The Coptic Encyclopaedia

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The Coptic Encyclopedia

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Editors and Consultants Editor In Chief Aziz S. Aliya Ullivcrsily of Utah EdItOnl William Y. Adams University of Kell1/lcky Basilios IV

Archbishop of lemsalem PieTTC du Bf)urguet, SJ. Lollvre Museum, Paris Rene-Georges Coquin College de France, "uris w. H. C. Fl'cnd GltUgow Univers;ly Mirri! BoUlI"OS Ghali

Society of Coptic Archaeology. Cairo Bishop Gregonos Higher Im;/iwle 0/ Caplic SlIldics. Cairo Peter Grossmann Germatl Il/stiW/e of Archaeology, Coiro AnlOine Guillaumont College de France, Paris

Rodolphe Kassel' Ulliversity 0/ Gelleva Martin Kr-.luSC

West/alische Wilhelms~U"iversilal, Milnsler Subhi Y. I...,bib Kid Ulliversily Tilo Orlandi University (If Rome Marian Rob(,rtson Ulah State University Khalil Samir Pontifical Oriental Ins/ilU.le, Rome Consultants Labib Haba(:hi Egypt/WI Depurlmelll of Antiquities, Cairo

J. M. Robinson h,slitllle of AIl/iquity alTd Chris/iallity, C/arCIIIOIlI, Colifomia Magdi Wahba Cairo Ulli,'ersity Editorial Managing Committee S. Kent Brown Brigham Young University, Provo Fuad Megally Polytechllh' of Cell/rol London

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Aziz S. Atiya EDITOR IN CHIEF

Volume 6

Macmillan Publishing Company NEW'rtJRJ(

Collier Macmillan Canada TORONlD

Maxwell Macmillan International NEW 'rtJRK· OXFORD· SINGAPORE· SYDNEY

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Copyright C 1991 by Macmillan Publishing Company A Division of Macmillan, Inc.

All righLS reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any fonn or by any means, electronic or mechanical. including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and rClrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 200, Don Mills, Ontario M3C JNl Library of Congress c..,talog Card No.: 90-23448 Printed in the United Slates of America

printing number

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Library of Congress Cataloging·in-Publication Dala

The Coptic encyclopedia p.

I Aziz S. Atiya, editor-in-chicf.

em.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN O·02·897025-X (set) 1. Coplic Church-Dictionaries. 2. Copts-Diclionaries. I. Atiya, Aziz S., 1898BXI30.5.C66 1991 281 '.7'03-dc20

90-23448 CIP

The preparation of this volume was made possible in pal1 by a groint from the National Endowment for lhe Humanities, an independent federal agency. Photographs on pages 567, 736, 754, 755, 790. 791, 876-878, 1284. 1311, and 2168 arc reproduced courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Photography by the Egyptian Expedition.

(continued)

MUHAOHOHAB A....oIN ABO SA'ln IBN ARt SULAYMAN, physician son of Abi SuJ3ymflll D;'iwlid ibn Abi 31·Muna ibn Abl Fanah from whom, 3mong OIhers, he learned medicine, and brolher of AaO ALFAQL IBN ADI SUL\yM.\N and of Abu Sh:iklr ibn AbT Sulnymiin, to whom he laught Ihe 3n of medicine. He wa.~ a skilled uoclor, respected and wilh a good position at coun. The suhlln al-M;lllk al·'Adil (1200-1218), for whom he worked, app..inted him to the sentlee of his son ai-Malik al-Mu'~m. He also worked as physician for ai-Malik al-Nl\sir Salt\h • • • ai-DIn. He moved to Egypt and remained there umil his death in 1216, He wns buried at Diir ~i·Khandaq in ClIiro. While in D(llna~ell~ he also taught his nephew Rashid ai-DIn AnO t.tUL\YUAIl, PENE,;WPE JOHNSTONE

MUI:fAMMAD 'ALI, VICEROY. See Mu~am. mad 'All Dynasty.

MUJ:lAMMAD 'ALI DYNASTY, a family dial ruled Egypt for about a eenlury and a half (1805-

1691

1952). The following is a brid survcy of Ihe line of succession, with panicular reference to Ihe role played by the Copts during Ihe time of each ruler. Dales refer 10 the yean of their accession and demise or abdication.

Mubammad 'All, Viceroy (1805-1849) An outstanding soldier and statesman, Mu~am· mad 'All wa~ the founder of modem Egypt and of the dynasty that ruled the country until the 1952 revolution. Following the French Invasion or Egypl (1798), the sultan sent lin cltpedJtlooary force, including a contingent of Macedonlan Albanians, of whom Mu· J;lammad 'All W89 an officer. After the defent of the French and Iheir departure in 1801. Mu~ammad 'All stayed on and watched the ensuing confusion and struggle for power between the MamJuks, the OUOman governor, and the Egyptian people, whieh he eltploited for his own benefit. In 1805, having won the contidence of the inhabi· tants, he was asked by Ihe '«/emas (the Muslim) 10 become Iheir ruler, and Ihe sultan had 10 confirm him as governor (walI). MuJ;lanullad 'All was subsequently able; 10 gel rid of his rivals and become; the; unchallengcd master of the counlly. Ue

1692

MUI:IAMMAD 'ALi DYNASTY

now SCt out 10 Ir(lllSfQr'ln ~gypt into 1l powerful slate sclf·sulfidcnt economically, industrially, and ag,'icuhUl'ally. 1·le rcbuih [he army alld the navy,

with which he achic\'ed resounding succco;scs and victurics all lIround I;gypl. He Clltcndcd I,is influence into Arahia, the Sudan, Sy.ia. Crete, and Ana· tulia, upscuing the political balam;c in tht, arca. With their inl(~reslS seriously thre:uened, the for· cign powers intervened, and in 1840, Muhammad 'All's vast empire was reduced to Egypt and the Sudan. He ....'35 also given hereditary rule of Egypt. MuJ.tammad .All's physical and menial faculties deteriorated IOward the end of his life, and he died in 1849, 11is SOil Ib,..oIhim having prt:1.1l-'Ceas..'J him in 1848. Among the innucnlial Copt:; who scrYl'd under Mu~ammad 'All, supplying him with huge amounts or money from their pri\'lnc sources to finance his projects, WllS Mu'allim JIMJIS AIAAWHAII.I (d. 1810), and Mu'allim CHAw. Mu~ammad 'AIT also l.'mployed some Cop!.s in key lIdmi"istrtltive positions as gov· ernors or provinces: Riu: Asha in Sharqiyyah, Makram Agha in Atnt.l, Mikha'll "II:M in Fashn. and Bu!ru~ Agh1 in Bardls (Riy!~ Sury:\l. 1984. pp. 4950). II is said that when Muhammad 'All was approached by Europeans st.-cking 10 ronn a o.:ompany to finance the building or a canal between the Med· itcrranean and the Red Sea, Mu'allim Ghalj pointcd out to him the inherent danll:cr of such a "Olnpany to the sovereignty of Egypt.

'AbbAs J;ltlmll, Khedive (1813-1854) Frum the beginning of his reign. 'Abbfls l;Iilmi aimed at selling mles and policies contral)' to those of his predeccssol1l. He wanted to relieve the Egyp· tian economy of foreign pressure lmd inflllcnce by liquidating (III projects of economic growth inaugu· ntled by his gl1lndralher. Muhammad 'AIT, whicb, in his opinion, rendered the economy or Egypt suhser· vient to Eurupe, As " resull. he closed ,,11 modern factories and all higher schools, and decreased the l"orces of both the army and the navy. He believed that his grandfather had opened the door widll for Europe:tll influence :tnd weakellt.~ the Ottuman elllpil"e by the destruction of its rniHtal)' power in Egypt. Because uf his Otlumiln eduCiltiun ilnd upbl'inging, he lended to oppose the policies of both Mu~ammild 'Ali and Ibrahim. Cunscquentl.v, he de· viated from their policies and stal1ed pel-,;ccuting allthl.'ir fonner assistants in the European projects. In this way, 'Abb& thought to relUl'n Egypt to its

Islamic and Orienl:.1 Ch.\rtICler and lu fn:~ il frum Western ambitions. But soon lime Iwoved hi.~ gross misjudgment. In fact, even his l-elationship with lhe Supreme Pone or ConSlanlinupl1; deleriur,lted later bt.-cause of his allempt 10 suppress some of its administrative privileges gr,lnled under iln [846 treaty. Owing to BI'itain's fa\'Ot"llble position with Turkey, 'Abb.'is thought 10 ask Ihe English authorities to negotiate on his behalf with Ihe Suprenle Pune and in return offered the British a projeci of constructing a railW.lY linl; from Alexandria lu SUC"L via Cairo. In Ihe meantime, he insisted that this projecl should be rl,.-garded as an Egyptian one 10 avoid the infihm· tion or English influence into lhe country. This siluation was indin.'t:t1y afT«ted by the oul· break of the Climean War between Russia and Turkey. The czar olfc~d Britain the oppol1unity to occupy EiYiJt in return for giving him a rree h.md 10 seize cenain J13l1!i of Ottoman terrilOry. Accord· ingly, 'AbbAs hasH:Ilt.'t! 10 accept lhe Turkish sui· tan's proposal 10 cnler Ihe Crimenn War, by rein· forcing the Egyplian amlY and the ronifieiltion of hi~ own coa.~!.'1 against any JI'05-~ible incur.;ions by the British navy. In the lonll: run, Egypt W,lS able to escape all h37.ards precipitated by this Orienlal cri· sis. Internally, the viceroy enlertained lhe idea or lransport.ing the Coplic communily from Egypt to lhc Sudan and Ethiupl:l, thereby giving Egypl an unmixed Islamic color. Thl!! strange project was communicaled 10 Ihe Islnl1lie religious authurilY fur comment, and a clear' fulwo (religious opinion) was issued refuting this idea and informing lhe viceroy th,lt the Cupls were lhe ur'ill:innl inh'lbilnnls uf the land of Egypt and that their extelmination would he holh wrong and impractical. On 14 July 1854, 'Abbfl.~ was assassinated by a group uf eonspirnlurs from his own f:lmily in his own palace at Sanh:'. Al the lime or hi.~ death, the nlilwuy line had re'jehed Karr ill·Zayynl; il was cumpletcd in the reign of his successor, Sa'Td [·asha.

Sa'ld, Khedive (1854-1863) Unlike his preclecessul", 'Abbf\s Hilmi I, &l'td en· coumge<1 foreign par1icipaliotl in Ihe Egyptian economy and administr,ltiun, thus facilitating Europe:1Il infilll7\tlon. He gave various concessions to foreign companies for the development of the coun· try, Ihe IllOSI impol1ant beina the COllstnlclion of the Suez Canal. Consequently, by the end or Sa.'ld·s reign, Egypt had conlracled huge debts.

MUHAMMAD 'ALI DYNASTY • • Sa'id had great esteem for the Coptic patriarch. CYRil. IV (1854_1861), rntlll~r of rdorm. lie gave him permission to build a church in the l;Iarit al·S....q· qay'ln quarter of Cairo. lie alSQ relied on the patd· arch to negotiate with Emperor Theodoros of Ethio· pia an end to the dispute between the twu countries over the Sudane~e frontiers.

lsmA'II, Khedive (1863-1879) Through his Western education and his connections in important European capitals at the time, Isma'i1 acquired subst:lOtial political experience. He ruled Egypt durinll a critical stage of its hilitory. through which European pre.~'lUre e.~ened ilo;elf throughout the country. To ClIIT)' out the refomls that he had in mind, he had to have fC(:ourse to foreign aid and contracted several loons. He was therefore forced to usher the foreign pn'sencc and innuencc into Egypt. since he relied on l!uropean monetary sour'Ccs 10 finance Ilis economic and political projects. Nc\'crthcless, !sma'II's reign was (ml; of cuhural enlightcnment. A.~ he was intent upon setting up a modern administr:tth'e system, Copts proved of great impOl1anCe during his reign. He appointed 5<;ver..1 of them 10 the Minililry of finance and othe,' administratl\'e branches of the governmem. During his reign, American mission:uics stanl.'d their campaign in Upper Egypt to com'ert Copts to Protestantism. They succeeded in annexing two well·known fnmllic:,'s of Asyli!, the Wi.. ;M and the Khayyii!s. 10 the Evangelical church. The Copts fought ugainst prosclyti:.eation. They had the full suppol1 of the khedive, \Vho sponsored a tour for Pope Demitrius (1862-1870) in Upp<.:r 4:YPllo eonfronl the missionary activity there. AI·Jllm'lyyah a!·Khuyl'iyyah (Cuptie Benevolent Society) waS eSlablished in 1871 to p""vide educa· liom.l tmd social services tu Copts. It W
[693

Lord Cromer, the High Commissioner, ran the country wilhout nny opposition from the khedive. He filled government posts wilh Europeans and preferred Syrian Christians to Copts, as he felt that the British were htlted by Copu no less than b)' the Muslims. However. some Copts whu had been appointed prior to the occupation m~e 10 high rank, such as OOIlfIl.OS G...At.1. who won the title Pasha. Solidarity bet\liCC'l Muslims and CoplS wa.~ mani· fest during the 'Uttibl revolt. When Ihe kht-dive or· dered the dismissal of 'Urtlbl as nlinister of war, over five hundred Egyptian reprcsentativ(.'S, includ· ing tho: two religious leadel'$, the shuykh of al·AJ:hnr Mosque and the patriarch of Alexandria. CYRIL v (1874-1927), on 22 July 1882 signed a do;:daratkm of support of 'Unih1 and a condemnation of the kht..dive'5 surrender 10 fureign powers. Among the other signatories were Bou!fOS Ghall and other Copts (AI·Rafi'1, 1966, pp. 439-448). 'AbbAs I;Illmf II, Khedive (1892-1914) The fifth member of the Mu~ammad 'All dynasly to rule Egypt. 'Abbas ~Iilnll acceded to the throne at the nge of eighteen. His reign was eventful because of the role he pillycd in the national movement and his policy In relation to the British occu· plltion of I;gypl. Unlike his father, Khedive Tawfiq, he resented the idea of being a puppet in British hands. He therefore dismissed Mu~!nfa Fahml Pasha on 15 Janunry 1893. This was the first cabinet to include Bou!l'os GhAlT Pasha as a 'llinister, who was to become prime minister in November 1908. At Ihe Qulsel Qf 'Abbas I~ilmill's reign, there WI,s di:>agreement between the members of the COMMuNITY COUNCIL. on the one hand, and Pope Cyril V, 0/1 the other, over the methods of reform. The council asked rQr the !'Cml)v;tl or the pope tl) I)AYIt A[..UAItA· MOS. where he stnyed for approximately one year berol'C returning 1Q his seul in C;liro through the intervention of some CoptS opposed to the council. During 'Abb:'is l;Iilmi's reign, a group of Coptic intellectuals started to n1obllil':e COl'tic public opiniun in support I)r certain scctarlun requirements thnt were opposed by I)OU!I'OS GhAlI, thus leading to radical trends in the political movement. This I'eached its climaJl with the :lsS:lSsimltion of Bou!ros Ghali hy a Muslim fundamentalist and triggered sectarian duls. In 1911 the CoptS held a congress at Asyli! (see COPTIC CONGRESS OF ASYO'T) to diseuss their sectarian demands. Another congress, known as the ECYPTtAN CONI'IlRENCE OF HEUOPOUS. orgnnizcd by Muslim ••

1694

MUI;IAMMAD 'ALi DYNASTY

pt:rsonalities and some Copts, was held in Calro. It sought a $Olution 10 the sectarian crisis and put an end to the riots. The British occupation forces look the opportunit)'

to muzzle the press. ban political meetings. and

country, with such well-known nallles as MAKRAM EBEID and WISSA WASSEF. They found conditions fa· vorable for pursuing social and cultural activities by selling up benevolent societies and educational organizations.

liquidate the muionalisl movcmcm. Farouk I. King (1936-1952)

l:Juaseln Kamll, Sultan (1914-1917) When World War I broke out in 1914, 'Abbas l;IilmT II was on a vis!1 to the sultan in ConstanLino-

pie. The Brhish .sei7;ed the OpportUllily to depose him. on the grounds of his IOy;Jlty 10 their enemy.

