very little research on the use of chitosan in humans exists. Marketers of chitosan state that it blocks fat absorption in the intestines. If it does block some fat absorption, it may also minimize absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Chitosan can also cause abdominal cramps and constipation. In April 2000, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ordered one chitosan manufacturer to stop making its false and unsubstantiated claims and to refund money to buyers.

Academic Periodicals covering Chitosan Numerous periodicals are currently indexed within the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed database that are known to publish articles relating to chitosan. In addition to these sources, you can search for articles covering chitosan that have been published by any of the periodicals listed in previous chapters. To find the latest studies published, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed, type the name of the periodical into the search box, and click “Go.” If you want complete details about the historical contents of a journal, you can also visit the following Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/jrbrowser.cgi. Here, type in the name of the journal or its abbreviation, and you will receive an index of published articles. At http://locatorplus.gov/, you can retrieve more indexing information on medical periodicals (e.g. the name of the publisher). Select the button “Search LOCATORplus.” Then type in the name of the journal and select the advanced search option “Journal Title Search.”

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES Overview In this chapter, we focus on databases and Internet-based guidelines and information resources created or written for a professional audience.

NIH Guidelines Commonly referred to as “clinical” or “professional” guidelines, the National Institutes of Health publish physician guidelines for the most common diseases. Publications are available at the following by relevant Institute11: •

Office of the Director (OD); guidelines consolidated across agencies available at http://www.nih.gov/health/consumer/conkey.htm

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National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS); fact sheets available at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/facts/

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National Library of Medicine (NLM); extensive encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.) with guidelines: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html

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National Cancer Institute (NCI); guidelines available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/list.aspx?viewid=5f35036e-5497-4d86-8c2c714a9f7c8d25

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National Eye Institute (NEI); guidelines available at http://www.nei.nih.gov/order/index.htm

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National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); guidelines available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/index.htm

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National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI); research available at http://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10000375

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National Institute on Aging (NIA); guidelines available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/health/

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These publications are typically written by one or more of the various NIH Institutes.

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National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA); guidelines available at http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/publications.htm

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National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); guidelines available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/

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National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS); fact sheets and guidelines available at http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/index.htm

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National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); guidelines available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm

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National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); fact sheets and guidelines at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/

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National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR); guidelines available at http://www.nidr.nih.gov/health/

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National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); guidelines available at http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/health.htm

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National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); guidelines available at http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugAbuse.html

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National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS); environmental health information available at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/facts.htm

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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH); guidelines available at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/practitioners/index.cfm

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National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); neurological disorder information pages available at http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm

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National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR); publications on selected illnesses at http://www.nih.gov/ninr/news-info/publications.html

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National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering; general information at http://grants.nih.gov/grants/becon/becon_info.htm

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Center for Information Technology (CIT); referrals to other agencies based on keyword searches available at http://kb.nih.gov/www_query_main.asp

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National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM); health information available at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/

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National Center for Research Resources (NCRR); various information directories available at http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/publications.asp

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Office of Rare Diseases; various fact sheets available at http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/html/resources/rep_pubs.html

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; various fact sheets on infectious diseases available at http://www.cdc.gov/publications.htm

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NIH Databases In addition to the various Institutes of Health that publish professional guidelines, the NIH has designed a number of databases for professionals.12 Physician-oriented resources provide a wide variety of information related to the biomedical and health sciences, both past and present. The format of these resources varies. Searchable databases, bibliographic citations, full-text articles (when available), archival collections, and images are all available. The following are referenced by the National Library of Medicine:13 •

Bioethics: Access to published literature on the ethical, legal, and public policy issues surrounding healthcare and biomedical research. This information is provided in conjunction with the Kennedy Institute of Ethics located at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_bioethics.html

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HIV/AIDS Resources: Describes various links and databases dedicated to HIV/AIDS research: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/aidsinfs.html

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NLM Online Exhibitions: Describes “Exhibitions in the History of Medicine”: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/exhibition.html. Additional resources for historical scholarship in medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/hmd.html

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Biotechnology Information: Access to public databases. The National Center for Biotechnology Information conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

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Population Information: The National Library of Medicine provides access to worldwide coverage of population, family planning, and related health issues, including family planning technology and programs, fertility, and population law and policy: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_population.html

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Cancer Information: Access to cancer-oriented databases: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_cancer.html

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Profiles in Science: Offering the archival collections of prominent twentieth-century biomedical scientists to the public through modern digital technology: http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/

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Chemical Information: Provides links to various chemical databases and references: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Chem/ChemMain.html

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Clinical Alerts: Reports the release of findings from the NIH-funded clinical trials where such release could significantly affect morbidity and mortality: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/alerts/clinical_alerts.html

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Space Life Sciences: Provides links and information to space-based research (including NASA): http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_space.html

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MEDLINE: Bibliographic database covering the fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the healthcare system, and the pre-clinical sciences: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_medline.html

12

Remember, for the general public, the National Library of Medicine recommends the databases referenced in MEDLINEplus (http://medlineplus.gov/ or http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/databases.html). 13 See http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases.html.

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Toxicology and Environmental Health Information (TOXNET): Databases covering toxicology and environmental health: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxMain.html

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Visible Human Interface: Anatomically detailed, three-dimensional representations of normal male and female human bodies: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html

The NLM Gateway14 The NLM (National Library of Medicine) Gateway is a Web-based system that lets users search simultaneously in multiple retrieval systems at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). It allows users of NLM services to initiate searches from one Web interface, providing one-stop searching for many of NLM’s information resources or databases.15 To use the NLM Gateway, simply go to the search site at http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd. Type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Search.” The results will be presented in a tabular form, indicating the number of references in each database category. Results Summary Category Journal Articles Books / Periodicals / Audio Visual Consumer Health Meeting Abstracts Other Collections Total

Items Found 1799 13 0 1 0 1813

HSTAT16 HSTAT is a free, Web-based resource that provides access to full-text documents used in healthcare decision-making.17 These documents include clinical practice guidelines, quickreference guides for clinicians, consumer health brochures, evidence reports and technology assessments from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), as well as AHRQ’s Put Prevention Into Practice.18 Simply search by “chitosan” (or synonyms) at the following Web site: http://text.nlm.nih.gov.

14

Adapted from NLM: http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?Overview.x.

15

The NLM Gateway is currently being developed by the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications (LHNCBC) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). 16 Adapted from HSTAT: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/hstat.html. 17 18

The HSTAT URL is http://hstat.nlm.nih.gov/.

Other important documents in HSTAT include: the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference Reports and Technology Assessment Reports; the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS) resource documents; the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (SAMHSA/CSAT) Treatment Improvement Protocols (TIP) and Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (SAMHSA/CSAP) Prevention Enhancement Protocols System (PEPS); the Public Health Service (PHS) Preventive Services Task Force's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services; the independent, nonfederal Task Force on Community Services’ Guide to Community Preventive Services; and the Health Technology Advisory Committee (HTAC) of the Minnesota Health Care Commission (MHCC) health technology evaluations.

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Coffee Break: Tutorials for Biologists19 Coffee Break is a general healthcare site that takes a scientific view of the news and covers recent breakthroughs in biology that may one day assist physicians in developing treatments. Here you will find a collection of short reports on recent biological discoveries. Each report incorporates interactive tutorials that demonstrate how bioinformatics tools are used as a part of the research process. Currently, all Coffee Breaks are written by NCBI staff.20 Each report is about 400 words and is usually based on a discovery reported in one or more articles from recently published, peer-reviewed literature.21 This site has new articles every few weeks, so it can be considered an online magazine of sorts. It is intended for general background information. You can access the Coffee Break Web site at the following hyperlink: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/.

Other Commercial Databases In addition to resources maintained by official agencies, other databases exist that are commercial ventures addressing medical professionals. Here are some examples that may interest you: •

CliniWeb International: Index and table of contents to selected clinical information on the Internet; see http://www.ohsu.edu/cliniweb/.

•

Medical World Search: Searches full text from thousands of selected medical sites on the Internet; see http://www.mwsearch.com/.

19 Adapted 20

from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/Archive/FAQ.html.

The figure that accompanies each article is frequently supplied by an expert external to NCBI, in which case the source of the figure is cited. The result is an interactive tutorial that tells a biological story. 21 After a brief introduction that sets the work described into a broader context, the report focuses on how a molecular understanding can provide explanations of observed biology and lead to therapies for diseases. Each vignette is accompanied by a figure and hypertext links that lead to a series of pages that interactively show how NCBI tools and resources are used in the research process.

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APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES Overview Official agencies, as well as federally funded institutions supported by national grants, frequently publish a variety of guidelines written with the patient in mind. These are typically called “Fact Sheets” or “Guidelines.” They can take the form of a brochure, information kit, pamphlet, or flyer. Often they are only a few pages in length. Since new guidelines on chitosan can appear at any moment and be published by a number of sources, the best approach to finding guidelines is to systematically scan the Internet-based services that post them.

Patient Guideline Sources The remainder of this chapter directs you to sources which either publish or can help you find additional guidelines on topics related to chitosan. Due to space limitations, these sources are listed in a concise manner. Do not hesitate to consult the following sources by either using the Internet hyperlink provided, or, in cases where the contact information is provided, contacting the publisher or author directly. The National Institutes of Health The NIH gateway to patients is located at http://health.nih.gov/. From this site, you can search across various sources and institutes, a number of which are summarized below. Topic Pages: MEDLINEplus The National Library of Medicine has created a vast and patient-oriented healthcare information portal called MEDLINEplus. Within this Internet-based system are “health topic pages” which list links to available materials relevant to chitosan. To access this system, log on to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html. From there you can either search using the alphabetical index or browse by broad topic areas. Recently, MEDLINEplus listed the following when searched for “chitosan”:

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•

Other guides Health Fraud http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthfraud.html

You may also choose to use the search utility provided by MEDLINEplus at the following Web address: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/. Simply type a keyword into the search box and click “Search.” This utility is similar to the NIH search utility, with the exception that it only includes materials that are linked within the MEDLINEplus system (mostly patient-oriented information). It also has the disadvantage of generating unstructured results. We recommend, therefore, that you use this method only if you have a very targeted search. The NIH Search Utility The NIH search utility allows you to search for documents on over 100 selected Web sites that comprise the NIH-WEB-SPACE. Each of these servers is “crawled” and indexed on an ongoing basis. Your search will produce a list of various documents, all of which will relate in some way to chitosan. The drawbacks of this approach are that the information is not organized by theme and that the references are often a mix of information for professionals and patients. Nevertheless, a large number of the listed Web sites provide useful background information. We can only recommend this route, therefore, for relatively rare or specific disorders, or when using highly targeted searches. To use the NIH search utility, visit the following Web page: http://search.nih.gov/index.html. Additional Web Sources A number of Web sites are available to the public that often link to government sites. These can also point you in the direction of essential information. The following is a representative sample: •

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=168&layer=&from=subcats

•

Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/specific.htm

•

Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

•

Med Help International: http://www.medhelp.org/HealthTopics/A.html

•

Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

•

Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Diseases_and_Conditions/

•

WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/health_topics

Finding Associations There are several Internet directories that provide lists of medical associations with information on or resources relating to chitosan. By consulting all of associations listed in this chapter, you will have nearly exhausted all sources for patient associations concerned with chitosan.

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The National Health Information Center (NHIC) The National Health Information Center (NHIC) offers a free referral service to help people find organizations that provide information about chitosan. For more information, see the NHIC’s Web site at http://www.health.gov/NHIC/ or contact an information specialist by calling 1-800-336-4797. Directory of Health Organizations The Directory of Health Organizations, provided by the National Library of Medicine Specialized Information Services, is a comprehensive source of information on associations. The Directory of Health Organizations database can be accessed via the Internet at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/Dir/DirMain.html. It is composed of two parts: DIRLINE and Health Hotlines. The DIRLINE database comprises some 10,000 records of organizations, research centers, and government institutes and associations that primarily focus on health and biomedicine. To access DIRLINE directly, go to the following Web site: http://dirline.nlm.nih.gov/. Simply type in “chitosan” (or a synonym), and you will receive information on all relevant organizations listed in the database. Health Hotlines directs you to toll-free numbers to over 300 organizations. You can access this database directly at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/hotlines/. On this page, you are given the option to search by keyword or by browsing the subject list. When you have received your search results, click on the name of the organization for its description and contact information. The Combined Health Information Database Another comprehensive source of information on healthcare associations is the Combined Health Information Database. Using the “Detailed Search” option, you will need to limit your search to “Organizations” and “chitosan”. Type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For publication date, select “All Years.” Then, select your preferred language and the format option “Organization Resource Sheet.” Type “chitosan” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database since it is updated every three months. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. has prepared a Web site that provides, at no charge, lists of associations organized by health topic. You can access this database at the following Web site: http://www.rarediseases.org/search/orgsearch.html. Type “chitosan” (or a synonym) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.”

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APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES Overview In this Appendix, we show you how to quickly find a medical library in your area.

Preparation Your local public library and medical libraries have interlibrary loan programs with the National Library of Medicine (NLM), one of the largest medical collections in the world. According to the NLM, most of the literature in the general and historical collections of the National Library of Medicine is available on interlibrary loan to any library. If you would like to access NLM medical literature, then visit a library in your area that can request the publications for you.22

Finding a Local Medical Library The quickest method to locate medical libraries is to use the Internet-based directory published by the National Network of Libraries of Medicine (NN/LM). This network includes 4626 members and affiliates that provide many services to librarians, health professionals, and the public. To find a library in your area, simply visit http://nnlm.gov/members/adv.html or call 1-800-338-7657.

Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada In addition to the NN/LM, the National Library of Medicine (NLM) lists a number of libraries with reference facilities that are open to the public. The following is the NLM’s list and includes hyperlinks to each library’s Web site. These Web pages can provide information on hours of operation and other restrictions. The list below is a small sample of

22

Adapted from the NLM: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/psd/cas/interlibrary.html.

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libraries recommended by the National Library of Medicine (sorted alphabetically by name of the U.S. state or Canadian province where the library is located)23: •

Alabama: Health InfoNet of Jefferson County (Jefferson County Library Cooperative, Lister Hill Library of the Health Sciences), http://www.uab.edu/infonet/

•

Alabama: Richard M. Scrushy Library (American Sports Medicine Institute)

•

Arizona: Samaritan Regional Medical Center: The Learning Center (Samaritan Health System, Phoenix, Arizona), http://www.samaritan.edu/library/bannerlibs.htm

•

California: Kris Kelly Health Information Center (St. Joseph Health System, Humboldt), http://www.humboldt1.com/~kkhic/index.html

•

California: Community Health Library of Los Gatos, http://www.healthlib.org/orgresources.html

•

California: Consumer Health Program and Services (CHIPS) (County of Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles County Harbor-UCLA Medical Center Library) - Carson, CA, http://www.colapublib.org/services/chips.html

•

California: Gateway Health Library (Sutter Gould Medical Foundation)

•

California: Health Library (Stanford University Medical Center), http://wwwmed.stanford.edu/healthlibrary/

•

California: Patient Education Resource Center - Health Information and Resources (University of California, San Francisco), http://sfghdean.ucsf.edu/barnett/PERC/default.asp

•

California: Redwood Health Library (Petaluma Health Care District), http://www.phcd.org/rdwdlib.html

•

California: Los Gatos PlaneTree Health Library, http://planetreesanjose.org/

•

California: Sutter Resource Library (Sutter Hospitals Foundation, Sacramento), http://suttermedicalcenter.org/library/

•

California: Health Sciences Libraries (University of California, Davis), http://www.lib.ucdavis.edu/healthsci/

•

California: ValleyCare Health Library & Ryan Comer Cancer Resource Center (ValleyCare Health System, Pleasanton), http://gaelnet.stmarysca.edu/other.libs/gbal/east/vchl.html

•

California: Washington Community Health Resource Library (Fremont), http://www.healthlibrary.org/

•

Colorado: William V. Gervasini Memorial Library (Exempla Healthcare), http://www.saintjosephdenver.org/yourhealth/libraries/

•

Connecticut: Hartford Hospital Health Science Libraries (Hartford Hospital), http://www.harthosp.org/library/

•

Connecticut: Healthnet: Connecticut Consumer Health Information Center (University of Connecticut Health Center, Lyman Maynard Stowe Library), http://library.uchc.edu/departm/hnet/

23

Abstracted from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/libraries.html.

Finding Medical Libraries

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•

Connecticut: Waterbury Hospital Health Center Library (Waterbury Hospital, Waterbury), http://www.waterburyhospital.com/library/consumer.shtml

•

Delaware: Consumer Health Library (Christiana Care Health System, Eugene du Pont Preventive Medicine & Rehabilitation Institute, Wilmington), http://www.christianacare.org/health_guide/health_guide_pmri_health_info.cfm

•

Delaware: Lewis B. Flinn Library (Delaware Academy of Medicine, Wilmington), http://www.delamed.org/chls.html

•

Georgia: Family Resource Library (Medical College of Georgia, Augusta), http://cmc.mcg.edu/kids_families/fam_resources/fam_res_lib/frl.htm

•

Georgia: Health Resource Center (Medical Center of Central Georgia, Macon), http://www.mccg.org/hrc/hrchome.asp

•

Hawaii: Hawaii Medical Library: Consumer Health Information Service (Hawaii Medical Library, Honolulu), http://hml.org/CHIS/

•

Idaho: DeArmond Consumer Health Library (Kootenai Medical Center, Coeur d’Alene), http://www.nicon.org/DeArmond/index.htm

•

Illinois: Health Learning Center of Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago), http://www.nmh.org/health_info/hlc.html

•

Illinois: Medical Library (OSF Saint Francis Medical Center, Peoria), http://www.osfsaintfrancis.org/general/library/

•

Kentucky: Medical Library - Services for Patients, Families, Students & the Public (Central Baptist Hospital, Lexington), http://www.centralbap.com/education/community/library.cfm

•

Kentucky: University of Kentucky - Health Information Library (Chandler Medical Center, Lexington), http://www.mc.uky.edu/PatientEd/

•

Louisiana: Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation Library (Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation, New Orleans), http://www.ochsner.org/library/

•

Louisiana: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Medical LibraryShreveport, http://lib-sh.lsuhsc.edu/

•

Maine: Franklin Memorial Hospital Medical Library (Franklin Memorial Hospital, Farmington), http://www.fchn.org/fmh/lib.htm

•

Maine: Gerrish-True Health Sciences Library (Central Maine Medical Center, Lewiston), http://www.cmmc.org/library/library.html

•

Maine: Hadley Parrot Health Science Library (Eastern Maine Healthcare, Bangor), http://www.emh.org/hll/hpl/guide.htm

•

Maine: Maine Medical Center Library (Maine Medical Center, Portland), http://www.mmc.org/library/

•

Maine: Parkview Hospital (Brunswick), http://www.parkviewhospital.org/

•

Maine: Southern Maine Medical Center Health Sciences Library (Southern Maine Medical Center, Biddeford), http://www.smmc.org/services/service.php3?choice=10

•

Maine: Stephens Memorial Hospital’s Health Information Library (Western Maine Health, Norway), http://www.wmhcc.org/Library/

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•

Manitoba, Canada: Consumer & Patient Health Information Service (University of Manitoba Libraries), http://www.umanitoba.ca/libraries/units/health/reference/chis.html

•

Manitoba, Canada: J.W. Crane Memorial Library (Deer Lodge Centre, Winnipeg), http://www.deerlodge.mb.ca/crane_library/about.asp

•

Maryland: Health Information Center at the Wheaton Regional Library (Montgomery County, Dept. of Public Libraries, Wheaton Regional Library), http://www.mont.lib.md.us/healthinfo/hic.asp

•

Massachusetts: Baystate Medical Center Library (Baystate Health System), http://www.baystatehealth.com/1024/

•

Massachusetts: Boston University Medical Center Alumni Medical Library (Boston University Medical Center), http://med-libwww.bu.edu/library/lib.html

•

Massachusetts: Lowell General Hospital Health Sciences Library (Lowell General Hospital, Lowell), http://www.lowellgeneral.org/library/HomePageLinks/WWW.htm

•

Massachusetts: Paul E. Woodard Health Sciences Library (New England Baptist Hospital, Boston), http://www.nebh.org/health_lib.asp

•

Massachusetts: St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Library (St. Luke’s Hospital, Southcoast Health System, New Bedford), http://www.southcoast.org/library/

•

Massachusetts: Treadwell Library Consumer Health Reference Center (Massachusetts General Hospital), http://www.mgh.harvard.edu/library/chrcindex.html

•

Massachusetts: UMass HealthNet (University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worchester), http://healthnet.umassmed.edu/

•

Michigan: Botsford General Hospital Library - Consumer Health (Botsford General Hospital, Library & Internet Services), http://www.botsfordlibrary.org/consumer.htm

•

Michigan: Helen DeRoy Medical Library (Providence Hospital and Medical Centers), http://www.providence-hospital.org/library/

•

Michigan: Marquette General Hospital - Consumer Health Library (Marquette General Hospital, Health Information Center), http://www.mgh.org/center.html

•

Michigan: Patient Education Resouce Center - University of Michigan Cancer Center (University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor), http://www.cancer.med.umich.edu/learn/leares.htm

•

Michigan: Sladen Library & Center for Health Information Resources - Consumer Health Information (Detroit), http://www.henryford.com/body.cfm?id=39330

•

Montana: Center for Health Information (St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center, Missoula)

•

National: Consumer Health Library Directory (Medical Library Association, Consumer and Patient Health Information Section), http://caphis.mlanet.org/directory/index.html

•

National: National Network of Libraries of Medicine (National Library of Medicine) provides library services for health professionals in the United States who do not have access to a medical library, http://nnlm.gov/

•

National: NN/LM List of Libraries Serving the Public (National Network of Libraries of Medicine), http://nnlm.gov/members/

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159

•

Nevada: Health Science Library, West Charleston Library (Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, Las Vegas), http://www.lvccld.org/special_collections/medical/index.htm

•

New Hampshire: Dartmouth Biomedical Libraries (Dartmouth College Library, Hanover), http://www.dartmouth.edu/~biomed/resources.htmld/conshealth.htmld/

•

New Jersey: Consumer Health Library (Rahway Hospital, Rahway), http://www.rahwayhospital.com/library.htm

•

New Jersey: Dr. Walter Phillips Health Sciences Library (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.englewoodhospital.com/links/index.htm

•

New Jersey: Meland Foundation (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/9360/

•

New York: Choices in Health Information (New York Public Library) - NLM Consumer Pilot Project participant, http://www.nypl.org/branch/health/links.html

•

New York: Health Information Center (Upstate Medical University, State University of New York, Syracuse), http://www.upstate.edu/library/hic/

•

New York: Health Sciences Library (Long Island Jewish Medical Center, New Hyde Park), http://www.lij.edu/library/library.html

•

New York: ViaHealth Medical Library (Rochester General Hospital), http://www.nyam.org/library/

•

Ohio: Consumer Health Library (Akron General Medical Center, Medical & Consumer Health Library), http://www.akrongeneral.org/hwlibrary.htm

•

Oklahoma: The Health Information Center at Saint Francis Hospital (Saint Francis Health System, Tulsa), http://www.sfh-tulsa.com/services/healthinfo.asp

•

Oregon: Planetree Health Resource Center (Mid-Columbia Medical Center, The Dalles), http://www.mcmc.net/phrc/

•

Pennsylvania: Community Health Information Library (Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey), http://www.hmc.psu.edu/commhealth/

•

Pennsylvania: Community Health Resource Library (Geisinger Medical Center, Danville), http://www.geisinger.edu/education/commlib.shtml

•

Pennsylvania: HealthInfo Library (Moses Taylor Hospital, Scranton), http://www.mth.org/healthwellness.html

•

Pennsylvania: Hopwood Library (University of Pittsburgh, Health Sciences Library System, Pittsburgh), http://www.hsls.pitt.edu/guides/chi/hopwood/index_html

•

Pennsylvania: Koop Community Health Information Center (College of Physicians of Philadelphia), http://www.collphyphil.org/kooppg1.shtml

•

Pennsylvania: Learning Resources Center - Medical Library (Susquehanna Health System, Williamsport), http://www.shscares.org/services/lrc/index.asp

•

Pennsylvania: Medical Library (UPMC Health System, Pittsburgh), http://www.upmc.edu/passavant/library.htm

•

Quebec, Canada: Medical Library (Montreal General Hospital), http://www.mghlib.mcgill.ca/

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•

South Dakota: Rapid City Regional Hospital Medical Library (Rapid City Regional Hospital), http://www.rcrh.org/Services/Library/Default.asp

•

Texas: Houston HealthWays (Houston Academy of Medicine-Texas Medical Center Library), http://hhw.library.tmc.edu/

•

Washington: Community Health Library (Kittitas Valley Community Hospital), http://www.kvch.com/

•

Washington: Southwest Washington Medical Center Library (Southwest Washington Medical Center, Vancouver), http://www.swmedicalcenter.com/body.cfm?id=72

161

ONLINE GLOSSARIES The Internet provides access to a number of free-to-use medical dictionaries. The National Library of Medicine has compiled the following list of online dictionaries: •

ADAM Medical Encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.), comprehensive medical reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html

•

MedicineNet.com Medical Dictionary (MedicineNet, Inc.): http://www.medterms.com/Script/Main/hp.asp

•

Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary (Inteli-Health, Inc.): http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/

•

Multilingual Glossary of Technical and Popular Medical Terms in Eight European Languages (European Commission) - Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish: http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~rvdstich/eugloss/welcome.html

•

On-line Medical Dictionary (CancerWEB): http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/

•

Rare Diseases Terms (Office of Rare Diseases): http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/diseases/diseases.asp

•

Technology Glossary (National Library of Medicine) - Health Care Technology: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/ta101/ta10108.htm

Beyond these, MEDLINEplus contains a very patient-friendly encyclopedia covering every aspect of medicine (licensed from A.D.A.M., Inc.). The ADAM Medical Encyclopedia can be accessed at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html. ADAM is also available on commercial Web sites such as drkoop.com (http://www.drkoop.com/) and Web MD (http://my.webmd.com/adam/asset/adam_disease_articles/a_to_z/a).

Online Dictionary Directories The following are additional online directories compiled by the National Library of Medicine, including a number of specialized medical dictionaries: •

Medical Dictionaries: Medical & Biological (World Health Organization): http://www.who.int/hlt/virtuallibrary/English/diction.htm#Medical

•

MEL-Michigan Electronic Library List of Online Health and Medical Dictionaries (Michigan Electronic Library): http://mel.lib.mi.us/health/health-dictionaries.html

•

Patient Education: Glossaries (DMOZ Open Directory Project): http://dmoz.org/Health/Education/Patient_Education/Glossaries/

•

Web of Online Dictionaries (Bucknell University): http://www.yourdictionary.com/diction5.html#medicine

163

CHITOSAN DICTIONARY The definitions below are derived from official public sources, including the National Institutes of Health [NIH] and the European Union [EU]. Abdomen: That portion of the body that lies between the thorax and the pelvis. [NIH] Abdominal: Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs. [NIH] Abdominal Cramps: Abdominal pain due to spasmodic contractions of the bowel. [NIH] Acceptor: A substance which, while normally not oxidized by oxygen or reduced by hydrogen, can be oxidized or reduced in presence of a substance which is itself undergoing oxidation or reduction. [NIH] Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine in vertebrates is the major transmitter at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system. It is generally not used as an administered drug because it is broken down very rapidly by cholinesterases, but it is useful in some ophthalmological applications. [NIH] Acetylglucosamine: The N-acetyl derivative of glucosamine. [NIH] Acne: A disorder of the skin marked by inflammation of oil glands and hair glands. [NIH] Activities of Daily Living: The performance of the basic activities of self care, such as dressing, ambulation, eating, etc., in rehabilitation. [NIH] Acute myeloid leukemia: AML. A quickly progressing disease in which too many immature blood-forming cells are found in the blood and bone marrow. Also called acute myelogenous leukemia or acute nonlymphocytic leukemia. [NIH] Acute renal: A condition in which the kidneys suddenly stop working. In most cases, kidneys can recover from almost complete loss of function. [NIH] Acyl: Chemical signal used by bacteria to communicate. [NIH] Adaptation: 1. The adjustment of an organism to its environment, or the process by which it enhances such fitness. 2. The normal ability of the eye to adjust itself to variations in the intensity of light; the adjustment to such variations. 3. The decline in the frequency of firing of a neuron, particularly of a receptor, under conditions of constant stimulation. 4. In dentistry, (a) the proper fitting of a denture, (b) the degree of proximity and interlocking of restorative material to a tooth preparation, (c) the exact adjustment of bands to teeth. 5. In microbiology, the adjustment of bacterial physiology to a new environment. [EU] Adduct: Complex formed when a carcinogen combines with DNA or a protein. [NIH] Adenosine: A nucleoside that is composed of adenine and d-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. Adenosine itself is a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Adenovirus: A group of viruses that cause respiratory tract and eye infections. Adenoviruses used in gene therapy are altered to carry a specific tumor-fighting gene. [NIH] Adhesives: Substances that cause the adherence of two surfaces. They include glues (properly collagen-derived adhesives), mucilages, sticky pastes, gums, resins, or latex. [NIH] Adjunctive Therapy: Another treatment used together with the primary treatment. Its

164 Chitosan

purpose is to assist the primary treatment. [NIH] Adjustment: The dynamic process wherein the thoughts, feelings, behavior, and biophysiological mechanisms of the individual continually change to adjust to the environment. [NIH] Adjuvant: A substance which aids another, such as an auxiliary remedy; in immunology, nonspecific stimulator (e.g., BCG vaccine) of the immune response. [EU] Adrenergic: Activated by, characteristic of, or secreting epinephrine or substances with similar activity; the term is applied to those nerve fibres that liberate norepinephrine at a synapse when a nerve impulse passes, i.e., the sympathetic fibres. [EU] Adsorption: The condensation of gases, liquids, or dissolved substances on the surfaces of solids. It includes adsorptive phenomena of bacteria and viruses as well as of tissues treated with exogenous drugs and chemicals. [NIH] Adsorptive: It captures volatile compounds by binding them to agents such as activated carbon or adsorptive resins. [NIH] Adverse Effect: An unwanted side effect of treatment. [NIH] Aerobic: In biochemistry, reactions that need oxygen to happen or happen when oxygen is present. [NIH] Aerosol: A solution of a drug which can be atomized into a fine mist for inhalation therapy. [EU]

Affinity: 1. Inherent likeness or relationship. 2. A special attraction for a specific element, organ, or structure. 3. Chemical affinity; the force that binds atoms in molecules; the tendency of substances to combine by chemical reaction. 4. The strength of noncovalent chemical binding between two substances as measured by the dissociation constant of the complex. 5. In immunology, a thermodynamic expression of the strength of interaction between a single antigen-binding site and a single antigenic determinant (and thus of the stereochemical compatibility between them), most accurately applied to interactions among simple, uniform antigenic determinants such as haptens. Expressed as the association constant (K litres mole -1), which, owing to the heterogeneity of affinities in a population of antibody molecules of a given specificity, actually represents an average value (mean intrinsic association constant). 6. The reciprocal of the dissociation constant. [EU] Agar: A complex sulfated polymer of galactose units, extracted from Gelidium cartilagineum, Gracilaria confervoides, and related red algae. It is used as a gel in the preparation of solid culture media for microorganisms, as a bulk laxative, in making emulsions, and as a supporting medium for immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis. [NIH]

Agarose: A polysaccharide complex, free of nitrogen and prepared from agar-agar which is produced by certain seaweeds (red algae). It dissolves in warm water to form a viscid solution. [NIH] Aggressiveness: The quality of being aggressive (= characterized by aggression; militant; enterprising; spreading with vigour; chemically active; variable and adaptable). [EU] Agonist: In anatomy, a prime mover. In pharmacology, a drug that has affinity for and stimulates physiologic activity at cell receptors normally stimulated by naturally occurring substances. [EU] Airway: A device for securing unobstructed passage of air into and out of the lungs during general anesthesia. [NIH] Alanine: A non-essential amino acid that occurs in high levels in its free state in plasma. It is produced from pyruvate by transamination. It is involved in sugar and acid metabolism,