They installed his uncle l;Iusscin Kamel wilh the title Sultan, the first Egyptian ruler 10 carry this lille. Eaypl Wa$ declared a British protectorate, and martial law was imposed. The e(:onomic resources of the country were put in the servin' of the British

anny. as Egypt became a military base. This in· flamed public feelings agaim;{ the British, culminating in the eruption of the 1919 revolL ':Iuuein Kamel died in October 1917, after a

rei,n of three years. liis son declined to succeed him to the throne, which was men'fore offered to his brother, Fouad. Fouad I, King (1917-1936) Followinll the death of ':Iussein Kamel. his broth· er, Fouad. occupied the throne from 1917 to 19]6. As a )'
The last monarch of the Mu~ammad 'Ali dynasty, Farouk succeeded his father, Found, in May 1936, as a young man straight back from school in England. Farouk's reign coincided with various politi, cal and $OCial movementl Ihat evenrually led to the 1952 revolution. Among these may be mentioned Young Egypt (Mqr a/·FtJlfJh) and the Muslim Brethren (a/·/khwiJn a/·!tfus!imiln), both of which adopted fascist ideologies within an Islamic fTamework. The reaction to these movementl was manifest in the formation of the shon·lived Coptic Nation Associa· tion (lamA'at al·Ummah al.Qibliyyah). The seareh for a true Egyptian identity polarized two distinct tendencies: 10 consider Egypl as pan of the Mediterranean world, with ilS TOOtS in ancient Egyptian civilization, and to emphasize Egypt's 15lamic past. In addition, a new current of Arab nationalism led to the foundation of the Arab League in Mareh 1945, In 1948 the outcome of the Palestine war damaged Farouk's standing, and the country was seething with the rumors of corruption in high places. The Cairo fire of 26 January 1952 was Ihc beginning of a series of events that culminated in Farouk·s abdication and the proclamation of the Egyptian republic, 8IBLIOGRAPHY

'Abd al-'A~.Im Rllmll~IAn. TU/llwwur al·f,lawka!r al· WII!Ulliyyah II Mi~'r, 1936-/948, Beirut, 1974. 'Abd al.Ra~ml\n :l1-JaburtT. 'AblIJ'ib al-AIMr If al·Ta· rIJjim wa·II/·AkhblJr, vol. 4, Cairo, A.H, 1297. Abd al·Rahmtln al·RM'I, Fl A'qab al-Thawrah al· Mi.1riyyah, J vols, Cairo, 1946-1951. 'A~r /smtl'II, 2 \lois. Cairo, 1948. , AI·Thuwrah ul·'Urtlbiyyah wa-all~till'll al·/n{ifIll. Cairo, 1966, A~mad Abd·al Ra~rm MuHaf1, Mi~r wa-al·Mas'alah al-Mqriyyah /875-1882. Cairo, 1965, Chriol, Valentine, 1'he Egyptian Problem, London,

==' :

1920.

Cromer, Lord. Modem Egypl. 2 vols, London, 1908. E1g00d, P. G. The Transit of Egypt, London, 1928. Ghorbal, S. Mu1Jalllmad 'All al·Kablr. Cairo, 1944. Hanotaux, G. Hislcire de la nalion Egyptienne. Paris, 1931-1940.

MUHDJ, MUHAMMAD AL·

Ikbal Ali Shah. Fallad Killg al Egypt. London. 1936. Jerrold, B. Egypt Under Ismail Pasha. London, 1879. King, J. W. Historical Dictionary 01 Egypt. London. 1984. Landau, J. Parliaments and Parties ill Egypt. New York, 1954. la!lfah salim. Mi~'r Ii al'lIam ul.',l,lamiyyah al·MlJ. Cairo, 1982. Uoyd, Lord. Egypt Since Cramer. 2 vals. London, 1933. MacCoan, J. C. 1:.DPt Undu Ismail. I...(lIldon, 1899. Manassa YO!;ulnnl. TiJrlkh al·Kanf$Uh al.Qib(iyyah, pp. 508-510. Repr. Cairo, 1983. Marlo~, J. ,t.nll'().Egyptitl>1 Rdations, 1800-1953. London, 1954. Mlkhl'lI ShAnlblm. AI·KlJ/r 11 TllrlkJr Mi:fr al..(}adim wll·al fladrth. Cairo, 1900. Precis de I'histoire de I'Egyptt:. Cairo, 1932-1935. Dalllni Fahml (Pasha). Mudhllkkirllt 'an Ba'd lIawll· dith Il/.MtJ.t!I, vol. I. Cairo, 1931. RamzJ Tlidrus. ,t./,AqbiJ! /t-flI·Qam tll·'hhnn, vol. 2. Cairo, 1911. Ri~ Suryal. M-Mlljtllma' al.Qibri 11 Mi:fr Ii al·Oam al·Tllsi' 'Ashar. Cairo, 1984. Sabry, M. L'Empire etyplian sous I.~mail. Paris, 1930. Safran, N. Egypt in St:llrch 0/ Political Community. Cambridge, Mass., 1961. SchoIch, A. Egypt lor lIlt: Egyplians. London, 1982. Nawllbigh al.Aqbii! waTaw8q lskan1s. Mashllhlmhllttt II al·Qam al-Tllsf 'A.~har, vol. 2. Cairo, 1913. Tignor, R. Modllmization ulld British Ca{ollial Rule in Egypl, 1881-19/4. Princeton, N.J.. 1966. Ya'qob Nakhlah Ruraylah. Tlirikh al·Ummah al-Oib· (iyyah, pp. 282-81. Cairo, 1899. Youssef, A. Independent Egypt. London, 1940. RA'OI' 'Af:lIIAS HAMED

MUJ:lAMMAD RAMZJ

(1871-[945), Egyptian scholar. He wa~ born and educated at Ihe town of al.Man~Orllh in the Delta and latcr al llic School of Law In Cairo. [n 1892 he joined the Ministry of Finance as a clerical employee, and by 1930 he had been promOled to the position of inspector general of land taxalion. During his lung carel", he visited every region of the country, making extensive sur· veys of every town, village, hamlet, and fann. He was keenly interested in the names, history, and background of every area, which he checked and revised in the light of information given mainly by al·Maql1lJ'S KillJh al.Khi{a! (Land Survey) and 'All Mubllrak's AI·Khital al-Tawliqiyyah, as well as many medieval and modem geographers, including such French geographers as Emile Aml:lineau, Jean Mas-

1695

pero, a·M. Quat remere, and G. Daressy. He thus became the leading authorily on Egyptian topony· my. In 1941 he published M·Dall1 al-lllghrafi (Geo· graphical Guide), but his mast valuable work, AI· QiJmus al·lullhrajt fjf·Bilad al.M4rlyyah (Geographi· cal Dictionary, 2 vols.), was posthumously published. Its illlponance lies In the facl that it is fully comprehensive, covering Egyptian loponymy from ancienl lim(:$ 10 Ihe present. FuAD MEGAUY

MURDI. MUJ:lAMMAD AL-, Muslim scholar, born as a Copt about 1731 and died a Muslim in 1815. Muhdl became one of the leading Egyptian 'ulam/J' (Muslim scholars) of hb time. As a child of Coptic parents, he was originally named Hibal' Allah. About 1150 his father, Abu F1nylls (Epiphan. ios) Fa<:Jlallah, became intcndant-eomptroller under Sulaymln al·K.bhif, who employed Ihe young Copt on condition of conversion to Islam. Eventually, he enrolled him for study al al-A7.har. When he left his family as a young boy of barely thineen years and adopled Islam by Ihe new name Mul)hammad aiMuhdI, the famous shaykh al'l;Iifni became his tUlOr and foster father. Arter his education by the leading teachers of al-Amar, he received the qualification to teach in 1716, and two years latcr he occupied a vacant chair al thi~ mosque school. He was a proponent of the ShMi'ite school of law. Earlier in his career, besides being a Muslim scholar, he undertook administrative tasks In the government. Because of his good contact with Suo laym:'i.n al·K:bhif, he got a post as secretary in the DlwAn al·'UmOml, the council of the supreme dignl· taries in Ottoman·Mamluk Egypt, in 1163. In 1166 'All Bey appointed him secretary general in his of· fice, a position that he lost upon the overthrow of 'Ali Bey (1112); he regained it after the death of Mu~ammad Bey (1715). During the following period he maintained good relations with the beys dom· inant at tlte time, especially 1sma'II Bey (17861791), who also gave him duties in the mint, the slaughterhouse, as well as the administration of the pensions. Muhdr made usc or his insight into the methods of Ihe dominant caste to accumulate an enonnous fortune for himself through his administrative activilies. In Ihe course or the political crisis and the plague of the year 1191, he was able to procure numerous leases of tax fanns and management of

1696

MUHTASIB, AL·

found:llionJ;. He :11"0 p:lrticip:lted in trading comp:l· nics, When BonAparte conquered Egypl in 1798. he W:lS. with his private bu.~inesses and the pensions he obtnincd from lhe Ouornan Slale. one of lhe wealth· iC!\1 'II/amd' in lhe country, Mui)ammad al·Muhdl immediately began to l:ollaborate with lhe French and W:lS appointed in the post of St:crclary general in lhe newly fonned general council, He soon became an imp0l1anl. if not the mOSI import:lnl. support of the Fn'nch rule in Egypl. I~e edited the Arabic proclam;:'lions of lhe comm:lnding gcnerals in coopcralion with the French inlerprctel'S and Orientalists. lie willingly placed his experienee in go\'emmental administrolion at lhe disposal or the French generals and ad· ministraton;, and he made many pcr.iOnal friendships with them. Muhdl used his posilmn of confidence in many critical situation.~ to moderate the policy of the Freneh against the Mu:;lim popul3" lion, I-Ils repulallon and his influence on his fellow bdieVt:n1 oftcn allowed him to calm the overheated mood and to subdue allempts at rebellion at the vel'}' beginning. Even aftcr lhe failure of the French military venture. he remained in wrinen conlact with some of the French, C!\pccialJy with Jcan Joseph Marcel. the former direclor of the "Imprimerie Nationale" at Cairo. uteI' Marcel published a translation of Muhdl's works. Among lhem lhere are some poems that reflect a view of religious lolcr.tlion unusual for a Moslim sdlOlar of lhe eighleenth centul'Y. possibly caus<:d p:ortly by his conlaCI with the French, In spile of his collaboralion with lhe French, lhe return of Egypt to OUoman sovereignty did not l:(luse him :IIlY difficulties. He sueccednl quickly in making himself liked and indispcnsaole, thereby saving his posts and benefices, In tllc followin& yeat~ of inlernal .~truggle ror powcr betwecn thc Mamluk beys lmd lhe Olluml,n p:lshas, be behaved as neutrally as he could, hut he justified, along with otber leluliny 'II/Ilma', the seizure of puwer by MlJl)"'MM"'U .... 1..1 in July 1805. After this ev<'nt, he withdrew a little ITom politics and devoted himself to the adminislration of his tax farms and his busincsses, Hc gave lectures at al-Alhar and occupied him· self privately with seientifle-technil:al l'xpcrimcnts, When in 1809 the leader of the Ashrlf sect. 'Vmar' M:lkram, fell into disgrace with Mui)l\mmad 'Ali, Muhdl mllde use of the situfllion at the expense of the exiled Makrnm to secure again more political influence lind 11I01'(: p,'Ofitable offices. Aftcr the dealh of the sllOykh al·Al,har :l1·Sharqawi in 1812, Muhammad al·MuhdI was e1,-cted as his

successor in the oflice of the director of al·A1:har and head of lilt scholars in Egypt. For somewhat mysterious reasons. howevel'. Mu~ammad •All suDstituled him shortly aflcrwdrU by another person. He died in January 1815. BIBLIOGRAPHY

'Abd al·Rahmlin al·. JabanI. Ajd'ib QI.Al/liir Ii Q/_ TQrlJj;m t"Il-Il/-AkhbtJr. Vols. 3-4. Cairo, 18791880. Marcel, J. J. COllies dll d,eykh e/-Mohdy, Vols, 1-3, Paris, 1835. Motzki, H. Dimma Ilnd EgQlilt. Die nich/muslimi· schen Millderhcilen Agyptelu in del' tWdlen Ho.llte du 18. lQhrhwlJerts WId die Expt'dilioJl BonQ_ PQrles (/798-/BOJJ. Bonn, 1979. HAll.Aw MOTlK.!

MUHTASIB, AL-, See llisooh. al-. MUI, SAINT, martyr in fourth-eentury Egypl. Mui is known only by SOnle fragmenlS of an Encomium in his honor. by an unknown author. published by W. E. Crum. The fmgmenls repol't some miracles perfonned by him when hc was in prison in Alexandria. his confrontation with lhc prefect in the lawCOllrt. and the tortures inflicted upon him. The be· ginning and the part dealing with lhe martyrdom are miSSing, U1UUOGRAPHY

Cmm, W, E, Theological Tuu from Coptic Papyri. Anecdola Oxonien8ill, Semitic Series 12. Oxford, 1913. TJ'l'O ORl.ANDI

MUMMIFICATION, Ther'e is evidence for mum· mification in Egypt from the heginning of histurielll times, Herodotus llnd Diodoms report on the different ways of mummifying. Thc practice arose from the idea that preservation uf bodily integrity is the presupposition for life after death. This idea is evidently also the rcason for litatemenl~ in mllr1yr' legends of the "Coptic consensus" (Baumeister, 1972, pp. 1461L). After the torture but befol·c the death of lhc martyr, an archangel comes down from hea.ven and removes (loy bodily nmtibtions nrising from the m:lrtyrdom, !iO it can be affirmed thai "then~ wa.s no kind of injul')' to his body. and no damage was done to him at all."

MUMMIFICATION

As latc as 450 SH£NlfTE,. in [I sermon 011 the resurreclion, came to tenns wilh wch idea.~: "Even if your eyes llre 10m out, you will not "rise in the resuiTection without eyes, , .. Even if ynm- head is laken off, you will lise again wilh il on you, Evell if evel)' member is cut off, you will nOI only arise withoul hlll'ing Ihe Iiule linger of your hand cui off, or (the lillie toe} of your fOOl, bUI you will also arise as a 5pirilual body:' Hence it is nOI surprising Ihal no crillclsm of mummification wa.~ voiced by the church. Only Arsenius, who lived in the fiflh cenlury, was, according 10 Ihe opinion of H. G. Evelyn-White (1932, Vol. 2, p. 163 n. 7), againSI mummification. For Augustine (semw 361, De resII"eCliollt mortllofljm) mummificalion is proof that Ihe ancienl £muians believed in the rc5UrTeCtion of Ihe dead. In the slory of Joseph, deriving from the fourth century, Jesus is brought into association with mummification. Aftcr thc death of his fulher, Joseph, he lays his hands on the body like a magus and says, "The Slench of death shall nOI be masler over thee, nor shall Ihine ears decay, nor shall lhe festering mailer ever lIow from Ihy body, nor shall lhy burial~loth pass into the eanh nor Ihy flesh which J have laid upon thL"C, bUI il shall remain fa.~1 to thy body until Ihe day of Ihe IhOlU;lOd·year ban· quel:' This is the lilcrary parallcllo "IuTlllnificalion in praclice. It is further reponed that when the Jews came to lay Joseph 10 resl afh:r Iheir Immner of burial, Ih!..')' found him ulready rll'epa....:d for buri· ai, "with Ihe burin! [clolh] clinging to his body as ir it had becn altaehed with il'Oll clasps" (chap. 27, If.; Murenl., 1951, p. 23). This is intended to demonstr'ate thnt Joseph had been mUlIlmified by Jc.~us' utterance. Allhough so far only (l rew Coptic cemeteries hnvc been systematically excavated, mummies or Christians have been nuthentic(ltcu beyolllJ dispute, partieulady in Kurnm. Antinoopolis. Akhmlm, Thebes, nnd Aswan. From Ihe runenu)' equipment in the graves. these cemeteries arc to be dated from the fifth to the eighth ccntUl)'. TIIC cxamination of Coptil,; mummies (J)nwson and Smith, 1924, Pi>. 127ff.) showed Ih
1697

rounded with large quantltu:s or r.:oarst: 5311, wl'apped in c1olhs, and swathed with mummy Ixlnds. In additiOn srah was scnllered in the mUlllmy bands. The use of juniper berries was nlsa established (Dawson and Smith, 1924, pp. 1301r.). Mummies were depietL-d ill book illustmtions. In the Alexandrian Chronicle Ihe palriarch TIMOTHY I (d. 385) is represented as a mummy (Kopiische Kunsl, p. 450, no. 623). Th\s iIIustralion docs nOl, howe\'Cr, prove that he was mummified, for l....azarus also is reprt'scnled as a mummy in early Christian and medieval ar1, nlthough he W"dS not mummified (Hcnnann, 1962). On Ihe evidence of hili testament (in Gff!d Pap).,i in the British Museum, 1.77.57ff. [London, 1893]), bishop AlJllAliAM OF IIERMONTHIS (beginning of the seventh century) was to be mummified. He also promoled the lIlummifying; of Christians of his dio· ccs
n"umeister, T. Martyr illl'letlu: Der MiJrlyrer uis Sinnbild dcr JJrliJ.~lm{; III dcr Legellde Imd im Kull der frjihen koptisdlen Klrchc. Milnster, 1972. Castel, G. "Elude d'l/ne Illomie coptc:' In Hom· muge.~ II S. S/ltlllcrOIl, Vul. 2. Cairo, 1979, Cn/ln, W. E.. Coptic Os/raca from the Collectlorl of the B/:ypl Explora/lml FllIld, the Cuir/) Museum and Olher~·. l..ondon, 1902. Dawson, W. R., lind G. E. Smith. EgyrJllan Mum· mil'S. London, 1924. Dl.ierzykray-Rogalski, T., (lnd E. Prominska. "O.~se· menl..~ de l'cgllse cople de St. MHrc de Dei.. cl Mcdineh," Etlldes eltravcallX 8 (1975):151-57. Evelyn·White, 1·1. G. The MOIIIl.~l/'rics of the WI/dl'll NIl(rllll, 3 vols. New York, \926-1933. Godlewski, W. "The laiC Roman Necropolis in Deir el Bahari." In Grotco-CoptiCll. GriecllclI lind Kop·

1698

MUMMY LABELS

ten im bYUlrIlirlUchen ~cypten. cd. P. Nagel. Manin·luther-Un.iversilll Halle.Willcnbcrg. Wiss· enschaftJiche Beitrltgc 48, pp. 111-19. Halle, 1984. Hennann, A. "Agyptologische Marginalien zur spat· anlikcn Ikonographie. I. la7.arus und Osiris:' JGhrbuch fiir Anlib urld Chris""I'lm 5 (1962):60-

Ouaegebeur. J. "Mummy Label!.: An Orienlation.'· In Tu/u grecs, demOliqu(l$ e/ bilingues. cd. E. Boswinkcl and P. W. Pestman. Papyrologica wgduno-Batava 19, pp. 232-59. Leiden, 1978. Cites older literature. MAkTlN KRAlIS.E

•••

Herodotus. The lIis/()ry of Huodotus. Vol. 2, pp. J 18-25, nos. 85-90, ed. George Rawlinson. New York, 1893.