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increases immunity, and provides energy for muscle tissue, brain, and the central nervous system. [NIH] Albumin: 1. Any protein that is soluble in water and moderately concentrated salt solutions and is coagulable by heat. 2. Serum albumin; the major plasma protein (approximately 60 per cent of the total), which is responsible for much of the plasma colloidal osmotic pressure and serves as a transport protein carrying large organic anions, such as fatty acids, bilirubin, and many drugs, and also carrying certain hormones, such as cortisol and thyroxine, when their specific binding globulins are saturated. Albumin is synthesized in the liver. Low serum levels occur in protein malnutrition, active inflammation and serious hepatic and renal disease. [EU] Aldehydes: Organic compounds containing a carbonyl group in the form -CHO. [NIH] Alginates: Salts of alginic acid that are extracted from marine kelp and used to make dental impressions and as absorbent material for surgical dressings. [NIH] Algorithms: A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task. [NIH] Alimentary: Pertaining to food or nutritive material, or to the organs of digestion. [EU] Alkaline: Having the reactions of an alkali. [EU] Alkaloid: A member of a large group of chemicals that are made by plants and have nitrogen in them. Some alkaloids have been shown to work against cancer. [NIH] Alkylation: The covalent bonding of an alkyl group to an organic compound. It can occur by a simple addition reaction or by substitution of another functional group. [NIH] Allergen: An antigenic substance capable of producing immediate-type hypersensitivity (allergy). [EU] Allergic Rhinitis: Inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane associated with hay fever; fits may be provoked by substances in the working environment. [NIH] Allylamine: Possesses an unusual and selective cytotoxicity for vascular smooth muscle cells in dogs and rats. Useful for experiments dealing with arterial injury, myocardial fibrosis or cardiac decompensation. [NIH] Aloe: A genus of the family Liliaceae containing anthraquinone glycosides such as aloinemodin or aloe-emodin (emodin). [NIH] Alpha Particles: Positively charged particles composed of two protons and two neutrons, i.e., helium nuclei, emitted during disintegration of very heavy isotopes; a beam of alpha particles or an alpha ray has very strong ionizing power, but weak penetrability. [NIH] Alpha-1: A protein with the property of inactivating proteolytic enzymes such as leucocyte collagenase and elastase. [NIH] Alpha-helix: One of the secondary element of protein. [NIH] Alternative medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used instead of standard treatments. Alternative medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Aluminum: A metallic element that has the atomic number 13, atomic symbol Al, and atomic weight 26.98. [NIH] Aluminum Oxide: Al2O3. An oxide of aluminum, occurring in nature as various minerals such as bauxite, corundum, etc. It is used as an adsorbent, desiccating agent, and catalyst, and in the manufacture of dental cements and refractories. [NIH]

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Alveolar Process: The thickest and spongiest part of the maxilla and mandible hollowed out into deep cavities for the teeth. [NIH] Amine: An organic compound containing nitrogen; any member of a group of chemical compounds formed from ammonia by replacement of one or more of the hydrogen atoms by organic (hydrocarbon) radicals. The amines are distinguished as primary, secondary, and tertiary, according to whether one, two, or three hydrogen atoms are replaced. The amines include allylamine, amylamine, ethylamine, methylamine, phenylamine, propylamine, and many other compounds. [EU] Amino Acid Sequence: The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining protein conformation. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Ammonia: A colorless alkaline gas. It is formed in the body during decomposition of organic materials during a large number of metabolically important reactions. [NIH] Ammonium Chloride: An acidifying agent that is used as an expectorant and a diuretic. [NIH]

Ammonium Sulfate: Sulfuric acid diammonium salt. It is used in fractionation of proteins. [NIH]

Amoxicillin: A broad-spectrum semisynthetic antibiotic similar to ampicillin except that its resistance to gastric acid permits higher serum levels with oral administration. [NIH] Ampicillin: Semi-synthetic derivative of penicillin that functions as an orally active broadspectrum antibiotic. [NIH] Amyloid: A general term for a variety of different proteins that accumulate as extracellular fibrils of 7-10 nm and have common structural features, including a beta-pleated sheet conformation and the ability to bind such dyes as Congo red and thioflavine (Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessel, Principles of Neural Science, 3rd ed). [NIH] Amylose: An unbranched glucan in starch. [NIH] Anaerobic: 1. Lacking molecular oxygen. 2. Growing, living, or occurring in the absence of molecular oxygen; pertaining to an anaerobe. [EU] Anaesthesia: Loss of feeling or sensation. Although the term is used for loss of tactile sensibility, or of any of the other senses, it is applied especially to loss of the sensation of pain, as it is induced to permit performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [EU] Anal: Having to do with the anus, which is the posterior opening of the large bowel. [NIH] Analgesic: An agent that alleviates pain without causing loss of consciousness. [EU] Analog: In chemistry, a substance that is similar, but not identical, to another. [NIH] Analogous: Resembling or similar in some respects, as in function or appearance, but not in origin or development;. [EU] Anaphylatoxins: The family of peptides C3a, C4a, C5a, and C5a des-arginine produced in the serum during complement activation. They produce smooth muscle contraction, mast cell histamine release, affect platelet aggregation, and act as mediators of the local inflammatory process. The order of anaphylatoxin activity from strongest to weakest is C5a,

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C3a, C4a, and C5a des-arginine. The latter is the so-called "classical" anaphylatoxin but shows no spasmogenic activity though it contains some chemotactic ability. [NIH] Anemia: A reduction in the number of circulating erythrocytes or in the quantity of hemoglobin. [NIH] Anesthesia: A state characterized by loss of feeling or sensation. This depression of nerve function is usually the result of pharmacologic action and is induced to allow performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [NIH] Angiogenesis: Blood vessel formation. Tumor angiogenesis is the growth of blood vessels from surrounding tissue to a solid tumor. This is caused by the release of chemicals by the tumor. [NIH] Anhydrides: Chemical compounds derived from acids by the elimination of a molecule of water. [NIH] Animal model: An animal with a disease either the same as or like a disease in humans. Animal models are used to study the development and progression of diseases and to test new treatments before they are given to humans. Animals with transplanted human cancers or other tissues are called xenograft models. [NIH] Anionic: Pertaining to or containing an anion. [EU] Anions: Negatively charged atoms, radicals or groups of atoms which travel to the anode or positive pole during electrolysis. [NIH] Ankle: That part of the lower limb directly above the foot. [NIH] Antiangiogenic: Having to do with reducing the growth of new blood vessels. [NIH] Antibacterial: A substance that destroys bacteria or suppresses their growth or reproduction. [EU] Antibiotic: A drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms. [NIH]

Antibodies: Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the antigen that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially plasma cells), or with an antigen closely related to it. [NIH] Antibody: A type of protein made by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign substance (antigen). Each antibody can bind to only a specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen. [NIH] Anticoagulant: A drug that helps prevent blood clots from forming. Also called a blood thinner. [NIH] Antiemetic: An agent that prevents or alleviates nausea and vomiting. Also antinauseant. [EU]

Antifungal: Destructive to fungi, or suppressing their reproduction or growth; effective against fungal infections. [EU] Antigen: Any substance which is capable, under appropriate conditions, of inducing a specific immune response and of reacting with the products of that response, that is, with specific antibody or specifically sensitized T-lymphocytes, or both. Antigens may be soluble substances, such as toxins and foreign proteins, or particulate, such as bacteria and tissue cells; however, only the portion of the protein or polysaccharide molecule known as the antigenic determinant (q.v.) combines with antibody or a specific receptor on a lymphocyte. Abbreviated Ag. [EU]

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Antigen-Antibody Complex: The complex formed by the binding of antigen and antibody molecules. The deposition of large antigen-antibody complexes leading to tissue damage causes immune complex diseases. [NIH] Antigen-presenting cell: APC. A cell that shows antigen on its surface to other cells of the immune system. This is an important part of an immune response. [NIH] Antihistamine: A drug that counteracts the action of histamine. The antihistamines are of two types. The conventional ones, as those used in allergies, block the H1 histamine receptors, whereas the others block the H2 receptors. Called also antihistaminic. [EU] Anti-infective: An agent that so acts. [EU] Anti-Infective Agents: Substances that prevent infectious agents or organisms from spreading or kill infectious agents in order to prevent the spread of infection. [NIH] Anti-inflammatory: Having to do with reducing inflammation. [NIH] Anti-Inflammatory Agents: Substances that reduce or suppress inflammation. [NIH] Antimetabolite: A chemical that is very similar to one required in a normal biochemical reaction in cells. Antimetabolites can stop or slow down the reaction. [NIH] Antimetastatic: Having to do with reducing inflammation. [NIH] Antimicrobial: Killing microorganisms, or suppressing their multiplication or growth. [EU] Antineoplastic: Inhibiting or preventing the development of neoplasms, checking the maturation and proliferation of malignant cells. [EU] Antioxidant: A substance that prevents damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals that often contain oxygen. They are produced when molecules are split to give products that have unpaired electrons. This process is called oxidation. [NIH] Antipyretic: An agent that relieves or reduces fever. Called also antifebrile, antithermic and febrifuge. [EU] Antiseptic: A substance that inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms without necessarily killing them. [EU] Antiviral: Destroying viruses or suppressing their replication. [EU] Apolipoproteins: The protein components of lipoproteins which remain after the lipids to which the proteins are bound have been removed. They play an important role in lipid transport and metabolism. [NIH] Apoptosis: One of the two mechanisms by which cell death occurs (the other being the pathological process of necrosis). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA (DNA fragmentation) at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth. [NIH] Appetite Regulation: Physiologic mechanisms which regulate or control the appetite and food intake. [NIH] Applicability: A list of the commodities to which the candidate method can be applied as presented or with minor modifications. [NIH] Aqueous: Having to do with water. [NIH] Aqueous fluid: Clear, watery fluid that flows between and nourishes the lens and the cornea; secreted by the ciliary processes. [NIH]

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Arachidonic Acid: An unsaturated, essential fatty acid. It is found in animal and human fat as well as in the liver, brain, and glandular organs, and is a constituent of animal phosphatides. It is formed by the synthesis from dietary linoleic acid and is a precursor in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. [NIH] Arginine: An essential amino acid that is physiologically active in the L-form. [NIH] Aromatic: Having a spicy odour. [EU] Arterial: Pertaining to an artery or to the arteries. [EU] Arterial embolization: The blocking of an artery by a clot of foreign material. This can be done as treatment to block the flow of blood to a tumor. [NIH] Arteries: The vessels carrying blood away from the heart. [NIH] Arteriolar: Pertaining to or resembling arterioles. [EU] Arterioles: The smallest divisions of the arteries located between the muscular arteries and the capillaries. [NIH] Arteriolosclerosis: Sclerosis and thickening of the walls of the smaller arteries (arterioles). Hyaline arteriolosclerosis, in which there is homogeneous pink hyaline thickening of the arteriolar walls, is associated with benign nephrosclerosis. Hyperplastic arteriolosclerosis, in which there is a concentric thickening with progressive narrowing of the lumina may be associated with malignant hypertension, nephrosclerosis, and scleroderma. [EU] Arteriosclerosis: Thickening and loss of elasticity of arterial walls. Atherosclerosis is the most common form of arteriosclerosis and involves lipid deposition and thickening of the intimal cell layers within arteries. Additional forms of arteriosclerosis involve calcification of the media of muscular arteries (Monkeberg medial calcific sclerosis) and thickening of the walls of small arteries or arterioles due to cell proliferation or hyaline deposition (arteriolosclerosis). [NIH] Articular: Of or pertaining to a joint. [EU] Ascorbic Acid: A six carbon compound related to glucose. It is found naturally in citrus fruits and many vegetables. Ascorbic acid is an essential nutrient in human diets, and necessary to maintain connective tissue and bone. Its biologically active form, vitamin C, functions as a reducing agent and coenzyme in several metabolic pathways. Vitamin C is considered an antioxidant. [NIH] Aspartic: The naturally occurring substance is L-aspartic acid. One of the acidic-amino-acids is obtained by the hydrolysis of proteins. [NIH] Aspartic Acid: One of the non-essential amino acids commonly occurring in the L-form. It is found in animals and plants, especially in sugar cane and sugar beets. It may be a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Aspirin: A drug that reduces pain, fever, inflammation, and blood clotting. Aspirin belongs to the family of drugs called nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents. It is also being studied in cancer prevention. [NIH] Astringent: Causing contraction, usually locally after topical application. [EU] Astrocytes: The largest and most numerous neuroglial cells in the brain and spinal cord. Astrocytes (from "star" cells) are irregularly shaped with many long processes, including those with "end feet" which form the glial (limiting) membrane and directly and indirectly contribute to the blood brain barrier. They regulate the extracellular ionic and chemical environment, and "reactive astrocytes" (along with microglia) respond to injury. Astrocytes have high- affinity transmitter uptake systems, voltage-dependent and transmitter-gated ion channels, and can release transmitter, but their role in signaling (as in many other functions)

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is not well understood. [NIH] Astrocytoma: A tumor that begins in the brain or spinal cord in small, star-shaped cells called astrocytes. [NIH] Asymptomatic: Having no signs or symptoms of disease. [NIH] Atrophy: Decrease in the size of a cell, tissue, organ, or multiple organs, associated with a variety of pathological conditions such as abnormal cellular changes, ischemia, malnutrition, or hormonal changes. [NIH] Attenuation: Reduction of transmitted sound energy or its electrical equivalent. [NIH] Autacoids: A chemically diverse group of substances produced by various tissues in the body that cause slow contraction of smooth muscle; they have other intense but varied pharmacologic activities. [NIH] Autodigestion: Autolysis; a condition found in disease of the stomach: the stomach wall is digested by the gastric juice. [NIH] Autologous: Taken from an individual's own tissues, cells, or DNA. [NIH] Autonomic: Self-controlling; functionally independent. [EU] Autonomic Nervous System: The enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic nervous systems taken together. Generally speaking, the autonomic nervous system regulates the internal environment during both peaceful activity and physical or emotional stress. Autonomic activity is controlled and integrated by the central nervous system, especially the hypothalamus and the solitary nucleus, which receive information relayed from visceral afferents; these and related central and sensory structures are sometimes (but not here) considered to be part of the autonomic nervous system itself. [NIH] Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. [NIH] Bactericidal: Substance lethal to bacteria; substance capable of killing bacteria. [NIH] Bacteriophage: A virus whose host is a bacterial cell; A virus that exclusively infects bacteria. It generally has a protein coat surrounding the genome (DNA or RNA). One of the coliphages most extensively studied is the lambda phage, which is also one of the most important. [NIH] Bacteriostatic: 1. Inhibiting the growth or multiplication of bacteria. 2. An agent that inhibits the growth or multiplication of bacteria. [EU] Bacterium: Microscopic organism which may have a spherical, rod-like, or spiral unicellular or non-cellular body. Bacteria usually reproduce through asexual processes. [NIH] Base: In chemistry, the nonacid part of a salt; a substance that combines with acids to form salts; a substance that dissociates to give hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions; a substance whose molecule or ion can combine with a proton (hydrogen ion); a substance capable of donating a pair of electrons (to an acid) for the formation of a coordinate covalent bond. [EU] Basement Membrane: Ubiquitous supportive tissue adjacent to epithelium and around smooth and striated muscle cells. This tissue contains intrinsic macromolecular components such as collagen, laminin, and sulfated proteoglycans. As seen by light microscopy one of its subdivisions is the basal (basement) lamina. [NIH] Basophils: Granular leukocytes characterized by a relatively pale-staining, lobate nucleus and cytoplasm containing coarse dark-staining granules of variable size and stainable by basic dyes. [NIH] Baths: The immersion or washing of the body or any of its parts in water or other medium

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for cleansing or medical treatment. It includes bathing for personal hygiene as well as for medical purposes with the addition of therapeutic agents, such as alkalines, antiseptics, oil, etc. [NIH] Benzaldehyde: A colorless oily liquid used as a flavoring agent and to make dyes, perfumes, and pharmaceuticals. Benzaldehyde is chemically related to benzene. [NIH] Benzene: Toxic, volatile, flammable liquid hydrocarbon biproduct of coal distillation. It is used as an industrial solvent in paints, varnishes, lacquer thinners, gasoline, etc. Benzene causes central nervous system damage acutely and bone marrow damage chronically and is carcinogenic. It was formerly used as parasiticide. [NIH] Benzoic Acid: A fungistatic compound that is widely used as a food preservative. It is conjugated to glycine in the liver and excreted as hippuric acid. [NIH] Berberine: An alkaloid from Hydrastis canadensis L., Berberidaceae. It is also found in many other plants. It is relatively toxic parenterally, but has been used orally for various parasitic and fungal infections and as antidiarrheal. [NIH] Beta Rays: A stream of positive or negative electrons ejected with high energy from a disintegrating atomic nucleus; most biomedically used isotopes emit negative particles (electrons or negatrons, rather than positrons). Cathode rays are low-energy negative electrons produced in cathode ray tubes, also called television tubes or oscilloscopes. [NIH] Beta-pleated: Particular three-dimensional pattern of amyloidoses. [NIH] Bile: An emulsifying agent produced in the liver and secreted into the duodenum. Its composition includes bile acids and salts, cholesterol, and electrolytes. It aids digestion of fats in the duodenum. [NIH] Bile Acids: Acids made by the liver that work with bile to break down fats. [NIH] Bile Acids and Salts: Steroid acids and salts. The primary bile acids are derived from cholesterol in the liver and usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. The secondary bile acids are further modified by bacteria in the intestine. They play an important role in the digestion and absorption of fat. They have also been used pharmacologically, especially in the treatment of gallstones. [NIH] Biliary: Having to do with the liver, bile ducts, and/or gallbladder. [NIH] Biliary Tract: The gallbladder and its ducts. [NIH] Bilirubin: A bile pigment that is a degradation product of heme. [NIH] Bioavailability: The degree to which a drug or other substance becomes available to the target tissue after administration. [EU] Biochemical: Relating to biochemistry; characterized by, produced by, or involving chemical reactions in living organisms. [EU] Biochemical Phenomena: Biochemical functions, activities, and processes at organic and molecular levels in humans, animals, microorganisms, and plants. [NIH] Biodegradation: The series of processes by which living organisms degrade pollutant chemicals, organic wastes, pesticides, and implantable materials. [NIH] Bioengineering: The application of engineering principles to the solution of biological problems, for example, remote-handling devices, life-support systems, controls, and displays. [NIH] Biofilms: Films of bacteria or other microbial organisms, usually embedded in extracellular polymers such as implanted medical devices, which adhere to surfaces submerged in, or subjected to, aquatic environments (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed). Biofilms consist of multilayers of microbial

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cells glued together to form microbial communities which are highly resistant to both phagocytes and antibiotics. [NIH] Biological Phenomena: Biological functions and activities at the organic and molecular levels in humans, animals, microorganisms, and plants. For biochemical and metabolic processes, biochemical phenomena is available. [NIH] Biological therapy: Treatment to stimulate or restore the ability of the immune system to fight infection and disease. Also used to lessen side effects that may be caused by some cancer treatments. Also known as immunotherapy, biotherapy, or biological response modifier (BRM) therapy. [NIH] Biological Transport: The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) across cell membranes and epithelial layers, usually by passive diffusion. [NIH] Biomarkers: Substances sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood, other body fluids, or tissues and that may suggest the presence of some types of cancer. Biomarkers include CA 125 (ovarian cancer), CA 15-3 (breast cancer), CEA (ovarian, lung, breast, pancreas, and GI tract cancers), and PSA (prostate cancer). Also called tumor markers. [NIH] Biopolymers: Polymers, such as proteins, DNA, RNA, or polysaccharides formed by any living organism. [NIH] Biosynthesis: The building up of a chemical compound in the physiologic processes of a living organism. [EU] Biotechnology: Body of knowledge related to the use of organisms, cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of developing products which are technically, scientifically and clinically useful. Alteration of biologic function at the molecular level (i.e., genetic engineering) is a central focus; laboratory methods used include transfection and cloning technologies, sequence and structure analysis algorithms, computer databases, and gene and protein structure function analysis and prediction. [NIH] Biphasic: Having two phases; having both a sporophytic and a gametophytic phase in the life cycle. [EU] Bladder: The organ that stores urine. [NIH] Blastocyst: The mammalian embryo in the post-morula stage in which a fluid-filled cavity, enclosed primarily by trophoblast, contains an inner cell mass which becomes the embryonic disc. [NIH] Bleomycin: A complex of related glycopeptide antibiotics from Streptomyces verticillus consisting of bleomycin A2 and B2. It inhibits DNA metabolism and is used as an antineoplastic, especially for solid tumors. [NIH] Blood Coagulation: The process of the interaction of blood coagulation factors that results in an insoluble fibrin clot. [NIH] Blood Glucose: Glucose in blood. [NIH] Blood Platelets: Non-nucleated disk-shaped cells formed in the megakaryocyte and found in the blood of all mammals. They are mainly involved in blood coagulation. [NIH] Blood pressure: The pressure of blood against the walls of a blood vessel or heart chamber. Unless there is reference to another location, such as the pulmonary artery or one of the heart chambers, it refers to the pressure in the systemic arteries, as measured, for example, in the forearm. [NIH] Blood Substitutes: Substances that can carry oxygen to and carbon dioxide away from the tissues when introduced into the blood stream. They are used to replace hemoglobin in severe hemorrhage and also to perfuse isolated organs. The best known are perfluorocarbon

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emulsions and various hemoglobin solutions. [NIH] Blood transfusion: The administration of blood or blood products into a blood vessel. [NIH] Blood vessel: A tube in the body through which blood circulates. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. [NIH] Blood Volume: Volume of circulating blood. It is the sum of the plasma volume and erythrocyte volume. [NIH] Body Fluids: Liquid components of living organisms. [NIH] Body Mass Index: One of the anthropometric measures of body mass; it has the highest correlation with skinfold thickness or body density. [NIH] Bone Cements: Adhesives used to fix prosthetic devices to bones and to cement bone to bone in difficult fractures. Synthetic resins are commonly used as cements. A mixture of monocalcium phosphate, monohydrate, alpha-tricalcium phosphate, and calcium carbonate with a sodium phosphate solution is also a useful bone paste. [NIH] Bone Marrow: The soft tissue filling the cavities of bones. Bone marrow exists in two types, yellow and red. Yellow marrow is found in the large cavities of large bones and consists mostly of fat cells and a few primitive blood cells. Red marrow is a hematopoietic tissue and is the site of production of erythrocytes and granular leukocytes. Bone marrow is made up of a framework of connective tissue containing branching fibers with the frame being filled with marrow cells. [NIH] Bone Marrow Cells: Cells contained in the bone marrow including fat cells, stromal cells, megakaryocytes, and the immediate precursors of most blood cells. [NIH] Bone Resorption: Bone loss due to osteoclastic activity. [NIH] Bowel: The long tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a small and a large bowel. Also called the intestine. [NIH] Brachial: All the nerves from the arm are ripped from the spinal cord. [NIH] Brachial Artery: The continuation of the axillary artery; it branches into the radial and ulnar arteries. [NIH] Brachytherapy: A collective term for interstitial, intracavity, and surface radiotherapy. It uses small sealed or partly-sealed sources that may be placed on or near the body surface or within a natural body cavity or implanted directly into the tissues. [NIH] Bradykinin: A nonapeptide messenger that is enzymatically produced from kallidin in the blood where it is a potent but short-lived agent of arteriolar dilation and increased capillary permeability. Bradykinin is also released from mast cells during asthma attacks, from gut walls as a gastrointestinal vasodilator, from damaged tissues as a pain signal, and may be a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Branch: Most commonly used for branches of nerves, but applied also to other structures. [NIH]

Breakdown: A physical, metal, or nervous collapse. [NIH] Broad-spectrum: Effective against a wide range of microorganisms; said of an antibiotic. [EU] Bronchi: The larger air passages of the lungs arising from the terminal bifurcation of the trachea. [NIH] Bronchial: Pertaining to one or more bronchi. [EU] Bronchioles: The tiny branches of air tubes in the lungs. [NIH] Bronchiolitis: Inflammation of the bronchioles. [NIH] Buccal: Pertaining to or directed toward the cheek. In dental anatomy, used to refer to the

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buccal surface of a tooth. [EU] Burns: Injuries to tissues caused by contact with heat, steam, chemicals (burns, chemical), electricity (burns, electric), or the like. [NIH] Burns, Electric: Burns produced by contact with electric current or from a sudden discharge of electricity. [NIH] Buserelin: A potent and durable analog of naturally occurring gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). [NIH] Calcification: Deposits of calcium in the tissues of the breast. Calcification in the breast can be seen on a mammogram, but cannot be detected by touch. There are two types of breast calcification, macrocalcification and microcalcification. Macrocalcifications are large deposits and are usually not related to cancer. Microcalcifications are specks of calcium that may be found in an area of rapidly dividing cells. Many microcalcifications clustered together may be a sign of cancer. [NIH] Calcium: A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. [NIH] Calcium Carbonate: Carbonic acid calcium salt (CaCO3). An odorless, tasteless powder or crystal that occurs in nature. It is used therapeutically as a phosphate buffer in hemodialysis patients and as a calcium supplement. [NIH] Calcium Hydroxide: Ca(OH)2. A white powder that has many therapeutic uses. Because of its ability to stimulate mineralization, it is found in many dental formulations. [NIH] Callus: A callosity or hard, thick skin; the bone-like reparative substance that is formed round the edges and fragments of broken bone. [NIH] Candidiasis: Infection with a fungus of the genus Candida. It is usually a superficial infection of the moist cutaneous areas of the body, and is generally caused by C. albicans; it most commonly involves the skin (dermatocandidiasis), oral mucous membranes (thrush, def. 1), respiratory tract (bronchocandidiasis), and vagina (vaginitis). Rarely there is a systemic infection or endocarditis. Called also moniliasis, candidosis, oidiomycosis, and formerly blastodendriosis. [EU] Candidosis: An infection caused by an opportunistic yeasts that tends to proliferate and become pathologic when the environment is favorable and the host resistance is weakened. [NIH]

Capillary: Any one of the minute vessels that connect the arterioles and venules, forming a network in nearly all parts of the body. Their walls act as semipermeable membranes for the interchange of various substances, including fluids, between the blood and tissue fluid; called also vas capillare. [EU] Capillary Permeability: Property of blood capillary walls that allows for the selective exchange of substances. Small lipid-soluble molecules such as carbon dioxide and oxygen move freely by diffusion. Water and water-soluble molecules cannot pass through the endothelial walls and are dependent on microscopic pores. These pores show narrow areas (tight junctions) which may limit large molecule movement. [NIH] Capsules: Hard or soft soluble containers used for the oral administration of medicine. [NIH] Carbenoxolone: An agent derived from licorice root. It is used for the treatment of digestive tract ulcers, especially in the stomach. Antidiuretic side effects are frequent, but otherwise

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the drug is low in toxicity. [NIH] Carbohydrate: An aldehyde or ketone derivative of a polyhydric alcohol, particularly of the pentahydric and hexahydric alcohols. They are so named because the hydrogen and oxygen are usually in the proportion to form water, (CH2O)n. The most important carbohydrates are the starches, sugars, celluloses, and gums. They are classified into mono-, di-, tri-, polyand heterosaccharides. [EU] Carbon Dioxide: A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals. [NIH] Carboxymethylcellulose: It is used as an emulsifier, thickener, suspending agent, etc., in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals; in research as a culture medium; in chromatography as a stabilizer for reagents; and therapeutically as a bulk laxative with antacid properties. [NIH] Carcinogen: Any substance that causes cancer. [NIH] Carcinogenic: Producing carcinoma. [EU] Carcinoma: Cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. [NIH]

Cardiac: Having to do with the heart. [NIH] Cardiovascular: Having to do with the heart and blood vessels. [NIH] Cardiovascular disease: Any abnormal condition characterized by dysfunction of the heart and blood vessels. CVD includes atherosclerosis (especially coronary heart disease, which can lead to heart attacks), cerebrovascular disease (e.g., stroke), and hypertension (high blood pressure). [NIH] Carotenoids: Substance found in yellow and orange fruits and vegetables and in dark green, leafy vegetables. May reduce the risk of developing cancer. [NIH] Carrier Proteins: Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes. [NIH] Caspase: Enzyme released by the cell at a crucial stage in apoptosis in order to shred all cellular proteins. [NIH] Catabolism: Any destructive metabolic process by which organisms convert substances into excreted compounds. [EU] Catheterization: Use or insertion of a tubular device into a duct, blood vessel, hollow organ, or body cavity for injecting or withdrawing fluids for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. It differs from intubation in that the tube here is used to restore or maintain patency in obstructions. [NIH] Catheters: A small, flexible tube that may be inserted into various parts of the body to inject or remove liquids. [NIH] Cathode: An electrode, usually an incandescent filament of tungsten, which emits electrons in an X-ray tube. [NIH] Cations: Postively charged atoms, radicals or groups of atoms which travel to the cathode or negative pole during electrolysis. [NIH] Caustic: An escharotic or corrosive agent. Called also cauterant. [EU] Cecum: The beginning of the large intestine. The cecum is connected to the lower part of the small intestine, called the ileum. [NIH] Cell: The individual unit that makes up all of the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells. [NIH] Cell Death: The termination of the cell's ability to carry out vital functions such as

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metabolism, growth, reproduction, responsiveness, and adaptability. [NIH] Cell Division: The fission of a cell. [NIH] Cell membrane: Cell membrane = plasma membrane. The structure enveloping a cell, enclosing the cytoplasm, and forming a selective permeability barrier; it consists of lipids, proteins, and some carbohydrates, the lipids thought to form a bilayer in which integral proteins are embedded to varying degrees. [EU] Cell motility: The ability of a cell to move. [NIH] Cell Movement: The movement of cells from one location to another. [NIH] Cell proliferation: An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division. [NIH] Cell Respiration: The metabolic process of all living cells (animal and plant) in which oxygen is used to provide a source of energy for the cell. [NIH] Cell Survival: The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability. [NIH] Cellobiose: A disaccharide consisting of two glucose units in beta (1-4) glycosidic linkage. Obtained from the partial hydrolysis of cellulose. [NIH] Cellular Structures: Components of a cell. [NIH] Cellulose: A polysaccharide with glucose units linked as in cellobiose. It is the chief constituent of plant fibers, cotton being the purest natural form of the substance. As a raw material, it forms the basis for many derivatives used in chromatography, ion exchange materials, explosives manufacturing, and pharmaceutical preparations. [NIH] Central Nervous System: The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. [NIH] Centrifugation: A method of separating organelles or large molecules that relies upon differential sedimentation through a preformed density gradient under the influence of a gravitational field generated in a centrifuge. [NIH] Cerebral: Of or pertaining of the cerebrum or the brain. [EU] Cerebrovascular: Pertaining to the blood vessels of the cerebrum, or brain. [EU] Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum controls muscle functions of the body and also controls speech, emotions, reading, writing, and learning. [NIH] Character: In current usage, approximately equivalent to personality. The sum of the relatively fixed personality traits and habitual modes of response of an individual. [NIH] Chemotactic Factors: Chemical substances that attract or repel cells or organisms. The concept denotes especially those factors released as a result of tissue injury, invasion, or immunologic activity, that attract leukocytes, macrophages, or other cells to the site of infection or insult. [NIH] Chemotherapy: Treatment with anticancer drugs. [NIH] Chlorhexidine: Disinfectant and topical anti-infective agent used also as mouthwash to prevent oral plaque. [NIH] Chlorides: Inorganic compounds derived from hydrochloric acid that contain the Cl- ion. [NIH]

Chlorine: A greenish-yellow, diatomic gas that is a member of the halogen family of elements. It has the atomic symbol Cl, atomic number 17, and atomic weight 70.906. It is a

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powerful irritant that can cause fatal pulmonary edema. Chlorine is used in manufacturing, as a reagent in synthetic chemistry, for water purification, and in the production of chlorinated lime, which is used in fabric bleaching. [NIH] Chlorophyll: Porphyrin derivatives containing magnesium that act to convert light energy in photosynthetic organisms. [NIH] Chlorpheniramine: A histamine H1 antagonist used in allergic reactions, hay fever, rhinitis, urticaria, and asthma. It has also been used in veterinary applications. One of the most widely used of the classical antihistaminics, it generally causes less drowsiness and sedation than promethazine. [NIH] Choleretic: A choleretic agent. [EU] Cholesterol: The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. [NIH] Cholesterol Esters: Fatty acid esters of cholesterol which constitute about two-thirds of the cholesterol in the plasma. The accumulation of cholesterol esters in the arterial intima is a characteristic feature of atherosclerosis. [NIH] Chondroitin sulfate: The major glycosaminoglycan (a type of sugar molecule) in cartilage. [NIH]

Chromatin: The material of chromosomes. It is a complex of DNA, histones, and nonhistone proteins (chromosomal proteins, non-histone) found within the nucleus of a cell. [NIH] Chromosomal: Pertaining to chromosomes. [EU] Chromosome: Part of a cell that contains genetic information. Except for sperm and eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes. [NIH] Chronic: A disease or condition that persists or progresses over a long period of time. [NIH] Chronic renal: Slow and progressive loss of kidney function over several years, often resulting in end-stage renal disease. People with end-stage renal disease need dialysis or transplantation to replace the work of the kidneys. [NIH] Chylomicrons: A class of lipoproteins that carry dietary cholesterol and triglycerides from the small intestines to the tissues. [NIH] Cicatrix: The formation of new tissue in the process of wound healing. [NIH] Ciliary: Inflammation or infection of the glands of the margins of the eyelids. [NIH] Ciliary processes: The extensions or projections of the ciliary body that secrete aqueous humor. [NIH] CIS: Cancer Information Service. The CIS is the National Cancer Institute's link to the public, interpreting and explaining research findings in a clear and understandable manner, and providing personalized responses to specific questions about cancer. Access the CIS by calling 1-800-4-CANCER, or by using the Web site at http://cis.nci.nih.gov. [NIH] Citric Acid: A key intermediate in metabolism. It is an acid compound found in citrus fruits. The salts of citric acid (citrates) can be used as anticoagulants due to their calcium chelating ability. [NIH] Citrus: Any tree or shrub of the Rue family or the fruit of these plants. [NIH] Clear cell carcinoma: A rare type of tumor of the female genital tract in which the inside of the cells looks clear when viewed under a microscope. [NIH] Clinical Medicine: The study and practice of medicine by direct examination of the patient. [NIH]

Clinical study: A research study in which patients receive treatment in a clinic or other

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medical facility. Reports of clinical studies can contain results for single patients (case reports) or many patients (case series or clinical trials). [NIH] Clinical trial: A research study that tests how well new medical treatments or other interventions work in people. Each study is designed to test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. [NIH] Cloning: The production of a number of genetically identical individuals; in genetic engineering, a process for the efficient replication of a great number of identical DNA molecules. [NIH] Coagulation: 1. The process of clot formation. 2. In colloid chemistry, the solidification of a sol into a gelatinous mass; an alteration of a disperse phase or of a dissolved solid which causes the separation of the system into a liquid phase and an insoluble mass called the clot or curd. Coagulation is usually irreversible. 3. In surgery, the disruption of tissue by physical means to form an amorphous residuum, as in electrocoagulation and photocoagulation. [EU] Cobalt: A trace element that is a component of vitamin B12. It has the atomic symbol Co, atomic number 27, and atomic weight 58.93. It is used in nuclear weapons, alloys, and pigments. Deficiency in animals leads to anemia; its excess in humans can lead to erythrocytosis. [NIH] Cod Liver Oil: Oil obtained from fresh livers of the cod family, Gadidae. It is a source of vitamins A and D. [NIH] Coenzyme: An organic nonprotein molecule, frequently a phosphorylated derivative of a water-soluble vitamin, that binds with the protein molecule (apoenzyme) to form the active enzyme (holoenzyme). [EU] Cofactor: A substance, microorganism or environmental factor that activates or enhances the action of another entity such as a disease-causing agent. [NIH] Collagen: A polypeptide substance comprising about one third of the total protein in mammalian organisms. It is the main constituent of skin, connective tissue, and the organic substance of bones and teeth. Different forms of collagen are produced in the body but all consist of three alpha-polypeptide chains arranged in a triple helix. Collagen is differentiated from other fibrous proteins, such as elastin, by the content of proline, hydroxyproline, and hydroxylysine; by the absence of tryptophan; and particularly by the high content of polar groups which are responsible for its swelling properties. [NIH] Collapse: 1. A state of extreme prostration and depression, with failure of circulation. 2. Abnormal falling in of the walls of any part of organ. [EU] Colloidal: Of the nature of a colloid. [EU] Communis: Common tendon of the rectus group of muscles that surrounds the optic foramen and a portion of the superior orbital fissure, to the anterior margin of which it is attached at the spina recti lateralis. [NIH] Complement: A term originally used to refer to the heat-labile factor in serum that causes immune cytolysis, the lysis of antibody-coated cells, and now referring to the entire functionally related system comprising at least 20 distinct serum proteins that is the effector not only of immune cytolysis but also of other biologic functions. Complement activation occurs by two different sequences, the classic and alternative pathways. The proteins of the classic pathway are termed 'components of complement' and are designated by the symbols C1 through C9. C1 is a calcium-dependent complex of three distinct proteins C1q, C1r and C1s. The proteins of the alternative pathway (collectively referred to as the properdin system) and complement regulatory proteins are known by semisystematic or trivial names. Fragments resulting from proteolytic cleavage of complement proteins are designated with

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lower-case letter suffixes, e.g., C3a. Inactivated fragments may be designated with the suffix 'i', e.g. C3bi. Activated components or complexes with biological activity are designated by a bar over the symbol e.g. C1 or C4b,2a. The classic pathway is activated by the binding of C1 to classic pathway activators, primarily antigen-antibody complexes containing IgM, IgG1, IgG3; C1q binds to a single IgM molecule or two adjacent IgG molecules. The alternative pathway can be activated by IgA immune complexes and also by nonimmunologic materials including bacterial endotoxins, microbial polysaccharides, and cell walls. Activation of the classic pathway triggers an enzymatic cascade involving C1, C4, C2 and C3; activation of the alternative pathway triggers a cascade involving C3 and factors B, D and P. Both result in the cleavage of C5 and the formation of the membrane attack complex. Complement activation also results in the formation of many biologically active complement fragments that act as anaphylatoxins, opsonins, or chemotactic factors. [EU] Complementary and alternative medicine: CAM. Forms of treatment that are used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices are not considered standard medical approaches. CAM includes dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, herbal preparations, special teas, massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementary medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used to enhance or complement the standard treatments. Complementary medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Computational Biology: A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and theories applicable to molecular biology and areas of computer-based techniques for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets. [NIH] Conception: The onset of pregnancy, marked by implantation of the blastocyst; the formation of a viable zygote. [EU] Condoms: A sheath that is worn over the penis during sexual behavior in order to prevent pregnancy or spread of sexually transmitted disease. [NIH] Conjugated: Acting or operating as if joined; simultaneous. [EU] Conjugation: 1. The act of joining together or the state of being conjugated. 2. A sexual process seen in bacteria, ciliate protozoa, and certain fungi in which nuclear material is exchanged during the temporary fusion of two cells (conjugants). In bacterial genetics a form of sexual reproduction in which a donor bacterium (male) contributes some, or all, of its DNA (in the form of a replicated set) to a recipient (female) which then incorporates differing genetic information into its own chromosome by recombination and passes the recombined set on to its progeny by replication. In ciliate protozoa, two conjugants of separate mating types exchange micronuclear material and then separate, each now being a fertilized cell. In certain fungi, the process involves fusion of two gametes, resulting in union of their nuclei and formation of a zygote. 3. In chemistry, the joining together of two compounds to produce another compound, such as the combination of a toxic product with some substance in the body to form a detoxified product, which is then eliminated. [EU] Conjunctiva: The mucous membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelids and the anterior part of the sclera. [NIH] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH]

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Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Connective Tissue Cells: A group of cells that includes fibroblasts, cartilage cells, adipocytes, smooth muscle cells, and bone cells. [NIH] Constipation: Infrequent or difficult evacuation of feces. [NIH] Constriction: The act of constricting. [NIH] Consumption: Pulmonary tuberculosis. [NIH] Contact dermatitis: Inflammation of the skin with varying degrees of erythema, edema and vesinculation resulting from cutaneous contact with a foreign substance or other exposure. [NIH]

Contamination: The soiling or pollution by inferior material, as by the introduction of organisms into a wound, or sewage into a stream. [EU] Contraception: Use of agents, devices, methods, or procedures which diminish the likelihood of or prevent conception. [NIH] Contraindications: Any factor or sign that it is unwise to pursue a certain kind of action or treatment, e. g. giving a general anesthetic to a person with pneumonia. [NIH] Controlled clinical trial: A clinical study that includes a comparison (control) group. The comparison group receives a placebo, another treatment, or no treatment at all. [NIH] Controlled study: An experiment or clinical trial that includes a comparison (control) group. [NIH]

Coordination: Muscular or motor regulation or the harmonious cooperation of muscles or groups of muscles, in a complex action or series of actions. [NIH] Cornea: The transparent part of the eye that covers the iris and the pupil and allows light to enter the inside. [NIH] Corneum: The superficial layer of the epidermis containing keratinized cells. [NIH] Coronary: Encircling in the manner of a crown; a term applied to vessels; nerves, ligaments, etc. The term usually denotes the arteries that supply the heart muscle and, by extension, a pathologic involvement of them. [EU] Coronary heart disease: A type of heart disease caused by narrowing of the coronary arteries that feed the heart, which needs a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients carried by the blood in the coronary arteries. When the coronary arteries become narrowed or clogged by fat and cholesterol deposits and cannot supply enough blood to the heart, CHD results. [NIH] Coronary Thrombosis: Presence of a thrombus in a coronary artery, often causing a myocardial infarction. [NIH] Corrosion: Irreversible destruction of skin tissue. [NIH] Corticosteroid: Any of the steroids elaborated by the adrenal cortex (excluding the sex hormones of adrenal origin) in response to the release of corticotrophin (adrenocorticotropic hormone) by the pituitary gland, to any of the synthetic equivalents of these steroids, or to angiotensin II. They are divided, according to their predominant biological activity, into three major groups: glucocorticoids, chiefly influencing carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism; mineralocorticoids, affecting the regulation of electrolyte and water balance; and C19 androgens. Some corticosteroids exhibit both types of activity in varying degrees, and others exert only one type of effect. The corticosteroids are used clinically for hormonal replacement therapy, for suppression of ACTH secretion by the anterior pituitary, as antineoplastic, antiallergic, and anti-inflammatory agents, and to suppress the immune

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response. Called also adrenocortical hormone and corticoid. [EU] Cortisol: A steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex as part of the body's response to stress. [NIH] Cranial: Pertaining to the cranium, or to the anterior (in animals) or superior (in humans) end of the body. [EU] Culture Media: Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as agar or gelatin. [NIH] Curative: Tending to overcome disease and promote recovery. [EU] Cutaneous: Having to do with the skin. [NIH] Cyclic: Pertaining to or occurring in a cycle or cycles; the term is applied to chemical compounds that contain a ring of atoms in the nucleus. [EU] Cyclodextrins: A homologous group of cyclic glucans consisting of alpha-1,4 bound glucose units obtained by the action of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase on starch or similar substrates. The enzyme is produced by certain species of Bacillus. Cyclodextrins form inclusion complexes with a wide variety of substances. [NIH] Cysteine: A thiol-containing non-essential amino acid that is oxidized to form cystine. [NIH] Cytokine: Small but highly potent protein that modulates the activity of many cell types, including T and B cells. [NIH] Cytoplasm: The protoplasm of a cell exclusive of that of the nucleus; it consists of a continuous aqueous solution (cytosol) and the organelles and inclusions suspended in it (phaneroplasm), and is the site of most of the chemical activities of the cell. [EU] Cytotoxic: Cell-killing. [NIH] Cytotoxicity: Quality of being capable of producing a specific toxic action upon cells of special organs. [NIH] Dairy Products: Raw and processed or manufactured milk and milk-derived products. These are usually from cows (bovine) but are also from goats, sheep, reindeer, and water buffalo. [NIH] Databases, Bibliographic: Extensive collections, reputedly complete, of references and citations to books, articles, publications, etc., generally on a single subject or specialized subject area. Databases can operate through automated files, libraries, or computer disks. The concept should be differentiated from factual databases which is used for collections of data and facts apart from bibliographic references to them. [NIH] Daunorubicin: Very toxic anthracycline aminoglycoside antibiotic isolated from Streptomyces peucetius and others, used in treatment of leukemias and other neoplasms. [NIH]

Deamination: The removal of an amino group (NH2) from a chemical compound. [NIH] Decarboxylation: The removal of a carboxyl group, usually in the form of carbon dioxide, from a chemical compound. [NIH] Decidua: The epithelial lining of the endometrium that is formed before the fertilized ovum reaches the uterus. The fertilized ovum embeds in the decidua. If the ovum is not fertilized, the decidua is shed during menstruation. [NIH] Decubitus: An act of lying down; also the position assumed in lying down. [EU]

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Decubitus Ulcer: An ulceration caused by prolonged pressure in patients permitted to lie too still for a long period of time. The bony prominences of the body are the most frequently affected sites. The ulcer is caused by ischemia of the underlying structures of the skin, fat, and muscles as a result of the sustained and constant pressure. [NIH] Degenerative: Undergoing degeneration : tending to degenerate; having the character of or involving degeneration; causing or tending to cause degeneration. [EU] Dehydration: The condition that results from excessive loss of body water. [NIH] Deletion: A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA (chromosomes), bringing sequences, which are normally separated, into close proximity. [NIH] Dendrites: Extensions of the nerve cell body. They are short and branched and receive stimuli from other neurons. [NIH] Dendritic: 1. Branched like a tree. 2. Pertaining to or possessing dendrites. [EU] Dendritic cell: A special type of antigen-presenting cell (APC) that activates T lymphocytes. [NIH]

Density: The logarithm to the base 10 of the opacity of an exposed and processed film. [NIH] Dental Caries: Localized destruction of the tooth surface initiated by decalcification of the enamel followed by enzymatic lysis of organic structures and leading to cavity formation. If left unchecked, the cavity may penetrate the enamel and dentin and reach the pulp. The three most prominent theories used to explain the etiology of the disase are that acids produced by bacteria lead to decalcification; that micro-organisms destroy the enamel protein; or that keratolytic micro-organisms produce chelates that lead to decalcification. [NIH]

Dental Cements: Substances used as bonding or luting agents in restorative denistry, root canal therapy, prosthedontics, and orthodontics. [NIH] Dental implant: A small metal pin placed inside the jawbone to mimic the root of a tooth. Dental implants can be used to help anchor a false tooth or teeth, or a crown or bridge. [NIH] Dental Plaque: A film that attaches to teeth, often causing dental caries and gingivitis. It is composed of mucins, secreted from salivary glands, and microorganisms. [NIH] Deoxycholic Acid: A bile acid formed by bacterial action from cholate. It is usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. Deoxycholic acid acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for intestinal absorption, is reabsorbed itself, and is used as a choleretic and detergent. [NIH] Deoxyribonucleic: A polymer of subunits called deoxyribonucleotides which is the primary genetic material of a cell, the material equivalent to genetic information. [NIH] Deoxyribonucleic acid: A polymer of subunits called deoxyribonucleotides which is the primary genetic material of a cell, the material equivalent to genetic information. [NIH] Dermal: Pertaining to or coming from the skin. [NIH] Dermatitis: Any inflammation of the skin. [NIH] DES: Diethylstilbestrol. A synthetic hormone that was prescribed from the early 1940s until 1971 to help women with complications of pregnancy. DES has been linked to an increased risk of clear cell carcinoma of the vagina in daughters of women who used DES. DES may also increase the risk of breast cancer in women who used DES. [NIH] Detergents: Purifying or cleansing agents, usually salts of long-chain aliphatic bases or acids, that exert cleansing (oil-dissolving) and antimicrobial effects through a surface action that depends on possessing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. [NIH] Deuterium: Deuterium. The stable isotope of hydrogen. It has one neutron and one proton in the nucleus. [NIH]

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Developed Countries: Countries that have reached a level of economic achievement through an increase of production, per capita income and consumption, and utilization of natural and human resources. [NIH] Dextran Sulfate: Long-chain polymer of glucose containing 17-20% sulfur. It has been used as an anticoagulant and also has been shown to inhibit the binding of HIV-1 to CD4+ Tlymphocytes. It is commonly used as both an experimental and clinical laboratory reagent and has been investigated for use as an antiviral agent, in the treatment of hypolipidemia, and for the prevention of free radical damage, among other applications. [NIH] Diabetes Mellitus: A heterogeneous group of disorders that share glucose intolerance in common. [NIH] Diagnostic procedure: A method used to identify a disease. [NIH] Dialyzer: A part of the hemodialysis machine. (See hemodialysis under dialysis.) The dialyzer has two sections separated by a membrane. One section holds dialysate. The other holds the patient's blood. [NIH] Diamines: Organic chemicals which have two amino groups in an aliphatic chain. [NIH] Diarrhea: Passage of excessively liquid or excessively frequent stools. [NIH] Diclofenac: A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAID) with antipyretic and analgesic actions. It is primarily available as the sodium salt, diclofenac sodium. [NIH] Diclofenac Sodium: The sodium form of diclofenac. It is used for its analgesic and antiinflammatory properties. [NIH] Dietary Fats: Fats present in food, especially in animal products such as meat, meat products, butter, ghee. They are present in lower amounts in nuts, seeds, and avocados. [NIH]

Dietary Fiber: The remnants of plant cell walls that are resistant to digestion by the alimentary enzymes of man. It comprises various polysaccharides and lignins. [NIH] Diffusion: The tendency of a gas or solute to pass from a point of higher pressure or concentration to a point of lower pressure or concentration and to distribute itself throughout the available space; a major mechanism of biological transport. [NIH] Digestion: The process of breakdown of food for metabolism and use by the body. [NIH] Digestive system: The organs that take in food and turn it into products that the body can use to stay healthy. Waste products the body cannot use leave the body through bowel movements. The digestive system includes the salivary glands, mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, small and large intestines, and rectum. [NIH] Dihydroxy: AMPA/Kainate antagonist. [NIH] Dilation: A process by which the pupil is temporarily enlarged with special eye drops (mydriatic); allows the eye care specialist to better view the inside of the eye. [NIH] Diploid: Having two sets of chromosomes. [NIH] Direct: 1. Straight; in a straight line. 2. Performed immediately and without the intervention of subsidiary means. [EU] Disinfectant: An agent that disinfects; applied particularly to agents used on inanimate objects. [EU] Dissociation: 1. The act of separating or state of being separated. 2. The separation of a molecule into two or more fragments (atoms, molecules, ions, or free radicals) produced by the absorption of light or thermal energy or by solvation. 3. In psychology, a defense mechanism in which a group of mental processes are segregated from the rest of a person's mental activity in order to avoid emotional distress, as in the dissociative disorders (q.v.), or

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in which an idea or object is segregated from its emotional significance; in the first sense it is roughly equivalent to splitting, in the second, to isolation. 4. A defect of mental integration in which one or more groups of mental processes become separated off from normal consciousness and, thus separated, function as a unitary whole. [EU] Distal: Remote; farther from any point of reference; opposed to proximal. In dentistry, used to designate a position on the dental arch farther from the median line of the jaw. [EU] Diuretic: A drug that increases the production of urine. [NIH] Dopamine: An endogenous catecholamine and prominent neurotransmitter in several systems of the brain. In the synthesis of catecholamines from tyrosine, it is the immediate precursor to norepinephrine and epinephrine. Dopamine is a major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement. A family of dopaminergic receptor subtypes mediate its action. Dopamine is used pharmacologically for its direct (beta adrenergic agonist) and indirect (adrenergic releasing) sympathomimetic effects including its actions as an inotropic agent and as a renal vasodilator. [NIH] Doxorubicin: Antineoplastic antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces peucetics. It is a hydroxy derivative of daunorubicin and is used in treatment of both leukemia and solid tumors. [NIH] Drive: A state of internal activity of an organism that is a necessary condition before a given stimulus will elicit a class of responses; e.g., a certain level of hunger (drive) must be present before food will elicit an eating response. [NIH] Drug Carriers: Substances that facilitate time-controlled delivery, organ-specific targeting, protection, prolonged in vivo function, and decrease of toxicity of drugs. Liposomes, albumin microspheres, soluble synthetic polymers, DNA complexes, protein-drug conjugates, and carrier erythrocytes among others have been employed as biodegradable drug carriers. [NIH] Drug Delivery Systems: Systems of administering drugs through controlled delivery so that an optimum amount reaches the target site. Drug delivery systems encompass the carrier, route, and target. [NIH] Drug Interactions: The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug. [NIH] Drug Tolerance: Progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, resulting from its continued administration. It should be differentiated from drug resistance wherein an organism, disease, or tissue fails to respond to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should also be differentiated from maximum tolerated dose and no-observed-adverse-effect level. [NIH] Duct: A tube through which body fluids pass. [NIH] Duodenal Ulcer: An ulcer in the lining of the first part of the small intestine (duodenum). [NIH]

Duodenum: The first part of the small intestine. [NIH] Dyes: Chemical substances that are used to stain and color other materials. The coloring may or may not be permanent. Dyes can also be used as therapeutic agents and test reagents in medicine and scientific research. [NIH] Dysphagia: Difficulty in swallowing. [EU] Dysplasia: Cells that look abnormal under a microscope but are not cancer. [NIH] Dysplastic nevi: Atypical moles; moles whose appearance is different from that of common moles. Dysplastic nevi are generally larger than ordinary moles and have irregular and indistinct borders. Their color frequently is not uniform and ranges from pink to dark

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brown; they usually are flat, but parts may be raised above the skin surface. [NIH] Eczema: A pruritic papulovesicular dermatitis occurring as a reaction to many endogenous and exogenous agents (Dorland, 27th ed). [NIH] Edema: Excessive amount of watery fluid accumulated in the intercellular spaces, most commonly present in subcutaneous tissue. [NIH] Effector: It is often an enzyme that converts an inactive precursor molecule into an active second messenger. [NIH] Effector cell: A cell that performs a specific function in response to a stimulus; usually used to describe cells in the immune system. [NIH] Efficacy: The extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service produces a beneficial result under ideal conditions. Ideally, the determination of efficacy is based on the results of a randomized control trial. [NIH] Effusion: The escape of fluid into a part or tissue, as an exudation or a transudation. [EU] Elasticity: Resistance and recovery from distortion of shape. [NIH] Elastin: The protein that gives flexibility to tissues. [NIH] Elective: Subject to the choice or decision of the patient or physician; applied to procedures that are advantageous to the patient but not urgent. [EU] Electrocoagulation: Electrosurgical procedures used to treat hemorrhage (e.g., bleeding ulcers) and to ablate tumors, mucosal lesions, and refractory arrhythmias. [NIH] Electrode: Component of the pacing system which is at the distal end of the lead. It is the interface with living cardiac tissue across which the stimulus is transmitted. [NIH] Electrolyte: A substance that dissociates into ions when fused or in solution, and thus becomes capable of conducting electricity; an ionic solute. [EU] Electrons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known negative charge, present in all elements; also called negatrons. Positively charged electrons are called positrons. The numbers, energies and arrangement of electrons around atomic nuclei determine the chemical identities of elements. Beams of electrons are called cathode rays or beta rays, the latter being a high-energy biproduct of nuclear decay. [NIH] Electrophoresis: An electrochemical process in which macromolecules or colloidal particles with a net electric charge migrate in a solution under the influence of an electric current. [NIH]

Elementary Particles: Individual components of atoms, usually subatomic; subnuclear particles are usually detected only when the atomic nucleus decays and then only transiently, as most of them are unstable, often yielding pure energy without substance, i.e., radiation. [NIH] Emboli: Bit of foreign matter which enters the blood stream at one point and is carried until it is lodged or impacted in an artery and obstructs it. It may be a blood clot, an air bubble, fat or other tissue, or clumps of bacteria. [NIH] Embolization: The blocking of an artery by a clot or foreign material. Embolization can be done as treatment to block the flow of blood to a tumor. [NIH] Embryo: The prenatal stage of mammalian development characterized by rapid morphological changes and the differentiation of basic structures. [NIH] Embryogenesis: The process of embryo or embryoid formation, whether by sexual (zygotic) or asexual means. In asexual embryogenesis embryoids arise directly from the explant or on intermediary callus tissue. In some cases they arise from individual cells (somatic cell embryoge). [NIH]

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Emetic: An agent that causes vomiting. [EU] Emodin: Purgative anthraquinone found in several plants, especially Rhamnus frangula. It was formerly used as a laxative, but is now used mainly as tool in toxicity studies. [NIH] Emollient: Softening or soothing; called also malactic. [EU] Emulsion: A preparation of one liquid distributed in small globules throughout the body of a second liquid. The dispersed liquid is the discontinuous phase, and the dispersion medium is the continuous phase. When oil is the dispersed liquid and an aqueous solution is the continuous phase, it is known as an oil-in-water emulsion, whereas when water or aqueous solution is the dispersed phase and oil or oleaginous substance is the continuous phase, it is known as a water-in-oil emulsion. Pharmaceutical emulsions for which official standards have been promulgated include cod liver oil emulsion, cod liver oil emulsion with malt, liquid petrolatum emulsion, and phenolphthalein in liquid petrolatum emulsion. [EU] Enamel: A very hard whitish substance which covers the dentine of the anatomical crown of a tooth. [NIH] Encapsulated: Confined to a specific, localized area and surrounded by a thin layer of tissue. [NIH]

Endocarditis: Exudative and proliferative inflammatory alterations of the endocardium, characterized by the presence of vegetations on the surface of the endocardium or in the endocardium itself, and most commonly involving a heart valve, but sometimes affecting the inner lining of the cardiac chambers or the endocardium elsewhere. It may occur as a primary disorder or as a complication of or in association with another disease. [EU] Endocytosis: Cellular uptake of extracellular materials within membrane-limited vacuoles or microvesicles. Endosomes play a central role in endocytosis. [NIH] Endothelial cell: The main type of cell found in the inside lining of blood vessels, lymph vessels, and the heart. [NIH] Endothelium: A layer of epithelium that lines the heart, blood vessels (endothelium, vascular), lymph vessels (endothelium, lymphatic), and the serous cavities of the body. [NIH] Endothelium, Lymphatic: Unbroken cellular lining (intima) of the lymph vessels (e.g., the high endothelial lymphatic venules). It is more permeable than vascular endothelium, lacking selective absorption and functioning mainly to remove plasma proteins that have filtered through the capillaries into the tissue spaces. [NIH] Endothelium, Vascular: Single pavement layer of cells which line the luminal surface of the entire vascular system and regulate the transport of macromolecules and blood components from interstitium to lumen; this function has been most intensively studied in the blood capillaries. [NIH] Endothelium-derived: Small molecule that diffuses to the adjacent muscle layer and relaxes it. [NIH] Endotoxic: Of, relating to, or acting as an endotoxin (= a heat-stable toxin, associated with the outer membranes of certain gram-negative bacteria. Endotoxins are not secreted and are released only when the cells are disrupted). [EU] Endotoxin: Toxin from cell walls of bacteria. [NIH] End-stage renal: Total chronic kidney failure. When the kidneys fail, the body retains fluid and harmful wastes build up. A person with ESRD needs treatment to replace the work of the failed kidneys. [NIH] Enhancer: Transcriptional element in the virus genome. [NIH] Enkephalin: A natural opiate painkiller, in the hypothalamus. [NIH]

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Environmental Health: The science of controlling or modifying those conditions, influences, or forces surrounding man which relate to promoting, establishing, and maintaining health. [NIH]

Enzymatic: Phase where enzyme cuts the precursor protein. [NIH] Enzyme: A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. [NIH] Enzyme Inhibitors: Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction. [NIH] Eosinophil: A polymorphonuclear leucocyte with large eosinophilic granules in its cytoplasm, which plays a role in hypersensitivity reactions. [NIH] Ephedrine: An alpha- and beta-adrenergic agonist that may also enhance release of norepinephrine. It has been used in the treatment of several disorders including asthma, heart failure, rhinitis, and urinary incontinence, and for its central nervous system stimulatory effects in the treatment of narcolepsy and depression. It has become less extensively used with the advent of more selective agonists. [NIH] Epidemiological: Relating to, or involving epidemiology. [EU] Epidermal: Pertaining to or resembling epidermis. Called also epidermic or epidermoid. [EU] Epidermis: Nonvascular layer of the skin. It is made up, from within outward, of five layers: 1) basal layer (stratum basale epidermidis); 2) spinous layer (stratum spinosum epidermidis); 3) granular layer (stratum granulosum epidermidis); 4) clear layer (stratum lucidum epidermidis); and 5) horny layer (stratum corneum epidermidis). [NIH] Epidermoid carcinoma: A type of cancer in which the cells are flat and look like fish scales. Also called squamous cell carcinoma. [NIH] Epigastric: Having to do with the upper middle area of the abdomen. [NIH] Epithelial: Refers to the cells that line the internal and external surfaces of the body. [NIH] Epithelial Cells: Cells that line the inner and outer surfaces of the body. [NIH] Epithelium: One or more layers of epithelial cells, supported by the basal lamina, which covers the inner or outer surfaces of the body. [NIH] Erectile: The inability to get or maintain an erection for satisfactory sexual intercourse. Also called impotence. [NIH] Erection: The condition of being made rigid and elevated; as erectile tissue when filled with blood. [EU] Erythema: Redness of the skin produced by congestion of the capillaries. This condition may result from a variety of causes. [NIH] Erythrocytes: Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing hemoglobin whose function is to transport oxygen. [NIH] Esophagus: The muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach. [NIH]

Esterification: The process of converting an acid into an alkyl or aryl derivative. Most frequently the process consists of the reaction of an acid with an alcohol in the presence of a trace of mineral acid as catalyst or the reaction of an acyl chloride with an alcohol. Esterification can also be accomplished by enzymatic processes. [NIH] Ethanol: A clear, colorless liquid rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed throughout the body. It has bactericidal activity and is used often as a topical disinfectant. It is widely used as a solvent and preservative in pharmaceutical preparations as well as serving as the primary ingredient in alcoholic beverages. [NIH]

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Ether: One of a class of organic compounds in which any two organic radicals are attached directly to a single oxygen atom. [NIH] Ethylene Glycol: A colorless, odorless, viscous dihydroxy alcohol. It has a sweet taste, but is poisonous if ingested. Ethylene glycol is the most important glycol commercially available and is manufactured on a large scale in the United States. It is used as an antifreeze and coolant, in hydraulic fluids, and in the manufacture of low-freezing dynamites and resins. [NIH]