KOplischc Kuns/. ChrisUn/llm tim Nil. Catalog of the exhibit al Villa Hugel. Essen, 3 Mily-IS August 1963. Krause, M. Apa Abraham v(m Hemrom/lis. Ein oberI1gyptischer Bischof urn 600, 2 vols. Ph. diss., Ber· lin, 1956. _ _ . "Dtls Wcitcrleben lI.gypllscher· VOfSlellungcn und Brtiuche im koptlschen TOlenwcscn." In Das romisch.bYZImtinische. Agypte.n. Aktell des intema· tiona/en Symposions 26.-30, September 1978 ill Triu, ed. G. Grimm, H. Heinen, and E. Winter. Aegyptiaea Treveren$ia 2, pp. 85-92. Maim:. 1983. Morenz. S. Die Gesehidw: VOIl Josltph .lern Zimmef· mann UbefSctV. ItTllJu/ltfl und un/(lrsucht. Texle und Untcrsuchungen 56. Berlin. 1951. Sandison. A. T. "Balsamierung." In Uxikon du Agyptologilt. Vol. I. cols. 610-14. Wiesbaden. 1975. S<:hmitz. A. L "[)as Totenwe.len der Kopten. Kri· tische Obersicht uber die Iiterarischen und monumentalen OueUen." Zeitschrifl fnr agyptische Spfache und AltUlumskullde 65 (1930):1-25. Sternberg, H. "Mumie. MumicnhUlle. -binden, -netz." In Uxikon der "gypto{ogie. Vol. 4. cols. 213-16. Wiesbadcn, 1982. MARTIN KRAU5E

MUMMY LABELS, tablets, mostly made of wood, on which lire stated the name" of the de· ceased, his parents, and his gl'i\ndfalher. and infor· mation aboul age, d:ttc of death, and lhe place to which he belonged (sometimes also his occupation). The majority arc in Demotic and Greek (Coptic tablets are also known). The mummy labels were hung round the deceased's neck by a cord after MUMMtFICATION and lhc wrapping of the mumIllY in bandages. for idenlification and transpon to the place of burial. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Krebs, F. "Mumienetikcltcn aU5 Agypten.'· Zei/schrift fUf iJ.gyplisdu Sprache und Alunumskunde 32 (1894):36-51.

MUNIER, ADOLPHE HENRI (1884-1945), French Ctlptologisl and bibliographer. He WolS born in Meuf$!lult, COte-d·Or. He WlU librarian of lhe Cairo Museum (1908-1925) and succeeded Adolphe Cattaui as secreta!)' of the Societe royale de ~og­ raphie de l'Egypte (1924-1945). He published many ill"ticles in journals, most of them devoted to Coptic lell:ts Rnd the subject of early Chl'istlnnity in Egypt. He died in Cait'O. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dawson, W. R.• Egyplology, p. Kammerer, W.• Arbor. Mich.•

and E. P. Uphill. Wilo Was Who ill 209. London, 1972. compo A Copli~ Bibliography. Ann 1950; repro New York, 1969. AzIZ S. ATtYA

MUQA WQAS, AL-. Su Cyl'Ulll.

MURAD KAMlL (1907-1975). Egyptian scholar and educator in ancient and modem languages. He studied under Erma Uttman and had a brillant academic ca''eer in Egypt and Gcnnany. He specialized in Semitic languages, ancient and modem, those of the Middle East as ·well as those of Ethiopia. A mtlster of Greek, Latin, and classical Arabic. he was also well acquainted with many Western language.~, including Gel'man, French, English, Spanish, lind Italian. He taught at Cairo University, the Coptic CLERICAL COllECE. in the Institule of Coptic Studies, the University of Frciburg, and the Institute of Ara· bic S(udie.~ at the League of Arab Slates. Murad headed the education mission delegated to Ethiopia by the Egyptian governntent and was for two years (1943-1945) undersecretll!)' of state at the Ethiopian Minisl!)' of Education. He founded and direCI· cd the Higher School of Languages in cairo. He was a member or the Academy of Arabic Language and many other scholarly institulions. Always deeply concerned with the problems of the Coplic church, Murad took pan in 5oC'verai of the protract· ed negOliations between the Coptic and the Ethio-

MURQUS IBN QANBAR

pian churches. He bequeathed his Iibrnry, comprising about 20,000 volumes, to the Coptic palriarchale. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ayad, A. B. "Bibliography of Murad Kanlil." Bulletin de fa SQcieti royale d'Archiologie caple 2J ( 1976-1978):223-46. Ghali, M. B. "Obituary." Bulletin de fa Socie/e royale d'Archeofogie cople 23 (1976-1978):299-301. Kamil, M. Coplic Egypt. Cairo, 1968. MIRRJT Bou'rIlOS GHAU

MURQUS. See Mark or Marqos.

MURQUS AL.ANTONr, saint menlioned as a hennil of Ihe Monastery of Saint Antony during the reign of me Mamluk suhans (fourteenth eenlury). We do nOI know the date of his birth, or who his parenu were and whal their attilude to Ihe ruling power was, nor at what date he entered the Monastery of Saint Antony. We know only that renunciations of the Chmtian faith weTC numerous down to Ihe accession of Ihe Patriarch MATTHEW I (in 1378). The grealest perscculion Ihe Coplic comrnunily had undergone raged frolll aboul 1351, gready diminishing Ihe number of Christians. Matthew's accession marked a spiritual and nationaliSI renewal of the COPIS In the face of the alicn Mamluk power. G. Grnf, in his Guchichle der chrisllichen arabischen Uterat"r (Vol. 2, p. 475), gives the date of his uealh as 1386. His tomb became a place of pilgrimage and quickly became known through the mirnch:s thut look place there. A chapel containing his relics was built at the Monastery of Saint Anto· ny, a chapel mentioned by J. M. Vansleb in 1672. C. Sicard also menlions it (Vol. I, p. 25) in lhe journey he made to the monastery in 1716. After Sicard's visit, the chapel was reconstructed in 1766 (Fedden, 1937, p. 56). It was in this ehapel that tIle Franciscans were authorized to celebrnte the mass in the seventeenth century. They resided at the Monastery of Saint Antony 10 have their young missionaries taughl Arabic. At present this church serves the mo"ks for the period of !.em, but pilgrimage appears (0 have fall· en out of usc, for Viaud docs not mention il in his book on Ihe Coptic pilgrimages. Mark's k'351 day is 8 Ablb.

1699

BtBLJOGRAPIIY Crum, W. E. "Hagiographiea from Leipzig ManuscriplS." Proceedings of Society of Biblical Arche. ology 29 (1907):289-96; 301-307. Fedden, H. R. "A Siudy of Ihe Monastery of Sairll Antony in the Easlern Desert." Bullelin of the Facully of Arts 5 (1937):1-60. Graf, G. Calalogue des manuscrils arabcs-chrbiens conserves all Caire. (Sludi e Tcsti 63). VaLican City, 1934. Meinardus, O. Chrislian Egypt, Allcient and Modem. Cairo, 1965: 2nd ed., 1977. ___ "The Mediaeval Graffiti in lhe Monasteries of 55. Antony and Paul." Collectanea, Studio Ori· enlalia Christiana II (1966):513-27. Sicard, C. Oeuvres, 3 vall. Blbliolh~que d'Etudes 83-85. Cairo, 1982. Troupeau, G. CaraloRue des manu.u:rits arabes, Vol. I, Mallu#rils chrelicIlS. Pam, 1972-1974. vansleb, J. Nouvelle re/alion ell forme de journal d'ull VO)'age fail en Egypte en 1671 et 1673. Paris, 1677. Trans!. as The Present Slate of Egypt. Lon· don, 1678. Viaud, G. w pelerinages coptcs en Egyple; d'apr~ fes II0tes du Qommos Jacob Muyser. BibliothCque d' eludes caples 15. Cairo, 1979. REN£-GF.oRCES COOUIN

MURQUS IBN QANBAR. lauHwelfth-century n:ronncr. He worked to reintroduce the secret confeSliion and for the more frequent administration of communion, even oUlside liturgical services. These and other' InnOvations, such as the abolition of cir· cumcision before baptism for the Copts and changes in the rules of fasling and Ihe use of the sign of Ihe crou, were strongly opposed by the official de· fenders of Coptic morals and customs, but he had a great following for a time. His elevation to the sta' tus of priest and monk under Patriarch JOHN v (1147-1167) had been scen as a scrious mistake and as immoral And illegal. I-Ie was repeatedly dis· ciplined and drew closer to the Melchites, eventual· Iy joining them fonnlllly. After his tempornry return to the Coptic chul'ch, the Melchite patriarch ban· ished him to DAYR AL-QUVoYR. southeast of Cairo. Here he spent the last twenty years of his lire as an administrator. He wrote prolifically to implemenl his refonns, but his works have been lost for the most pan and are known only through writings opposing him, especially Ihose by MIKHA'IL Of DAMI· ETTA.. There is a commentary on the Pentateuch (see ow TESTAMI!HT. AItAUIC VERSIONS) that is probably his, as judged by style and subjecl, mat is, interpre-

1700

MURQUS IBN ZAR'AH

lations are made on the b:uis of symbolic !'atht!' historical or uiclionary mcnnings of wo~ds and actions, with an emphasis on the confes..,ion and pen-

ancC'. VINCENT FRIlDER]CK

MURQUS IBN ZAR'AH. SCI' MURQUS

A.....MASHRIOJ

Mark

III,

Sail'll.

AL.MALLA.-

\VANJ, eightcenth-eentury Copt. Three lellers are associated wilh this name. A Jirjis a)·Qib!! (George the Copt) who had taken up the Roman Catholic faith sent two leiters to Murqu5 with arguments for the Roman Catholic doctrine, a refutation of the Monophysitc crron. and an invitation 10 com'cr· sian. Murqus' Jelltr in reply declined the invitalion, and its polemical message appan-ntly had the effect ltut Jirjis relUmed to the Coptic faith and accepted the penance that the bishop of ABO TIJ. ChrislodouIus. laid on him. The extant manuscript of the letters dates 10 1795-1796.

VINCENT FRl'DERICK

MURQUS SIMAYKAH

(1864_1944), public ser-

VlInl and founder of the COPTIC MUSEUM in Cairo. Born 10 an old Coptic family of clerks and magis· tr.ucs, he had a distinguished career in Ihe govern· ment service, but Ihis was nOI enough 10 oco.;upy his time after he rcached middle age. He then devoted himself to public affairs in tlte Legislative Assembly, the Highel' Education Council. and the Coptic Com· munily Council. (Al,..MAJUS Al,..MtLLI). where he was an active and a vocal member. He was awarded the tille of paslm for his publil: sl:rvil:e. FI'l'lm eady youtll. he was altracted hy lhe numer· ous and vlIried rem:lins of the Egyptian heritage, hut he was pal'liculal'1y partial 10 till' monuments and objects of the Christian period. which then tended to be neglected for the more grandiose re' mains of othel' pcliods. In his memoir'S, nOI yel published, he descrilx'S how he was influenced by reading Butler, Stl7.ygow. sky, and Solllen Clarke. The fint two of these were to become ]'>el'sona! ti'iends, as well as most of lhe scholan who studk-d the art and th\· language of Chrislian EGYpt dUring his Iifelime. Thaoks 10 his efforts, lhe aneienl Coplie churches were placed under Ihe adminislratioll directed by the Commi~ion for the Pn.'Sel"\'ation of Ar.tb Monu· ments. This commission was eslablished in 1881

and MurQUS Sirnaykah, a memhcr since 1906, later becamc chairman of iUl permanent commillee; he spared neilher lime nor effort to ensure the continuity and Ihe high slandnl'd of excellence in ilS work. The greatest achievem¢1ll of his life was the crealion of the Coptic Muscum. This was founded by him in 1908, in a room next 10 Ihe Church of the Virgin in Old Cairo (al'MU'ALLAQAH) in order 10 col· lect art objects lind olher remains of Christian Egypt. He was able 10 inieresl the enlightened public of EiYpt in his enlerprise; an imposing list of private subscriptions preceded an annual sub\'ention from the sUite. The museum was syslematically devdoped Ihrough the untiring efFons of its found· er and it slowly look on its pn:sent fonn. In 1931, it was put under Jhe conlrol of lite millistry of educa· tion. without prejudice to the rights of the palrial" duue and tlte ehurchC$ on its contents. The con· Slant dcvdopmcllt of the museum required the buildillg of an importanl Ilew willg. A sigllifieant slep wa.~ the Il'llnsfer to the Coptic Museum of the imposing Christian collection From lhe Egyplian Museum. Thi!! colleclion had beeo slarted by G. MASI'EIIO. who was one of the first 10 call altention to Ihe archaeological and cultural importance of the Chrislian er.t of Egypt. In 1983 and 1984, lhe Antiquities Dep:lI1lllent completed an impol1ant renoV'dlion and modemiwtion of thc museum. MurQUS Simaykah also devoted illueh alieni ion to recording and cat:lloging the Coptic and ChrislianAr'llbic manuscriplS In Egypl, wilh Ihe collaboration of the museum's lihrarian, VASSA 'A80 AL-MASII;I. These are preserved in the libraries of the Coptic Museum and of the patriarchates in Cairo and Alexandria, llS well as in monasteries and churches. Some ill.~titutlons, Including the SOCIl:TY 01' COI'TIC AH,CIlAOOLOGY. sporndically continued this enterprise, hut much remains to be don¢. His effigy in brolll.e stands at the cntrnnee to the museum lhal was his life's work. BIBLIOGRAPIIY

Ghall, Mirrit Boutros. "N(:crologi¢" (Obituary). Huf· letin de 10 Societe d' orcheologie 10 (1944):207. Simaykah, Murqus. Short Guide to the Coptic Ai/He· rim and the Principal Chllrches of Coiro. Cairo, 1937. MIIIIIIT BOlJl'lIOS GflAl.I

MURRAY, MARGARET ALICE

(1863-1963),

Engli5h EgyplOlogisl and Coplologist. She was born

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

in Calcuttll. At lirst, she intended 10 have a nursing ca~r, but she abandoned this goal when she did not qualify in Englund. She was the first wOlllan to become a full·time Egyptologist, She entned Uni· versity College, London, in 1894 !Illd studi"d under J, H, Walker, F. L Griffith, and Flinders Petrie, becoming a junior lecturer in 1898. She published mainly in Ihe field of Egyptology, but also issued a limited number of works in the field of Coptic stud· ies. She died at Welwyn, l·lertfordshire. BIDUOGRAPIIY

Dawson, W, R., and E. P. Uphill. Who W/U' Who in Egyptology, pp. 210-11, London, 1972, Kammerer, W., compo It Coptic BiblioBraphy. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950: repro New York, 1969, Azt7. S. ATIYA