Evacuation: An emptying, as of the bowels. [EU] Excipient: Any more or less inert substance added to a prescription in order to confer a suitable consistency or form to the drug; a vehicle. [EU] Exocrine: Secreting outwardly, via a duct. [EU] Exogenous: Developed or originating outside the organism, as exogenous disease. [EU] Expander: Any of several colloidal substances of high molecular weight. used as a blood or plasma substitute in transfusion for increasing the volume of the circulating blood. called also extender. [NIH] Expectorant: 1. Promoting the ejection, by spitting, of mucus or other fluids from the lungs and trachea. 2. An agent that promotes the ejection of mucus or exudate from the lungs, bronchi, and trachea; sometimes extended to all remedies that quiet cough (antitussives). [EU]

Expiration: The act of breathing out, or expelling air from the lungs. [EU] External-beam radiation: Radiation therapy that uses a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer. Also called external radiation. [NIH] Extracellular: Outside a cell or cells. [EU] Extracellular Matrix: A meshwork-like substance found within the extracellular space and in association with the basement membrane of the cell surface. It promotes cellular proliferation and provides a supporting structure to which cells or cell lysates in culture dishes adhere. [NIH] Extracellular Matrix Proteins: Macromolecular organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually, sulfur. These macromolecules (proteins) form an intricate meshwork in which cells are embedded to construct tissues. Variations in the relative types of macromolecules and their organization determine the type of extracellular matrix, each adapted to the functional requirements of the tissue. The two main classes of macromolecules that form the extracellular matrix are: glycosaminoglycans, usually linked to proteins (proteoglycans), and fibrous proteins (e.g., collagen, elastin, fibronectins and laminin). [NIH] Extracellular Space: Interstitial space between cells, occupied by fluid as well as amorphous and fibrous substances. [NIH] Extraction: The process or act of pulling or drawing out. [EU] Exudate: Material, such as fluid, cells, or cellular debris, which has escaped from blood vessels and has been deposited in tissues or on tissue surfaces, usually as a result of inflammation. An exudate, in contrast to a transudate, is characterized by a high content of protein, cells, or solid materials derived from cells. [EU] Eye Infections: Infection, moderate to severe, caused by bacteria, fungi, or viruses, which occurs either on the external surface of the eye or intraocularly with probable inflammation, visual impairment, or blindness. [NIH] Family Planning: Programs or services designed to assist the family in controlling reproduction by either improving or diminishing fertility. [NIH]

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Fat: Total lipids including phospholipids. [NIH] Fatty acids: A major component of fats that are used by the body for energy and tissue development. [NIH] Febrile: Pertaining to or characterized by fever. [EU] Feces: The excrement discharged from the intestines, consisting of bacteria, cells exfoliated from the intestines, secretions, chiefly of the liver, and a small amount of food residue. [EU] Femoral: Pertaining to the femur, or to the thigh. [EU] Femoral Artery: The main artery of the thigh, a continuation of the external iliac artery. [NIH] Femur: The longest and largest bone of the skeleton, it is situated between the hip and the knee. [NIH] Fetus: The developing offspring from 7 to 8 weeks after conception until birth. [NIH] Fibrin: A protein derived from fibrinogen in the presence of thrombin, which forms part of the blood clot. [NIH] Fibrinogen: Plasma glycoprotein clotted by thrombin, composed of a dimer of three nonidentical pairs of polypeptide chains (alpha, beta, gamma) held together by disulfide bonds. Fibrinogen clotting is a sol-gel change involving complex molecular arrangements: whereas fibrinogen is cleaved by thrombin to form polypeptides A and B, the proteolytic action of other enzymes yields different fibrinogen degradation products. [NIH] Fibroblast Growth Factor: Peptide isolated from the pituitary gland and from the brain. It is a potent mitogen which stimulates growth of a variety of mesodermal cells including chondrocytes, granulosa, and endothelial cells. The peptide may be active in wound healing and animal limb regeneration. [NIH] Fibroblasts: Connective tissue cells which secrete an extracellular matrix rich in collagen and other macromolecules. [NIH] Fibronectins: Glycoproteins found on the surfaces of cells, particularly in fibrillar structures. The proteins are lost or reduced when these cells undergo viral or chemical transformation. They are highly susceptible to proteolysis and are substrates for activated blood coagulation factor VIII. The forms present in plasma are called cold-insoluble globulins. [NIH] Filler: An inactive substance used to make a product bigger or easier to handle. For example, fillers are often used to make pills or capsules because the amount of active drug is too small to be handled conveniently. [NIH] Filtration: The passage of a liquid through a filter, accomplished by gravity, pressure, or vacuum (suction). [EU] Fissure: Any cleft or groove, normal or otherwise; especially a deep fold in the cerebral cortex which involves the entire thickness of the brain wall. [EU] Fistula: Abnormal communication most commonly seen between two internal organs, or between an internal organ and the surface of the body. [NIH] Fixation: 1. The act or operation of holding, suturing, or fastening in a fixed position. 2. The condition of being held in a fixed position. 3. In psychiatry, a term with two related but distinct meanings : (1) arrest of development at a particular stage, which like regression (return to an earlier stage), if temporary is a normal reaction to setbacks and difficulties but if protracted or frequent is a cause of developmental failures and emotional problems, and (2) a close and suffocating attachment to another person, especially a childhood figure, such as one's mother or father. Both meanings are derived from psychoanalytic theory and refer to 'fixation' of libidinal energy either in a specific erogenous zone, hence fixation at the oral, anal, or phallic stage, or in a specific object, hence mother or father fixation. 4. The use of a

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fixative (q.v.) to preserve histological or cytological specimens. 5. In chemistry, the process whereby a substance is removed from the gaseous or solution phase and localized, as in carbon dioxide fixation or nitrogen fixation. 6. In ophthalmology, direction of the gaze so that the visual image of the object falls on the fovea centralis. 7. In film processing, the chemical removal of all undeveloped salts of the film emulsion, leaving only the developed silver to form a permanent image. [EU] Flatus: Gas passed through the rectum. [NIH] Flavoring Agents: Substances added to foods and medicine to improve the quality of taste. [NIH]

Fluorouracil: A pyrimidine analog that acts as an antineoplastic antimetabolite and also has immunosuppressant. It interferes with DNA synthesis by blocking the thymidylate synthetase conversion of deoxyuridylic acid to thymidylic acid. [NIH] Fold: A plication or doubling of various parts of the body. [NIH] Food Additives: Substances which are of little or no nutritive value, but are used in the processing or storage of foods or animal feed, especially in the developed countries; includes antioxidants, food preservatives, food coloring agents, flavoring agents, anti-infective agents (both plain and local), vehicles, excipients and other similarly used substances. Many of the same substances are pharmaceutic aids when added to pharmaceuticals rather than to foods. [NIH]

Food Coloring Agents: Natural or synthetic dyes used as coloring agents in processed foods. [NIH] Food Preservatives: Substances capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the process of fermentation, acidification or other deterioration of foods. [NIH] Food Technology: The application of knowledge to the food industry. [NIH] Foodborne Illness: An acute gastrointestinal infection caused by food that contains harmful bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and chills. Also called food poisoning. [NIH] Foramen: A natural hole of perforation, especially one in a bone. [NIH] Forearm: The part between the elbow and the wrist. [NIH] Fractionation: Dividing the total dose of radiation therapy into several smaller, equal doses delivered over a period of several days. [NIH] Freeze-dried: A method used to dry substances, such as food, to make them last longer. The substance is frozen and then dried in a vacuum. [NIH] Friction: Surface resistance to the relative motion of one body against the rubbing, sliding, rolling, or flowing of another with which it is in contact. [NIH] Fungi: A kingdom of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that live as saprobes or parasites, including mushrooms, yeasts, smuts, molds, etc. They reproduce either sexually or asexually, and have life cycles that range from simple to complex. Filamentous fungi refer to those that grow as multicelluar colonies (mushrooms and molds). [NIH] Fungicide: An agent that destroys fungi. [EU] Fungistatic: Inhibiting the growth of fungi. [EU] Fungus: A general term used to denote a group of eukaryotic protists, including mushrooms, yeasts, rusts, moulds, smuts, etc., which are characterized by the absence of chlorophyll and by the presence of a rigid cell wall composed of chitin, mannans, and sometimes cellulose. They are usually of simple morphological form or show some reversible cellular specialization, such as the formation of pseudoparenchymatous tissue in

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the fruiting body of a mushroom. The dimorphic fungi grow, according to environmental conditions, as moulds or yeasts. [EU] Gadolinium: An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Gd, atomic number 64, and atomic weight 157.25. Its oxide is used in the control rods of some nuclear reactors. [NIH] Gallbladder: The pear-shaped organ that sits below the liver. Bile is concentrated and stored in the gallbladder. [NIH] Gamma irradiation: A type of radiation therapy that uses gamma radiation. Gamma radiation is a type of high-energy radiation that is different from x-rays. [NIH] Gas: Air that comes from normal breakdown of food. The gases are passed out of the body through the rectum (flatus) or the mouth (burp). [NIH] Gastric: Having to do with the stomach. [NIH] Gastric Acid: Hydrochloric acid present in gastric juice. [NIH] Gastric Emptying: The evacuation of food from the stomach into the duodenum. [NIH] Gastrin: A hormone released after eating. Gastrin causes the stomach to produce more acid. [NIH]

Gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach. [EU] Gastrointestinal: Refers to the stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gastrointestinal tract: The stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gelatin: A product formed from skin, white connective tissue, or bone collagen. It is used as a protein food adjuvant, plasma substitute, hemostatic, suspending agent in pharmaceutical preparations, and in the manufacturing of capsules and suppositories. [NIH] Gels: Colloids with a solid continuous phase and liquid as the dispersed phase; gels may be unstable when, due to temperature or other cause, the solid phase liquifies; the resulting colloid is called a sol. [NIH] Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein. [NIH]

Gene Expression: The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of gene action. [NIH] Genetic Code: The specifications for how information, stored in nucleic acid sequence (base sequence), is translated into protein sequence (amino acid sequence). The start, stop, and order of amino acids of a protein is specified by consecutive triplets of nucleotides called codons (codon). [NIH] Genetics: The biological science that deals with the phenomena and mechanisms of heredity. [NIH] Genotype: The genetic constitution of the individual; the characterization of the genes. [NIH] Germanium: A rare metal element with a blue-gray appearance and atomic symbol Ge, atomic number 32, and atomic weight 72.59. [NIH] Gestation: The period of development of the young in viviparous animals, from the time of fertilization of the ovum until birth. [EU] Gland: An organ that produces and releases one or more substances for use in the body. Some glands produce fluids that affect tissues or organs. Others produce hormones or participate in blood production. [NIH] Glucans: Polysaccharides composed of repeating glucose units. They can consist of

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branched or unbranched chains in any linkages. [NIH] Glucocorticoid: A compound that belongs to the family of compounds called corticosteroids (steroids). Glucocorticoids affect metabolism and have anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. They may be naturally produced (hormones) or synthetic (drugs). [NIH] Glucose: D-Glucose. A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. [NIH] Glucuronic Acid: Derivatives of uronic acid found throughout the plant and animal kingdoms. They detoxify drugs and toxins by conjugating with them to form glucuronides in the liver which are more water-soluble metabolites that can be easily eliminated from the body. [NIH] Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter of the brain. [NIH] Glycerol: A trihydroxy sugar alcohol that is an intermediate in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. It is used as a solvent, emollient, pharmaceutical agent, and sweetening agent. [NIH]

Glycerophospholipids: Derivatives of phosphatidic acid in which the hydrophobic regions are composed of two fatty acids and a polar alcohol is joined to the C-3 position of glycerol through a phosphodiester bond. They are named according to their polar head groups, such as phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine. [NIH] Glycine: A non-essential amino acid. It is found primarily in gelatin and silk fibroin and used therapeutically as a nutrient. It is also a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter. [NIH] Glycols: A generic grouping for dihydric alcohols with the hydroxy groups (-OH) located on different carbon atoms. They are viscous liquids with high boiling points for their molecular weights. [NIH] Glycoprotein: A protein that has sugar molecules attached to it. [NIH] Glycosaminoglycan: A type of long, unbranched polysaccharide molecule. Glycosaminoglycans are major structural components of cartilage and are also found in the cornea of the eye. [NIH] Glycosidic: Formed by elimination of water between the anomeric hydroxyl of one sugar and a hydroxyl of another sugar molecule. [NIH] Glycyrrhetinic Acid: 3-beta-Hydroxy-11-oxoolean-12-en-30-oic acid. A product from Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Leguminosae with some antiallergic, antibacterial, and antiviral properties. It is used topically for allergic or infectious skin inflammation and orally for its aldosterone effects in electrolyte regulation. [NIH] Glycyrrhiza: A genus of leguminous herbs or shrubs whose roots yield glycyrrhetinic acid and its derivatives, carbenoxolone for example. Licorice toxicity is manifested as hypokalemia, low blood potassium. Licorice is used as flavoring and aromatic in pharmaceuticals and as candy. [NIH] Goats: Any of numerous agile, hollow-horned ruminants of the genus Capra, closely related to the sheep. [NIH] Goblet Cells: Cells of the epithelial lining that produce and secrete mucins. [NIH] Gonadal: Pertaining to a gonad. [EU] Gonadotropin: The water-soluble follicle stimulating substance, by some believed to originate in chorionic tissue, obtained from the serum of pregnant mares. It is used to supplement the action of estrogens. [NIH]

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Governing Board: The group in which legal authority is vested for the control of healthrelated institutions and organizations. [NIH] Grade: The grade of a tumor depends on how abnormal the cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly the tumor is likely to grow and spread. Grading systems are different for each type of cancer. [NIH] Graft: Healthy skin, bone, or other tissue taken from one part of the body and used to replace diseased or injured tissue removed from another part of the body. [NIH] Gram-negative: Losing the stain or decolorized by alcohol in Gram's method of staining, a primary characteristic of bacteria having a cell wall composed of a thin layer of peptidoglycan covered by an outer membrane of lipoprotein and lipopolysaccharide. [EU] Gram-positive: Retaining the stain or resisting decolorization by alcohol in Gram's method of staining, a primary characteristic of bacteria whose cell wall is composed of a thick layer of peptidologlycan with attached teichoic acids. [EU] Granulation Tissue: A vascular connective tissue formed on the surface of a healing wound, ulcer, or inflamed tissue. It consists of new capillaries and an infiltrate containing lymphoid cells, macrophages, and plasma cells. [NIH] Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor: An acidic glycoprotein of MW 23 kDa with internal disulfide bonds. The protein is produced in response to a number of inflammatory mediators by mesenchymal cells present in the hemopoietic environment and at peripheral sites of inflammation. GM-CSF is able to stimulate the production of neutrophilic granulocytes, macrophages, and mixed granulocyte-macrophage colonies from bone marrow cells and can stimulate the formation of eosinophil colonies from fetal liver progenitor cells. GM-CSF can also stimulate some functional activities in mature granulocytes and macrophages. [NIH] Granulocytes: Leukocytes with abundant granules in the cytoplasm. They are divided into three groups: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. [NIH] Growth: The progressive development of a living being or part of an organism from its earliest stage to maturity. [NIH] Growth factors: Substances made by the body that function to regulate cell division and cell survival. Some growth factors are also produced in the laboratory and used in biological therapy. [NIH] Guanylate Cyclase: An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of GTP to 3',5'-cyclic GMP and pyrophosphate. It also acts on ITP and dGTP. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 4.6.1.2. [NIH] Gum Arabic: Powdered exudate from various Acacia species, especially A. senegal (Leguminosae). It forms mucilage or syrup in water. Gum arabic is used as a suspending agent, excipient, and emulsifier in foods and pharmaceuticals. [NIH] Habitual: Of the nature of a habit; according to habit; established by or repeated by force of habit, customary. [EU] Haemodialysis: The removal of certain elements from the blood by virtue of the difference in the rates of their diffusion through a semipermeable membrane, e.g., by means of a haemodialyzer. [EU] Haemostasis: The arrest of bleeding, either by the physiological properties of vasoconstriction and coagulation or by surgical means. [EU] Hair follicles: Shafts or openings on the surface of the skin through which hair grows. [NIH] Haploid: An organism with one basic chromosome set, symbolized by n; the normal

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condition of gametes in diploids. [NIH] Haptens: Small antigenic determinants capable of eliciting an immune response only when coupled to a carrier. Haptens bind to antibodies but by themselves cannot elicit an antibody response. [NIH] Headache: Pain in the cranial region that may occur as an isolated and benign symptom or as a manifestation of a wide variety of conditions including subarachnoid hemorrhage; craniocerebral trauma; central nervous system infections; intracranial hypertension; and other disorders. In general, recurrent headaches that are not associated with a primary disease process are referred to as headache disorders (e.g., migraine). [NIH] Heart attack: A seizure of weak or abnormal functioning of the heart. [NIH] Heart failure: Loss of pumping ability by the heart, often accompanied by fatigue, breathlessness, and excess fluid accumulation in body tissues. [NIH] Helicobacter: A genus of gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacteria that is pathogenic and has been isolated from the intestinal tract of mammals, including humans. [NIH] Helicobacter pylori: A spiral bacterium active as a human gastric pathogen. It is a gramnegative, urease-positive, curved or slightly spiral organism initially isolated in 1982 from patients with lesions of gastritis or peptic ulcers in Western Australia. Helicobacter pylori was originally classified in the genus Campylobacter, but RNA sequencing, cellular fatty acid profiles, growth patterns, and other taxonomic characteristics indicate that the microorganism should be included in the genus Helicobacter. It has been officially transferred to Helicobacter gen. nov. (see Int J Syst Bacteriol 1989 Oct;39(4):297-405). [NIH] Heme: The color-furnishing portion of hemoglobin. It is found free in tissues and as the prosthetic group in many hemeproteins. [NIH] Hemodialysis: The use of a machine to clean wastes from the blood after the kidneys have failed. The blood travels through tubes to a dialyzer, which removes wastes and extra fluid. The cleaned blood then flows through another set of tubes back into the body. [NIH] Hemoglobin: One of the fractions of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c. Glycosylated hemoglobin is formed when linkages of glucose and related monosaccharides bind to hemoglobin A and its concentration represents the average blood glucose level over the previous several weeks. HbA1c levels are used as a measure of long-term control of plasma glucose (normal, 4 to 6 percent). In controlled diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin A is within the normal range, but in uncontrolled cases the level may be 3 to 4 times the normal conentration. Generally, complications are substantially lower among patients with Hb levels of 7 percent or less than in patients with HbA1c levels of 9 percent or more. [NIH] Hemolytic: A disease that affects the blood and blood vessels. It destroys red blood cells, cells that cause the blood to clot, and the lining of blood vessels. HUS is often caused by the Escherichia coli bacterium in contaminated food. People with HUS may develop acute renal failure. [NIH] Hemorrhage: Bleeding or escape of blood from a vessel. [NIH] Hemostasis: The process which spontaneously arrests the flow of blood from vessels carrying blood under pressure. It is accomplished by contraction of the vessels, adhesion and aggregation of formed blood elements, and the process of blood or plasma coagulation. [NIH]

Heparin: Heparinic acid. A highly acidic mucopolysaccharide formed of equal parts of sulfated D-glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid with sulfaminic bridges. The molecular weight ranges from six to twenty thousand. Heparin occurs in and is obtained from liver, lung, mast cells, etc., of vertebrates. Its function is unknown, but it is used to prevent blood

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clotting in vivo and vitro, in the form of many different salts. [NIH] Hepatic: Refers to the liver. [NIH] Hepatocyte: A liver cell. [NIH] Heredity: 1. The genetic transmission of a particular quality or trait from parent to offspring. 2. The genetic constitution of an individual. [EU] Heterogeneity: The property of one or more samples or populations which implies that they are not identical in respect of some or all of their parameters, e. g. heterogeneity of variance. [NIH]

Heterotrophic: Pertaining to organisms that are consumers and dependent on other organisms for their source of energy (food). [NIH] Histamine: 1H-Imidazole-4-ethanamine. A depressor amine derived by enzymatic decarboxylation of histidine. It is a powerful stimulant of gastric secretion, a constrictor of bronchial smooth muscle, a vasodilator, and also a centrally acting neurotransmitter. [NIH] Histidine: An essential amino acid important in a number of metabolic processes. It is required for the production of histamine. [NIH] Histology: The study of tissues and cells under a microscope. [NIH] Holmium: An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Ho, atomic number 67, and atomic weight 164.93. [NIH] Homogeneous: Consisting of or composed of similar elements or ingredients; of a uniform quality throughout. [EU] Homologous: Corresponding in structure, position, origin, etc., as (a) the feathers of a bird and the scales of a fish, (b) antigen and its specific antibody, (c) allelic chromosomes. [EU] Hormonal: Pertaining to or of the nature of a hormone. [EU] Hormone: A substance in the body that regulates certain organs. Hormones such as gastrin help in breaking down food. Some hormones come from cells in the stomach and small intestine. [NIH] Horny layer: The superficial layer of the epidermis containing keratinized cells. [NIH] Host: Any animal that receives a transplanted graft. [NIH] Hybrid: Cross fertilization between two varieties or, more usually, two species of vines, see also crossing. [NIH] Hybridization: The genetic process of crossbreeding to produce a hybrid. Hybrid nucleic acids can be formed by nucleic acid hybridization of DNA and RNA molecules. Protein hybridization allows for hybrid proteins to be formed from polypeptide chains. [NIH] Hybridoma: A hybrid cell resulting from the fusion of a specific antibody-producing spleen cell with a myeloma cell. [NIH] Hydration: Combining with water. [NIH] Hydrochloric Acid: A strong corrosive acid that is commonly used as a laboratory reagent. It is formed by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water. Gastric acid is the hydrochloric acid component of gastric juice. [NIH] Hydrogel: A network of cross-linked hydrophilic macromolecules used in biomedical applications. [NIH] Hydrogen: The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight 1. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are protons. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope deuterium and the unstable, radioactive

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isotope tritium. [NIH] Hydrolysis: The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water. [NIH] Hydrophilic: Readily absorbing moisture; hygroscopic; having strongly polar groups that readily interact with water. [EU] Hydrophobic: Not readily absorbing water, or being adversely affected by water, as a hydrophobic colloid. [EU] Hydroxylysine: A hydroxylated derivative of the amino acid lysine that is present in certain collagens. [NIH] Hydroxyproline: A hydroxylated form of the imino acid proline. A deficiency in ascorbic acid can result in impaired hydroxyproline formation. [NIH] Hygienic: Pertaining to hygiene, or conducive to health. [EU] Hypercholesterolemia: Abnormally high levels of cholesterol in the blood. [NIH] Hyperlipidemia: An excess of lipids in the blood. [NIH] Hyperlipoproteinemia: Metabolic disease characterized by elevated plasma cholesterol and/or triglyceride levels. The inherited form is attributed to a single gene mechanism. [NIH] Hypersensitivity: Altered reactivity to an antigen, which can result in pathologic reactions upon subsequent exposure to that particular antigen. [NIH] Hypertension: Persistently high arterial blood pressure. Currently accepted threshold levels are 140 mm Hg systolic and 90 mm Hg diastolic pressure. [NIH] Hypothalamus: Ventral part of the diencephalon extending from the region of the optic chiasm to the caudal border of the mammillary bodies and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the third ventricle. [NIH] Ibuprofen: A nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic properties used in the therapy of rheumatism and arthritis. [NIH] Id: The part of the personality structure which harbors the unconscious instinctive desires and strivings of the individual. [NIH] Iliac Artery: Either of two large arteries originating from the abdominal aorta; they supply blood to the pelvis, abdominal wall and legs. [NIH] Immersion: The placing of a body or a part thereof into a liquid. [NIH] Immune response: The activity of the immune system against foreign substances (antigens). [NIH]

Immune Sera: Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by antigen injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen. [NIH] Immune system: The organs, cells, and molecules responsible for the recognition and disposal of foreign ("non-self") material which enters the body. [NIH] Immunity: Nonsusceptibility to the invasive or pathogenic microorganisms or to the toxic effect of antigenic substances. [NIH]

effects

of

foreign

Immunization: Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. Active immunization involves administration of antigens or immunologic adjuvants. Passive immunization involves administration of immune sera or lymphocytes or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow). [NIH] Immunodiffusion: Technique involving the diffusion of antigen or antibody through a

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semisolid medium, usually agar or agarose gel, with the result being a precipitin reaction. [NIH]

Immunoelectrophoresis: A technique that combines protein electrophoresis and double immunodiffusion. In this procedure proteins are first separated by gel electrophoresis (usually agarose), then made visible by immunodiffusion of specific antibodies. A distinct elliptical precipitin arc results for each protein detectable by the antisera. [NIH] Immunogenic: Producing immunity; evoking an immune response. [EU] Immunoglobulin: A protein that acts as an antibody. [NIH] Immunologic: The ability of the antibody-forming system to recall a previous experience with an antigen and to respond to a second exposure with the prompt production of large amounts of antibody. [NIH] Immunological adjuvant: A substance used to help boost the immune response to a vaccine so that less vaccine is needed. [NIH] Immunology: The study of the body's immune system. [NIH] Immunosuppressant: An agent capable of suppressing immune responses. [EU] Implant radiation: A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near the tumor. Also called [NIH] Impotence: The inability to perform sexual intercourse. [NIH] Impregnation: 1. The act of fecundation or of rendering pregnant. 2. The process or act of saturation; a saturated condition. [EU] Impulse Control Disorders: Disorders whose essential features are the failure to resist an impulse, drive, or temptation to perform an act that is harmful to the individual or to others. Individuals experience an increased sense of tension prior to the act and pleasure, gratification, or release of tension at the time of committing the act. [NIH] In situ: In the natural or normal place; confined to the site of origin without invasion of neighbouring tissues. [EU] In vitro: In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body). [NIH] In vivo: In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory). [NIH] Incision: A cut made in the body during surgery. [NIH] Incisional: The removal of a sample of tissue for examination under a microscope. [NIH] Incontinence: Inability to control the flow of urine from the bladder (urinary incontinence) or the escape of stool from the rectum (fecal incontinence). [NIH] Incubation: The development of an infectious disease from the entrance of the pathogen to the appearance of clinical symptoms. [EU] Incubation period: The period of time likely to elapse between exposure to the agent of the disease and the onset of clinical symptoms. [NIH] Indicative: That indicates; that points out more or less exactly; that reveals fairly clearly. [EU] Indomethacin: A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAID) that inhibits the enzyme cyclooxygenase necessary for the formation of prostaglandins and other autacoids. It also inhibits the motility of polymorphonuclear leukocytes. [NIH] Induction: The act or process of inducing or causing to occur, especially the production of a specific morphogenetic effect in the developing embryo through the influence of evocators or organizers, or the production of anaesthesia or unconsciousness by use of appropriate agents. [EU]

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Inertia: Inactivity, inability to move spontaneously. [EU] Infarction: A pathological process consisting of a sudden insufficient blood supply to an area, which results in necrosis of that area. It is usually caused by a thrombus, an embolus, or a vascular torsion. [NIH] Infection: 1. Invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues, which may be clinically unapparent or result in local cellular injury due to competitive metabolism, toxins, intracellular replication, or antigen-antibody response. The infection may remain localized, subclinical, and temporary if the body's defensive mechanisms are effective. A local infection may persist and spread by extension to become an acute, subacute, or chronic clinical infection or disease state. A local infection may also become systemic when the microorganisms gain access to the lymphatic or vascular system. 2. An infectious disease. [EU]

Inflammation: A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. [NIH] Influenza: An acute viral infection involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the nasal mucosa, the pharynx, and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia. [NIH] Infusion: A method of putting fluids, including drugs, into the bloodstream. Also called intravenous infusion. [NIH] Ingestion: Taking into the body by mouth [NIH] Inhalation: The drawing of air or other substances into the lungs. [EU] Initiation: Mutation induced by a chemical reactive substance causing cell changes; being a step in a carcinogenic process. [NIH] Inorganic: Pertaining to substances not of organic origin. [EU] Insulin: A protein hormone secreted by beta cells of the pancreas. Insulin plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, generally promoting the cellular utilization of glucose. It is also an important regulator of protein and lipid metabolism. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. [NIH] Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: A disease characterized by high levels of blood glucose resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors are involved in the development of type I diabetes. [NIH] Interleukin-1: A soluble factor produced by monocytes, macrophages, and other cells which activates T-lymphocytes and potentiates their response to mitogens or antigens. IL-1 consists of two distinct forms, IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta which perform the same functions but are distinct proteins. The biological effects of IL-1 include the ability to replace macrophage requirements for T-cell activation. The factor is distinct from interleukin-2. [NIH] Interleukin-2: Chemical mediator produced by activated T lymphocytes and which regulates the proliferation of T cells, as well as playing a role in the regulation of NK cell activity. [NIH] Intermittent: Occurring at separated intervals; having periods of cessation of activity. [EU] Internal Medicine: A medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the internal organ systems of adults. [NIH] Internal radiation: A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near the tumor. Also called brachytherapy, implant radiation, or interstitial radiation therapy. [NIH]

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Interstitial: Pertaining to or situated between parts or in the interspaces of a tissue. [EU] Intestinal: Having to do with the intestines. [NIH] Intestine: A long, tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a large intestine and a small intestine. Also called the bowel. [NIH] Intracellular: Inside a cell. [NIH] Intramuscular: IM. Within or into muscle. [NIH] Intravascular: Within a vessel or vessels. [EU] Intravenous: IV. Into a vein. [NIH] Intrinsic: Situated entirely within or pertaining exclusively to a part. [EU] Intubation: Introduction of a tube into a hollow organ to restore or maintain patency if obstructed. It is differentiated from catheterization in that the insertion of a catheter is usually performed for the introducing or withdrawing of fluids from the body. [NIH] Invasive: 1. Having the quality of invasiveness. 2. Involving puncture or incision of the skin or insertion of an instrument or foreign material into the body; said of diagnostic techniques. [EU]

Invertebrates: Animals that have no spinal column. [NIH] Iodine: A nonmetallic element of the halogen group that is represented by the atomic symbol I, atomic number 53, and atomic weight of 126.90. It is a nutritionally essential element, especially important in thyroid hormone synthesis. In solution, it has anti-infective properties and is used topically. [NIH] Iodophors: Disinfectant. [NIH] Ionization: 1. Any process by which a neutral atom gains or loses electrons, thus acquiring a net charge, as the dissociation of a substance in solution into ions or ion production by the passage of radioactive particles. 2. Iontophoresis. [EU] Ionizing: Radiation comprising charged particles, e. g. electrons, protons, alpha-particles, etc., having sufficient kinetic energy to produce ionization by collision. [NIH] Ions: An atom or group of atoms that have a positive or negative electric charge due to a gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons. Atoms with a positive charge are known as cations; those with a negative charge are anions. [NIH] Irradiation: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy) or from materials called radioisotopes. Radioisotopes produce radiation and can be placed in or near the tumor or in the area near cancer cells. This type of radiation treatment is called internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, interstitial radiation, or brachytherapy. Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Irradiation is also called radiation therapy, radiotherapy, and x-ray therapy. [NIH] Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A disorder that comes and goes. Nerves that control the muscles in the GI tract are too active. The GI tract becomes sensitive to food, stool, gas, and stress. Causes abdominal pain, bloating, and constipation or diarrhea. Also called spastic colon or mucous colitis. [NIH] Ischemia: Deficiency of blood in a part, due to functional constriction or actual obstruction of a blood vessel. [EU] Islet: Cell producing insulin in pancreas. [NIH] Isopropyl: A gene mutation inducer. [NIH]

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Joint: The point of contact between elements of an animal skeleton with the parts that surround and support it. [NIH] Joint Capsule: The sac enclosing a joint. It is composed of an outer fibrous articular capsule and an inner synovial membrane. [NIH] Kallidin: A decapeptide bradykinin homolog produced by the action of tissue and glandular kallikreins on low-molecular-weight kininogen. It is a smooth-muscle stimulant and hypotensive agent that functions through vasodilatation. [NIH] Kb: A measure of the length of DNA fragments, 1 Kb = 1000 base pairs. The largest DNA fragments are up to 50 kilobases long. [NIH] Keloid: A sharply elevated, irregularly shaped, progressively enlarging scar resulting from formation of excessive amounts of collagen in the dermis during connective tissue repair. It is differentiated from a hypertrophic scar (cicatrix, hypertrophic) in that the former does not spread to surrounding tissues. [NIH] Keratan Sulfate: A sulfated mucopolysaccharide initially isolated from bovine cornea. At least two types are known. Type I, found mostly in the cornea, contains D-galactose and Dglucosamine-6-O-sulfate as the repeating unit; type II, found in skeletal tissues, contains Dgalactose and D-galactosamine-6-O-sulfate as the repeating unit. [NIH] Keratin: A class of fibrous proteins or scleroproteins important both as structural proteins and as keys to the study of protein conformation. The family represents the principal constituent of epidermis, hair, nails, horny tissues, and the organic matrix of tooth enamel. Two major conformational groups have been characterized, alpha-keratin, whose peptide backbone forms an alpha-helix, and beta-keratin, whose backbone forms a zigzag or pleated sheet structure. [NIH] Keratinocytes: Epidermal cells which synthesize keratin and undergo characteristic changes as they move upward from the basal layers of the epidermis to the cornified (horny) layer of the skin. Successive stages of differentiation of the keratinocytes forming the epidermal layers are basal cell, spinous or prickle cell, and the granular cell. [NIH] Kinetic: Pertaining to or producing motion. [EU] Labile: 1. Gliding; moving from point to point over the surface; unstable; fluctuating. 2. Chemically unstable. [EU] Laminin: Large, noncollagenous glycoprotein with antigenic properties. It is localized in the basement membrane lamina lucida and functions to bind epithelial cells to the basement membrane. Evidence suggests that the protein plays a role in tumor invasion. [NIH] Large Intestine: The part of the intestine that goes from the cecum to the rectum. The large intestine absorbs water from stool and changes it from a liquid to a solid form. The large intestine is 5 feet long and includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum. Also called colon. [NIH] Larynx: An irregularly shaped, musculocartilaginous tubular structure, lined with mucous membrane, located at the top of the trachea and below the root of the tongue and the hyoid bone. It is the essential sphincter guarding the entrance into the trachea and functioning secondarily as the organ of voice. [NIH] Lavage: A cleaning of the stomach and colon. Uses a special drink and enemas. [NIH] Laxative: An agent that acts to promote evacuation of the bowel; a cathartic or purgative. [EU]

Lectin: A complex molecule that has both protein and sugars. Lectins are able to bind to the outside of a cell and cause biochemical changes in it. Lectins are made by both animals and plants. [NIH]

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Lens: The transparent, double convex (outward curve on both sides) structure suspended between the aqueous and vitreous; helps to focus light on the retina. [NIH] Lesion: An area of abnormal tissue change. [NIH] Lethal: Deadly, fatal. [EU] Leucine: An essential branched-chain amino acid important for hemoglobin formation. [NIH] Leucocyte: All the white cells of the blood and their precursors (myeloid cell series, lymphoid cell series) but commonly used to indicate granulocytes exclusive of lymphocytes. [NIH]

Leukemia: Cancer of blood-forming tissue. [NIH] Leukocytes: White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils) as well as non-granular leukocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes). [NIH] Leukotrienes: A family of biologically active compounds derived from arachidonic acid by oxidative metabolism through the 5-lipoxygenase pathway. They participate in host defense reactions and pathophysiological conditions such as immediate hypersensitivity and inflammation. They have potent actions on many essential organs and systems, including the cardiovascular, pulmonary, and central nervous system as well as the gastrointestinal tract and the immune system. [NIH] Library Services: Services offered to the library user. They include reference and circulation. [NIH]

Life cycle: The successive stages through which an organism passes from fertilized ovum or spore to the fertilized ovum or spore of the next generation. [NIH] Ligaments: Shiny, flexible bands of fibrous tissue connecting together articular extremities of bones. They are pliant, tough, and inextensile. [NIH] Ligands: A RNA simulation method developed by the MIT. [NIH] Linkages: The tendency of two or more genes in the same chromosome to remain together from one generation to the next more frequently than expected according to the law of independent assortment. [NIH] Lipase: An enzyme of the hydrolase class that catalyzes the reaction of triacylglycerol and water to yield diacylglycerol and a fatty acid anion. It is produced by glands on the tongue and by the pancreas and initiates the digestion of dietary fats. (From Dorland, 27th ed) EC 3.1.1.3. [NIH] Lipid: Fat. [NIH] Lipid A: Lipid A is the biologically active component of lipopolysaccharides. It shows strong endotoxic activity and exhibits immunogenic properties. [NIH] Lipid Peroxidation: Peroxidase catalyzed oxidation of lipids using hydrogen peroxide as an electron acceptor. [NIH] Lipophilic: Having an affinity for fat; pertaining to or characterized by lipophilia. [EU] Lipopolysaccharides: Substance consisting of polysaccaride and lipid. [NIH] Lipoprotein: Any of the lipid-protein complexes in which lipids are transported in the blood; lipoprotein particles consist of a spherical hydrophobic core of triglycerides or cholesterol esters surrounded by an amphipathic monolayer of phospholipids, cholesterol, and apolipoproteins; the four principal classes are high-density, low-density, and very-lowdensity lipoproteins and chylomicrons. [EU] Liver: A large, glandular organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile. [NIH]

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Local Government: Smallest political subdivisions within a country at which general governmental functions are carried-out. [NIH] Localized: Cancer which has not metastasized yet. [NIH] Locomotion: Movement or the ability to move from one place or another. It can refer to humans, vertebrate or invertebrate animals, and microorganisms. [NIH] Low-density lipoprotein: Lipoprotein that contains most of the cholesterol in the blood. LDL carries cholesterol to the tissues of the body, including the arteries. A high level of LDL increases the risk of heart disease. LDL typically contains 60 to 70 percent of the total serum cholesterol and both are directly correlated with CHD risk. [NIH] Lubricants: Oily or slippery substances. [NIH] Lubrication: The application of a substance to diminish friction between two surfaces. It may refer to oils, greases, and similar substances for the lubrication of medical equipment but it can be used for the application of substances to tissue to reduce friction, such as lotions for skin and vaginal lubricants. [NIH] Lucida: An instrument, invented by Wollaton, consisting essentially of a prism or a mirror through which an object can be viewed so as to appear on a plane surface seen in direct view and on which the outline of the object may be traced. [NIH] Lymph: The almost colorless fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymphatic: The tissues and organs, including the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes, that produce and store cells that fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymphocyte: A white blood cell. Lymphocytes have a number of roles in the immune system, including the production of antibodies and other substances that fight infection and diseases. [NIH] Lymphoid: Referring to lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Also refers to tissue in which lymphocytes develop. [NIH] Lysine: An essential amino acid. It is often added to animal feed. [NIH] Macrophage: A type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune system cells. [NIH] Macula: A stain, spot, or thickening. Often used alone to refer to the macula retinae. [EU] Macula Lutea: An oval area in the retina, 3 to 5 mm in diameter, usually located temporal to the superior pole of the eye and slightly below the level of the optic disk. [NIH] Macular Degeneration: Degenerative changes in the macula lutea of the retina. [NIH] Malignant: Cancerous; a growth with a tendency to invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body. [NIH] Malnutrition: A condition caused by not eating enough food or not eating a balanced diet. [NIH]

Mammary: Pertaining to the mamma, or breast. [EU] Mandible: The largest and strongest bone of the face constituting the lower jaw. It supports the lower teeth. [NIH] Mannans: Polysaccharides consisting of mannose units. [NIH] Mastitis: Inflammatory disease of the breast, or mammary gland. [NIH] Meat: The edible portions of any animal used for food including domestic mammals (the major ones being cattle, swine, and sheep) along with poultry, fish, shellfish, and game. [NIH]

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Meat Products: Articles of food which are derived by a process of manufacture from any portion of carcasses of any animal used for food (e.g., head cheese, sausage, scrapple). [NIH] Medial: Lying near the midsaggital plane of the body; opposed to lateral. [NIH] Mediate: Indirect; accomplished by the aid of an intervening medium. [EU] Mediator: An object or substance by which something is mediated, such as (1) a structure of the nervous system that transmits impulses eliciting a specific response; (2) a chemical substance (transmitter substance) that induces activity in an excitable tissue, such as nerve or muscle; or (3) a substance released from cells as the result of the interaction of antigen with antibody or by the action of antigen with a sensitized lymphocyte. [EU] MEDLINE: An online database of MEDLARS, the computerized bibliographic Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System of the National Library of Medicine. [NIH] Melanin: The substance that gives the skin its color. [NIH] Melanocytes: Epidermal dendritic pigment cells which control long-term morphological color changes by alteration in their number or in the amount of pigment they produce and store in the pigment containing organelles called melanosomes. Melanophores are larger cells which do not exist in mammals. [NIH] Melanoma: A form of skin cancer that arises in melanocytes, the cells that produce pigment. Melanoma usually begins in a mole. [NIH] Membrane: A very thin layer of tissue that covers a surface. [NIH] Membrane Glycoproteins: Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells. [NIH] Meninges: The three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. [NIH] Mesenchymal: Refers to cells that develop into connective tissue, blood vessels, and lymphatic tissue. [NIH] Mesothelial: It lines the peritonealla and pleural cavities. [NIH] Metabolite: Any substance produced by metabolism or by a metabolic process. [EU] Metastasis: The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. Tumors formed from cells that have spread are called "secondary tumors" and contain cells that are like those in the original (primary) tumor. The plural is metastases. [NIH] Metastatic: Having to do with metastasis, which is the spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. [NIH] Metastatic cancer: Cancer that has spread from the place in which it started to other parts of the body. [NIH] Methanol: A colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of formaldehyde and acetic acid, in chemical synthesis, antifreeze, and as a solvent. Ingestion of methanol is toxic and may cause blindness. [NIH] Methionine: A sulfur containing essential amino acid that is important in many body functions. It is a chelating agent for heavy metals. [NIH] Methylcellulose: Methylester of cellulose. Methylcellulose is used as an emulsifying and suspending agent in cosmetics, pharmaceutics and the chemical industry. It is used therapeutically as a bulk laxative. [NIH] Metoclopramide: A dopamine D2 antagonist that is used as an antiemetic. [NIH] MI: Myocardial infarction. Gross necrosis of the myocardium as a result of interruption of the blood supply to the area; it is almost always caused by atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, upon which coronary thrombosis is usually superimposed. [NIH] Microbe: An organism which cannot be observed with the naked eye; e. g. unicellular

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animals, lower algae, lower fungi, bacteria. [NIH] Microbiological: Pertaining to microbiology : the science that deals with microorganisms, including algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. [EU] Microbiology: The study of microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, archaea, and viruses. [NIH] Microorganism: An organism that can be seen only through a microscope. Microorganisms include bacteria, protozoa, algae, and fungi. Although viruses are not considered living organisms, they are sometimes classified as microorganisms. [NIH] Micro-organism: An organism which cannot be observed with the naked eye; e. g. unicellular animals, lower algae, lower fungi, bacteria. [NIH] Microscopy: The application of microscope magnification to the study of materials that cannot be properly seen by the unaided eye. [NIH] Microspheres: Small uniformly-sized spherical particles frequently radioisotopes or various reagents acting as tags or markers. [NIH]

labeled

with

Migration: The systematic movement of genes between populations of the same species, geographic race, or variety. [NIH] Mineralization: The action of mineralizing; the state of being mineralized. [EU] Mitochondrial Swelling: Increase in volume of mitochondria due to an influx of fluid; it occurs in hypotonic solutions due to osmotic pressure and in isotonic solutions as a result of altered permeability of the membranes of respiring mitochondria. [NIH] Mitomycin: An antineoplastic antibiotic produced by Streptomyces caespitosus. It acts as a bi- or trifunctional alkylating agent causing cross-linking of DNA and inhibition of DNA synthesis. [NIH] Mitosis: A method of indirect cell division by means of which the two daughter nuclei normally receive identical complements of the number of chromosomes of the somatic cells of the species. [NIH] Mobility: Capability of movement, of being moved, or of flowing freely. [EU] Mobilization: The process of making a fixed part or stored substance mobile, as by separating a part from surrounding structures to make it accessible for an operative procedure or by causing release into the circulation for body use of a substance stored in the body. [EU] Modeling: A treatment procedure whereby the therapist presents the target behavior which the learner is to imitate and make part of his repertoire. [NIH] Modification: A change in an organism, or in a process in an organism, that is acquired from its own activity or environment. [NIH] Molecular: Of, pertaining to, or composed of molecules : a very small mass of matter. [EU] Molecular mass: The sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule, based on a scale in which the atomic masses of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are 1, 12, 14, and 16, respectively. For example, the molecular mass of water, which has two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, is 18 (i.e., 2 + 16). [NIH] Molecular Probes: A group of atoms or molecules attached to other molecules or cellular structures and used in studying the properties of these molecules and structures. Radioactive DNA or RNA sequences are used in molecular genetics to detect the presence of a complementary sequence by molecular hybridization. [NIH] Molecule: A chemical made up of two or more atoms. The atoms in a molecule can be the same (an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms) or different (a water molecule has two

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hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom). Biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, can be made up of many thousands of atoms. [NIH] Monoclonal: An antibody produced by culturing a single type of cell. It therefore consists of a single species of immunoglobulin molecules. [NIH] Monocytes: Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate bone marrow and released into the blood; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles. [NIH] Mononuclear: A cell with one nucleus. [NIH] Morphine: The principal alkaloid in opium and the prototype opiate analgesic and narcotic. Morphine has widespread effects in the central nervous system and on smooth muscle. [NIH] Morphological: Relating to the configuration or the structure of live organs. [NIH] Morphology: The science of the form and structure of organisms (plants, animals, and other forms of life). [NIH] Motility: The ability to move spontaneously. [EU] Mucins: A secretion containing mucopolysaccharides and protein that is the chief constituent of mucus. [NIH] Mucociliary: Pertaining to or affecting the mucus membrane and hairs (including eyelashes, nose hair, .): mucociliary clearing: the clearance of mucus by ciliary movement ( particularly in the respiratory system). [EU] Mucosa: A mucous membrane, or tunica mucosa. [EU] Mucositis: A complication of some cancer therapies in which the lining of the digestive system becomes inflamed. Often seen as sores in the mouth. [NIH] Mucus: The viscous secretion of mucous membranes. It contains mucin, white blood cells, water, inorganic salts, and exfoliated cells. [NIH] Musculoskeletal System: Themuscles, bones, and cartilage of the body. [NIH] Myalgia: Pain in a muscle or muscles. [EU] Myeloma: Cancer that arises in plasma cells, a type of white blood cell. [NIH] Myocardial infarction: Gross necrosis of the myocardium as a result of interruption of the blood supply to the area; it is almost always caused by atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, upon which coronary thrombosis is usually superimposed. [NIH] Myocardium: The muscle tissue of the heart composed of striated, involuntary muscle known as cardiac muscle. [NIH] Narcolepsy: A condition of unknown cause characterized by a periodic uncontrollable tendency to fall asleep. [NIH] Narcotic: 1. Pertaining to or producing narcosis. 2. An agent that produces insensibility or stupor, applied especially to the opioids, i.e. to any natural or synthetic drug that has morphine-like actions. [EU] Nasal Cavity: The proximal portion of the respiratory passages on either side of the nasal septum, lined with ciliated mucosa, extending from the nares to the pharynx. [NIH] Nasal Mucosa: The mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity. [NIH] Nasal Septum: The partition separating the two nasal cavities in the midplane, composed of cartilaginous, membranous and bony parts. [NIH] NCI: National Cancer Institute. NCI, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the federal government's principal

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agency for cancer research. NCI conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the NCI Web site at http://cancer.gov. [NIH] Necrosis: A pathological process caused by the progressive degradative action of enzymes that is generally associated with severe cellular trauma. It is characterized by mitochondrial swelling, nuclear flocculation, uncontrolled cell lysis, and ultimately cell death. [NIH] Need: A state of tension or dissatisfaction felt by an individual that impels him to action toward a goal he believes will satisfy the impulse. [NIH] Neoplasm: A new growth of benign or malignant tissue. [NIH] Nerve: A cordlike structure of nervous tissue that connects parts of the nervous system with other tissues of the body and conveys nervous impulses to, or away from, these tissues. [NIH] Nerve Endings: Specialized terminations of peripheral neurons. Nerve endings include neuroeffector junction(s) by which neurons activate target organs and sensory receptors which transduce information from the various sensory modalities and send it centrally in the nervous system. Presynaptic nerve endings are presynaptic terminals. [NIH] Nervous System: The entire nerve apparatus composed of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. [NIH] Neuraminidase: An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha-2,3, alpha-2,6-, and alpha-2,8-glycosidic linkages (at a decreasing rate, respectively) of terminal sialic residues in oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, colominic acid, and synthetic substrate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 3.2.1.18. [NIH] Neuroeffector Junction: The synapse between a neuron (presynaptic) and an effector cell other than another neuron (postsynaptic). Neuroeffector junctions include synapses onto muscles and onto secretory cells. [NIH] Neurons: The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the nervous system. [NIH] Neutralization: An act or process of neutralizing. [EU] Neutrons: Electrically neutral elementary particles found in all atomic nuclei except light hydrogen; the mass is equal to that of the proton and electron combined and they are unstable when isolated from the nucleus, undergoing beta decay. Slow, thermal, epithermal, and fast neutrons refer to the energy levels with which the neutrons are ejected from heavier nuclei during their decay. [NIH] Neutrophils: Granular leukocytes having a nucleus with three to five lobes connected by slender threads of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing fine inconspicuous granules and stainable by neutral dyes. [NIH] Nickel: A trace element with the atomic symbol Ni, atomic number 28, and atomic weight 58.69. It is a cofactor of the enzyme urease. [NIH] Nitrates: Inorganic or organic salts and esters of nitric acid. These compounds contain the NO3- radical. [NIH] Nitric Oxide: A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells. It is synthesized from arginine by a complex reaction, catalyzed by nitric oxide synthase. Nitric oxide is endothelium-derived relaxing factor. It is released by the vascular endothelium and mediates the relaxation induced by some vasodilators such as acetylcholine and bradykinin. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic guanylate cyclase and thus elevates intracellular levels of cyclic GMP.

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[NIH]

Nitrobacter: A genus of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that oxidizes nitrites to nitrates. Its organisms occur in aerobic environments where organic matter is being mineralized, including soil, fresh water, and sea water. [NIH] Nitrogen: An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight 14. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells. [NIH] Nitrogen Compounds: Inorganic compounds that contain nitrogen as an integral part of the molecule. [NIH] Nitrogen Oxides: Inorganic oxides that contain nitrogen. [NIH] Nitrosomonas: A genus of gram-negative, ellipsoidal or rod-shaped bacteria whose major source of energy and reducing power is from the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite. Its species occur in soils, oceans, lakes, rivers, and sewage disposal systems. [NIH] Norepinephrine: Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic. [NIH] Nuclear: A test of the structure, blood flow, and function of the kidneys. The doctor injects a mildly radioactive solution into an arm vein and uses x-rays to monitor its progress through the kidneys. [NIH] Nuclei: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nucleic acid: Either of two types of macromolecule (DNA or RNA) formed by polymerization of nucleotides. Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and contain the information (genetic code) for the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next. [NIH] Nucleus: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nutritional Status: State of the body in relation to the consumption and utilization of nutrients. [NIH] Nutritive Value: An indication of the contribution of a food to the nutrient content of the diet. This value depends on the quantity of a food which is digested and absorbed and the amounts of the essential nutrients (protein, fat, carbohydrate, minerals, vitamins) which it contains. This value can be affected by soil and growing conditions, handling and storage, and processing. [NIH] Octreotide: A potent, long-acting somatostatin octapeptide analog which has a wide range of physiological actions. It inhibits growth hormone secretion, is effective in the treatment of hormone-secreting tumors from various organs, and has beneficial effects in the management of many pathological states including diabetes mellitus, orthostatic hypertension, hyperinsulinism, hypergastrinemia, and small bowel fistula. [NIH] Ocular: 1. Of, pertaining to, or affecting the eye. 2. Eyepiece. [EU] Odour: A volatile emanation that is perceived by the sense of smell. [EU] Ofloxacin: An orally administered broad-spectrum quinolone antibacterial drug active against most gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. [NIH] Ointments: Semisolid preparations used topically for protective emollient effects or as a

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vehicle for local administration of medications. Ointment bases are various mixtures of fats, waxes, animal and plant oils and solid and liquid hydrocarbons. [NIH] Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates consisting of between two and ten monosaccharides connected by either an alpha- or beta-glycosidic link. They are found throughout nature in both the free and bound form. [NIH] Opacity: Degree of density (area most dense taken for reading). [NIH] Ophthalmic: Pertaining to the eye. [EU] Opium: The air-dried exudate from the unripe seed capsule of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, or its variant, P. album. It contains a number of alkaloids, but only a few morphine, codeine, and papaverine - have clinical significance. Opium has been used as an analgesic, antitussive, antidiarrheal, and antispasmodic. [NIH] Orbital: Pertaining to the orbit (= the bony cavity that contains the eyeball). [EU] Organ Culture: The growth in aseptic culture of plant organs such as roots or shoots, beginning with organ primordia or segments and maintaining the characteristics of the organ. [NIH] Organelles: Specific particles of membrane-bound organized living substances present in eukaryotic cells, such as the mitochondria; the golgi apparatus; endoplasmic reticulum; lysomomes; plastids; and vacuoles. [NIH] Orlistat: A lipase inhibitor used for weight loss. Lipase is an enzyme found in the bowel that assists in lipid absorption by the body. Orlistat blocks this enzyme, reducing the amount of fat the body absorbs by about 30 percent. It is known colloquially as a "fat blocker." Because more oily fat is left in the bowel to be excreted, Orlistat can cause an oily anal leakage and fecal incontinence. Orlistat may not be suitable for people with bowel conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome or Crohn's disease. [NIH] Orthopaedic: Pertaining to the correction of deformities of the musculoskeletal system; pertaining to orthopaedics. [EU] Orthopedics: A surgical specialty which utilizes medical, surgical, and physical methods to treat and correct deformities, diseases, and injuries to the skeletal system, its articulations, and associated structures. [NIH] Orthostatic: Pertaining to or caused by standing erect. [EU] Osmotic: Pertaining to or of the nature of osmosis (= the passage of pure solvent from a solution of lesser to one of greater solute concentration when the two solutions are separated by a membrane which selectively prevents the passage of solute molecules, but is permeable to the solvent). [EU] Ossification: The formation of bone or of a bony substance; the conversion of fibrous tissue or of cartilage into bone or a bony substance. [EU] Osteoarthritis: A progressive, degenerative joint disease, the most common form of arthritis, especially in older persons. The disease is thought to result not from the aging process but from biochemical changes and biomechanical stresses affecting articular cartilage. In the foreign literature it is often called osteoarthrosis deformans. [NIH] Osteoblasts: Bone-forming cells which secrete an extracellular matrix. Hydroxyapatite crystals are then deposited into the matrix to form bone. [NIH] Osteoclasts: A large multinuclear cell associated with the absorption and removal of bone. An odontoclast, also called cementoclast, is cytomorphologically the same as an osteoclast and is involved in cementum resorption. [NIH] Osteogenesis: The histogenesis of bone including ossification. It occurs continuously but

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particularly in the embryo and child and during fracture repair. [NIH] Osteotomy: The surgical cutting of a bone. [EU] Outpatient: A patient who is not an inmate of a hospital but receives diagnosis or treatment in a clinic or dispensary connected with the hospital. [NIH] Overweight: An excess of body weight but not necessarily body fat; a body mass index of 25 to 29.9 kg/m2. [NIH] Oxidation: The act of oxidizing or state of being oxidized. Chemically it consists in the increase of positive charges on an atom or the loss of negative charges. Most biological oxidations are accomplished by the removal of a pair of hydrogen atoms (dehydrogenation) from a molecule. Such oxidations must be accompanied by reduction of an acceptor molecule. Univalent o. indicates loss of one electron; divalent o., the loss of two electrons. [EU]

Oxidative Stress: A disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. Indicators of oxidative stress include damaged DNA bases, protein oxidation products, and lipid peroxidation products (Sies, Oxidative Stress, 1991, pxv-xvi). [NIH] Oxides: Binary compounds of oxygen containing the anion O(2-). The anion combines with metals to form alkaline oxides and non-metals to form acidic oxides. [NIH] Oxygen Consumption: The oxygen consumption is determined by calculating the difference between the amount of oxygen inhaled and exhaled. [NIH] Palate: The structure that forms the roof of the mouth. It consists of the anterior hard palate and the posterior soft palate. [NIH] Palliative: 1. Affording relief, but not cure. 2. An alleviating medicine. [EU] Palliative therapy: Treatment given to relieve symptoms caused by advanced cancer. Palliative therapy does not alter the course of a disease but improves the quality of life. [NIH] Pancreas: A mixed exocrine and endocrine gland situated transversely across the posterior abdominal wall in the epigastric and hypochondriac regions. The endocrine portion is comprised of the Islets of Langerhans, while the exocrine portion is a compound acinar gland that secretes digestive enzymes. [NIH] Pancreatic: Having to do with the pancreas. [NIH] Pancreatitis: Acute or chronic inflammation of the pancreas, which may be asymptomatic or symptomatic, and which is due to autodigestion of a pancreatic tissue by its own enzymes. It is caused most often by alcoholism or biliary tract disease; less commonly it may be associated with hyperlipaemia, hyperparathyroidism, abdominal trauma (accidental or operative injury), vasculitis, or uraemia. [EU] Parasitic: Having to do with or being a parasite. A parasite is an animal or a plant that lives on or in an organism of another species and gets at least some of its nutrients from it. [NIH] Parenteral: Not through the alimentary canal but rather by injection through some other route, as subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraorbital, intracapsular, intraspinal, intrasternal, intravenous, etc. [EU] Particle: A tiny mass of material. [EU] Patch: A piece of material used to cover or protect a wound, an injured part, etc.: a patch over the eye. [NIH] Pathogen: Any disease-producing microorganism. [EU] Pathologic: 1. Indicative of or caused by a morbid condition. 2. Pertaining to pathology (= branch of medicine that treats the essential nature of the disease, especially the structural

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and functional changes in tissues and organs of the body caused by the disease). [EU] Pathologic Processes: The abnormal mechanisms and forms involved in the dysfunctions of tissues and organs. [NIH] Pathologies: The study of abnormality, especially the study of diseases. [NIH] Patient Compliance: Voluntary cooperation of the patient in following a prescribed regimen. [NIH] Penis: The external reproductive organ of males. It is composed of a mass of erectile tissue enclosed in three cylindrical fibrous compartments. Two of the three compartments, the corpus cavernosa, are placed side-by-side along the upper part of the organ. The third compartment below, the corpus spongiosum, houses the urethra. [NIH] Pentoxifylline: A methylxanthine derivative that inhibits phosphodiesterase and affects blood rheology. It improves blood flow by increasing erythrocyte and leukocyte flexibility. It also inhibits platelet aggregation. Pentoxifylline modulates immunologic activity by stimulating cytokine production. [NIH] Peptic: Pertaining to pepsin or to digestion; related to the action of gastric juices. [EU] Peptic Ulcer: Ulcer that occurs in those portions of the alimentary tract which come into contact with gastric juice containing pepsin and acid. It occurs when the amount of acid and pepsin is sufficient to overcome the gastric mucosal barrier. [NIH] Peptide: Any compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Peptides are combined to make proteins. [NIH] Perciformes: The most diversified of all fish orders and the largest vertebrate order. It includes many of the commonly known fish such as porgies, croakers, mullets, dolphin fish, etc. [NIH] Perineum: The area between the anus and the sex organs. [NIH] Periodontal disease: Disease involving the supporting structures of the teeth (as the gums and periodontal membranes). [NIH] Periodontal Pocket: An abnormal extension of a gingival sulcus accompanied by the apical migration of the epithelial attachment and bone resorption. [NIH] Periodontitis: Inflammation of the periodontal membrane; also called periodontitis simplex. [NIH]

Peripheral Nervous System: The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system has autonomic and somatic divisions. The autonomic nervous system includes the enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic subdivisions. The somatic nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves and their ganglia and the peripheral sensory receptors. [NIH] Peroral: Performed through or administered through the mouth. [EU] Pesticides: Chemicals used to destroy pests of any sort. The concept includes fungicides (industrial fungicides), insecticides, rodenticides, etc. [NIH] Petrolatum: A colloidal system of semisolid hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum. It is used as an ointment base, topical protectant, and lubricant. [NIH] PH: The symbol relating the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration or activity of a solution to that of a given standard solution. Numerically the pH is approximately equal to the negative logarithm of H+ concentration expressed in molarity. pH 7 is neutral; above it alkalinity increases and below it acidity increases. [EU] Pharmaceutic Aids: Substances which are of little or no therapeutic value, but are necessary in the manufacture, compounding, storage, etc., of pharmaceutical preparations or drug

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dosage forms. They include solvents, diluting agents, and suspending agents, and emulsifying agents. Also, antioxidants; preservatives, pharmaceutical; dyes (coloring agents); flavoring agents; vehicles; excipients; ointment bases. [NIH] Pharmaceutical Preparations: Drugs intended for human or veterinary use, presented in their finished dosage form. Included here are materials used in the preparation and/or formulation of the finished dosage form. [NIH] Pharmacologic: Pertaining to pharmacology or to the properties and reactions of drugs. [EU] Pharynx: The hollow tube about 5 inches long that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (the tube that goes to the stomach). [NIH] Phenolphthalein: An acid-base indicator which is colorless in acid solution, but turns pink to red as the solution becomes alkaline. It is used medicinally as a cathartic. [NIH] Phenotypes: An organism as observed, i. e. as judged by its visually perceptible characters resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. [NIH] Phenyl: Ingredient used in cold and flu remedies. [NIH] Phlebitis: Inflammation of a vein. [NIH] Phosphodiesterase: Effector enzyme that regulates the levels of a second messenger, the cyclic GMP. [NIH] Phospholipids: Lipids containing one or more phosphate groups, particularly those derived from either glycerol (phosphoglycerides; glycerophospholipids) or sphingosine (sphingolipids). They are polar lipids that are of great importance for the structure and function of cell membranes and are the most abundant of membrane lipids, although not stored in large amounts in the system. [NIH] Phosphorus: A non-metallic element that is found in the blood, muscles, nevers, bones, and teeth, and is a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP; the primary energy source for the body's cells.) [NIH] Phosphorylated: Attached to a phosphate group. [NIH] Photocoagulation: Using a special strong beam of light (laser) to seal off bleeding blood vessels such as in the eye. The laser can also burn away blood vessels that should not have grown in the eye. This is the main treatment for diabetic retinopathy. [NIH] Physiologic: Having to do with the functions of the body. When used in the phrase "physiologic age," it refers to an age assigned by general health, as opposed to calendar age. [NIH]

Pigment: A substance that gives color to tissue. Pigments are responsible for the color of skin, eyes, and hair. [NIH] Pilot study: The initial study examining a new method or treatment. [NIH] Pituitary Gland: A small, unpaired gland situated in the sella turcica tissue. It is connected to the hypothalamus by a short stalk. [NIH] Placenta: A highly vascular fetal organ through which the fetus absorbs oxygen and other nutrients and excretes carbon dioxide and other wastes. It begins to form about the eighth day of gestation when the blastocyst adheres to the decidua. [NIH] Plants: Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of the kingdom Plantae. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (meristems); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absense of nervous and sensory systems; and an alteration of haploid and diploid generations. [NIH] Plaque: A clear zone in a bacterial culture grown on an agar plate caused by localized