MUSA AL·ASWAD. See Moses thc Black, Saint. MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN. Not all ancient Coptic artifacts-whether the most commonplace items, those to be c1a~.dlied a.'i art, or fragments of architectural sculptuR'S and mur... 1 painlings-have remained in situ. A great number have disappeared, and of thc objects that have SUI" vived, most have been plnced in privale 01' public collections in Egypt and elsewhere throughout the world. Thl'SC items merit study, for thoul~h sollle offer but a sampling, the majority-via the various techniques employed in their creation-serve to fill out one's piclure of Coptie'cuhure and enable one to trnce Ihe evolution of its nrt and crnfts u~·.eording 10 the SI11l!tes of its histol)' and its characlt'ristics. Therefore, it is necessary to present ;l survey of the artifacts in theSe collections. Emphasis is placed on those open tn the general public, of which the greatest number bclong to museums or arc con· nected to university Centel'S, but a few private collections are included bee.lUsc of lheir siz" and/or importance, Obviously it is impossible to give detailed infoI" malion about these items (e,g., chnl1lolor,ical, de· scriptive, nnd nl1istic, according to their prove· nance in Egypt). Therefore a simple yet "dequate descriptiOn i.~ given by ca.tegOl)': it includes a numerical cslimute of the items in each coll«:tion and II note as 10 their state of preservation. From such succinct lists, anyone nl'Cding more precise informalion can Ihen go on to consult the varioll.'i museums and collcctions. However, even in sueh con·

1701

dcnsed form, these lists arc very informative, if only for showing lhe rtlllge and variety of Coptic work. The sUlvey is al'r.lngcd in alphabetical order :.It:cording to (I) country: (2) cities within each coun· try: (l) mu.o;eums or collections within each city, and (4) the categories represented ill each museum and the state of preservation of the various items ("c" stands for "complete"; "IIC," for "1101 com· plete"; "fl'," for "fl':l.gmenL~"). Some of the numbers shown are neccssarily approximnte. Apart from the &eneral schema described above, three public collections deserve special mention, for in each one the prhlcipal aspeclS of Copdc art and technique are sufficiently .....ell represented 10 allow one 10 perceive a coherent and complete whole. Finll, and without equal. is the CQf'TIC MUSEUM in Cairo. Only two other collections-whkh as a whole cannOt be placed on the same level a'i the Cairo collections, ahhough in some domains thcy arc more represc;:ntlltive-have the aspec.:t of a Coptic museum outside of Egypt, even 10 the poinl of being "ambassadors" for the Coptic Museum in Cairo, for their range is complete as well as abundantly stocked in the diver:;e calegories of ancient Coptic work ThC5C are (he STATE MUSEUM OF BERLIN' in the German DcmOCntlic Republic (East Germany) and the I.ouvRE MUSEU).t in Paris, ARGENTINA La PlaIa Universidad Natiolllli lie /11 PIlI/II Sculpture in stone: al'chilectul':l.l capitals (c: I) Cerdmics; dccordted VliSC (fr: 6) AUSTRALIA Melbourne MII~·e.mll

of Vktorif4

Ceramics: lnmps (c: 2): Stlint

Mena.~

phitlls (c: 2)

Nlltio'1l1l Gallery uf VicturiC!

Textiles: outer garmentS (c: I), (nc: I), (fr: 34) Olleeus College Textiles: outer gal'ments (rr: 47) Sydney Macql/(lrie Ul1ivers;ty, A"cill"t History Teaching Col· lections Textiles: outer gllnllenls (fr: 25) Ccramics: lamps (c: 3); Saint Mcnas phials (c: I) Nicholsu/I MuseulIl, University of Sydney TextilC1l: outer galmenu (fr: 35); handbags (ne: I) Power House MuseuIII Te:uilC1l: outer glllmenL'i (fr: 2)

1702

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

Mus~e

AUSTRIA

KunslhiSlorisdul.s Museum Paintin,,~: relief of Saini Menas (I); mummy portraits (8) OSferr,!ichisches Museum fUr angewand/l! Kunst TextilC$: variou5 (1,600), mOSI uncovered near a cemetery near Saqqllra Papyms.Sammlung de, osurreichischen N(J/jonalbibfiolhek Paintings: mummy portraits (2)

BELGIUM Antwerp Muuum Mflyer Van Den Bergh

Textiles: variOWi (fr: 3) Museum VlusJwis-OudheidJcundige Mldea Textiles: various (fr: a few) CcramiC$: various Ifr: a few) Ivory and bone: $18tuelle$ (e: 2) Bl'\lges

Gruuthllsmuseum Textiles: various (rr. II) Brussels MljS~es royOWl. d'Art de I'Hisloire dll CinquQtIlena;re Section-An ch~tien d'Orieot TClIliles: various (fr. a few) Ceramics: dolls (I) Bronzes: cross, cauldron Dcpartcmcnl egyplien SculplUre in Slone: friezes (fr: 11); large relief (c: I): capllllis (e: 5); slllluary (e: 3); Slelae (e: 5) Sculpture in wood: (e: 1) Ivory and bone: seulptun:s IS): games (I) Painting on wood: (e: 1) Ceramics: lI;oblcts and dishes (e: 10); S..int Mcnas phials (e: 10): lamps (c: 50), (IT: 40): various (e: 20) Gla.~s: vllSe~

and houles (c: 3)

Ghent MuseWll SCulpture in wood: combs (I) Leather: SllndalS (e: I), (fr: a few) Korlrijk (Counrai) Museulll voor Olldheidklmde en Sierklms/en Textiles: outer garment (fr: I); lilUrgictll vestment (fr. I); v:lrious (fr: 9) Leuven (Louvain)

Music: dc: l'Univc:ni/i Ceramics: lamps (e: a few); Saini a few) I...i~e

Mena.~

phials (e:

Cur/ius GlilSS: glasses (a few) Louvain·la·Neuve Music: de J'Utrlversite Ceramics: various (a few) Mons Musie PI/issant Textiles: various (fr. Indeterminate) Morlanweiz Musie Royal de Mariemont Sculplure in Slone: sidae (a fcw) Cc:ramiC5: lamps (3 few) Textiles: various (a few) Namur Cathedral 01 Hamur, Musle Di()(;esaitl Textiles: variow (e: 1) Scheldewindeke Museum Sculpture in wood: combs (e: I) Textiles: (fr. 15)

CANADA Montreal Musellm of Fine Arts Bone: (fr: 56) Textiles: outer garments (fr: 434): bonnets and handbags (c: 9); hangings (fr: 4) Bronzes: various (e: 14) Leather: boots (e: SO), (ne: 6) Toronto Pomifical JrlSli/u/I1 of Medlaevul Studies, Mu/cove Col/eetiorl Sculpture in stone: relief (e: 16); other elements (e: 2)

Sculpture in wood: spoon (e: I) Paintings: muml (fr: 20); on wood (fl'. I) Ivory: various (e: 4) Bone: various (e: II) Textiles: various (45), including outer garments (ne: I), (fr: 40) Ceramics: various (e: 5) Bmn7.es: various (c: 25) Metals: lead tlask (c: I): gold earring (e: J) Royal Ontario Museum, Greco-Roman DepurlmetZI Sculpture in stone: decorated stelae (e: 4), (ne: I): statuary (ne: I); figurative reliefs (nc: 3): vases (c:

2) Sculpture in wood: various (e: 13), (ne: 7) Ivory and bone: various (e: 45), (ne: 36) Paintings: mural portraits (c: 2) Ceramics: decorated vases (c: 25), (ne: 5), (pc: 5) (fr: 1); cups (c: 4), (fr: 1): lamps (c: 35), (ne: 25).

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

•

I

(fr: 10): $alnl Menas phials (c: 3). (nc; 6), (fr: 1); various (c: 7), (ft: 4) Bronzes: crosses (c: 19), (oc: I), (fr: I); lamps (c: 10), (nc: 6); lamp feel (e; 4); decorated vases (c: J); weights (c: 2) Glass: vasn (c: 12). (oc: I), (rr. 6); mirroni (oc: I) ROYQI Ol1fDriQ MI4$eum. TutUe DtJUlrtmem

Textiles: various (798), Including ouler gannenlS (c: 19), (fr: 135); hangings (c: 3), (n-: 61)

8mo MorQvska Gaferie

Texliles: various (30) VS/QV

TUliles: (1)

Can SbUce Muuum Bo~I1>, Nemcovi Textiles: various (25).

II

Tutitn! MUieum

Cairo

Coptic Museum See separ.lIe entry,

Sculplurt; in wood: SUtuary (c: 10) Painting on wood: caskcts (c: 2) Texliles: various (10) Ceramics: busl.~ (c: 5); various (fr: 100) Class: various Cologne Schllillgen.Museum Teltliles: various (numerous)

Kmo, Muuki Mu~um Textiles: various (22) lJberec;: Sll'trot:l!s/cl Mllleu,,"

Textiles; various (40)

Lomnice Nad Popelkou MesuJc.i Muull/lI Textiles: various (11 few)

Opa,. MUlt1Um

Textiles: various (10)

Plzen ZiJpQdoctsk~

Muztum Textiles: VllriouS (15) Prague Ndprstkovo Muttum A)'ij)'kych, Afriekyeh 0. Ameriekyeh Ku/tur Textiles: various (50) Sculpture in Slone: various (a few) Sbfrka Univerziry Karlovy, Katedra 'ltd 0 Anlichem Sraroveku Tcltliles: various (1) Umtleckoprumyslove MUleurn TCltllles: various (90) DENMARK

Copenhagen MU$cum 01 DeCOr/Hive Art Textiles: outer gannents (c: I), (nc: 2),

EGYPT

10)

Cholebor Mes1ski. MUltum Textiles: various (20)

Sltt)U

Na/ionafmuseet (Naliollal Museum Q! Denmark, Textiles: outer garments (fr: 12) Ceramics: lamps (c: 9): Saint Menas phials (c: 3)

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY (We-It Ge-rmany) Aachen Suennond/-t.udwif'Museum Textiles: various (26) Berlin·Dahlem Stuutlitht Musttrl prtussischtr Kulturbesitl. Sculplurt; in Slone: sUtuary (c: 2); reliefs (c: about

CZECHOSLOVAK.IA

VI/lslivednj

1703

Darmstadt He:uisches Larldesmllsellm Textiles: various (several) Ceramiu: oil lamps (fr: 3); various (several) Bronzes: various (severnl) DUsseldorf KunSllnllseUnI Tcltliles: bonnets (c: 7): various (550) Lealher: sandals (several) Erlangen ArchiJologischer Ins/rllll der UrriversitiJt Textiles: various (sever'nl) Essen Fulkwu I1g-Mu scum Textiles: various (several) Frankfurt am Main Museum Illr KWlSlh/Hidwerke Textiles: various (fr: 130) Stiidtische Galerie LicbigharlS Sculpture in slone: architectural (fr: several) Tcltliles: val'ious (fr: 20) Ceramics: Saini Menas phials and various (1,000) Frciburg inl Breisgtlu

(rr~

80)

Insllml filr christliche ArchiJolofic u"d KU"SIgeschichte der U"ivcrsi/iJ/

1704

MUSEUMS, COPT1C COLLECT10NS 1N

Sculpture in Slone: sialuary (I) MllSllllm (ii' Vljlkcrkuudc Sculpture in wood: fumiture combs (~ver:lJ) Tellliles: various (sever011) CCr:lmics: lamps (severol) Bronows: various (several)

Kllnslgescliiclillidles I/Is/illl! dcr /ohamws-Gulellberg,Ullil'l.'!rsiliit

hncr.lI pieces);

Leather: sandals (scvcral) Basketry: various Hamburg Museum /ii' KUllst .md Gcwcrkc Texlil~:

lunics (sever-d); various

(h~

180)

Hamm

Stiidtiwhcs G.lstav.Liibckc·MIl5CWII ScUlplUl'l! in SlOne: reliefs (I.': 4) Textiles: various (60) Ceramics; lamps (scveral): amulets (25) Hannover Kumu MtUtu", Sculpture in .IOlonc: statuary (several); decor.uive relids (several) Sculpture In wood: combs (several): castaneLS (sev-

er..l) Ivory: various TClltilcs: various (several) Bronzes.: various Heiclelbel'¥ Jlls/j,llt der UlliVIU$itiJl

Sculpture in Slone: slalUary (5everall; r1'lie[~ (sev. eral): Sl:lrCOphagll$ (I)

SCulpture in wood: utcnsils, combs, and various (seveml) TextilCli: various Cernmlcs: var'iouli Leather: various Metals: various Glass: v:lrious Baskelry: VllrlOUli Hildcshdm Rllme_ /Iud

l'elit(U!IH-MII,~l:lml

Sculpture in slonc: rcliefs (3) Textiles: various (300) Kllrlsrohe Rodi5ches 1-n,u]esmll$eIUII

Sculplure in SlOne: stlltuary (1); relid (1) Textiles: vlll'lous (263) Krefcld IJclIl$clil!S Texlilwusellm

Textilell: varioUll (numerous) Malnl.

Textiles: various (fr: 18). R(jlllisch'germ{l/ti.~cJres le,lIru/ MIIS(!lIt1l ScUlpIUr/!; in stone: relief!; (~vernl) SculplUl"¢ in wood: combs (several); various utensils Textiles: vadous Ccrnmir;s: lampli (sc\'eral) Monchengladbach ScMuss Reyd/ Mllseum Texliles: various (25) Munich SloQtfiche SQm",luIIg Hgyptische Kllnst Sculpture in stone: statuary (several); reliefs (several). 1vory: various Textiles: various Offenba
MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

Tlibingcn Agyp/ische Summllmg der UIIIl'/!rslral (Egypliull Cui· IlC/itm of /he Ulliverslly} Sculpture in stone: stelae (severnl) Ulm Museum der SIQd/ Will (Ulmer Museum) Textiles: "arious (SO) Wiesbaden Sammlulll: lltJJ.sauischer Allerliimer Textiles: \'arious (87); tunic (1) WlIrWurg

Wal"er Mllselllll der Ulliversilat Textiles: \'lIrious (57) FINLAND

Hel.sinld FlnuWt No.liollul MrlSi'llm Texliles: v:u;ous (160)

FRANCE

"miens Masee de Picardie Textiles: outer garments (fr: 2) Ange~ MlIs~t

Pilld Textiles: bands (rr. 23) Ceramics: vases (c: 2) Metals: cruciform omilment of a lamp (f..: I)

Auch MIISft d'A,n el d'An·heofoJ:ie

Sculpture (oc: I): (fr: I) Ivory and Paintings:

in wood: fr"leze (c: I); figurative reliefs decorative reliefs (e: 2): various (c: 2),

bone: st:lluary (c: I) lIIur-als (fl": I); portrait.~ (c: 2) Ttxtlle~: ~hawl~ (fr: 4) Ceramics: var'ious (c: I) Plasters: archltectuml c1emenls (fr; I) Avignon MIIs~e ellivel Tcxliles: OUler' gar'ments (fr: 7) Besanl;on Mlide des Be(ll/x Aru e/ d'Arc/reo/ogle Sculpture in stone: capillil (e: I): base of decortued vases (c: 1) Textiles: undergarments (fr. 40) Ceramics: decornted vase (c: I): undecorated amphora (c: I): lamps (c: 3). (nc: 2): &tillt Menas phial (c: I)

1705

Bordeaux Musee d'Aq"ilaill~ Textiles: tunics (c: 2), (ne: 10), (fr. 750) Boulogne-sur-Mcr Musee des Beaux Arts el d'Arc"coIOl:i~ Sculpture in wood: various (fr: 6) Textiles: uutcr garments (fr. 13) Cel'amies: lamps (c: 3) Leather. pair of $3ndals (e: 1)

Cahon MlIsle Allcilm PalQis Episcopal Textiles: outer garments (fr: 40)

Lealher. shoes (c: 1): pairs of boots (e: I) Calais M..sle des Beolu Aru el de la IJetl/d/e Textiles: outcr gannenlS (fr: 1) Chalon-sur-S30ne MllSce Duroll Ceramics: amphora (c: I), (fro several) Ch.:\tcaudun Musle des BeQ/u A.rts el d'HlSluire NQlurelle Ceramics; Saini Menas phials (c: 4) Chtlte:lurow; Musee Bertraf/d Tclttiles: ollter gal"menu; (fr: 4) Colmar Museu", d'l/iSloire Nalilrelle Textiles: outer garments (fr: 90) Compi~gne

Mllsfe Vive"eI, tHule! de SouKeolls Textiles: tunics (nc: I), (fr: severol), shawls (I'; 1): pillow co\"ers (ft: seve....ll) Dijon Pulais (1es EIUI~" lIe BumKo!:tl/: Sculpture in wood: weaving tools (c: 19): dolls (c:

21 Texli1e"~:

outer garments (fr: 150) Ceramics: lamps (e: 22); vases (c: 28): goblels (f1": several): dishes (c: I) Glass: bOllles (c: 4), (fr: several) Ol'enoble M,4Sfe de Grerroble Textiles: outer garments (ft'; 21): bonnets and bags (c: I), (ft': 4); hangings (fr: 12) Gucret M,uee A.tlele", /'H61e1 (Ie la SillD/Orule Textiles: ouler garments (fr: 155) Ut Roche-sur-Yon Musec Mlmic/pQI Ceramics: VllSC5 (c: 3): goblets (c: 4)