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destruction of bacterial cells by a bacteriophage. The concentration of infective virus in a fluid can be estimated by applying the fluid to a culture and counting the number of. [NIH] Plasma: The clear, yellowish, fluid part of the blood that carries the blood cells. The proteins that form blood clots are in plasma. [NIH] Plasma cells: A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies. [NIH] Plasma protein: One of the hundreds of different proteins present in blood plasma, including carrier proteins ( such albumin, transferrin, and haptoglobin), fibrinogen and other coagulation factors, complement components, immunoglobulins, enzyme inhibitors, precursors of substances such as angiotension and bradykinin, and many other types of proteins. [EU] Plasmid: An autonomously replicating, extra-chromosomal DNA molecule found in many bacteria. Plasmids are widely used as carriers of cloned genes. [NIH] Plasticity: In an individual or a population, the capacity for adaptation: a) through gene changes (genetic plasticity) or b) through internal physiological modifications in response to changes of environment (physiological plasticity). [NIH] Platelet Aggregation: The attachment of platelets to one another. This clumping together can be induced by a number of agents (e.g., thrombin, collagen) and is part of the mechanism leading to the formation of a thrombus. [NIH] Platelets: A type of blood cell that helps prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form. Also called thrombocytes. [NIH] Pleated: Particular three-dimensional pattern of amyloidoses. [NIH] Pledget: A plug used to occludate an orifice in the control of bleeding, or to mop up secretions; an absorbent pad. [NIH] Pleural: A circumscribed area of hyaline whorled fibrous tissue which appears on the surface of the parietal pleura, on the fibrous part of the diaphragm or on the pleura in the interlobar fissures. [NIH] Poisoning: A condition or physical state produced by the ingestion, injection or inhalation of, or exposure to a deleterious agent. [NIH] Polyethylene: A vinyl polymer made from ethylene. It can be branched or linear. Branched or low-density polyethylene is tough and pliable but not to the same degree as linear polyethylene. Linear or high-density polyethylene has a greater hardness and tensile strength. Polyethylene is used in a variety of products, including implants and prostheses. [NIH]

Polyethylene Glycols: Alpha-Hydro-omega-hydroxypoly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyls). Additional polymers of ethylene oxide and water and their ethers. They vary in consistency from liquid to solid, depending on the molecular weight, indicated by a number following the name. Used as surfactants in industry, including foods, cosmetics and pharmaceutics; in biomedicine, as dispersing agents, solvents, ointment and suppository bases, vehicles, tablet excipients. Some specific groups are lauromagrogols, nonoxynols, octoxynols and poloxamers. [NIH] Polymers: Compounds formed by the joining of smaller, usually repeating, units linked by covalent bonds. These compounds often form large macromolecules (e.g., polypeptides, proteins, plastics). [NIH] Polypeptide: A peptide which on hydrolysis yields more than two amino acids; called tripeptides, tetrapeptides, etc. according to the number of amino acids contained. [EU] Polyphosphates: Linear polymers in which orthophosphate residues are linked with energy-rich phosphoanhydride bonds. They are found in plants, animals, and

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microorganisms. [NIH] Polysaccharide: A type of carbohydrate. It contains sugar molecules that are linked together chemically. [NIH] Polyvinyl Alcohol: A polymer prepared from polyvinyl acetates by replacement of the acetate groups with hydroxyl groups. It is used as a pharmaceutic aid and ophthalmic lubricant as well as in the manufacture of surface coatings artificial sponges, cosmetics, and other products. [NIH] Porosity: Condition of having pores or open spaces. This often refers to bones, bone implants, or bone cements, but can refer to the porous state of any solid substance. [NIH] Posterior: Situated in back of, or in the back part of, or affecting the back or dorsal surface of the body. In lower animals, it refers to the caudal end of the body. [EU] Postnatal: Occurring after birth, with reference to the newborn. [EU] Potassium: An element that is in the alkali group of metals. It has an atomic symbol K, atomic number 19, and atomic weight 39.10. It is the chief cation in the intracellular fluid of muscle and other cells. Potassium ion is a strong electrolyte and it plays a significant role in the regulation of fluid volume and maintenance of the water-electrolyte balance. [NIH] Potentiates: A degree of synergism which causes the exposure of the organism to a harmful substance to worsen a disease already contracted. [NIH] Potentiating: A degree of synergism which causes the exposure of the organism to a harmful substance to worsen a disease already contracted. [NIH] Povidone: A polyvinyl polymer of variable molecular weight; used as suspending and dispersing agent and vehicle for pharmaceuticals; also used as blood volume expander. [NIH] Practice Guidelines: Directions or principles presenting current or future rules of policy for the health care practitioner to assist him in patient care decisions regarding diagnosis, therapy, or related clinical circumstances. The guidelines may be developed by government agencies at any level, institutions, professional societies, governing boards, or by the convening of expert panels. The guidelines form a basis for the evaluation of all aspects of health care and delivery. [NIH] Precipitation: The act or process of precipitating. [EU] Precursor: Something that precedes. In biological processes, a substance from which another, usually more active or mature substance is formed. In clinical medicine, a sign or symptom that heralds another. [EU] Prednisolone: A glucocorticoid with the general properties of the corticosteroids. It is the drug of choice for all conditions in which routine systemic corticosteroid therapy is indicated, except adrenal deficiency states. [NIH] Prenatal: Existing or occurring before birth, with reference to the fetus. [EU] Presynaptic: Situated proximal to a synapse, or occurring before the synapse is crossed. [EU] Presynaptic Terminals: The distal terminations of axons which are specialized for the release of neurotransmitters. Also included are varicosities along the course of axons which have similar specializations and also release transmitters. Presynaptic terminals in both the central and peripheral nervous systems are included. [NIH] Prevalence: The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from incidence, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time. [NIH] Prickle: Several layers of the epidermis where the individual cells are connected by cell bridges. [NIH]

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Prodrug: A substance that gives rise to a pharmacologically active metabolite, although not itself active (i. e. an inactive precursor). [NIH] Progeny: The offspring produced in any generation. [NIH] Progesterone: Pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione. The principal progestational hormone of the body, secreted by the corpus luteum, adrenal cortex, and placenta. Its chief function is to prepare the uterus for the reception and development of the fertilized ovum. It acts as an antiovulatory agent when administered on days 5-25 of the menstrual cycle. [NIH] Progression: Increase in the size of a tumor or spread of cancer in the body. [NIH] Progressive: Advancing; going forward; going from bad to worse; increasing in scope or severity. [EU] Proline: A non-essential amino acid that is synthesized from glutamic acid. It is an essential component of collagen and is important for proper functioning of joints and tendons. [NIH] Promethazine: A phenothiazine derivative with histamine H1-blocking, antimuscarinic, and sedative properties. It is used as an antiallergic, in pruritus, for motion sickness and sedation, and also in animals. [NIH] Promoter: A chemical substance that increases the activity of a carcinogenic process. [NIH] Promyelocytic leukemia: A type of acute myeloid leukemia, a quickly progressing disease in which too many immature blood-forming cells are found in the blood and bone marrow. [NIH]

Prone: Having the front portion of the body downwards. [NIH] Prophylaxis: An attempt to prevent disease. [NIH] Propylene Glycol: A clear, colorless, viscous organic solvent and diluent used in pharmaceutical preparations. [NIH] Prostaglandins: A group of compounds derived from unsaturated 20-carbon fatty acids, primarily arachidonic acid, via the cyclooxygenase pathway. They are extremely potent mediators of a diverse group of physiological processes. [NIH] Prostaglandins A: (13E,15S)-15-Hydroxy-9-oxoprosta-10,13-dien-1-oic acid (PGA(1)); (5Z,13E,15S)-15-hydroxy-9-oxoprosta-5,10,13-trien-1-oic acid (PGA(2)); (5Z,13E,15S,17Z)-15hydroxy-9-oxoprosta-5,10,13,17-tetraen-1-oic acid (PGA(3)). A group of naturally occurring secondary prostaglandins derived from PGE. PGA(1) and PGA(2) as well as their 19hydroxy derivatives are found in many organs and tissues. [NIH] Prostate: A gland in males that surrounds the neck of the bladder and the urethra. It secretes a substance that liquifies coagulated semen. It is situated in the pelvic cavity behind the lower part of the pubic symphysis, above the deep layer of the triangular ligament, and rests upon the rectum. [NIH] Prosthesis: An artificial replacement of a part of the body. [NIH] Protease: Proteinase (= any enzyme that catalyses the splitting of interior peptide bonds in a protein). [EU] Protein Binding: The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific proteinbinding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments. [NIH] Protein C: A vitamin-K dependent zymogen present in the blood, which, upon activation by thrombin and thrombomodulin exerts anticoagulant properties by inactivating factors Va and VIIIa at the rate-limiting steps of thrombin formation. [NIH] Protein S: The vitamin K-dependent cofactor of activated protein C. Together with protein C, it inhibits the action of factors VIIIa and Va. A deficiency in protein S can lead to

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recurrent venous and arterial thrombosis. [NIH] Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape and function of the protein. [NIH] Proteoglycans: Glycoproteins which have a very high polysaccharide content. [NIH] Proteolytic: 1. Pertaining to, characterized by, or promoting proteolysis. 2. An enzyme that promotes proteolysis (= the splitting of proteins by hydrolysis of the peptide bonds with formation of smaller polypeptides). [EU] Prothrombin: A plasma protein that is the inactive precursor of thrombin. It is converted to thrombin by a prothrombin activator complex consisting of factor Xa, factor V, phospholipid, and calcium ions. Deficiency of prothrombin leads to hypoprothrombinemia. [NIH]

Protons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known positive charge, found in the nuclei of all elements. The proton mass is less than that of a neutron. A proton is the nucleus of the light hydrogen atom, i.e., the hydrogen ion. [NIH] Protozoa: A subkingdom consisting of unicellular organisms that are the simplest in the animal kingdom. Most are free living. They range in size from submicroscopic to macroscopic. Protozoa are divided into seven phyla: Sarcomastigophora, Labyrinthomorpha, Apicomplexa, Microspora, Ascetospora, Myxozoa, and Ciliophora. [NIH] Proximal: Nearest; closer to any point of reference; opposed to distal. [EU] Pruritic: Pertaining to or characterized by pruritus. [EU] Psychiatric: Pertaining to or within the purview of psychiatry. [EU] Psychiatry: The medical science that deals with the origin, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. [NIH] Psyllium: Dried, ripe seeds of Plantago psyllium, P. indica, and P. ovata (Plantaginaceae). Plantain seeds swell in water and are used as demulcents and bulk laxatives. [NIH] Public Policy: A course or method of action selected, usually by a government, from among alternatives to guide and determine present and future decisions. [NIH] Publishing: "The business or profession of the commercial production and issuance of literature" (Webster's 3d). It includes the publisher, publication processes, editing and editors. Production may be by conventional printing methods or by electronic publishing. [NIH]

Pulmonary: Relating to the lungs. [NIH] Pulmonary Artery: The short wide vessel arising from the conus arteriosus of the right ventricle and conveying unaerated blood to the lungs. [NIH] Pulmonary Edema: An accumulation of an excessive amount of watery fluid in the lungs, may be caused by acute exposure to dangerous concentrations of irritant gasses. [NIH] Pulmonary hypertension: Abnormally high blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs. [NIH] Pyrexia: A fever, or a febrile condition; abnormal elevation of the body temperature. [EU] Quality of Life: A generic concept reflecting concern with the modification and enhancement of life attributes, e.g., physical, political, moral and social environment. [NIH] Quaternary: 1. Fourth in order. 2. Containing four elements or groups. [EU] Race: A population within a species which exhibits general similarities within itself, but is both discontinuous and distinct from other populations of that species, though not sufficiently so as to achieve the status of a taxon. [NIH] Radial Artery: The direct continuation of the brachial trunk, originating at the bifurcation of

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the brachial artery opposite the neck of the radius. Its branches may be divided into three groups corresponding to the three regions in which the vessel is situated, the forearm, wrist, and hand. [NIH] Radiation: Emission or propagation of electromagnetic energy (waves/rays), or the waves/rays themselves; a stream of electromagnetic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, alpha particles) or a mixture of these. The most common source is the sun. [NIH] Radiation therapy: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body in the area near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, or brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Also called radiotherapy. [NIH] Radioactive: Giving off radiation. [NIH] Radiolabeled: Any compound that has been joined with a radioactive substance. [NIH] Radiotherapy: The use of ionizing radiation to treat malignant neoplasms and other benign conditions. The most common forms of ionizing radiation used as therapy are x-rays, gamma rays, and electrons. A special form of radiotherapy, targeted radiotherapy, links a cytotoxic radionuclide to a molecule that targets the tumor. When this molecule is an antibody or other immunologic molecule, the technique is called radioimmunotherapy. [NIH] Radius: The lateral bone of the forearm. [NIH] Random Allocation: A process involving chance used in therapeutic trials or other research endeavor for allocating experimental subjects, human or animal, between treatment and control groups, or among treatment groups. It may also apply to experiments on inanimate objects. [NIH] Randomization: Also called random allocation. Is allocation of individuals to groups, e.g., for experimental and control regimens, by chance. Within the limits of chance variation, random allocation should make the control and experimental groups similar at the start of an investigation and ensure that personal judgment and prejudices of the investigator do not influence allocation. [NIH] Randomized: Describes an experiment or clinical trial in which animal or human subjects are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments. [NIH] Reagent: A substance employed to produce a chemical reaction so as to detect, measure, produce, etc., other substances. [EU] Receptor: A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific physiologic effect in the cell. [NIH] Receptors, Serotonin: Cell-surface proteins that bind serotonin and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells. Several types of serotonin receptors have been recognized which differ in their pharmacology, molecular biology, and mode of action. [NIH] Recombinant: A cell or an individual with a new combination of genes not found together in either parent; usually applied to linked genes. [EU] Recombination: The formation of new combinations of genes as a result of segregation in crosses between genetically different parents; also the rearrangement of linked genes due to crossing-over. [NIH] Reconstitution: 1. A type of regeneration in which a new organ forms by the rearrangement of tissues rather than from new formation at an injured surface. 2. The restoration to original form of a substance previously altered for preservation and storage, as the restoration to a

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liquid state of blood serum or plasma that has been dried and stored. [EU] Rectum: The last 8 to 10 inches of the large intestine. [NIH] Recuperation: The recovery of health and strength. [EU] Red blood cells: RBCs. Cells that carry oxygen to all parts of the body. Also called erythrocytes. [NIH] Refer: To send or direct for treatment, aid, information, de decision. [NIH] Refraction: A test to determine the best eyeglasses or contact lenses to correct a refractive error (myopia, hyperopia, or astigmatism). [NIH] Regeneration: The natural renewal of a structure, as of a lost tissue or part. [EU] Regimen: A treatment plan that specifies the dosage, the schedule, and the duration of treatment. [NIH] Resolving: The ability of the eye or of a lens to make small objects that are close together, separately visible; thus revealing the structure of an object. [NIH] Resorption: The loss of substance through physiologic or pathologic means, such as loss of dentin and cementum of a tooth, or of the alveolar process of the mandible or maxilla. [EU] Respiration: The act of breathing with the lungs, consisting of inspiration, or the taking into the lungs of the ambient air, and of expiration, or the expelling of the modified air which contains more carbon dioxide than the air taken in (Blakiston's Gould Medical Dictionary, 4th ed.). This does not include tissue respiration (= oxygen consumption) or cell respiration (= cell respiration). [NIH] Respiratory syncytial virus: RSV. A virus that causes respiratory infections with cold-like symptoms. [NIH] Respiratory System: The tubular and cavernous organs and structures, by means of which pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange between ambient air and the blood are brought about. [NIH] Restoration: Broad term applied to any inlay, crown, bridge or complete denture which restores or replaces loss of teeth or oral tissues. [NIH] Retina: The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the optic nerve and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the choroid and the inner surface with the vitreous body. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent. [NIH] Retinoids: Derivatives of vitamin A. Used clinically in the treatment of severe cystic acne, psoriasis, and other disorders of keratinization. Their possible use in the prophylaxis and treatment of cancer is being actively explored. [NIH] Retinol: Vitamin A. It is essential for proper vision and healthy skin and mucous membranes. Retinol is being studied for cancer prevention; it belongs to the family of drugs called retinoids. [NIH] Retinopathy: 1. Retinitis (= inflammation of the retina). 2. Retinosis (= degenerative, noninflammatory condition of the retina). [EU] Retrovirus: A member of a group of RNA viruses, the RNA of which is copied during viral replication into DNA by reverse transcriptase. The viral DNA is then able to be integrated into the host chromosomal DNA. [NIH] Rheology: The study of the deformation and flow of matter, usually liquids or fluids, and of the plastic flow of solids. The concept covers consistency, dilatancy, liquefaction, resistance to flow, shearing, thixotrophy, and viscosity. [NIH]

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Rheumatism: A group of disorders marked by inflammation or pain in the connective tissue structures of the body. These structures include bone, cartilage, and fat. [NIH] Rheumatoid: Resembling rheumatism. [EU] Rheumatoid arthritis: A form of arthritis, the cause of which is unknown, although infection, hypersensitivity, hormone imbalance and psychologic stress have been suggested as possible causes. [NIH] Rheumatology: A subspecialty of internal medicine concerned with the study of inflammatory or degenerative processes and metabolic derangement of connective tissue structures which pertain to a variety of musculoskeletal disorders, such as arthritis. [NIH] Rhinitis: Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose. [NIH] Rhinovirus: A genus of Picornaviridae inhabiting primarily the respiratory tract of mammalian hosts. It includes the human strains associated with common colds. [NIH] Ribonucleic acid: RNA. One of the two nucleic acids found in all cells. The other is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Ribonucleic acid transfers genetic information from DNA to proteins produced by the cell. [NIH] Rigidity: Stiffness or inflexibility, chiefly that which is abnormal or morbid; rigor. [EU] Risk factor: A habit, trait, condition, or genetic alteration that increases a person's chance of developing a disease. [NIH] Rod: A reception for vision, located in the retina. [NIH] Salicylic: A tuberculosis drug. [NIH] Saline: A solution of salt and water. [NIH] Saliva: The clear, viscous fluid secreted by the salivary glands and mucous glands of the mouth. It contains mucins, water, organic salts, and ptylin. [NIH] Salivary: The duct that convey saliva to the mouth. [NIH] Salivary glands: Glands in the mouth that produce saliva. [NIH] Sanitary: Relating or belonging to health and hygiene; conductive to the restoration or maintenance of health. [NIH] Sanitation: The development and establishment of environmental conditions favorable to the health of the public. [NIH] Saponins: Sapogenin glycosides. A type of glycoside widely distributed in plants. Each consists of a sapogenin as the aglycon moiety, and a sugar. The sapogenin may be a steroid or a triterpene and the sugar may be glucose, galactose, a pentose, or a methylpentose. Sapogenins are poisonous towards the lower forms of life and are powerful hemolytics when injected into the blood stream able to dissolve red blood cells at even extreme dilutions. [NIH] Scleroproteins: Simple proteins characterized by their insolubility and fibrous structure. Within the body, they perform a supportive or protective function. [NIH] Sclerosis: A pathological process consisting of hardening or fibrosis of an anatomical structure, often a vessel or a nerve. [NIH] Screening: Checking for disease when there are no symptoms. [NIH] Sea Bream: A species of perciformes commonly used in saline aquaculture. [NIH] Sebaceous: Gland that secretes sebum. [NIH] Sebaceous gland: Gland that secretes sebum. [NIH] Sebum: The oily substance secreted by sebaceous glands. It is composed of keratin, fat, and

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cellular debris. [NIH] Secondary tumor: Cancer that has spread from the organ in which it first appeared to another organ. For example, breast cancer cells may spread (metastasize) to the lungs and cause the growth of a new tumor. When this happens, the disease is called metastatic breast cancer, and the tumor in the lungs is called a secondary tumor. Also called secondary cancer. [NIH] Secretion: 1. The process of elaborating a specific product as a result of the activity of a gland; this activity may range from separating a specific substance of the blood to the elaboration of a new chemical substance. 2. Any substance produced by secretion. [EU] Secretory: Secreting; relating to or influencing secretion or the secretions. [NIH] Sedentary: 1. Sitting habitually; of inactive habits. 2. Pertaining to a sitting posture. [EU] Sediment: A precipitate, especially one that is formed spontaneously. [EU] Self Care: Performance of activities or tasks traditionally performed by professional health care providers. The concept includes care of oneself or one's family and friends. [NIH] Semisynthetic: Produced by chemical manipulation of naturally occurring substances. [EU] Sensitization: 1. Administration of antigen to induce a primary immune response; priming; immunization. 2. Exposure to allergen that results in the development of hypersensitivity. 3. The coating of erythrocytes with antibody so that they are subject to lysis by complement in the presence of homologous antigen, the first stage of a complement fixation test. [EU] Sensor: A device designed to respond to physical stimuli such as temperature, light, magnetism or movement and transmit resulting impulses for interpretation, recording, movement, or operating control. [NIH] Sequencing: The determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA chain. [NIH] Serotonin: A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-tryptophan. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (receptors, serotonin) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator. [NIH] Serous: Having to do with serum, the clear liquid part of blood. [NIH] Sertraline: A selective serotonin uptake inhibitor that is used in the treatment of depression. [NIH]

Sertraline Hydrochloride: Selective serotonin uptake inhibitor. [NIH] Serum: The clear liquid part of the blood that remains after blood cells and clotting proteins have been removed. [NIH] Serum Albumin: A major plasma protein that serves in maintaining the plasma colloidal osmotic pressure and transporting large organic anions. [NIH] Shock: The general bodily disturbance following a severe injury; an emotional or moral upset occasioned by some disturbing or unexpected experience; disruption of the circulation, which can upset all body functions: sometimes referred to as circulatory shock. [NIH]

Side effect: A consequence other than the one(s) for which an agent or measure is used, as the adverse effects produced by a drug, especially on a tissue or organ system other than the one sought to be benefited by its administration. [EU] Skeletal: Having to do with the skeleton (boney part of the body). [NIH] Skeleton: The framework that supports the soft tissues of vertebrate animals and protects

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many of their internal organs. The skeletons of vertebrates are made of bone and/or cartilage. [NIH] Skin Care: Maintenance of the hygienic state of the skin under optimal conditions of cleanliness and comfort. Effective in skin care are proper washing, bathing, cleansing, and the use of soaps, detergents, oils, etc. In various disease states, therapeutic and protective solutions and ointments are useful. The care of the skin is particularly important in various occupations, in exposure to sunlight, in neonates, and in decubitus ulcer. [NIH] Skin graft: Skin that is moved from one part of the body to another. [NIH] Small intestine: The part of the digestive tract that is located between the stomach and the large intestine. [NIH] Smooth muscle: Muscle that performs automatic tasks, such as constricting blood vessels. [NIH]

Soaps: Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. These detergent substances are obtained by boiling natural oils or fats with caustic alkali. Sodium soaps are harder and are used as topical anti-infectives and vehicles in pills and liniments; potassium soaps are soft, used as vehicles for ointments and also as topical antimicrobials. [NIH] Social Environment: The aggregate of social and cultural institutions, forms, patterns, and processes that influence the life of an individual or community. [NIH] Sodium: An element that is a member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23. With a valence of 1, it has a strong affinity for oxygen and other nonmetallic elements. Sodium provides the chief cation of the extracellular body fluids. Its salts are the most widely used in medicine. (From Dorland, 27th ed) Physiologically the sodium ion plays a major role in blood pressure regulation, maintenance of fluid volume, and electrolyte balance. [NIH] Sodium Benzoate: The sodium salt of benzoic acid. It is used as an antifungal preservative in pharmaceutical preparations and foods. It may also be used as a test for liver function. [NIH]

Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate: An anionic surfactant, usually a mixture of sodium alkyl sulfates, mainly the lauryl; lowers surface tension of aqueous solutions; used as fat emulsifier, wetting agent, detergent in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and toothpastes; also as research tool in protein biochemistry. [NIH] Solid tumor: Cancer of body tissues other than blood, bone marrow, or the lymphatic system. [NIH] Solitary Nucleus: Gray matter located in the dorsomedial part of the medulla oblongata associated with the solitary tract. The solitary nucleus receives inputs from most organ systems including the terminations of the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves. It is a major coordinator of autonomic nervous system regulation of cardiovascular, respiratory, gustatory, gastrointestinal, and chemoreceptive aspects of homeostasis. The solitary nucleus is also notable for the large number of neurotransmitters which are found therein. [NIH] Solvent: 1. Dissolving; effecting a solution. 2. A liquid that dissolves or that is capable of dissolving; the component of a solution that is present in greater amount. [EU] Somatic: 1. Pertaining to or characteristic of the soma or body. 2. Pertaining to the body wall in contrast to the viscera. [EU] Somatic cells: All the body cells except the reproductive (germ) cells. [NIH] Somatostatin: A polypeptide hormone produced in the hypothalamus, and other tissues and organs. It inhibits the release of human growth hormone, and also modulates important physiological functions of the kidney, pancreas, and gastrointestinal tract. Somatostatin

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receptors are widely expressed throughout the body. Somatostatin also acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems. [NIH] Sorbic Acid: Mold and yeast inhibitor. Used as a fungistatic agent for foods, especially cheeses. [NIH] Sorbitol: A polyhydric alcohol with about half the sweetness of sucrose. Sorbitol occurs naturally and is also produced synthetically from glucose. It was formerly used as a diuretic and may still be used as a laxative and in irrigating solutions for some surgical procedures. It is also used in many manufacturing processes, as a pharmaceutical aid, and in several research applications. [NIH] Spasmodic: Of the nature of a spasm. [EU] Specialist: In medicine, one who concentrates on 1 special branch of medical science. [NIH] Species: A taxonomic category subordinate to a genus (or subgenus) and superior to a subspecies or variety, composed of individuals possessing common characters distinguishing them from other categories of individuals of the same taxonomic level. In taxonomic nomenclature, species are designated by the genus name followed by a Latin or Latinized adjective or noun. [EU] Specificity: Degree of selectivity shown by an antibody with respect to the number and types of antigens with which the antibody combines, as well as with respect to the rates and the extents of these reactions. [NIH] Spectrum: A charted band of wavelengths of electromagnetic vibrations obtained by refraction and diffraction. By extension, a measurable range of activity, such as the range of bacteria affected by an antibiotic (antibacterial s.) or the complete range of manifestations of a disease. [EU] Spinal cord: The main trunk or bundle of nerves running down the spine through holes in the spinal bone (the vertebrae) from the brain to the level of the lower back. [NIH] Spinous: Like a spine or thorn in shape; having spines. [NIH] Spleen: An organ that is part of the lymphatic system. The spleen produces lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. It is located on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach. [NIH] Squamous: Scaly, or platelike. [EU] Squamous cell carcinoma: Cancer that begins in squamous cells, which are thin, flat cells resembling fish scales. Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of the hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Also called epidermoid carcinoma. [NIH] Squamous cell carcinoma: Cancer that begins in squamous cells, which are thin, flat cells resembling fish scales. Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of the hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Also called epidermoid carcinoma. [NIH] Stabilization: The creation of a stable state. [EU] Stabilizer: A device for maintaining constant X-ray tube voltage or current. [NIH] Standardize: To compare with or conform to a standard; to establish standards. [EU] Staphylococcus: A genus of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, coccoid bacteria. Its organisms occur singly, in pairs, and in tetrads and characteristically divide in more than one plane to form irregular clusters. Natural populations of Staphylococcus are membranes of warm-blooded animals. Some species are opportunistic pathogens of humans and animals. [NIH]

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Staphylococcus aureus: Potentially pathogenic bacteria found in nasal membranes, skin, hair follicles, and perineum of warm-blooded animals. They may cause a wide range of infections and intoxications. [NIH] Stem Cells: Relatively undifferentiated cells of the same lineage (family type) that retain the ability to divide and cycle throughout postnatal life to provide cells that can become specialized and take the place of those that die or are lost. [NIH] Sterilization: The destroying of all forms of life, especially microorganisms, by heat, chemical, or other means. [NIH] Steroid: A group name for lipids that contain a hydrogenated cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring system. Some of the substances included in this group are progesterone, adrenocortical hormones, the gonadal hormones, cardiac aglycones, bile acids, sterols (such as cholesterol), toad poisons, saponins, and some of the carcinogenic hydrocarbons. [EU] Stimulant: 1. Producing stimulation; especially producing stimulation by causing tension on muscle fibre through the nervous tissue. 2. An agent or remedy that produces stimulation. [EU]

Stimulus: That which can elicit or evoke action (response) in a muscle, nerve, gland or other excitable issue, or cause an augmenting action upon any function or metabolic process. [NIH] Stomach: An organ of digestion situated in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen between the termination of the esophagus and the beginning of the duodenum. [NIH] Stool: The waste matter discharged in a bowel movement; feces. [NIH] Streptococci: A genus of spherical Gram-positive bacteria occurring in chains or pairs. They are widely distributed in nature, being important pathogens but often found as normal commensals in the mouth, skin, and intestine of humans and other animals. [NIH] Stress: Forcibly exerted influence; pressure. Any condition or situation that causes strain or tension. Stress may be either physical or psychologic, or both. [NIH] Stroke: Sudden loss of function of part of the brain because of loss of blood flow. Stroke may be caused by a clot (thrombosis) or rupture (hemorrhage) of a blood vessel to the brain. [NIH] Strontium: An element of the alkaline earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Sr, atomic number 38, and atomic weight 87.62. [NIH] Styptic: Astringent. [NIH] Subacute: Somewhat acute; between acute and chronic. [EU] Subclinical: Without clinical manifestations; said of the early stage(s) of an infection or other disease or abnormality before symptoms and signs become apparent or detectable by clinical examination or laboratory tests, or of a very mild form of an infection or other disease or abnormality. [EU] Subcutaneous: Beneath the skin. [NIH] Subspecies: A category intermediate in rank between species and variety, based on a smaller number of correlated characters than are used to differentiate species and generally conditioned by geographical and/or ecological occurrence. [NIH] Substance P: An eleven-amino acid neurotransmitter that appears in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is involved in transmission of pain, causes rapid contractions of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and modulates inflammatory and immune responses. [NIH]

Substrate: A substance upon which an enzyme acts. [EU] Substrate Specificity: A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of

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substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts. [NIH] Suction: The removal of secretions, gas or fluid from hollow or tubular organs or cavities by means of a tube and a device that acts on negative pressure. [NIH] Sulfates: Inorganic salts of sulfuric acid. [NIH] Sulfur: An element that is a member of the chalcogen family. It has an atomic symbol S, atomic number 16, and atomic weight 32.066. It is found in the amino acids cysteine and methionine. [NIH] Superoxide: Derivative of molecular oxygen that can damage cells. [NIH] Supplementation: Adding nutrients to the diet. [NIH] Suppositories: A small cone-shaped medicament having cocoa butter or gelatin at its basis and usually intended for the treatment of local conditions in the rectum. [NIH] Suppression: A conscious exclusion of disapproved desire contrary with repression, in which the process of exclusion is not conscious. [NIH] Surfactant: A fat-containing protein in the respiratory passages which reduces the surface tension of pulmonary fluids and contributes to the elastic properties of pulmonary tissue. [NIH]