1706

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

laval

Nantes

Mu.fe~

Dipurlemtmla{ de la /..Qirt Allan/iqllt: Sculpturc in wood: comb (c: I); weaving imple· ments (c: several) Tcxtiles: outcr garmcnts (rr. 39) Ceramics: lamps (c: 16): Saint Menas phials (c: 1) Orleans Muslt des 8eQu.r Ans Decorated fubricl: outcr gannents (fT: 2); hangings

du Vi~u.r ChlW!all Ceramics; vases (c; 2) Lille UnilJersile de LiJle JI1, U,E,R, d'Histuire de rArt ~l d'Archen{ogie Ceramics: dl.'Corated potsherds (several) Melals: silver cross (I) Umogcs Muse, Municipal Sculpture in wood; doublc comb (l'; I); rectangular block ornamented with a cl"O!\~ (c: I) Texlilcs; outer ganncnts (fr. 14) C~ra.mic5: Saint Menas phials (c: 2); decorated vases (c. 2) Bronzes: lamps (c! 9); human head (c: I); animals (c; several); bracelcts (e: 2); pyx (c I); small bell (c: 1); sheep bell (c: I); head of gv.elle (c: 2); ornamented wand (e: 1) Lons-le-5aunier Afllse~ d~ l'Ho/t1 d~ Vifl~ Textiles: outer gannenlS (fr: 18) Luneville Musee Municipal, ChlJ.leau Textil~; outer garments (rr. 17) lyon!' Must~ des Betm.r Ar/s Sculpture in stone: frie~es (rr: 5); capiuls (oc: 1); broken pediments (fr: I); ligunltivc reliefs (c; 2); decorative reliefs (c: 5); sculpted table holding jars (c: I) Telttiles: outer garments (fr: 200) Ceramics: lamps (e; 6), (ne; 3); Saint Menas phials (c: 7), (ne: 4) Bronzes: br.uiers (ne: I); ltlmps (e: 2); lamp base (ne: 2); ornamental finery (nc: 1) Glass: mtlgic intaglios (c: 2) Mu~·ee. Hisloriqw! dl!s TiSSIU Textiles: outer gtlrments (e: 4), (nr: 7), (fr: 850); weavlr:gs (ue: 30); hongings (fr: .'\, often of imj}OI1ance); pillow covers (fr; 6) Marseilles M/<see d'Archcologic, Cha/call Bordy Telttlles: outer garments (fr: 76) Cemmics: lamps (c: 5); Saint Menas phials (c: II), (nc: 10) Bronzes: dancel' with crotalum (c: I) Leather: i>andals (c; I), (ne: I) MontbeJiard Ml/Set dll Chaleall Bronzes: frying pan (c: I)

Mu~~~

(rr: 26)

Ceramics: vases, with or without decoration (c: 8), (nc: 2), (fr: 2): lamps (rr. I); Saini Menas phials (e: I), (ne; 2); various stamps, corks, elc. (e: 2), (pc: 2), (fr: 7)

Paris Admilli$.lrtllkm Gllllra!t du Mnbilitr NQliontll tt des Malluftlcturu Nalionales des Gobelins t/ d~ Beauvtlis Textiles: outer garments (fr. 470); liturgical garments (c: 30) Bibliolh~qu~ NatiOrtal~

Painting: illuminated manuscript (nc; 1), an c::vangdiary containing pictures of three of the four Evangdists and seventy-four .scenes: some leaves with figurative subjects (IT) Bibliotheque Natiolla/e, Musle des Mtdailles ~l An· tiques Painting on wood: various (c: 2) IIISlilll1 Cafholique de Paris Painting: illuminated manuscript (c; I) I.ouvr, Museum See separate entry. Musee Augusle Rodin Textiles: outer garmenl~ (fr: 74); underclothes (fr. I); shawls (fr: 2\); hangings (fr: 18); pillow covers (fr: 12) Musee des Arts Dlcoralifs, PavillO'1 de Marst/II Telttiles: outer garments (c: I), (nc: 41), (fr: 47); liturgical vestments (fr: 38); hangings (fr: 20) MlIsl!e de l'IJomme Textiles; 500 items, including outer garments (fr: 63); shawls (fr: 9); bonnets and bags (fr: 7); hangings (fr: 15); cushions and pillow covers (fr: 2) Musee des Thennes el de I'Ho/el de Cluny Sculpture in wood: combs (fr: 2) Ivory and bone: statuary amulet (ne: I); figurative reliefs on (:ombs (fr: 2); decorative reHefs (fr: 1) Telttilcs: tunic (nc: I), (fr: 2); hair-nets (fr: 5); hangings (fr: 180) Leather: sandall (c; I) (ne; 5) PerigueullO Mllst~ du Perigord

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

Textiles: outcr garmcntS (c: 1 tunic), (rr: 15S); un· dershin (c: I) Rennes Mus~e des BeQux Arts Textiles: outer garments (fr: 67) Roanne Mus~e Joseph Deche1ette Textiles: OUler garmcnUi (fr: 25); undergannents (nc: 2); lilurgieaJ vestments (fr: I); pillow covers (nc: I), (fr: 2) Romans-sur-Js~re

Mush de tQ ChQU$Sure el d'EthnogrQphie RigionQle Leather: sandals (e: 4); booUi (e: I); shoes (I;: 9)

"""'"

Mus~e

DepQrtementul des A.nliquitts de IQ Seine Maritime Sculpture in wood: weaV1,:r's I;omb (e: I) Textiles: outer garments (nc: I), (fr: 68); ha.ngin~ (fr. 1)

BronteS: libation goblels decorated with a crrn;s (c: I): insignia of a horseman's lance (c: I) Saint-Just, Saint-Rambert-sur·Loire Musil' Munici~l, Ie Prie,/re SCulpture in wood: statuelte (e: I) Textiles: various (fr: 7) Toulouse Musil'S Georsts LaM Tutiles: outer gannents (fr: 19) Toumus Musil' Grl'ute Texliles: outer garments (fr: 73) Troyes Musil' du Beaux Ar/s lit d'Arch~ologil' Textiles: vairous (fr: 77) Verdun Music Municipal, C/ollre de /0 Tritlitc Textiles: outer gl1r!llent~ (fr: 15) Vienne MlIs~e d'Art Chr~lle'l Textiles: outcr g:trments (fr': 2) GREAT BRITAIN Batley East Klrk/ees-Bagshaw Museum Textiles: various (fr: 14); trimmings (many); tapestry trimming$ (many) Leather: sandals (ne: 4)

Belrast Uhler Mllsewn SCulpture in stone: stela (ne: I) Ivory and bone: bone cross (c: I)

1707

Textiles: outer garments (fr: 6) Bronms: figurine (c: I) Birmingham City of Birmingham M,lseulff Qnd An Gal/cry Sculplure in Slom:: window sill (fr: J); statuary (c: I); stela (ne: I); other elements, vases (c: I), (nl;; I)

&ulpture in wood: VIlriOUS elements (c: 2), (nc: 5) Ivory and bone: various elements (c: 4) T"Liles: various (nc: 7), (fr: 26) Ceramics: decorated VL~ (e: I), (ne: I), (&: I); Saint Menas phiab (e: 19); plain vessels (c: 27); various (nc: 4) Glass: vases (c: I) Basketry: various (e: 6) Bolton Lancashire-Bollon Museum Qnd Art GtJl/ery Sculpture in Slone: capitab; (fr: 2); broken pediments (&: 2); decorated stelae (c: 2); figurative statuary (c: 2) Sculpture in wood: various (e: 7) lvol)' and bone: various (c: 7) Textiles: outer garments (c: I), (ne: 2); bonnets (c: (6); shawls (c: I); undergarmenu (e: 4), (ne: 8); tunics, hanging$ (fr: 7(0) Ceramics: decorated vases (c: 2), (fr: 2); cups (I;: S); lamps (c: 4); various (e: 2) Brontes: crosses (e: 1): ornaments (e: 18) Leather: sandals (e: 2); boots (c: 1), (fr: 10) Melals: iron (e: 10), (fr: 2) Glas..'l: vases (fr: 31)

Brighton Art Gallery and MlueWIlS of the Royal Pavilion Textiles: piece (fr: 1) Bristol Cily of Bristol MljSlJUm olld Art Gallery Sculpture in stone: stelae (c: 2) Sculpture In wood: antelope heads (ne: 2); other clcments (c: I); figurative friezes (ne: I) Paintings: illuminations (c: 1) Textiles: OUIl:r garments (ne: 7); bonnets and hand· bags (c: I); tapestries (rr: 22); undergarment.~ (nl;: 2) Bronzes: cross (nc: 1): inscribed cross (c: I); cen· ser (c: I) Leather: I;ushions (nc: 1?): piece of cut leather (fr: I)

Metals: iron (c: 1), (nc: 2) Cambridge Fitzwilliam Muse..m SculplUrc in Slone: fTiezes (e: I), (oe: l); capitals

1708

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

(c: 2). (m;:: I); decoraled stelae (c: 1); decomted

Gla.~gow

reliefs (c: I)

GIi'SKUII' Museums (HId Art Gaffen'es, OI/1feff Collec· tion TCJtliles: lapC.~try (fr: 2l) Hllllferian Ml/sc:wIl Tcxtill.'S: various (fr: J). OSIr"dea (c;:; 24)

Sculpture in wood: elements (c: 8), (ne: 3), (fr: I) IYal)' and bone: statuary (I.': I), (ne: I); figurative rclicb (c; I), (ne: 2), (fr. J); decorative reliefs (c: I), (ne: I), (fr. 10); other elements (I.': 8), (ne: 3), (fr: 1) Textiles; outer garments (e: 4), (m::: I), (fr: 172): bonnelS and hllndbag:> (c: I) ceramics: decorated vases (c: 15). (ne: 3), (fr: 23); lamps «(r. 2), Saint Mena.~ phials (I.': 2). em::: 8); various (c: 7), (nc: 32), (fr: 31) Bron7.es: Cro5S\.'S (c: 6); lamps (c: 2); plain vases (e: 2): om3ments (c: 8) Le;uher: sandals (c: 2); boots (ne: I)

Melals: silver (e: 3); various (c: I) Glass: vases (e: 2) EAccplionaJ items: ivory diptych showing the four

Evangelists. sixth century: capitals from the ba· silica at loIawW3n:1 Cardiff National MIiUllm IJf Wain See Swansea. below. Chelmsford, E.t.fu-<:hdmsford. llnd E.Ht% Mustum See London. VictOria and Alben Museum. Colchester Co/clltsltr Qnd Essu Mllseum Cel'tunics: Saini Mena.~ phials (c;:: I) Dundee Dundee MlIsc:w/ls /lIld Art Galleries Sculpture in wood: kohl stick and lid (e: 2). (ne: I) Ivol)' and bone: ivory bracelet (fr: 2): bone pin (c:

2) Metals: copper ring (e: I); copper bral:clct (e: I); bror17.e crosses (c: 2) Textiles: dCl:or".ltl:d (e: 24) ClaS5: va.~es (fr: 6); beads (c: 6) Lealher; sand:l! (c: I) Durham Bowes M/j/;I!III1J, Bamard Castle Textiles: tapestr'les (fr': 2) Edinburgh Royal Mllselllll of Scmlmld ScUlplUl'e In Slone: stebe (c: 6). (fr. I); statuary (c;:: I)

Ivory and bone: figurdtive reliefs (fr: 2); decorative reliefs (fr: 2) Textiles: Outer garments (c: 4), (fr. 120); bonnets (c: 2) Bron~s: crosses (e: I); bronze censers (c: l) Metals: gold (ne:: I)

Greenock AleC/elll! Museum alld Art Gallery Textiles: various (few) HalifaJ( BanJcfidd M.lselllll. Ca/derdo/e MuseulPls Se,..,iCI! Textiles: various (fr: 86) Hereford City MI.se.lm and Art Gal/cry Bronzl.'S: bmps (e: 2) Ipswich Ipswich Mllseum Ceramioo: Saim Menas phial (c: I) Painting: stucco painted with II crude figure of a saint (e: I) Kl!tldol,ClIlIlbria-AblJOI Art GtJllery Textiles: decon:ued fabrics (fr: several) Leicester Jewry wile MIISI!I/'" Texlil..,:>: sock (e: 2): infanl's shin (c;:: 2), (fr: I): shin slee\'e (c;:: 1): woolen ball (c: I); decorated fnbrics (fr: 8) Liverpool Liverpool Muse.ulIJ Sculpture in stone: friezes (nc: 2): t!el:orated .~telae (c;:: 2), (nc: I) Sculpture in wood: figurative relids (c: 2), (nc: I): decorative rclief~ (e: 5), (nc: 50): mhe!' clements (c: 16), (nc;:: J). (fr: 5) Ivory and bnne: slAllHU)' (c: 3): figumtivc I1:lids (c: I): decorative reliefs (c: 10); olhl:r clements (c: 6), (ne: 3) Textiles: gAI'mcnts (fr: lOO) CertlITlil:s: decorated vases (c: I); eups (c: 2); lamps (c: 4); Saint Mcn:\s phials (c;:: 100): various (c; 6), (nc: 3) BI'Oll1.es: crosscs (c: 5); hl'll7.iers (c: I); lamps (c: I); plain vase (c: I); ornaments (c;:: 3) Leather: COclCK covel' (c: I) Glass: VaF.e (c: I) l..ontlon Britisll MI<Se.IIIII, Deporlmell/ of Egyplian AmiqlJilil's Sculpture in stone: friezes (nc: 180): stone capilab (c: 21); broken pediments (c: 4); decor"dted stelae (c;:: 195): slatual)' (c: 4): ligur.llive reliefs (c: J), (nc: 10): decorative reliefs (nc: 5)

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

Sculpture in wood: frie'l;CS (nc: 10); olher elelllenl~ (c: 35), (ne: 10), (fr: 5) IVQry and bone: slaluary (e: 1), (nc: 12), (fr: 5); ligurntive reliefs (e: 4), (nc: 8), (fr: 3); decomtivc relids (c: 7), (nc: 6), (fr: 7); other demenlS (e: 100), (ne: 50), (fr: SO) Painting: murals (nc: I) Texliles: outer garmenlS (e: 2), (nc: J), (fr. 165); bonnets and handbags (c: I), (fr: I); litu~ieal vestments (ne: I); lape8lries (c: I), (nc: 2), (rl~ 2) Ceramics: decorated vases (c: 4), (ne: 1), (fr: 33); lamps (c: 129); SainI Menas phials (c: 7), (nc: 8); various (c: 23), (nc: 2) BronitCS: crosses (c: 4); lamps (c: 4); lamp feet (nc: 3); ornaments (c: 15) Leather: sandals (fr: I); codex cover.> (nc: 1), (fr: 2) Metals: gold (e: I); silver (c: 2); iron (fro 5) Glass; VllliCI (c: 3); mirrors (nc: 3) Bri/ish MUSf!II1t/, Deportmen/ uf Medieval arrd 1.i1.l/'r

AlIliqui/ies Sculpture in slone: (fr. 2); bread stamps (.-: J); crosses (c: J); seals (c: 7) Sculpture in ...."OOd: door p«ncfs (e: 10); e~ (e: 2); bread Slamps (e: 2); pecloral (c: I): comb (e: I); pin (c: 2) TClltiles: various (fr: 29) IVQry and bone: ligures (c: 15); bone erncironn pendants (c: 12) Cemmics: lamp.~ (c: 42); Saint Mem.s phials (c: 12); pilgrim medallion (e: 1); bread "~lamp!l (c: 4); dishes (c: 4), (fr: 4); doll (c: l) Metals: gold rings (e: 2); breast chain (c: I); ear· rings (c: 2); It'on ling~ (1); brneclets (c; 2) Bronzes: rings (e: 7); weiHhts (e: 55); tamps (c: (0); lamp fittings (c: I); peacock (c: I); goose (l": I); patera (c: \); dish (e: I); ewer (c: I); huck."t (e: I); alllphora (c: I) pedestal (c: I); medallion (e: 1); cros~I.'S (c: 16); hrooches (e: 3); buckle (,-: I); earrings (c: 12): hraeelets (e: J); pins (c: 1); cro~scs (e: 2) Glass: eoin weights (c: 2); pend.nlts (c: 2); hottle seals (c: 2) From W,",di Sarjflh: stuctn muml painling (1): 650 complete and incomplete pottery vessels and lamps; Ilpprollimately 80 assorted textile, wood, bone, iron, lll'oll:r.c, lead objects; apprQximately 410 glll.'i~ fragments Vic/orio oud Aiberr Mu.icllm Telttilcs: tapestries (fr: 64); tunic (fr: 2); gill le"1her slrap (fr: I); bnskel (fr: I). To be added from Chelmsford, l3.ss(;ll·chdlll~ror(l, and Essex Museum: val'ious elements: (Fr. 20) donated To be added from London·SQUlh Kensington Musc-

1709

urn (Telltile Machinery CoI1e<:llnn): lhe whole Coptic colleclion on 10nH-tenn 10;1n Maidstone Maids/one Muse"m oud Ar/ Gallery Textiles: (rr: 3) Newbury Newbury Dililric/ MUlillU,", Berkshire Ceramics: decorated vases (fr. 3); cups (fr. 4); Saint Menas phials (c: I), (nc: I), (fr. 5); various ob· jects, shank (fr. 12) Northampton Cell/ral MI/sewtl Le:uher: shoes (ne: 2); .sandals (nc: J) Norwich

Cas/Ie Museu," TClltiles: outer garments (fr. 13); tapestries (fr: 6) NOllingham Cily of NOl/inghnm Arts Departme1ll, Museum of Cos· fume and Texfiles

Telltiles: outer gnnnents (IT: J8) Oxford Ashmolean

Ml/sC1/1II

Sculpture in slone: altar slab (c: I); capilal (c: I); bLt~1 (c: I); MeIne (c: 4); cross (c: I) Sculplure in wood: cross (c: I); altar board (c: I); combs (c: 3), (nc: 2), (Fr. I); lriPlych (nc: I) Leather. headband (e: I); decoraled piece (Fr. 1): shoes (c: 5), (ne: 2), (fr: I); .\andnls (nc: I), (fr: I) Ivory and bone: comb (c: I); spindle whol'ls (c: 6), (nc: I) Ceramics: lamp (c: 7), (nc: 2); pots (e: 3), (ne: 6), (fr: I with chi·rho symbol on base); Saint Mena~ phials (c: 14), (nc: 39), (fr: 2); incense burner or lamp Slant! (ne: I); euchar'isllc loaves (c: 5) GI"ss: flasks (e: (9), (ne: I), (fr': J); vases (fr: I); howls (fr: 6); jar~ (c: 8) Bronzes: tripod stand (c: I): bucket (c: I), vase (c: 1); cruct and sland (ne: I); lamp (c: I), (nc: 2); bowl with spout (nc: 1); pyll: (fr: I); cenSel' and thUl'ible (fr: 1); staluetle of dove (1) (c: I); cross (c: 1)

Metals: iron knife blade (c: I); iron cross (nc: 1); silver prm:essional cross (c: 2); silver cruss and saer.tmental spoon with Arabic inscription (c: I); silver fan (c: I); silver-gilt bridal Hown (c: I); sled knife or cleaver billde engraved with doves and crosses (c: I) TClltiles: decorated f..bries (fr: 444) Reed: whislle (nc: I) Pill Rivers MusellJII and Depur"'lImt of Elhllology and Prehistory

1710

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

$(:ulpture in wood: doll (c: 3); combs (c: 2); keys (c: 2) Ivol')' and bone: statuary (c: I) Paintings; panels (c: 2); ornamented ostrich egg Bron1.es: lamp (c: I); cross (c: I); rings (c: 4); bracelets (c: 2); lock (c: I); keys (c: 2) bolts (0::: 2) Metals: brass bracelets (c: 2); bronze and iron rings (c: 4); iron padlock (c: I): keys (c: 10) Reed: pipes (c: I), (oc: 1)

Note al$O oslrich egg. olTlamente,l with incised pictures of public buildings, probably in Caim. signed by the anlsl, Hasan Fahmi. length, 6 in., and mall. width, c. 4.3 in.; four bronze and iron finger rings (?): bronze bolt from lock; two wooden pin-lock keys; iron padlock. Reading Urc Museum of Gnek Archaeology, ReQding Univer· sity Textiles: decorated fabrics (fT: 18). Rochdale Rochdale Museum, LAmcQshire TCJ{tiles: outer garmentS (c: I), (fT: 25): shawls (rr. 2) Salrord Sallord Mus~ums lI11d Arl Galleries TCJltilcs: tapestries (ff: 10)

Swansea SWllnsell University College, Wdlcome Collection Sculpture in stone: frieze (c: I); decorated stelae (e: I), (nc: I), (fr. 3) Ivory and bone: weaver's implemenls (c: 3) Textiles: OUler garmcnt.~ (nc: I), (rr: I); bonnets (nc: 3), (fr: I) CcrJ.mics: Saint Menas phials (c: I); stamps (c: 1) Brom:es: ornaments (c: 3) SwindOIl Swlndofl MU$elj/tl IIfld Ar/ Gallery, Wil/shire Ceramics: lamp (e: l) TorqulIy, Devon Torqlla)' MII$ewtl

Textiles: tapestries (fr: 2) Ceramics: decorated flask (ne: 1); Iigurine (c: I)

tive reliefs (c: 2); decoralive reliefs (e: 2); various (c: 6), (nc: 40) Ivones and bone: figurative rcliefs (ne: 6); de<:oralive reliefs (c: 16), (nc: 7); various (e: 4), (nc: 8) Paintings: portrait5 on doth (c: 2) Textiles: garments (c: 4), (nc: 6), (fr: 337); bonnets and bags (nc: 3); hangings (ne: 3), (£r. 46); pillow covers (fr. 15) Cernmics: decornled VlISCS (c: 29), (£r. 22); lamps (nc: 3); Saint Menas phials (c: 16), (ne: II); van()t..IS (c: 17) Bronus: crosses (c: 7), (nc: I); inscribed crosses (c: 2); Cen5C1'I (c: 12), (fr: 1); braziers (c: 1); candelabra (c: 3), (nc: I), (rr. 5); lamps (c: 10), (nc: 3), (fr: 9); lamp bases (c: 5), (nc: I); plain vases (c: I), (£r. I); ewen (c: 3); ornamental finery (c: 12), (nc: 1) Leather: sandals (c: 2) Metals: silver (c: 17); iron (c: 8) HUNGARY Budaprst Szlpmilvisl,eti MUleum (Hungarian Museum 01 Fine Arts)

Sculpture in ~one: capitals (c: 2); relief (fr: I) Bone: figurines (c: 20), (fr: 5); weaving tools (c: 16); tools (c: 15); figurative reliers (fr: 2); various (e: 2)

Textiles: outer garments (fr. 60) Cernmics: decorated YMCS (c: 5), (£r. I); lamps (c: 25); Salnt Menas phials (c: IS), (fr: 4); vases (c: 8), (fr: 7); figurinetl (c: 18), (£r. 80); stamp.s (e: IS) Bronzes: candelabra (fr: 2); lamps (rr: 2); ornamental finery (c: 5); jewelry (c: 5) GIll5S: stamps (e: I) Gems: soapstone steatIte figurines (I:: 1); jewelry (c: 3)

Ipam/Uveste/; Muzeum (Museum of Decora/ive Arts) Textiles: outer garments (fr: 173) Debrecen Dere MUZCIIIIl Textiles: Ouler garments (fr: 5) ISRAEL

Jerusalem

GREECE Athens Bf!tlakl MusewlI

Sculpture in stone: capitals (c: 2); figurative reliek (c: I); decorative relie£s (c: 1); vanc'lus (c: 4), (ne:

35) Sculpture In wood: SUlIuary (c: 7), (fr. 22); figura-

Is/all Musf!wlI TeJltile~:

outer garments (fr: 7); tapeSlries (c: 1), (nc: 5), (fr: 30)

ITALY

Rome Mllseo Silcro della Biblioleca Apos/oUcll del Va/i_ cana (Pnville Collection)

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

Tcltliles: various pieces from Akhmlm·Panopolis, dating from fourth-fifteenth centurie~ (19), multicolored silks (coll(:(:lloo) from the treasure of the Santa Sanctorum, which combine Sassanian, Christian Syrian. and Byzantine r:Icmcn15 Vllticlln Museums (Private Collection) Textiles: various pieces of Antinoopolilan provenance from third to ninlh ccnu,lries. including one thlrd-eentury painted mummy wrapping (99) JAPAN

""" Kanebo. Ud. Collection of Coptic Tutilts Decoratcd fabrics: large altar pil.'Ccs: clothing: hangings; curtains: covers: pillows; belts: bags; other objects (more than 5,000 items, many of which are fragments) NETHERLANDS, THE

Amsterdam Alltt,d Pierson Musewn Sculpture in slone: friezes (fr: 13); c;apilals (c 3),

err.

(ne: I), I): decorated stelae (c: 8). (oe: 4): statuary (c: 2), (ne: 4), 2)

err.

Sculpture in wood: fricus (rr. I); panels (c: I); reliefs (e: 4) Ivory and bone: various (c: 2), (nc: I) Textiles.: ouler gannents (c: I), (ne: 5), (&: 75); liturgical vestments (ne: 11). (fr: 12); OOllnets and bags (fr: I) Ceramics: decorated vases (e: 2); goblets (r".:: I); lamps (e: 2); Saint Mcnas phials (e: 2), (nc: 7); various (e: 7), (nc: I), (fr: I) Bronzes: crosses (c: I), (ne: I); cauldron (e: I); lamps (c: I); decol'8tcu vascs (c: 4); ornaments (e: 10)

leather: sandals (c: 3), (ne: I); boots (c: 1); belts (nc: 1), (fr: t) Metals: iron (c: I) Glass: mirror (c: I) Lelden Rij5k5mll$lUm Vall Dudlredw Sculpture in stone: friezes (nc: 7); decorated stelae (c: 6); figurative reliefs (ne: 3) Sculpture in wood: various (nc: 13) IvaI)' and bone: statunry (nc: 27); figurative reliefs (nc: 23); decorative reliefs (nc: 9); various (ne: 19)

Painting: manuSCl'lpt illuminations (c: about 2.5) Textiles: tapestries (nc: 1); pillow covers (nl:: 8); various (fr: about 110) Ceramics: decorated vases (c: 15); lamps (c: 38); Saint Men4$ phials (c: IS); various (c: 6)

17 I I

Bronzes: crosses (c: 4); ornaments (c: 22) leather: ~ndals (nc: 5); codex callers (c: I) Metals: iron bracelet and buckles (c: 8) POLAND

Krakow }(Igellonian University, Department 01 Medire"ancan Archaeology Ceramics: dccorated vascs (c: I); plates (ft: I) Museu.m 01 ArchtJeo/ogy Sculpture in stone: stelae (c: several) Textiles: outer gannenlS (fr: several) Ceramics: Saint Menas phials (e: several) NationtJ/ Museum Textilcs: outcr gannenu (ft: 70); figurines (c: sev· eral) Nalional Mlueum, CWl'foryski Col/urian Sculpture in stone: panels (c: I); stelae (c: I), (nc: 1)

Textiles: outer gannenlS (fr: 9); pillow covers (c: 2) Ceramics: goblet (e: I) Warsaw NtJtional MIIS~lIm Sculpture in stone: figuratille reliefs (fr: I); decora· tive reliefs (fr: 7): incised Stamps (e: 4) Textiles: outer ganneng (ne: I), (fr. 52): bonnets and bags (c: I): liturgical vestments (f..: I?) Ceramics: decorated vases (c: 5), (nc: 13), (fr: 308); Saint Menas phials (e: 5); figurines (nc: 3), (fr: 49)

PORTUGAL Li~bon

Milseu Nacianal de Arle Antiga Texliles: outer gannenu (fr: 26) SWITZERLAND

Basel Gewerhemusewn, Museum fur GUlallung Textiles: outer garments (c: 2), (nc: 1), (fr: 54); bonnets and hag..~ (c: 1); lIarious (fr: 74) Musl!um IUr ViJlkerklmde Illory and bone: I1l1riOUS (c: 20) Textiles: various (fr: 1,200) Be!'n

Bemisclres hislurisches Museum Sculpture In wnod: decorated reliefs, diptych (c: 1); beads (c: 17), (fro 2) Paintings: on linen (ne: 2.) Textiles: various (fr: 60) Ceramics: statlletle (c: I) Metals: brass eucharistic chalice (e: I): processional crosses (c: 5)

1712

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

Boob: various (e: 2)

Geneva Mllsee d'An tt d'His!olre Sculplure in stonc: rric1.es (fr: I): "apilals (e: I); statuary (nc: 1): figurativc relicfs (e: I), (fr. I); various (c: 5), (ne: I), (fr: I) SculplUre In wood: combs (fr: 3); stamps (nc: I), bUllon (c: I) Ivory and bonc: crosses (c: 2); spoons (c: I), (ne: I); combs (fT: I); straighl pins (e: 2), (nc: 2), (fr: 2); brticclclS (e: 2), (nc: I); bulton.~ (c: 8). (ne: 4): various (e: 1), (ne: 6), (fr: 2) Tcxllles: lunlcs (ne: 2), (fr: 4): bonnets and bags (fr: 4); $C1Il'\'CS (fr. 8); cloak (oe: I); hangings (oe: 2): pillow covers (oe: 2): variOu.~ (fr: 430) Ccramics: lamps (c: 9), (Ile: I): phi'lls (e: I). (ne: 1): saini Meoas phials (ne: 3): various (c: 4), (ne: 8), (rr. 1)

Bronl',l,:$: crosses (c: 8), (nc: I); bells (ne: 2), (fr. I); ornamental finery (c: 43), (ne: 7), (rr. 9); spoons, spatulas, styli (e: 9), (nc: 2), (rr: I); disks (e: 2) Metals: lold (e: J). (ne: 4), (fr: I); silver (e: I), (ne: I), (fr: I): iron (e: 4), (nc: 2), (rr. 2) Glass: ornamental finery (e: 16), (pc: 1) Zurich ArchtJologishl$ InSlilll! der Univcrsitiil Zjjrich Sculpture in stone: figuroltivc relids (e: 3) Textilt:s: ouler gannents (fr: 3); hangings (fr: I) Ceramics: Saint Mena5 phials (ne: 10); various (fr. 10)

ViJ/lcerJumdclIllUellttl der Uulvaslliil Ziirich Textiles: outer garments (e: I): vluinus (ne: II)

TURKEY Istanbul Archaeulogical MIlSlwms of Istanbul Textiles: tapestries (c: 30) Centmics: various (fr: 5) UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPU8L1CS Ivanovo Museum of Fille Arl.~ Texliles: various Kaumu Museum of Fllle Arts Textiles: V:lrlOUS Kiev Musellm of Occidlmlal and Oriel1tal Arl Textiles: various (fr. JO) Leningrad He",lilag~ Mu,~cwl1

Sculplure in stone: capitals (c: I); stelac (fr. 40)

Sculptul'e in wood: figurative reliefs (c: 6); ; bells (c: I); cushions (c: I)

Metals: vanuus (fr: 450) Gla.<;..": va.o;es (fT: more than JO) L~.