Suspensions: Colloids with liquid continuous phase and solid dispersed phase; the term is used loosely also for solid-in-gas (aerosol) and other colloidal systems; water-insoluble drugs may be given as suspensions. [NIH] Sympathetic Nervous System: The thoracolumbar division of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers originate in neurons of the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord and project to the paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia, which in turn project to target organs. The sympathetic nervous system mediates the body's response to stressful situations, i.e., the fight or flight reactions. It often acts reciprocally to the parasympathetic system. [NIH] Symptomatic: Having to do with symptoms, which are signs of a condition or disease. [NIH] Synergistic: Acting together; enhancing the effect of another force or agent. [EU] Synovial: Of pertaining to, or secreting synovia. [EU] Synovial Fluid: The clear, viscous fluid secreted by the synovial membrane. It contains mucin, albumin, fat, and mineral salts and serves to lubricate joints. [NIH] Synovial Membrane: The inner membrane of a joint capsule surrounding a freely movable joint. It is loosely attached to the external fibrous capsule and secretes synovial fluid. [NIH] Synovitis: Inflammation of a synovial membrane. It is usually painful, particularly on motion, and is characterized by a fluctuating swelling due to effusion within a synovial sac. Synovitis is qualified as fibrinous, gonorrhoeal, hyperplastic, lipomatous, metritic, puerperal, rheumatic, scarlatinal, syphilitic, tuberculous, urethral, etc. [EU] Systemic: Affecting the entire body. [NIH] Taurine: 2-Aminoethanesulfonic acid. A conditionally essential nutrient, important during mammalian development. It is present in milk but is isolated mostly from ox bile and strongly conjugates bile acids. [NIH] Therapeutics: The branch of medicine which is concerned with the treatment of diseases, palliative or curative. [NIH] Thermal: Pertaining to or characterized by heat. [EU] Thigh: A leg; in anatomy, any elongated process or part of a structure more or less comparable to a leg. [NIH]

224 Chitosan

Thoracic: Having to do with the chest. [NIH] Thorax: A part of the trunk between the neck and the abdomen; the chest. [NIH] Thrombin: An enzyme formed from prothrombin that converts fibrinogen to fibrin. (Dorland, 27th ed) EC 3.4.21.5. [NIH] Thrombocytes: Blood cells that help prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form. Also called platelets. [NIH] Thrombomodulin: A cell surface glycoprotein of endothelial cells that binds thrombin and serves as a cofactor in the activation of protein C and its regulation of blood coagulation. [NIH]

Thrombosis: The formation or presence of a blood clot inside a blood vessel. [NIH] Thromboxanes: Physiologically active compounds found in many organs of the body. They are formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides and cause platelet aggregation, contraction of arteries, and other biological effects. Thromboxanes are important mediators of the actions of polyunsaturated fatty acids transformed by cyclooxygenase. [NIH] Thymus: An organ that is part of the lymphatic system, in which T lymphocytes grow and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone. [NIH] Thyroid: A gland located near the windpipe (trachea) that produces thyroid hormone, which helps regulate growth and metabolism. [NIH] Thyroxine: An amino acid of the thyroid gland which exerts a stimulating effect on thyroid metabolism. [NIH] Tissue: A group or layer of cells that are alike in type and work together to perform a specific function. [NIH] Tissue Culture: Maintaining or growing of tissue, organ primordia, or the whole or part of an organ in vitro so as to preserve its architecture and/or function (Dorland, 28th ed). Tissue culture includes both organ culture and cell culture. [NIH] Tissue Transplantation: Transference of tissue within an individual, between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species. [NIH] Tolerance: 1. The ability to endure unusually large doses of a drug or toxin. 2. Acquired drug tolerance; a decreasing response to repeated constant doses of a drug or the need for increasing doses to maintain a constant response. [EU] Topical: On the surface of the body. [NIH] Toxic: Having to do with poison or something harmful to the body. Toxic substances usually cause unwanted side effects. [NIH] Toxicity: The quality of being poisonous, especially the degree of virulence of a toxic microbe or of a poison. [EU] Toxicology: The science concerned with the detection, chemical composition, and pharmacologic action of toxic substances or poisons and the treatment and prevention of toxic manifestations. [NIH] Toxins: Specific, characterizable, poisonous chemicals, often proteins, with specific biological properties, including immunogenicity, produced by microbes, higher plants, or animals. [NIH] Trace element: Substance or element essential to plant or animal life, but present in extremely small amounts. [NIH] Trachea: The cartilaginous and membranous tube descending from the larynx and branching into the right and left main bronchi. [NIH]

Dictionary 225

Transcriptase: An enzyme which catalyses the synthesis of a complementary mRNA molecule from a DNA template in the presence of a mixture of the four ribonucleotides (ATP, UTP, GTP and CTP). [NIH] Transdermal: Entering through the dermis, or skin, as in administration of a drug applied to the skin in ointment or patch form. [EU] Transfection: The uptake of naked or purified DNA into cells, usually eukaryotic. It is analogous to bacterial transformation. [NIH] Transfer Factor: Factor derived from leukocyte lysates of immune donors which can transfer both local and systemic cellular immunity to nonimmune recipients. [NIH] Transfusion: The infusion of components of blood or whole blood into the bloodstream. The blood may be donated from another person, or it may have been taken from the person earlier and stored until needed. [NIH] Transplantation: Transference of a tissue or organ, alive or dead, within an individual, between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species. [NIH] Trauma: Any injury, wound, or shock, must frequently physical or structural shock, producing a disturbance. [NIH] Triglyceride: A lipid carried through the blood stream to tissues. Most of the body's fat tissue is in the form of triglycerides, stored for use as energy. Triglycerides are obtained primarily from fat in foods. [NIH] Trihalomethanes: Methanes substituted with three halogen atoms, which may be the same or different. [NIH] Tryptophan: An essential amino acid that is necessary for normal growth in infants and for nitrogen balance in adults. It is a precursor serotonin and niacin. [NIH] Tuberculosis: Any of the infectious diseases of man and other animals caused by species of Mycobacterium. [NIH] Tumor marker: A substance sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood, other body fluids, or tissues and which may mean that a certain type of cancer is in the body. Examples of tumor markers include CA 125 (ovarian cancer), CA 15-3 (breast cancer), CEA (ovarian, lung, breast, pancreas, and gastrointestinal tract cancers), and PSA (prostate cancer). Also called biomarker. [NIH] Tumour: 1. Swelling, one of the cardinal signs of inflammations; morbid enlargement. 2. A new growth of tissue in which the multiplication of cells is uncontrolled and progressive; called also neoplasm. [EU] Turbinates: The scroll-like bony plates with curved margins on the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. [NIH] Ulcer: A localized necrotic lesion of the skin or a mucous surface. [NIH] Ulceration: 1. The formation or development of an ulcer. 2. An ulcer. [EU] Unconscious: Experience which was once conscious, but was subsequently rejected, as the "personal unconscious". [NIH] Uraemia: 1. An excess in the blood of urea, creatinine, and other nitrogenous end products of protein and amino acids metabolism; more correctly referred to as azotemia. 2. In current usage the entire constellation of signs and symptoms of chronic renal failure, including nausea, vomiting anorexia, a metallic taste in the mouth, a uraemic odour of the breath, pruritus, uraemic frost on the skin, neuromuscular disorders, pain and twitching in the muscles, hypertension, edema, mental confusion, and acid-base and electrolyte imbalances. [EU]

226 Chitosan

Urea: A compound (CO(NH2)2), formed in the liver from ammonia produced by the deamination of amino acids. It is the principal end product of protein catabolism and constitutes about one half of the total urinary solids. [NIH] Urethane: Antineoplastic agent that is also used as a veterinary anesthetic. It has also been used as an intermediate in organic synthesis. Urethane is suspected to be a carcinogen. [NIH] Urinary: Having to do with urine or the organs of the body that produce and get rid of urine. [NIH] Urine: Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra. [NIH] Urticaria: A vascular reaction of the skin characterized by erythema and wheal formation due to localized increase of vascular permeability. The causative mechanism may be allergy, infection, or stress. [NIH] Uterus: The small, hollow, pear-shaped organ in a woman's pelvis. This is the organ in which a fetus develops. Also called the womb. [NIH] Vaccination: Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis. [NIH] Vaccine: A substance or group of substances meant to cause the immune system to respond to a tumor or to microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses. [NIH] Vacuoles: Any spaces or cavities within a cell. They may function in digestion, storage, secretion, or excretion. [NIH] Vagina: The muscular canal extending from the uterus to the exterior of the body. Also called the birth canal. [NIH] Vaginal: Of or having to do with the vagina, the birth canal. [NIH] Vaginitis: Inflammation of the vagina characterized by pain and a purulent discharge. [NIH] Vascular: Pertaining to blood vessels or indicative of a copious blood supply. [EU] Vasculitis: Inflammation of a blood vessel. [NIH] Vasoconstriction: Narrowing of the blood vessels without anatomic change, for which constriction, pathologic is used. [NIH] Vasodilator: An agent that widens blood vessels. [NIH] Vector: Plasmid or other self-replicating DNA molecule that transfers DNA between cells in nature or in recombinant DNA technology. [NIH] Vein: Vessel-carrying blood from various parts of the body to the heart. [NIH] Venous: Of or pertaining to the veins. [EU] Venules: The minute vessels that collect blood from the capillary plexuses and join together to form veins. [NIH] Vertebrae: A bony unit of the segmented spinal column. [NIH] Veterinary Medicine: The medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases in animals. [NIH] Viral: Pertaining to, caused by, or of the nature of virus. [EU] Viral vector: A type of virus used in cancer therapy. The virus is changed in the laboratory and cannot cause disease. Viral vectors produce tumor antigens (proteins found on a tumor cell) and can stimulate an antitumor immune response in the body. Viral vectors may also be used to carry genes that can change cancer cells back to normal cells. [NIH] Virulence: The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or

Dictionary 227

viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. [NIH] Virus: Submicroscopic organism that causes infectious disease. In cancer therapy, some viruses may be made into vaccines that help the body build an immune response to, and kill, tumor cells. [NIH] Visceral: , from viscus a viscus) pertaining to a viscus. [EU] Visceral Afferents: The sensory fibers innervating the viscera. [NIH] Viscosity: A physical property of fluids that determines the internal resistance to shear forces. [EU] Vitro: Descriptive of an event or enzyme reaction under experimental investigation occurring outside a living organism. Parts of an organism or microorganism are used together with artificial substrates and/or conditions. [NIH] Vivo: Outside of or removed from the body of a living organism. [NIH] Vulgaris: An affection of the skin, especially of the face, the back and the chest, due to chronic inflammation of the sebaceous glands and the hair follicles. [NIH] Weight Gain: Increase in body weight over existing weight. [NIH] White blood cell: A type of cell in the immune system that helps the body fight infection and disease. White blood cells include lymphocytes, granulocytes, macrophages, and others. [NIH]

Wound Healing: Restoration of integrity to traumatized tissue. [NIH] Xenograft: The cells of one species transplanted to another species. [NIH] X-ray: High-energy radiation used in low doses to diagnose diseases and in high doses to treat cancer. [NIH] X-ray therapy: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy) or from materials called radioisotopes. Radioisotopes produce radiation and can be placed in or near the tumor or in the area near cancer cells. This type of radiation treatment is called internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, interstitial radiation, or brachytherapy. Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. X-ray therapy is also called radiation therapy, radiotherapy, and irradiation. [NIH] Yeasts: A general term for single-celled rounded fungi that reproduce by budding. Brewers' and bakers' yeasts are Saccharomyces cerevisiae; therapeutic dried yeast is dried yeast. [NIH] Zinc Acetate: A salt produced by the reaction of zinc oxide with acetic acid and used as an astringent, styptic, and emetic. [NIH] Zinc Oxide: A mild astringent and topical protectant with some antiseptic action. It is also used in bandages, pastes, ointments, dental cements, and as a sunblock. [NIH] Zygote: The fertilized ovum. [NIH] Zymogen: Inactive form of an enzyme which can then be converted to the active form, usually by excision of a polypeptide, e. g. trypsinogen is the zymogen of trypsin. [NIH]

229

INDEX A Abdomen, 66, 163, 173, 187, 199, 201, 221, 222, 224 Abdominal, 141, 163, 190, 196, 199, 209 Abdominal Cramps, 141, 163 Acceptor, 163, 201, 209 Acetylcholine, 163, 206 Acetylglucosamine, 12, 93, 163 Acne, 71, 163, 217 Activities of Daily Living, 110, 163 Acute myeloid leukemia, 163, 214 Acute renal, 163, 194 Acyl, 163, 187 Adaptation, 163, 212 Adduct, 48, 64, 163 Adenosine, 163, 211 Adenovirus, 7, 163 Adhesives, 69, 78, 92, 93, 109, 163, 173 Adjunctive Therapy, 9, 163 Adjustment, 77, 163, 164 Adjuvant, 5, 56, 80, 122, 164, 191 Adrenergic, 164, 184, 187 Adsorption, 16, 25, 30, 44, 45, 48, 57, 75, 77, 107, 119, 164 Adsorptive, 77, 164 Adverse Effect, 164, 219 Aerobic, 164, 207 Aerosol, 127, 164, 223 Affinity, 88, 107, 120, 125, 164, 169, 201, 220 Agar, 87, 124, 164, 181, 197, 211 Agarose, 124, 164, 197 Aggressiveness, 88, 164 Agonist, 164, 184, 187 Airway, 5, 164 Alanine, 128, 164 Albumin, 83, 124, 165, 184, 212, 223 Aldehydes, 109, 165 Alginates, 100, 165 Algorithms, 165, 172 Alimentary, 165, 183, 209, 210 Alkaline, 93, 100, 108, 112, 125, 126, 165, 166, 174, 209, 211, 222 Alkaloid, 165, 171, 205 Alkylation, 47, 165 Allergen, 82, 165, 219 Allergic Rhinitis, 70, 165 Allylamine, 165, 166

Aloe, 86, 165 Alpha Particles, 165, 216 Alpha-1, 165, 181 Alpha-helix, 165, 200 Alternative medicine, 140, 165 Aluminum, 77, 99, 109, 165 Aluminum Oxide, 77, 165 Alveolar Process, 166, 217 Amine, 71, 82, 89, 108, 114, 166, 195 Amino Acid Sequence, 166, 167, 191 Amino Acids, 128, 166, 169, 191, 210, 212, 215, 223, 225, 226 Ammonia, 79, 166, 207, 226 Ammonium Chloride, 114, 166 Ammonium Sulfate, 78, 166 Amoxicillin, 35, 166 Ampicillin, 166 Amyloid, 38, 166 Amylose, 90, 95, 166 Anaerobic, 166, 221 Anaesthesia, 166, 197 Anal, 55, 59, 166, 189, 208 Analgesic, 166, 183, 196, 205, 208 Analog, 91, 93, 166, 174, 190, 207 Analogous, 166, 225 Anaphylatoxins, 166, 179 Anemia, 167, 178 Anesthesia, 164, 167 Angiogenesis, 8, 88, 116, 167 Anhydrides, 109, 167 Animal model, 7, 31, 167 Anionic, 20, 36, 81, 82, 87, 104, 123, 167, 220 Anions, 165, 167, 199, 219 Ankle, 69, 167 Antiangiogenic, 8, 167 Antibacterial, 40, 56, 66, 67, 100, 101, 125, 128, 167, 192, 207, 221 Antibiotic, 9, 33, 166, 167, 173, 181, 184, 204, 221 Antibodies, 5, 80, 83, 95, 113, 167, 194, 196, 197, 202, 212 Antibody, 5, 80, 95, 164, 167, 168, 178, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 203, 205, 216, 219, 221, 227 Anticoagulant, 14, 167, 183, 214 Antiemetic, 167, 203 Antifungal, 82, 167, 220

230 Chitosan

Antigen, 5, 80, 83, 164, 167, 168, 179, 182, 195, 196, 197, 198, 203, 219 Antigen-Antibody Complex, 168, 179 Antigen-presenting cell, 168, 182 Antihistamine, 71, 168 Anti-infective, 168, 176, 190, 199, 220 Anti-Infective Agents, 168, 190 Anti-inflammatory, 5, 9, 66, 67, 74, 82, 121, 168, 169, 180, 183, 192, 196, 197 Anti-Inflammatory Agents, 168, 169, 180 Antimetabolite, 168, 190 Antimetastatic, 45, 168 Antimicrobial, 9, 12, 40, 64, 91, 101, 128, 131, 168, 182 Antineoplastic, 45, 168, 172, 180, 184, 190, 204, 226 Antioxidant, 168, 169, 209 Antipyretic, 168, 183 Antiseptic, 81, 168, 227 Antiviral, 82, 89, 168, 183, 192 Apolipoproteins, 168, 201 Apoptosis, 5, 18, 168, 175 Appetite Regulation, 111, 168 Applicability, 69, 168 Aqueous fluid, 85, 100, 168 Arachidonic Acid, 42, 169, 201, 214 Arginine, 166, 169, 206 Aromatic, 76, 169, 192 Arterial, 35, 165, 169, 177, 196, 215 Arterial embolization, 35, 169 Arteries, 75, 169, 172, 173, 180, 196, 202, 203, 205, 215, 224 Arteriolar, 169, 173 Arterioles, 169, 173, 174 Arteriolosclerosis, 169 Arteriosclerosis, 75, 169 Articular, 14, 169, 200, 201, 208 Ascorbic Acid, 59, 132, 169, 196 Aspartic, 121, 169 Aspartic Acid, 121, 169 Aspirin, 46, 169 Astringent, 169, 222, 227 Astrocytes, 169, 170 Astrocytoma, 38, 170 Asymptomatic, 170, 209 Atrophy, 9, 170 Attenuation, 30, 46, 170 Autacoids, 170, 197 Autodigestion, 170, 209 Autologous, 6, 170 Autonomic, 71, 163, 170, 207, 210, 220, 223

Autonomic Nervous System, 71, 170, 210, 220, 223 B Bactericidal, 127, 170, 187 Bacteriophage, 170, 212 Bacteriostatic, 113, 170 Bacterium, 94, 96, 129, 170, 179, 194 Base, 6, 7, 54, 68, 77, 94, 99, 109, 131, 170, 182, 191, 200, 210, 211, 225 Basement Membrane, 170, 188, 200 Basophils, 170, 193, 201 Baths, 114, 170 Benzaldehyde, 57, 171 Benzene, 171 Benzoic Acid, 129, 171, 220 Berberine, 54, 171 Beta Rays, 171, 185 Beta-pleated, 166, 171 Bile, 54, 130, 171, 182, 191, 201, 222, 223 Bile Acids, 130, 171, 222, 223 Bile Acids and Salts, 171 Biliary, 171, 209 Biliary Tract, 171, 209 Bilirubin, 33, 165, 171 Bioavailability, 8, 171 Biochemical, 22, 43, 129, 168, 171, 172, 200, 208, 219 Biochemical Phenomena, 171, 172 Biodegradation, 8, 44, 171 Bioengineering, 48, 73, 146, 171 Biofilms, 114, 171 Biological Phenomena, 88, 172 Biological therapy, 172, 193 Biological Transport, 172, 183 Biomarkers, 10, 172 Biopolymers, 46, 76, 100, 172 Biosynthesis, 169, 172 Biotechnology, 12, 13, 21, 26, 27, 35, 36, 43, 46, 47, 118, 136, 140, 147, 172 Biphasic, 57, 172 Bladder, 18, 37, 104, 172, 197, 214, 226 Blastocyst, 172, 179, 211 Bleomycin, 37, 49, 172 Blood Coagulation, 172, 174, 189, 224 Blood Glucose, 172, 194, 198 Blood Platelets, 172, 219 Blood pressure, 110, 172, 175, 196, 215, 220 Blood Substitutes, 26, 27, 69, 172 Blood transfusion, 83, 173 Blood Volume, 173, 213 Body Fluids, 172, 173, 184, 220, 225 Body Mass Index, 173, 209

Index 231

Bone Cements, 173, 213 Bone Marrow, 163, 171, 173, 193, 196, 202, 205, 214, 220 Bone Marrow Cells, 173, 193 Bone Resorption, 49, 59, 173, 210 Bowel, 163, 166, 173, 183, 199, 200, 207, 208, 222 Brachial, 173, 215 Brachial Artery, 173, 216 Brachytherapy, 173, 198, 199, 216, 227 Bradykinin, 70, 173, 200, 206, 212 Branch, 159, 173, 209, 221, 223 Breakdown, 173, 183, 191 Broad-spectrum, 166, 173, 207 Bronchi, 173, 188, 224 Bronchial, 113, 173, 195 Bronchioles, 173 Bronchiolitis, 113, 173 Buccal, 27, 37, 45, 173 Burns, 73, 174 Burns, Electric, 174 Buserelin, 32, 174 C Calcification, 169, 174 Calcium, 3, 7, 16, 37, 50, 101, 124, 127, 173, 174, 177, 178, 215 Calcium Carbonate, 101, 127, 173, 174 Calcium Hydroxide, 4, 174 Callus, 174, 185 Candidiasis, 58, 174 Candidosis, 174 Capillary, 41, 173, 174, 226 Capillary Permeability, 173, 174 Capsules, 47, 124, 174, 189, 191 Carbenoxolone, 174, 192 Carbohydrate, 5, 14, 25, 29, 36, 41, 53, 72, 175, 180, 192, 207, 213 Carbon Dioxide, 172, 174, 175, 181, 190, 211, 217 Carboxymethylcellulose, 99, 124, 175 Carcinogen, 163, 175, 226 Carcinogenic, 171, 175, 198, 214, 222 Carcinoma, 175 Cardiac, 165, 175, 185, 186, 205, 222 Cardiovascular, 108, 175, 201, 219, 220 Cardiovascular disease, 108, 175 Carotenoids, 123, 175 Carrier Proteins, 175, 212 Caspase, 18, 175 Catabolism, 121, 175 Catheterization, 115, 175, 199 Catheters, 16, 175, 197, 198

Cathode, 171, 175, 185 Cations, 175, 199 Caustic, 92, 175, 220 Cecum, 175, 200 Cell Death, 168, 175, 206 Cell Division, 170, 176, 193, 204, 211 Cell membrane, 121, 130, 172, 175, 176, 211 Cell motility, 88, 176 Cell Movement, 88, 176 Cell proliferation, 169, 176 Cell Respiration, 176, 217 Cell Survival, 176, 193 Cellobiose, 176 Cellular Structures, 176, 204 Cellulose, 12, 43, 64, 73, 87, 90, 93, 100, 103, 108, 118, 124, 125, 126, 176, 190, 203, 211 Central Nervous System, 8, 163, 165, 170, 171, 176, 187, 194, 201, 205, 219 Centrifugation, 78, 176 Cerebral, 13, 110, 176, 189 Cerebrovascular, 175, 176 Cerebrum, 176 Character, 68, 176, 182 Chemotactic Factors, 176, 179 Chemotherapy, 97, 176 Chlorhexidine, 27, 45, 176 Chlorides, 109, 176 Chlorine, 105, 131, 176 Chlorophyll, 177, 190 Chlorpheniramine, 46, 177 Choleretic, 177, 182 Cholesterol Esters, 177, 201 Chondroitin sulfate, 20, 30, 44, 46, 74, 88, 177 Chromatin, 168, 177, 206 Chromosomal, 177, 212, 217 Chromosome, 177, 179, 193, 201 Chronic, 5, 24, 71, 94, 177, 186, 198, 209, 222, 225, 227 Chronic renal, 24, 177, 225 Chylomicrons, 177, 201 Cicatrix, 73, 177, 200 Ciliary, 26, 168, 177, 205 Ciliary processes, 168, 177 CIS, 11, 177 Citric Acid, 67, 113, 114, 121, 177 Citrus, 169, 177 Clear cell carcinoma, 177, 182 Clinical Medicine, 177, 213 Clinical study, 177, 180

232 Chitosan

Clinical trial, 3, 7, 8, 147, 178, 180, 216 Cloning, 13, 172, 178 Coagulation, 78, 172, 178, 193, 194, 212 Cobalt, 120, 178 Cod Liver Oil, 178, 186 Coenzyme, 169, 178 Cofactor, 178, 206, 214, 224 Collapse, 87, 173, 178 Colloidal, 20, 68, 165, 178, 185, 188, 210, 219, 223 Communis, 12, 178 Complement, 5, 166, 178, 179, 212, 219 Complementary and alternative medicine, 53, 61, 179 Complementary medicine, 53, 179 Computational Biology, 147, 179 Conception, 179, 180, 189 Condoms, 73, 179 Conjugated, 8, 57, 171, 179, 182 Conjugation, 45, 46, 48, 179 Conjunctiva, 179, 198 Connective Tissue, 66, 74, 88, 169, 173, 178, 179, 180, 191, 193, 200, 203, 218 Connective Tissue Cells, 179, 180 Constipation, 141, 180, 199 Constriction, 180, 199, 226 Consumption, 67, 111, 122, 131, 180, 183, 207, 209 Contact dermatitis, 67, 82, 180 Contamination, 67, 81, 96, 130, 131, 180 Contraception, 88, 180 Contraindications, ii, 180 Controlled clinical trial, 10, 180 Controlled study, 56, 180 Coordination, 10, 180 Cornea, 11, 168, 180, 192, 200 Corneum, 180, 187 Coronary, 175, 180, 203, 205 Coronary heart disease, 175, 180 Coronary Thrombosis, 180, 203, 205 Corrosion, 109, 180 Corticosteroid, 180, 213 Cortisol, 165, 181 Cranial, 4, 181, 194, 210 Culture Media, 164, 181 Curative, 181, 223 Cutaneous, 80, 174, 180, 181 Cyclic, 181, 193, 206, 211 Cyclodextrins, 77, 181 Cysteine, 181, 223 Cytokine, 5, 6, 24, 38, 181, 210

Cytoplasm, 168, 170, 176, 181, 187, 193, 205, 206 Cytotoxic, 23, 113, 181, 216 Cytotoxicity, 74, 165, 181 D Dairy Products, 96, 181 Databases, Bibliographic, 147, 181 Daunorubicin, 181, 184 Deamination, 181, 226 Decarboxylation, 181, 195 Decidua, 181, 211 Decubitus, 181, 182, 220 Decubitus Ulcer, 182, 220 Degenerative, 74, 182, 202, 208, 217, 218 Dehydration, 9, 182 Deletion, 168, 182 Dendrites, 182, 206 Dendritic, 5, 182, 203 Dendritic cell, 5, 182 Density, 85, 122, 173, 176, 182, 201, 208, 212 Dental Caries, 182 Dental Cements, 165, 182, 227 Dental implant, 19, 182 Dental Plaque, 26, 32, 182 Deoxycholic Acid, 49, 182 Deoxyribonucleic, 182, 218 Deoxyribonucleic acid, 182, 218 Dermal, 14, 73, 182 Dermatitis, 182, 185 DES, 48, 166, 182 Detergents, 93, 182, 220 Deuterium, 182, 195 Developed Countries, 183, 190 Dextran Sulfate, 14, 40, 183 Diabetes Mellitus, 183, 194, 207 Diagnostic procedure, 65, 140, 183 Dialyzer, 183, 194 Diamines, 76, 183 Diarrhea, 183, 190, 199 Diclofenac, 40, 47, 183 Diclofenac Sodium, 40, 47, 183 Dietary Fats, 75, 183, 201 Dietary Fiber, 108, 183 Diffusion, 10, 116, 172, 174, 183, 193, 196 Digestion, 130, 165, 171, 173, 183, 199, 201, 210, 222, 226 Digestive system, 183, 205 Dihydroxy, 183, 188 Dilation, 173, 183 Diploid, 183, 211

Index 233

Direct, iii, 12, 94, 96, 115, 119, 177, 183, 184, 202, 215, 217 Disinfectant, 96, 176, 183, 187, 199 Dissociation, 164, 183, 199 Distal, 114, 184, 185, 213, 215 Diuretic, 166, 184, 221 Dopamine, 184, 203 Doxorubicin, 15, 19, 41, 42, 184 Drive, ii, vi, 39, 184, 197 Drug Carriers, 13, 184 Drug Delivery Systems, 49, 126, 184 Drug Interactions, 35, 184 Drug Tolerance, 184, 224 Duct, 175, 184, 188, 218 Duodenal Ulcer, 94, 184 Duodenum, 171, 184, 191, 222 Dyes, 57, 76, 119, 166, 170, 171, 184, 190, 206, 211 Dysphagia, 9, 184 Dysplasia, 10, 184 Dysplastic nevi, 10, 184 E Eczema, 82, 185 Edema, 180, 185, 225 Effector, 5, 163, 178, 185, 206, 211 Effector cell, 5, 185, 206 Efficacy, 4, 7, 8, 15, 26, 40, 56, 71, 80, 132, 185 Effusion, 185, 223 Elasticity, 69, 169, 185 Elastin, 81, 178, 185, 188 Elective, 35, 59, 185 Electrocoagulation, 178, 185 Electrode, 6, 55, 59, 175, 185 Electrolyte, 110, 180, 185, 192, 213, 220, 225 Electrons, 109, 168, 170, 171, 175, 185, 199, 209, 216 Electrophoresis, 41, 185, 197 Elementary Particles, 185, 206, 215 Emboli, 185 Embolization, 185 Embryo, 26, 172, 185, 197, 209 Embryogenesis, 88, 185 Emetic, 186, 227 Emodin, 165, 186 Emollient, 186, 192, 207 Emulsion, 40, 47, 85, 106, 186, 190 Enamel, 182, 186, 200 Encapsulated, 8, 34, 40, 186 Endocarditis, 174, 186 Endocytosis, 8, 186

Endothelial cell, 24, 28, 186, 189, 224 Endothelium, 25, 74, 186, 206 Endothelium, Lymphatic, 186 Endothelium, Vascular, 186 Endothelium-derived, 186, 206 Endotoxic, 186, 201 Endotoxin, 27, 186 End-stage renal, 177, 186 Enhancer, 26, 32, 89, 122, 186 Enkephalin, 58, 186 Environmental Health, 146, 148, 187 Enzymatic, 53, 57, 58, 123, 174, 179, 182, 187, 195 Enzyme Inhibitors, 16, 54, 187, 212 Eosinophil, 187, 193 Ephedrine, 71, 187 Epidemiological, 82, 187 Epidermal, 86, 187, 200, 203 Epidermis, 34, 180, 187, 195, 200, 213 Epidermoid carcinoma, 22, 187, 221 Epigastric, 187, 209 Epithelial, 8, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 32, 34, 44, 79, 172, 181, 187, 192, 200, 210 Epithelial Cells, 22, 24, 25, 26, 32, 44, 187, 200 Epithelium, 37, 111, 170, 186, 187 Erectile, 74, 187, 210 Erection, 187 Erythema, 180, 187, 226 Erythrocytes, 167, 173, 184, 187, 217, 219 Esophagus, 183, 187, 211, 222 Esterification, 10, 187 Ethanol, 6, 78, 91, 107, 127, 129, 187 Ether, 78, 114, 188 Ethylene Glycol, 27, 38, 79, 188 Evacuation, 180, 188, 191, 200 Excipient, 17, 29, 188, 193 Exocrine, 188, 209 Exogenous, 74, 164, 185, 188, 214 Expander, 188, 213 Expectorant, 166, 188 Expiration, 188, 217 External-beam radiation, 188, 199, 216, 227 Extracellular, 12, 19, 88, 166, 169, 171, 179, 180, 186, 188, 189, 208, 220 Extracellular Matrix, 19, 88, 179, 180, 188, 189, 208 Extracellular Matrix Proteins, 19, 188 Extracellular Space, 188 Extraction, 123, 188 Exudate, 188, 193, 208

234 Chitosan

Eye Infections, 163, 188 F Family Planning, 147, 188 Fatty acids, 98, 124, 165, 189, 192, 214, 220, 224 Febrile, 189, 215 Feces, 94, 180, 189, 222 Femoral, 115, 116, 189 Femoral Artery, 115, 189 Femur, 189 Fetus, 189, 211, 213, 226 Fibrin, 7, 78, 172, 189, 224 Fibrinogen, 78, 83, 189, 212, 224 Fibroblast Growth Factor, 23, 189 Fibroblasts, 14, 15, 25, 34, 36, 180, 189 Fibronectins, 188, 189 Filler, 101, 189 Filtration, 77, 83, 189 Fissure, 178, 189 Fistula, 189, 207 Fixation, 189, 219 Flatus, 190, 191 Flavoring Agents, 190, 211 Fluorouracil, 13, 35, 48, 190 Fold, 73, 122, 189, 190 Food Additives, 92, 123, 190 Food Coloring Agents, 190 Food Preservatives, 190 Food Technology, 76, 190 Foodborne Illness, 131, 190 Foramen, 178, 190 Forearm, 172, 190, 216 Fractionation, 166, 190 Freeze-dried, 9, 33, 190 Friction, 66, 190, 202 Fungi, 67, 72, 73, 93, 101, 102, 167, 179, 188, 190, 191, 204, 227 Fungicide, 131, 190 Fungistatic, 171, 190, 221 Fungus, 12, 50, 72, 92, 174, 190 G Gadolinium, 46, 47, 191 Gallbladder, 163, 171, 183, 191 Gamma irradiation, 47, 191 Gastric, 94, 111, 122, 166, 170, 191, 194, 195, 210 Gastric Acid, 166, 191 Gastric Emptying, 111, 191 Gastrin, 191, 195 Gastritis, 191, 194

Gastrointestinal, 48, 66, 75, 89, 95, 122, 126, 173, 187, 190, 191, 201, 219, 220, 222, 225 Gastrointestinal tract, 66, 75, 89, 122, 126, 187, 191, 201, 219, 220, 225 Gelatin, 33, 35, 37, 46, 76, 87, 89, 124, 181, 191, 192, 223 Gels, 31, 55, 77, 80, 127, 191 Gene Expression, 7, 113, 191 Genetic Code, 191, 207 Genetics, 179, 191, 204 Genotype, 191, 211 Germanium, 79, 191 Gestation, 191, 211 Gland, 191, 202, 209, 211, 214, 218, 219, 222, 224 Glucans, 181, 191 Glucocorticoid, 192, 213 Glucose, 6, 31, 70, 93, 95, 108, 122, 132, 169, 172, 176, 181, 183, 191, 192, 194, 198, 218, 221 Glucuronic Acid, 192, 194 Glutamate, 6, 68, 192 Glycerol, 48, 192, 211 Glycerophospholipids, 192, 211 Glycine, 78, 128, 171, 182, 192 Glycols, 126, 192 Glycoprotein, 95, 189, 192, 193, 200, 224 Glycosaminoglycan, 88, 177, 192 Glycosidic, 176, 192, 206, 208 Glycyrrhetinic Acid, 192 Glycyrrhiza, 132, 192 Goats, 181, 192 Goblet Cells, 5, 192 Gonadal, 192, 222 Gonadotropin, 174, 192 Governing Board, 193, 213 Grade, 10, 193 Graft, 4, 27, 38, 46, 48, 78, 120, 193, 195 Gram-negative, 67, 94, 186, 193, 194, 207 Gram-positive, 67, 193, 207, 221, 222 Granulation Tissue, 81, 193 Granulocyte-Macrophage ColonyStimulating Factor, 48, 193 Granulocytes, 193, 201, 227 Growth, 6, 8, 11, 15, 28, 69, 72, 91, 102, 116, 119, 120, 167, 168, 170, 176, 181, 189, 190, 193, 194, 202, 206, 207, 208, 211, 219, 220, 224, 225 Growth factors, 6, 69, 119, 120, 193 Guanylate Cyclase, 193, 206 Gum Arabic, 87, 124, 193

Index 235

H Habitual, 176, 193 Haemodialysis, 32, 193 Haemostasis, 116, 193 Hair follicles, 193, 222, 227 Haploid, 193, 211 Haptens, 164, 194 Headache, 194, 198 Heart attack, 75, 175, 194 Heart failure, 187, 194 Helicobacter, 94, 194 Helicobacter pylori, 94, 194 Heme, 26, 171, 194 Hemodialysis, 36, 174, 183, 194 Hemoglobin, 69, 167, 172, 187, 194, 201 Hemolytic, 83, 194 Hemorrhage, 172, 185, 194, 222 Hemostasis, 49, 115, 194, 219 Heparin, 8, 23, 27, 28, 31, 34, 35, 43, 56, 66, 88, 96, 117, 194 Hepatic, 165, 195 Hepatocyte, 27, 28, 195 Heredity, 191, 195 Heterogeneity, 164, 195 Heterotrophic, 79, 190, 195 Histamine, 71, 166, 168, 177, 195, 214 Histidine, 195 Histology, 15, 195 Holmium, 14, 195 Homogeneous, 108, 169, 195 Homologous, 181, 195, 219 Hormonal, 170, 180, 195 Hormone, 11, 111, 115, 130, 174, 180, 181, 182, 191, 195, 198, 199, 207, 214, 218, 220, 224 Horny layer, 187, 195 Host, 7, 170, 174, 195, 196, 201, 217, 226, 227 Hybrid, 45, 57, 124, 195 Hybridization, 195, 204 Hybridoma, 35, 195 Hydration, 88, 195 Hydrochloric Acid, 76, 122, 176, 195 Hydrogel, 7, 8, 10, 24, 30, 40, 54, 63, 64, 79, 80, 126, 128, 195 Hydrogen, 84, 163, 166, 170, 175, 182, 188, 195, 201, 204, 205, 206, 209, 210, 215 Hydrolysis, 4, 169, 176, 196, 206, 212, 215 Hydrophilic, 24, 44, 68, 79, 82, 99, 103, 182, 195, 196 Hydrophobic, 45, 50, 103, 104, 182, 192, 196, 201

Hydroxylysine, 178, 196 Hydroxyproline, 178, 196 Hygienic, 196, 220 Hypercholesterolemia, 22, 24, 43, 196 Hyperlipidemia, 130, 196 Hyperlipoproteinemia, 130, 196 Hypersensitivity, 5, 165, 187, 196, 201, 218, 219 Hypertension, 169, 175, 194, 196, 207, 225 Hypothalamus, 170, 186, 196, 211, 220 I Ibuprofen, 10, 43, 196 Id, 51, 60, 152, 158, 160, 196 Iliac Artery, 189, 196 Immersion, 128, 170, 196 Immune response, 5, 74, 88, 120, 164, 167, 168, 181, 194, 196, 197, 219, 222, 226, 227 Immune Sera, 196 Immune system, 81, 168, 172, 185, 196, 197, 201, 202, 226, 227 Immunity, 5, 80, 102, 108, 165, 196, 197, 225 Immunization, 80, 113, 196, 219 Immunodiffusion, 164, 196, 197 Immunoelectrophoresis, 164, 197 Immunogenic, 5, 197, 201 Immunoglobulin, 95, 167, 197, 205 Immunologic, 176, 196, 197, 210, 216 Immunological adjuvant, 5, 197 Immunology, 25, 58, 164, 197 Immunosuppressant, 190, 197 Implant radiation, 197, 198, 199, 216, 227 Impotence, 187, 197 Impregnation, 46, 99, 127, 197 Impulse Control Disorders, 86, 197 In situ, 31, 124, 197 In vitro, 4, 8, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 42, 46, 49, 55, 59, 197, 224 Incision, 197, 199 Incisional, 20, 197 Incontinence, 187, 197, 208 Incubation, 113, 197 Incubation period, 113, 197 Indicative, 5, 88, 135, 197, 209, 226 Indomethacin, 42, 197 Induction, 5, 12, 29, 113, 197 Inertia, 120, 198 Infarction, 198 Infection, 70, 80, 88, 113, 129, 168, 172, 174, 176, 177, 188, 190, 196, 198, 202, 218, 222, 226, 227

236 Chitosan

Influenza, 80, 198 Infusion, 198, 225 Ingestion, 75, 198, 203, 212 Inhalation, 164, 198, 212 Initiation, 13, 198 Inorganic, 57, 83, 91, 100, 125, 176, 198, 205, 206, 207, 223 Insulin, 19, 26, 31, 43, 75, 79, 198, 199 Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, 198 Interleukin-1, 38, 198 Interleukin-2, 23, 198 Intermittent, 87, 198 Internal Medicine, 4, 198, 218 Internal radiation, 198, 199, 216, 227 Interstitial, 173, 188, 198, 199, 227 Intestinal, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 30, 31, 32, 37, 40, 44, 54, 74, 79, 108, 111, 182, 194, 199 Intestine, 111, 171, 173, 199, 200, 222 Intracellular, 8, 198, 199, 206, 213, 216 Intramuscular, 80, 199, 209 Intravascular, 16, 199 Intravenous, 7, 198, 199, 209 Intrinsic, 164, 170, 199 Intubation, 175, 199 Invasive, 7, 9, 88, 116, 196, 199 Invertebrates, 93, 122, 199 Iodine, 81, 96, 199 Iodophors, 96, 199 Ionization, 199 Ionizing, 128, 165, 199, 216 Ions, 57, 70, 127, 170, 183, 185, 195, 199, 215 Irradiation, 95, 120, 199, 227 Irritable Bowel Syndrome, 199, 208 Ischemia, 115, 170, 182, 199 Islet, 21, 24, 199 Isopropyl, 91, 199 J Joint, 169, 200, 208, 223 Joint Capsule, 200, 223 K Kallidin, 173, 200 Kb, 146, 200 Keloid, 36, 200 Keratan Sulfate, 88, 200 Keratin, 75, 76, 200, 218 Keratinocytes, 36, 200 Kinetic, 45, 57, 199, 200 L Labile, 178, 200 Laminin, 45, 48, 57, 170, 188, 200

Large Intestine, 126, 175, 183, 199, 200, 217, 220 Larynx, 200, 224 Lavage, 5, 200 Laxative, 164, 175, 186, 200, 203, 221 Lectin, 41, 200 Lens, 168, 201, 217 Lesion, 201, 225 Lethal, 170, 201 Leucine, 58, 201 Leucocyte, 83, 165, 187, 201 Leukemia, 29, 163, 184, 201 Leukocytes, 16, 170, 173, 176, 193, 197, 201, 205, 206 Leukotrienes, 169, 201 Library Services, 158, 201 Life cycle, 172, 190, 201 Ligaments, 74, 180, 201 Ligands, 8, 31, 201 Linkages, 192, 194, 201, 206 Lipase, 10, 64, 123, 201, 208 Lipid, 40, 44, 54, 75, 122, 130, 168, 169, 174, 192, 198, 201, 208, 209, 225 Lipid A, 54, 122, 201, 208 Lipid Peroxidation, 201, 209 Lipophilic, 57, 58, 201 Lipopolysaccharides, 201 Lipoprotein, 24, 193, 201, 202 Liver, 26, 116, 132, 163, 165, 169, 171, 183, 186, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 201, 220, 226 Local Government, 104, 202 Localized, 182, 186, 190, 198, 200, 202, 211, 225, 226 Locomotion, 202, 211 Low-density lipoprotein, 201, 202 Lubricants, 202 Lubrication, 85, 202 Lucida, 200, 202 Lymph, 186, 202 Lymphatic, 186, 198, 202, 203, 220, 221, 224 Lymphocyte, 167, 202, 203 Lymphoid, 167, 193, 201, 202 Lysine, 49, 196, 202 M Macrophage, 74, 193, 198, 202 Macula, 202 Macula Lutea, 202 Macular Degeneration, 8, 202 Malignant, 10, 168, 169, 202, 206, 216 Malnutrition, 165, 170, 202

Index 237

Mammary, 202 Mandible, 166, 202, 217 Mannans, 190, 202 Mastitis, 96, 202 Meat, 125, 183, 202, 203 Meat Products, 183, 203 Medial, 169, 203 Mediate, 5, 184, 203 Mediator, 198, 203, 219 MEDLINE, 147, 203 Melanin, 132, 203 Melanocytes, 203 Melanoma, 10, 203 Membrane Glycoproteins, 80, 203 Meninges, 176, 203 Mesenchymal, 31, 69, 193, 203 Mesothelial, 66, 203 Metabolite, 203, 214 Metastasis, 48, 203 Metastatic, 26, 203, 219 Metastatic cancer, 26, 203 Methanol, 91, 203 Methionine, 94, 203, 223 Methylcellulose, 35, 59, 124, 203 Metoclopramide, 42, 203 MI, 86, 161, 203 Microbe, 54, 102, 203, 224 Microbiological, 72, 131, 204 Microbiology, 25, 40, 58, 80, 163, 171, 204 Microorganism, 178, 204, 209, 227 Micro-organism, 70, 182, 194, 204 Microscopy, 20, 38, 170, 204 Migration, 5, 88, 204, 210 Mineralization, 174, 204 Mitochondrial Swelling, 204, 206 Mitomycin, 26, 204 Mitosis, 7, 168, 204 Mobility, 77, 204 Mobilization, 42, 204 Modeling, 45, 57, 204 Modification, 36, 41, 47, 69, 100, 204, 215 Molecular mass, 25, 29, 44, 204 Molecular Probes, 88, 204 Monoclonal, 199, 205, 216, 227 Monocytes, 16, 198, 201, 205 Mononuclear, 205 Morphine, 33, 205, 208 Morphological, 185, 190, 203, 205 Morphology, 103, 205 Motility, 74, 197, 205, 219 Mucins, 182, 192, 205, 218 Mucociliary, 17, 205

Mucosa, 9, 89, 205 Mucositis, 9, 205 Mucus, 5, 21, 188, 205 Musculoskeletal System, 66, 205, 208 Myalgia, 198, 205 Myeloma, 195, 205 Myocardial infarction, 130, 180, 203, 205 Myocardium, 203, 205 N Narcolepsy, 187, 205 Narcotic, 205 Nasal Cavity, 89, 205, 225 Nasal Mucosa, 198, 205 Nasal Septum, 205 NCI, 1, 145, 177, 205 Necrosis, 117, 168, 198, 203, 205, 206 Need, 7, 66, 69, 70, 72, 83, 97, 98, 99, 105, 111, 113, 115, 137, 140, 153, 164, 177, 206, 224 Neoplasm, 206, 225 Nerve, 31, 70, 164, 167, 182, 203, 206, 217, 218, 222 Nerve Endings, 70, 206 Nervous System, 170, 176, 203, 206, 210, 223 Neuraminidase, 80, 206 Neuroeffector Junction, 206 Neurons, 182, 206, 223 Neutralization, 102, 206 Neutrons, 165, 199, 206, 216 Neutrophils, 193, 201, 206 Nickel, 56, 82, 206 Nitrates, 206, 207 Nitric Oxide, 73, 74, 107, 206 Nitrobacter, 79, 207 Nitrogen, 74, 79, 115, 164, 165, 166, 188, 190, 204, 207, 225 Nitrogen Compounds, 79, 207 Nitrogen Oxides, 74, 207 Nitrosomonas, 79, 207 Norepinephrine, 164, 184, 187, 207 Nuclear, 14, 178, 179, 185, 191, 206, 207 Nuclei, 165, 179, 185, 204, 206, 207, 215 Nucleic acid, 121, 191, 195, 207, 218 Nucleus, 168, 170, 171, 177, 181, 182, 185, 205, 206, 207, 215, 220 Nutritional Status, 9, 207 Nutritive Value, 190, 207 O Octreotide, 30, 207 Ocular, 8, 207 Odour, 103, 169, 207, 225

238 Chitosan

Ofloxacin, 67, 68, 207 Ointments, 207, 220, 227 Oligosaccharides, 12, 70, 206, 208 Opacity, 182, 208 Ophthalmic, 67, 68, 208, 213 Opium, 205, 208 Orbital, 178, 208 Organ Culture, 208, 224 Organelles, 176, 181, 203, 205, 208 Orlistat, 22, 208 Orthopaedic, 19, 208 Orthopedics, 120, 208 Orthostatic, 207, 208 Osmotic, 165, 204, 208, 219 Ossification, 208 Osteoarthritis, 71, 74, 208 Osteoblasts, 19, 208 Osteoclasts, 4, 208 Osteogenesis, 125, 208 Osteotomy, 7, 209 Outpatient, 6, 209 Overweight, 14, 22, 43, 51, 53, 209 Oxidation, 75, 76, 132, 163, 168, 201, 207, 209 Oxidative Stress, 44, 209 Oxides, 114, 207, 209 Oxygen Consumption, 209, 217 P Palate, 9, 209 Palliative, 9, 209, 223 Palliative therapy, 9, 209 Pancreas, 116, 163, 172, 183, 198, 199, 201, 209, 220, 225 Pancreatic, 209 Pancreatitis, 130, 209 Parasitic, 171, 209 Parenteral, 80, 209 Particle, 130, 209 Patch, 209, 225 Pathogen, 24, 96, 129, 130, 194, 197, 209 Pathologic, 168, 174, 180, 196, 209, 210, 217, 226 Pathologic Processes, 168, 210 Pathologies, 74, 210 Patient Compliance, 89, 210 Penis, 179, 210 Pentoxifylline, 22, 210 Peptic, 194, 210 Peptic Ulcer, 194, 210 Peptide, 5, 10, 17, 26, 32, 37, 38, 45, 48, 54, 57, 58, 68, 88, 95, 110, 189, 200, 210, 212, 214, 215

Perciformes, 210, 218 Perineum, 210, 222 Periodontal disease, 8, 210 Periodontal Pocket, 8, 210 Periodontitis, 9, 210 Peripheral Nervous System, 210, 213, 221, 222 Peroral, 17, 54, 58, 210 Pesticides, 171, 210 Petrolatum, 186, 210 PH, 28, 63, 210 Pharmaceutic Aids, 190, 210 Pharmaceutical Preparations, 98, 176, 187, 191, 210, 211, 214, 220 Pharmacologic, 167, 170, 211, 224 Pharynx, 198, 205, 211 Phenolphthalein, 186, 211 Phenotypes, 5, 211 Phenyl, 90, 211 Phlebitis, 89, 211 Phosphodiesterase, 210, 211 Phospholipids, 87, 124, 189, 201, 211 Phosphorus, 109, 174, 211 Phosphorylated, 25, 44, 178, 211 Photocoagulation, 178, 211 Physiologic, 74, 164, 168, 172, 211, 216, 217 Pigment, 8, 123, 171, 203, 211 Pilot study, 19, 33, 55, 59, 211 Pituitary Gland, 180, 189, 211 Placenta, 132, 211, 214 Plaque, 8, 25, 44, 176, 211 Plasma cells, 167, 193, 205, 212 Plasma protein, 83, 165, 186, 212, 215, 219 Plasmid, 38, 113, 212, 226 Plasticity, 116, 212 Platelet Aggregation, 166, 206, 210, 212, 224 Platelets, 7, 83, 206, 212, 224 Pleated, 200, 212 Pledget, 114, 212 Pleural, 203, 212 Poisoning, 190, 212 Polyethylene, 27, 78, 82, 111, 126, 212 Polyethylene Glycols, 126, 212 Polypeptide, 166, 178, 189, 195, 212, 220, 227 Polyphosphates, 129, 212 Polyvinyl Alcohol, 81, 82, 99, 124, 126, 213 Porosity, 116, 213 Posterior, 166, 209, 213 Postnatal, 213, 222 Potassium, 73, 192, 213, 220

Index 239

Potentiates, 198, 213 Potentiating, 97, 213 Povidone, 81, 213 Practice Guidelines, 148, 213 Precipitation, 78, 213 Precursor, 7, 41, 130, 169, 184, 185, 187, 207, 213, 214, 215, 225 Prednisolone, 30, 213 Prenatal, 185, 213 Presynaptic, 206, 213 Presynaptic Terminals, 206, 213 Prevalence, 70, 213 Prickle, 200, 213 Prodrug, 56, 214 Progeny, 179, 214 Progesterone, 214, 222 Progression, 167, 214 Progressive, 169, 177, 184, 193, 206, 208, 214, 225 Proline, 178, 196, 214 Promethazine, 177, 214 Promoter, 110, 214 Promyelocytic leukemia, 29, 214 Prone, 6, 214 Prophylaxis, 4, 113, 214, 217, 226 Propylene Glycol, 67, 214 Prostaglandins, 169, 197, 214 Prostaglandins A, 197, 214 Prostate, 172, 214, 225 Prosthesis, 69, 73, 214 Protease, 59, 110, 123, 214 Protein Binding, 126, 214 Protein C, 7, 110, 165, 166, 168, 170, 200, 201, 214, 226 Protein S, 95, 136, 172, 191, 214 Proteoglycans, 45, 170, 188, 215 Proteolytic, 165, 178, 189, 215 Prothrombin, 215, 224 Protons, 165, 195, 199, 215, 216 Protozoa, 179, 204, 215 Proximal, 184, 205, 213, 215 Pruritic, 185, 215 Psychiatric, 87, 215 Psychiatry, 189, 215 Psyllium, 75, 215 Public Policy, 147, 215 Publishing, 12, 215 Pulmonary, 74, 172, 177, 180, 201, 215, 217, 223 Pulmonary Artery, 172, 215 Pulmonary Edema, 177, 215 Pulmonary hypertension, 74, 215

Pyrexia, 83, 215 Q Quality of Life, 9, 209, 215 Quaternary, 92, 215 R Race, 10, 68, 90, 204, 215 Radial Artery, 116, 215 Radiation, 40, 82, 128, 185, 188, 190, 191, 198, 199, 216, 227 Radiation therapy, 188, 190, 191, 198, 199, 216, 227 Radioactive, 195, 197, 198, 199, 204, 207, 216, 227 Radiolabeled, 199, 216, 227 Radiotherapy, 173, 199, 216, 227 Radius, 216 Random Allocation, 216 Randomization, 10, 216 Randomized, 18, 34, 58, 185, 216 Reagent, 69, 77, 108, 177, 183, 195, 216 Receptor, 8, 11, 71, 163, 167, 184, 216, 219 Receptors, Serotonin, 216, 219 Recombinant, 5, 6, 78, 216, 226 Recombination, 179, 216 Reconstitution, 75, 216 Rectum, 89, 183, 190, 191, 197, 200, 214, 217, 223 Recuperation, 73, 217 Red blood cells, 83, 187, 194, 217, 218 Refer, 1, 119, 173, 178, 189, 190, 202, 206, 213, 217 Refraction, 217, 221 Regeneration, 17, 31, 66, 69, 88, 119, 189, 216, 217 Regimen, 185, 210, 217 Resolving, 90, 217 Resorption, 4, 208, 217 Respiration, 11, 85, 106, 175, 217 Respiratory syncytial virus, 113, 217 Respiratory System, 205, 217 Restoration, 216, 217, 218, 227 Retina, 201, 202, 217, 218 Retinoids, 217 Retinol, 132, 217 Retinopathy, 8, 211, 217 Retrovirus, 7, 217 Rheology, 64, 210, 217 Rheumatism, 196, 218 Rheumatoid, 14, 218 Rheumatoid arthritis, 14, 218 Rheumatology, 74, 218 Rhinitis, 177, 187, 218

240 Chitosan

Rhinovirus, 71, 218 Ribonucleic acid, 97, 218 Rigidity, 211, 218 Risk factor, 110, 218 Rod, 170, 207, 218 S Salicylic, 129, 218 Saline, 218 Saliva, 25, 44, 218 Salivary, 182, 183, 218 Salivary glands, 182, 183, 218 Sanitary, 98, 99, 103, 218 Sanitation, 84, 131, 218 Saponins, 218, 222 Scleroproteins, 200, 218 Sclerosis, 169, 218 Screening, 43, 178, 218 Sea Bream, 123, 218 Sebaceous, 71, 218, 227 Sebaceous gland, 71, 218, 227 Sebum, 218 Secondary tumor, 203, 219 Secretion, 5, 36, 180, 195, 198, 205, 207, 219, 226 Secretory, 80, 206, 219 Sedentary, 75, 219 Sediment, 104, 219 Self Care, 163, 219 Semisynthetic, 124, 166, 219 Sensitization, 82, 219 Sensor, 59, 219 Sequencing, 194, 219 Serotonin, 87, 216, 219, 225 Serous, 186, 219 Sertraline, 90, 219 Sertraline Hydrochloride, 90, 219 Serum, 6, 23, 29, 75, 80, 95, 98, 111, 130, 165, 166, 178, 192, 196, 202, 217, 219 Serum Albumin, 95, 219 Shock, 219, 225 Side effect, 9, 67, 71, 83, 87, 120, 141, 164, 172, 174, 219, 224 Skeletal, 93, 95, 200, 208, 219 Skeleton, 189, 200, 219 Skin Care, 103, 220 Skin graft, 28, 220 Small intestine, 175, 177, 184, 195, 199, 220 Smooth muscle, 165, 166, 170, 180, 195, 205, 220, 222 Soaps, 112, 220 Social Environment, 215, 220

Sodium, 17, 30, 47, 73, 85, 105, 106, 112, 124, 173, 183, 220 Sodium Benzoate, 85, 106, 220 Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate, 105, 220 Solid tumor, 167, 172, 184, 220 Solitary Nucleus, 170, 220 Solvent, 10, 90, 93, 96, 97, 115, 171, 187, 192, 203, 208, 214, 220 Somatic, 185, 204, 210, 220 Somatic cells, 204, 220 Somatostatin, 30, 207, 220 Sorbic Acid, 129, 221 Sorbitol, 112, 221 Spasmodic, 163, 221 Specialist, 153, 183, 221 Species, 6, 10, 12, 55, 72, 111, 181, 193, 195, 204, 205, 207, 209, 215, 218, 221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227 Specificity, 80, 164, 221 Spectrum, 67, 68, 73, 221 Spinal cord, 66, 169, 170, 173, 176, 177, 203, 206, 210, 221, 223 Spinous, 187, 200, 221 Spleen, 195, 202, 221 Squamous, 187, 221 Squamous cell carcinoma, 187, 221 Stabilization, 118, 221 Stabilizer, 95, 175, 221 Standardize, 10, 221 Staphylococcus, 70, 221, 222 Staphylococcus aureus, 70, 222 Stem Cells, 31, 222 Sterilization, 73, 84, 95, 129, 222 Steroid, 130, 171, 181, 218, 222 Stimulant, 195, 200, 222 Stimulus, 184, 185, 222 Stomach, 33, 82, 94, 111, 122, 126, 163, 170, 174, 183, 187, 191, 195, 200, 211, 220, 221, 222 Stool, 197, 199, 200, 222 Streptococci, 25, 96, 222 Stress, 119, 170, 181, 199, 209, 218, 222, 226 Stroke, 110, 146, 175, 222 Strontium, 124, 222 Styptic, 222, 227 Subacute, 198, 222 Subclinical, 198, 222 Subcutaneous, 44, 185, 209, 222 Subspecies, 221, 222 Substance P, 203, 216, 219, 222 Substrate, 6, 10, 14, 101, 104, 105, 107, 115, 127, 187, 206, 222

Index 241

Substrate Specificity, 6, 222 Suction, 189, 223 Sulfates, 220, 223 Sulfur, 109, 183, 188, 203, 223 Superoxide, 74, 223 Supplementation, 19, 54, 55, 223 Suppositories, 191, 223 Suppression, 54, 73, 180, 223 Surfactant, 88, 104, 105, 114, 220, 223 Suspensions, 85, 223 Sympathetic Nervous System, 170, 223 Symptomatic, 209, 223 Synergistic, 75, 110, 113, 130, 131, 223 Synovial, 74, 88, 200, 223 Synovial Fluid, 88, 223 Synovial Membrane, 74, 200, 223 Synovitis, 14, 223 Systemic, 97, 129, 172, 174, 198, 199, 213, 216, 223, 225, 227 T Taurine, 82, 171, 182, 223 Therapeutics, 121, 223 Thermal, 69, 183, 206, 223 Thigh, 189, 223 Thoracic, 66, 224 Thorax, 163, 224 Thrombin, 78, 189, 212, 214, 215, 224 Thrombocytes, 212, 224 Thrombomodulin, 214, 224 Thrombosis, 23, 43, 115, 117, 215, 222, 224 Thromboxanes, 169, 224 Thymus, 196, 202, 224 Thyroid, 199, 224 Thyroxine, 165, 224 Tissue Culture, 125, 224 Tissue Transplantation, 89, 224 Tolerance, 67, 224 Topical, 10, 37, 55, 82, 132, 169, 176, 187, 210, 220, 224, 227 Toxic, iv, 68, 72, 79, 80, 111, 119, 121, 171, 179, 181, 196, 203, 224 Toxicity, 10, 48, 67, 69, 72, 97, 175, 184, 186, 192, 224 Toxicology, 148, 224 Toxins, 81, 167, 192, 198, 224 Trace element, 178, 206, 224 Trachea, 26, 173, 188, 200, 211, 224 Transcriptase, 217, 225 Transdermal, 54, 225 Transfection, 17, 20, 21, 29, 31, 38, 42, 172, 225 Transfer Factor, 196, 225

Transfusion, 83, 188, 225 Transplantation, 21, 177, 196, 225 Trauma, 69, 194, 206, 209, 225 Triglyceride, 75, 196, 225 Trihalomethanes, 131, 225 Tryptophan, 178, 219, 225 Tuberculosis, 45, 180, 218, 225 Tumor marker, 172, 225 Tumour, 41, 225 Turbinates, 17, 225 U Ulcer, 94, 182, 184, 193, 210, 225 Ulceration, 9, 182, 225 Unconscious, 196, 225 Uraemia, 209, 225 Urea, 6, 67, 92, 225, 226 Urethane, 6, 226 Urinary, 187, 197, 226 Urine, 172, 184, 197, 226 Urticaria, 177, 226 Uterus, 181, 214, 226 V Vaccination, 18, 80, 226 Vaccine, 16, 37, 56, 80, 113, 164, 197, 226 Vacuoles, 186, 208, 226 Vagina, 89, 174, 182, 226 Vaginal, 17, 202, 226 Vaginitis, 174, 226 Vascular, 25, 74, 115, 165, 186, 193, 198, 206, 211, 226 Vasculitis, 209, 226 Vasoconstriction, 193, 226 Vasodilator, 173, 184, 195, 226 Vector, 20, 226 Vein, 117, 199, 207, 211, 226 Venous, 215, 226 Venules, 173, 174, 186, 226 Vertebrae, 221, 226 Veterinary Medicine, 147, 226 Viral, 5, 7, 8, 17, 42, 70, 80, 113, 189, 198, 217, 226 Viral vector, 7, 17, 42, 226 Virulence, 224, 226 Virus, 5, 7, 70, 80, 113, 170, 186, 212, 217, 226, 227 Visceral, 66, 170, 227 Visceral Afferents, 170, 227 Viscosity, 50, 81, 85, 92, 100, 106, 122, 217, 227 Vitro, 9, 195, 227

242 Chitosan

Vivo, 4, 7, 9, 17, 18, 23, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 42, 45, 49, 56, 59, 80, 88, 102, 121, 184, 195, 197, 224, 227 Vulgaris, 71, 227 W Weight Gain, 111, 227 White blood cell, 167, 201, 202, 205, 212, 227 Wound Healing, 6, 15, 17, 20, 23, 28, 34, 37, 60, 66, 73, 81, 88, 89, 96, 177, 189, 227

X Xenograft, 167, 227 X-ray, 30, 46, 175, 191, 199, 207, 216, 221, 227 X-ray therapy, 199, 227 Y Yeasts, 174, 190, 227 Z Zinc Acetate, 85, 106, 227 Zinc Oxide, 227 Zygote, 179, 227 Zymogen, 214, 227

Index 243

244 Chitosan

Chitosan - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

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Hepatitis A Vaccine: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, And Annotated Research Guide To Internet References

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Butternut Squash: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, And Annotated Research Guide To Internet References

Facial Paralysis - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

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Lipomas - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

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Cephalexin - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, And Annotated Research Guide To Internet References

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Foot and Mouth Disease - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

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Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

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Peanut Allergy: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, And Annotated Research Guide To Internet References

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Cephalexin - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

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Dermabrasion: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

Septra: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, And Annotated Research Guide To Internet References

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Alopecia Areata - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

Endometritis - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

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