MllSelim of Ethllogrelphy Texli1es: various (fro 16)

Minsk NaliO/lell Ul1iversity Textiles: various (fr: Moscow MUJiemll of Fille Arts Textiles: various (ft: Tallinn Museum of fille Arts Textiles: various Tbilisi Museum of Georgitm Textiles: variOU.'l (fr:

4)

JOO)

Arts 10)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Amherst, Massaehusetl~ Mead Art Mllseum, Amherst College Sculpture: (I) Textiles: various (II) Ann Aroor, Michigan KtlJiey Mllsewn of ArdwculQI;)', Universily of MichlI:lm

Sculpture in Mone: reliefs (198): other (5), Sculpture in wood: various (30) Bone: various (400-500) Cernmics: painted poltet)' (5): stamp seals (20) Glass: (1) Bahimore, Maryland Ballimore MuseWI1 of Art Textiles: vadOIlS (few) Wallers Art Gallery

Sculpture: reliefs (many): Olher (many) Metal.~: jewell)' (few) Mosaic: (I) Minur arts: variuu$ (12)

Bilmingham, Alabama Binllilll:hulI/ Mllsellm of Arl

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECfIQNS IN

Bone: statUal)' (I) Bloomfield Hills, Micllig:1n Cranbrook Academy of An TcxtilCli: various (35)

Cincimla/; Ar/ Mllscllm

Bloomington. Indiana JlldiQIIQ University Art Mllsellm

Sculpture in Slone: ~epuh::hral marble stela wilh male and female orants (I) Sculpture in wood: carved pallel (I) Textiles: \'arious (many) Brooklyn. New York Brooklyn

M'l$elllr/

Sculpture: various (10) Reliefs: VllriOllS (220) Textiles: variou~ (220) Minor ans: various (50) Buffalo, New York Albright.Knox An Gnllcry

Sculpture in Slone: relief of a Nereid (1) Cambridge, Massachusctts

Fogg Art Mllsemn Sculpturt' in stone; architectural limestone frogmenlS. engaged arches. pilaster cnpit..ls. ornamental mC1:es and bands, lintels, colonnene.s (214); Iiun head uf fifth-seventh centuries (I) Textiles: linen. wool. I;lpestry. IOnic appliques, fragments uf large hangings, burden>, loop-pile coverlet. silk twill. resist·dye from fillh-ninth ccnluries (106) Melal: brass lamp (I): bl'on~e lamp (2); polycan. dela (I); small lidded toilet 0011. (1): open-work censer dome rroln sixth-Ienth century (I) Bone: styli~ed dolls In bone; fragments or liturgical manuscripts on p:lper Chapel Hill, North Carolina AcklmuJ Ar/

MUHlIWl,

U,,;vers;ly uf Nur/h Carulina

Textiles: fragments (5) Ceramics: tert1,-cotl<' lamp (I) Chicago,

Jl1inoi~

MIiSli/llll

Sculpture in stone: capitals (4); pediment (I) Textiles: (13) Minor arts: (105) Claremont, Calirol'nia Ills/iwII! lor All/iqllity and Christ/arlity. Claremonl Graduale SChC10I

Minor an...: (rew) Cle\·eland. Ohio CIt!I,t!fDlld Musewn 01 An

Textiles: (many) Columbia, Missouri Musellm 01 Arl atld ArchaeufuKY, University uf Miswllri-Columbia

Sculpture: (I) Reliefs: (2) Textiles: (35) Minor an...: (6)

Coral Gables. Florida Lowe A" MlISI:III11, University 01 Mi(lmi Textiles: (10) Dayton. Ohio Day/on A" fUSlilllle

Textiles: (fr: 9) Denver, Colol1ldo Denver An Mllslim"

Sculpture in stone: polychromcd limestone figure (1); sarcophagus relier of Pan with three goats (I)

DctJ"Oit, Michigan Detroil Jlls/itute of Arts

Textiles: (40) Durham, North Caroliml Duke U"ivcr,t;ly M'UII,m, 01 Art Paintings on wood: (fr: 4); wine jar (I) Hannvel', New Hampshire Dar/mull/ir Culllige Museum aud Calleries

Sculpturc in ,ttone: stelae (2) Textiles: (rr: 1)

Arl IIlS/illl/1i uf Chicago, DCpar/I1ICll/ 01 TIi;
Hartford, Connccticut

Textiles: various (many) Field Mllsellm uf Na/ural Histelf)' Textiles: various (700-800) Metllls: bronze containers: jewelry Minor arts: vlIl'ious (100)

Wadswor/h

Orilill/al hlS/itlllc, Ullivcr,fity 01 ChkagQ

Sculpture: (rew) Reliers; (rcw) Minor al1S: (many) Cincinnati, Ohio

1713

A/Ir(lll/:iWU

Sculpture in stone: reJ1efs (2) Textiles: vflrious (80) Metals: hl'On~e lamps and vessels I'lonolulu. Hawaii Honolulu Academy 01 Aru Textiles: various (36) Indianapolis, Indiana IndiDllapolis Mlisellm of Ar/ Textiles: various (fr: 200)

1714

MUSEUMS, COPTIC COLLECTIONS IN

Lawrence, Kansas fle/e.n ForesmrHl Spenctf Museum

"I

Art

Relief: (I) Textiles: varioU5 (fr. many) Los Angeles. California

ws AnStlu County Mustum of Art SCulplI,lre: architectural reliefs (few)

Textiles: tunic (c: I); various (34) Memphis. Tennessee Brooks Monorial Art Gallery Textile5: (fr: I)

Minneapolis. Minnesota Minnc
Sculpture: (3) Te,ll.tilcs: large woven panel pol1....ying a jeweled cross standing in fronl of a wreath (c: 1): various (0)

New Brunswick, New JerKy

New Brunswick Theological Seminary Textiles: (19) New Haven, Connecticut

Beinecb Rrm! Book and Mrmuscripl Library, Papyrus Collection, role University Ceramics: Stamp seals (3)

Yale Unillt!rsily Arl Gallery Sculptu~ in slone: sl:l.luary (3); reliefs (15) Ivory and bone: inlay (few) Paintings on wood: (I) Textiles: (200) New York, New York Coopu-I/flll'itl Museum Te)l;lilcs: (175) Me./ropolila" Muse/lm of An, Etyptiu'l and Islamic Dcparmretl/s Sculplure in SlOnc: (many) Sculptul'c in wood: grave monuments Reliefs: (m:my) Textiles: (many) Minor tll'IS: (m"ny) Newark, Delaware Utlivttrsily uf Delaware Gal/ery Ceramics: terl'a-coua lamp (1) Newal'k, New Jersl)y Newark Museum Sculplure in Slone: reliefs (2) Sculptul'e In wood: relief (I) Painlings on wood: (1) Texliles: (46) Ceramics: painled vases (c: 2), (fr: I); lamps and flasks (7) Bronl.es: large croues (5); small crosses (14)

Minor ar1S: bone and wood objects (31); scale and box (1) Northamplon, Massachusctls Smith College Museum 01 Art Textiles: various (rr: 5) O~r1in, Ohio Alletl MtmoritJI An Museum, Oberlin College Sculplure: (I) Relid: (1) Textiles: various (fr: 28) Omaha, Nebraska Joslyn A.rt Musellm Sculpture: (I) Relier: (4) Teniles: (7)

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Druef Must/14m Coffeetion, Drexel University Textiles: (3) Philadl!!lphia Mu.sellm 01 Art Textiles: various (n-: 88) Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Carnegie Museum of Nalural Hutory, CQrntgil!! Ins/iIWI!!

Textiles: (475) Minor arts: (24) Museum 01 Art, Carntgit InSli,we Textiles: (9) PrinCelOn, New Jersey An Museum, PritlCeton University Sculplure: (I) Textiles: various (fr: 46) Minor arts: (23) Scheide L.ibrary, Princelon University Textiles: various (fr: 8) Providence, Rhode Island Museum 01 Art, Rhode Island Sch()()/ 01 Design Sculpture: various (few) Tcxliles: variou~ (250) Jewelry: various (few) Richmond, VirgInia Virgitlia Muj,um 01 Fine Arts Sculplure in stone: statuettes (few) Textiles: various (fr: 7) Ivory: slatuelles (few) Ceramics: ~arious (fr: few) San Josc, California RosicrlIciatl Egyptian MIls,,,,n Sculplure In Slone: cro.ss (I) Textiles: various (many) Bronzes: lamp (I)

MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Present Musical Practice

Santa Barbara, Californi:l San/a Barbara Museum of Arl Tex.tiles: various (9) Santa Monica, California J. Paul Ge/l)' Museum Grave relief. (I) Elaborately painted sarcophagus: (I) Textiles: various (fr: 2) SamoUl, Florida John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art Minor arts: a rew Seatde, Washington Seatlle Art Museum Sculpture in stone: relief (I) Sculpture in wood: reJier (fr. I) Textiles: various (14) Stanford, California Stanford Unil'er$it)' Museum of Art TeJltiles: various (125) Urbana, l1linois World Heritare Museum, Unillusil), of Jl/illOis Textiles: various (28) Washington, D.C. Dumbarton Oaks, 8)'Ulntine Col/ecliorl Sculpture: various (12) Textiles: various (160) Minor arts: (many) btstitule of Christi,m Oriental Research, Calholic Unil'ersil)' of America Ceramics: lamps (few): Saint Men3S phials (few). Tutile Ml<seum Tex.tiles: various. including large hangings (450) Williamstown, Massachusetts Will/ams Col/ege M'4Se"m of Art Sculpture: various (fr: 4) Textiles: various (fr: 18) Worcester, Massachusett.~ Worcester Art Mustmm Texliles: (116) Bron7.es: (3) "JERRF. DU BOURCUET. S.J,

MUSIC, ANTECEDENTS OF COPTIC.

See

Music, Coptic: History.

MUSIC, COPTIC. (Tllis erllry

consisl~' of Ihe fol-

lowing articles: Description of the Corpus and Prcscnt Musical Practice

1715

Canlicles Oral Tradition Melody. Its Rellllion 10 Different Languages History Cantors Musical InstnJments Musicologists Transcriptions in Western Notation Nonliturgical Music)

DescrlpUon of the Corpus and Present Musical Practice The follOWing remarks penaln only to the music of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Other Christian churches in Egypt (Greek Orthodox. Coptic Catholic, ProtC!;Lant, etc.) have their own musical prac· tices. Coptic music, an exprcssion of a proud and con· stant faith. still lives today among the Copl5 as a vestige or an age-old tradition, II is monodic, vocal, and SlIng a cappella solely by men, with the exec?" tion of some respons.es assigned to the whole con· gregation. Small hand cymbals and the triangle tire cmplo)'oo with specified pieces during cenain ser· I'ices (see Musical InstnJmcnt5. below). The Divine Lllurgy and Offerings of Incense Thc core of Coptic music lies in the Dil'ine Litur· gy (Arnbic: qllddlls). whose texts are all meant to be sung. excepting the Creed and the Dismissal. In the liturgy the must ramilillr hymns and chant!' arc heard. [t 15 basIcally :l great music dr.-rna, consisting of three parts: (I) the Preparation; (2) the Llturgy of the Word, also called lhe Liturgy of lhe Catechumens, which comprises the PRAYER OF TtlANKSGtVING. the !'criptural rcadlngs. various intercessions and responses, the recitation of the Creed. and the Prayer of Pence; nnd (3) the anaphortl, lhill is, the eucharistic ritual (scc I!UCUMUST). The entire scrvice may require some three hours of singing, and during Holy Wcek, the spccial services may lasl six or scven hours, TI1I'ee liturgies (see History, below) havc been established in the Coptic church: (1) the Liturgy of Saint Basil is celebrated throughout the year except for the rour major feasts of Nativity, Epiphany. Resurrection. and Pente<:ost; also, it is used daily in the monasteries whether thcre is a fast day or not; (2) the Liturgy or saint Gregory Is used today in the celebration of the four major reasts mentioned

1716

MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Present Musical Practice

J_ 116

~ o

KY - fl - - . - - - - - OC

H6 ·T.l. - . - - - - . - - . - . - •• - . - - - - . - - . - - -

o ky·1'i .. -.-.-- os me-Ia- -- .. -. -- --. -- -- --. --. (a)····

J.IOO

J:96

~ ._._------_._

.

__ _--_._._(a)-------···(a)··----·····-----····-·(a)------

(a)

~,

_----_.

J. lOof

a;m'ii9i4J_

(a)···-------------··········--·----····---·-·····--

J" 110

~·~~\yJitl -,.w· .. II

y .. -. -- - .... HID ----- --- --. -. --.

pan - -ti'!· - - n

U··-·--·----Ill(}·-··--------····

n.l.ll .

(a)

r-3----,

,

3

1

3

_~.F?==f=II _· (6)- - - - ....

·

··

· __ ·····

·····_·H.

- - - - - - - - - - - - .... - -. _.•....... - ----no

l:.xample of oflici:ml'5 music. S,'1lulalion: Preface to the Anllphora from the Liturgy of 51. Basil. TrtHucripliollhy To/h. In the transcriptions by T6th, nOtes with stems tlimcd duwnwilrd can he disc~rned only when recordings arc played al a slow tempo. An :lrrow poinling UJ1ward [f) over a nute indicates a qual1er·tone higl,cr, whereas an arrow puinting downward [~l indicates :I quarter-lone lowe!'. All musicllltlllnscr'ip' tions an' made frum rCI"ordings done at thc IllGHER INSTITlfl'P' 01' COPTtC STUDIES under the aegis of Ragheb Murl:lh.

above; it.~ mw;ic ili somewhat more "mate than that of the UtUf&Y of SI. Basil and has bc1:n charaeler· i'l:ed ~ Ihe most beaUliful because uf ilS high emotion: and (3) Ihe Liturgy of Saint Cyril, also knowll as the Lilurgy of Saini Mark, Ihe !llQSt Egyptian of the three.

Unfortunately, mosl of the melodies of Ihe Litur· gy of Saint Cyril have been lost, and it can no longer be performed in its enlirety. The most recenl record of its performance ili lhat of Patriarch MACARIUS III (1942-1945), who used it regularly. 1m· mediately thereafter, Ihere may havc been a few

MUSIC, COPTIC: Dcscdption of the Corpus and Pt'esent Musical Practice

),c· n),-c),c· 06

loX· AU - AOYC ell

as - pa- sa.~ ·thc

al . Ie - lous en

J.'l


..•• - . . • . . . . TI

phi· Ie . rna ••.•........ Ii

J"u

~j~ ),·····································_··rl·-w.

a·_···-··········· .···········.··· ... ···gi··O. Example of deacon's music. Uiddi'lg: Kiss of Pcac\,: frurn the Liturg)' of St, B:\sil. Transcription by TIl/h.

J:91.104 Sung al1eraalcly (OIOTUS ltivi!'i) ttlirll>en time,.

~j KY'fl-'"

-a

(I·MIll···

(;()H

Ky·ri·····e e·lee·--!'ion

-

KY--J'l-(I

(1-

KY-·Ii-~·

KY··fl··f>

(I"-A(I- - - ,11-· --COH

Ky-·ri--c

e···le··

·MI· _. ·11· .

co· ... II

·Ie····(:·· so····n

··c·· ··son

~, ky"pl"6 (I·>.611·COtl

Ky··ri· -C C·Icc· son

Ky·······pl·e···················· Ky·······J·i·e··-.

~ (1- - - - _ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

AeH-COIl

e···············_--··-··lee-son Example of anliphonal choral singing. The Furt)'-one Kyrit! preceding the Procession of the HOIit from Ihe Liturgy of St. Basil. Transcriptiun by Robt!rlSon. In the trnnscriptions by Robcrt50n. a plus sign (+J over a note indicales a quaneNone higher. and a minus sign (-] indicates a quaner'lone lower.

1717

1718

MUSIC, COPTIC; Des crip tion of Ihe Cor pus and Pre sen t Musica l Pra ctic e

tl- -·· ·-· -·· ·T tI· --· ·-· -·- -·· -tl hi· - . - - - - - - - - te . - . - - .. - . - - - - . n

Nl- --- -·-· --- ·.E iy- --.ni· .. - - - .... - . - eu ... - -

--'.

-~ XH

N - -Ttl

she

(e)n ··lc

.),- .--. --.- -.-r . 8- - - •• - - - - ••

HH nO

N

6·· --- ··· --0 ··o y- ··· ·-- -·· · c-· -·· ··- -·t h·· au ··· ·-- -·· ··

---- -Tt !

1I.l.1

-b (e)n - - - - - te

(; ••• 2<) ••

pal

c·· -ha -·

(0) ' - - - - - . - - - - . y

(a) --· ·-· -·· ·-- u

III .. oy .. - -.).I • • • . . pi - . au· . - '81' •.

- - ••

- •••

"'-- --o y-pi· ·-·o u··

.l.- --·· I

K.l. - - T.),

IIfl --·

a ·-- -i

ka· . ta

pe- --- -f( e)- ra- --· ··-- --- --- n;

--'l (e) -p.) ,--· .· -- ... . -. -1'1;

-.

~

....

~

(6 )·· -·- ·-· ··· --· --· -·· ··· --· h .. --.· ·-O O .. -·· -·· --- -· (e) - - -"" - - -. ·-(e )p·· - -- -- ·ch a-· ·· - - -." '"

Z "MO T

(O)IC

.l.-

(o)i r

a- ri·· --e h··m OI

pl· ·· -

H.H nan

M·l 1l-· 'XW

(e)m . pi -. -kh 6

. -e--{;

MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Present Musical Practice

r.o- - - - _.), N - - _. ·Tf; VO- - _. - -I (e)n-·· - te

116H

NO - . - lit

nell

no-·-vi

1719

Ftlcing ptlgt tlnd tI/wVt: ualllple of chornl unison singing. Strophe Six ("Through the prayers of the saints ... ") from the Response to Censing, from the Liturgy of St. Basil. Trtll/sen'plio" by To/h.

priests in Upper Egypt who remembered his manner of celebrating the anaphol'a. Abun;) Pacllomius a1·Mu!:tarraql, vice-rector of the CLfJUCAI. COL1.F.GE, also performed it on various occasions.. According to BUIlJ,IESJU.. only two chants have survived: the concll15ion of the Commemor.l.lion of Ihe Saints ("Not that we arc worthy, Master ... "), and an extract from the Commemoration of the Faithrul Dc· parted ("And thC$e and everyone, Lord ..."). The celebration of the liturgy is prccedt:d by two special services unique 10 the Coptic church, of which one is observed in thc morning just before the liturgy and the other the previous evening. They Ire known as the Morning (or Evening) Offering of Incense (Arabic: Rtll' Bukhur Bilkir lind Ruf Bukhur ',tshiJ'Ytlh). Today, in aClllal practice, th~· Morning Offering of Incense is often incorporated into the liturgy itself. Like the liturgy, these two services lire cantillated. They include the well-known Hymn of the Angels (Coptic; Hl.re~C tleH tlll.n·Il,\OC ... , marenh6s nem niangelos, "Let us sing pl':l.ises with the angela ... "), the Pr,lyer of Thanksgiving (Cop' tic; ..... fe~mHOT ... , marenshcp(e)lllnot ... ), various prayers and responses, and oLher preanaphoral material. The texts and rubrics for the three liturgies and the Offering of Incense lire (0 be found in the EU· CIIOLOGION (Arabic: tI/.khMb.if), which pres<:ribes the order of the various pr,lycrs, hymns, lections, versi· cles, biddings, 3nd l·eSJ'>Onses. Today these are sung in Greco·Coptit:, Coptic, and Arabic. The texl.~ 3re written in the Bohlliric dialcct (in Upper Egypt thc Sahidic dialect m3Y be heard), and al'e accompa· nied by a line·by·linc translation in Arabic. with the rubrics all being in Arabic a.~ well. The l3st section of the E"cha/ogiol/ contains ahe texts of many chants and hymns proper to the various tilurgical

seasons. The panicipanu in the celebration of the liturgy and Offering of Incense are:

I. The offidafll, that is, the pricst (Arabic: til.

Kilhin), and/or other high mcmbers of the dcflO' who happen to be prcscfll and wish (0 palticipale. It is the role of the officiant to offer the prayers (Arabic: tlwshi)'}'llh, pl. Ilwilshf), which may be noeitcd silently or sung aloud, according 10 the traditional melodies adjusted to the festal and seasonal requirements. These prayeTS are constructed on recurring psalmodic formulas, some beginning with simple, unadomed Slalements, and othcTS having an eXlended mclisma from Ihe OUI$CI. Since they bCi:ome more and more elaborate as they continue, and conclude with a formula comprised of Ihe richest of melismala, they llIay be rather 'engthy. They a~ int<med in fn.oe rhylhm that generally follows Ihe lexlual accents and metel'S. 2. The DeACON (Arabic: tI/.shtimmils) wh~ dutil$ include relaying the biddings (Arabic: /l/-"bru,siit, from Greco·Coptic; r'lfoceyxtt, derived from Greek 1TpocmJX+', proseukht) of the officiant, reading the lessons, and le3ding the set reSJl()nSeS and singing of the Conl{regational hymns. Like the officiant, he cantillates in free rhythm, and his melodic line may be both rhapsodic and/or chanting. His melodies are genel'ally more rhythmic thlln thosi: of the officiant, with duple and triple metres alternating ac· cording to the textual accents. Voealises and melismata arc common, but they in no way change the basic structure of the melody. Because the melodies of the officiant and deacon arc rendered solo, then.: is greater opportunity here fOJ' improvisation and vocal embellishment lhan in the choir pieces. 3. The choir and/or people (Ambie: U/-lihfl'b) sing certain responses (Arabic; lIlaraddllt) and portions of the hymns. In the ellrly centuries, these sections were Mlligned to Ihe people a.~ a whole, but as the IituT"iY developed, they became so complicatt:d that Ihose who were not musiclilly inclined could nOI sing them. Thus the choir of deacons, trained in

-, 1720

MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Prescnt Musical Practice

A··························· ...

(a)······························

(u)

(a)

'"

. .

.

. .

.

. . .

.

...

.

-

.

.

.

_

.

(a)································

(u) • . • • • . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(a)···························

MUSIC, COPTIC: Dt=scription of the Corpus and

(a)

. . . • - .•

....

Pres~nt

Musical Practice

1721

_--_._.- ...

Facing pog~ ond ooovc:: Example of chor.tl vocaliM'. Beginning of the TrisagiQII Hymn, as sung on Good Friday. Transcription by Rober/SOil.

smgmg, replaced the congl'egation. In the la'"gcr cOngregations this choir may number about twdve. The deacons involved stand by the iconostasis at light angles 10 the sanctuary in two Jines fadng each othel', with one line known liS the bahr! ("nonhem"j, and the other as the qiblf (".~ollth. em"), According to the rubrication of "I]" or "Q" marked in the margin of the text, the choil' may sing antiphonally, strophe aoout, or two strophes aboul. The singers altcmate according to the r"rm of the musical phrase. They may also sing in uni·

. ,.

Among !litany familiar choir pieces, th~ rna}' be dted: (I) Ihe hymn "We worship the Father .. :' (Copeic: ~T H4-T. lenouOSht(e)tIl{e)phiOI), which is sung Wednesday through Saturday at the beginning or the Morning Offering of Incense; (2) the nJSM;tQH ("Holy God! Holy and Mighty! Iioly and Immortal! .. :': Greco-Coptic: MK)(; 0 oc-oc: ,\/1()C tcXy1'OC: )J'"IOC ,lo9,\,IU,TOC ••• , agios 0 thllQS: agios isshyros: aglOS athanatos ... ), which, according to legend, comcs from a hymn lOunS by Nic"demus and Joseph at the Lord's entombment; and (3) the LORD'S PRAYER (Coptic: xe OOHIIlT ...• je peni· 01 ... ), which is chanted on one note. The melodies for the people and/or choir arc quite simple, with lillie embellishment, Hnwevel·, certllin hymns are complicllted by some rudinll'llta· ry, rhythmic ormtmenHltion inteilral to the compn· Jhlon. As has been stated, thi.~ choral singing is lllorHxl· ic, and should any harmonic clements appear, they are only occasional overlappings of the incipits or one part with the linalis of another. AI.'lO, the unison chant may not always be perfl-oct, for some singers, wishini to participate in the ac~ of praise but not having good musical ears, do not listen to each other. Such lack of precision may be rather p...,va· lent today, for in many chun;hes the people, led Ind supported by the choir of dcacons, are again Iclively rendering the hymns and responses, once

again fulfilling the role originally assigned to them, A. vel)' wide vibrato characteri1.es all the singing. Although the melodies of the participants arc dis· tinctive, as described above, there arc many trails common to all. One of the most obvious characteristics of Coptic music, and one that probably de· rives from ancient times, is the prolonglltioll of a single vowel ovcr many phra~es of music that vary in length and complication. This phcnomcnon may take two forms identified by scholars as vocalise, when the vowel is prolonge<.l with a definite rhyth· mic pulse, ;lI1d mdisma (pI. mdisma/a), when the vowel is prolonged in a fTee, undefined rhythm. A melisma generally laslS from ten to twenty seconds, but some vocalises may continue for a full minute. lk.'C3USC of tht.'l>I: many vocalisCli and mdismata, ::J. study of the text alone does not always indicate the form of the music. The music may rurther show its independence from the text in that musical and textual phrases do not always cOlTCSpond. For CJtample, in the Utul'1O' or Saint 8a~il, there is considerable enjambment in the solos or the priClit and in the hymns sung pl"\.'ceding the anaphora: in !lOme hymnlO a musical ca· dence ma)' occur even in the middle of a word ("Juda.~. Judas," heard during Holy Week on Maun· dy Thursday, is a case in point). In addition, the music nllIy distort the stresS and length of the syl. lables, especially it' the text being sung is Greek. Other tmlts ure also prevalent. Melodies tend to pr'OCeed diatonically, usually within a range of five tones, with a characteristic progression of a half· step, whole step, and half·step, both descending and ascending. There may be intervals of thirds in the melodic line, although the distinction between the major and minor third is not always recognized as clearly as in WClitem music; the augmented second 11O rare: the diminished fourth occurs rather often. Throughout, there arc numerous microtont.'$, and, therefore, many intervals can never be accurately reproduced on a keyboard instrument. Indeed, by

1722

MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Prescnt Musical Practice

J" 82

moll() rll,

~~J~~'I b. EJlamplc of char:aclcri:;lic interval progressions. a. From the I-Iymo Shere Maria ('o'-hlil Mlll)'''), prepnl':uol)' 10 the Liturgy O(SI. D.ll;il. b. Typical Cadcm;c (fTom P"llim ISO, sung as a COl1lmuniull Hymn). TrOlrJf;riplions /Iy Rober/SOIl.

means ot' these rnicrotone:-;, the implied lonal cent,'e of a given tune may shirt imperceptibly, some' timeli by as much ;IS a minor thil1,l or more. Many Kholal'$ have felt Ihal Coplic melodies ~m

to unfold in spontaneous anJ endless improv-

isation. However, analyses reveal that this music ha..~ been construc!cd according to definite fonlls, lhn;oe of which may be described. (I) Some sonB-~ are made up of various brief ph'"ases, which an.: woven together SO us to form clearly identifiable sections (usually three or four) unci repeated with slight vadalion: the piece ends with a prescribed cadcntial formul;!., Concerning these compositions, Newlandsmith (sec Musicologisls, below) isolnted tcn musical pIU'U5eS which he temlcd "typical." The extended voealisc:s and mclismalll described above are fUllnd most often in this kind of piece. (2) Other melodics arc composed of longer, Individual phras. es. complete in thcmsel\'es, so thaI one or two such pht"'olS(,.'S, repeated as strophes and/or fefmins, are 5ufflcielll for the construction of an entire hymn. (3) Some songs are made up of melodic line and rhythm lhlll Me simplified to fit the inflection and rhythm of the te~l. Such melodies tend to be syllah, ic and often have an ambitus of only two or three tones. Some important terms, which appear in liturgical books and manuscripts to specify th~ music to be sung with a givcn text, are the Coptic HXOC, adopt· (I!'chos): the Coptic ~ ed from Greek (Bohem) or 0)"(n6H (ouohem). meaning ··fe· sponsc": and the At"'oIbic LAI:IN (I'll, ,,(I./ull). Ibn 8i,,1 (1106-1187), ll!l quoted in LisM/ o/·'Arab (complied by Ibn Man?,lir, 1232-1311), asslJ.:ned to lal,m six meanings, among which are "song" arid "pSlIlm,

",roo;

odbdng" 01' "inloning." Western scholars have manslated la~ltl as "lone," "air:' and/or "melody," bOl none of these words conveys ils full meaning. Although the lenn may have some affinilil$ wilh Ihe Ambic maqAm and the Byzantinc echos, in Cop, tic music it refers basically to a cenaln melody or melody-Iype which l~ readily recognired by Ihe people and known by a specific, oflen dcscripti\'e name, such as /al!/l a/.~,u", (".. ,of grief"), {al!lI a/·faral., (n", of joy"), lal,m al'la;"fl (n. , , for the dead"), (/1.!a~lIl a/'lIla'rflf ("familiar"), etc. Wl'itinll in the fourteenth century, IRN KAI)AR named some lwent,v·silt OII!IJII, mOSI of which are slill known today, Some, designated sUllawiyyah (annual), lire sung throughout Ihe year, whereas others may be reserved for one occasion only. The same text may be sung to different QII!IJ", and conversely, the same IQI111 may have different tellts. Funhennore, Ihe same lal1" may have Ihrec fonns: shol' (qaffr), abridged (mukhlafar), and long (!owf/), Among many beautiful al~IIJ", the sorrowfullal1" Idribf may be ciled as one of the most eloquent. Performed on Good Friday, during the Sillth Haul', h expresses vividly the tt"'dgedy of the Crucifixion. Its text being Ihe psalm versicle preceding the Gospel Icelion, it is also called Mal/HI'r Idribf (Psalm Idlibl). This name may derive from Ihe ancient village Alribi, which once Siood near prescnt·day Suhilj, or it may stem from Coptic 6T6f'2tI&l (one causing grief). An· other 'QI1" whose rulmc shows the anliqoity of its music is I.Q~1Il Si"jdrf, named after SINJAR, an lin· eienl village near RosellO, The twO melody types mOSl frequently named are Afhml and Baros (Ar..bic: ADAM and wATUS). Hymns labeled Adam arc to be sung Sunday through Tues·

MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Present Musical Practice

J _116 MOli( I

-

Motif II

X6-r6 H.1.-r t -.····.·.1.----·--

t· .oy ..... t .'"

•

).. ),0-1t.1

she-re Ma-ri-······· a······· ti··ou··ro ti . vo (c)n a·lo·1i Malif III

~

Motif IV

~~'~ 0I1-6··TO Moo oY'-W--'-1 the-c·-te (c)mpe au -. 6 - - - - i

6---fO-·····-·y-·-w·--······--·-1

e·--ro--······u···6········-····i

{I·······-·roc·· e····-----ros··

Example of compositiun type 1. Beginning of Ihe Ilymn Shere Aft/ria ("Hail Mary'), preparalOry 10 Ihe Ulurgy of 51. Basil. TrartUripl;()I1 by Rober/5OtI.

J>=72-80

Phrase I.

-

Ii ·He • 'T·~e • GoJ-go-tha (e)m.mc··t·h(; /"0,\·/"0·9.),

J ,,,

- .• - . • . . - •• &re • • • • • • • . • • • • OC

···bl'c""""",

'OS

. .

* "01 6····W·····1t.

.

af··o··-·········-----sh e,-,-v(J·····I

.

.1....

-0)-- •• - •••••••••

Example of composition Iype 2. From lhe Hymn Ca!gollrll, sung during lhe Twelfth Hour on Good Friday. TrQ"~ripl;o,, by Rober/sort.

1723

1724

MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Pnolsenl Musical Practice

cove

lII-----XfIC---TOC

(I - - - lOtI - - - - -fl

le----sQUS

pi--(c)Khris - - - los

(c)['I' .. she· ... -n

III - - .

~\

)i

IW'

I~\

P ~

-J

~ss ,

H._._ .. <}.--.1I0y-- .. -t

c.I'---T
G----··-rotl

.

(c)m----(c)ph--·nnu----ti

sO····tem

c-··· -. -ron

.

E:c.ample of composition type 3. Near the ending of Psalm 1SO, sung as Hymn. Trtmscriptiotl hy R~rI${m.

day, and also un ccnain specified days, while hymns labeled 8010s are reserved lor Wednesday through Saturday, for the evening service. and fOl' Holy Week. The tWO nallles lkrh-c from the TheDtokia for Kiyahk (!iCC below), in which Adam is lhe lirst word of lhe Theotokia {Ot Monday, ),Jt,..l.H OAJG.Qw ..."). Althnugh they arc distinct from each other in ven;c struClurc, length, and mood, their music differs lillIe in eontemp0l111)' praclil:e, and both may be heal·d in the same servo ke, The foregoing descriptions of the musk and terminology u.~ed in the 5el"Vices of Il,e Divine Liturgy and Offering of Incense also apply to the rest of the COl"pUS, discussed below.

The Canonical Hours A great wealth of Coptic hyn,nology Ill:'!y be heard in the e(lnonil:lll hours, which arc prayers pel'forilled by lay people in the city churches and by monks in the mon;:\,.~teries, Then,' are seven: First Bour', or Morninlj: Pmyer; Third Hour; SiJith Hour: Ninth Hour: Eleventh Hour, or Hour of Sunset: I-lour of Sleep, with its three NQC!urns; lind Mid· night Hour. In the monasteries, the Prayer of the Veil (Ar;lbic: fullJl u/·:;;llIr) is added, The book containing these proyers is the Book of Ille flours or

3

Communion

HOROLOGtON (Coplic: ~, piajpla, from ~, ajp, "Hour"; Al"dbic: ul'ajbiyyah, or ~alawal al.sawa'i). The canonical hours consist of the reading of the Psalms a5signcd for ,,:tch hour, followed by lhe can· lill:)Iion of the Gospel, two short hymns written in strophic {ann, known as ICOpariO (Creek: Tf'Orrl..pw", tcoparion, pI. Tptn(irplO. tro.,aria), pluli two more ICOpOriO c:tlled Theolokia, which arc an invocation to lhe Virgin Mfll)' (see below). The lroparia and Thcotokia are liepanlled from one another by the Lo.::sscr 001':01010', which ili :tlso cantillalcd, Thcn follow the Kyl'ie, the I'I'ayer of Absolution, and throughout, responses to each part. Although lroporio lind Theotokia are also heard in the canoni· cal offices of the Greek Orthodox chun:h, their order of performance is different from that of thc COplli, The Greek and Coptic melodies differ a.~ well. Since the hours are oat dependent on priestly dirCl:tion, in Ihe towns (Ul(J cilles, the musical part.~ of each hour are led by thc cantor (sce C"ntors, below), formerly, in tile monasteries, the monks, not being mUliieally educated, could not intone the hour.l; moreover, during the C;lrly ye(lrs of theil' development, the monastic communiticli rejected singing and chttnting as nol conducive to the revercncc lind piet)' l'Cquircd of their stl'ict discipline. Today, however, many of the monks are former dcal:onli well acquainted with the melodies of the church rill'S, and thcy cantilJate the hymnic por· tions of the hours liS prescribed. In gcncl'al, the hours arc in Ambit only, but in some monasteries. the Illonkli are beginning to recite them in Coplic.

"

,

MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the

The Service of Psalmodla 10 addilil,m lQ the l,;anoni(:l1l hours, .I,ere is a

• •

special choral service known a.~ P.nl1mooiIA).

which is l>elfonned immediately before the E"cning Offering of In-

cense. at the conclusion of the Prayers of the Mid· night Hour, and between the Office of M0l11ing Prayer and the Moming Offering uf Inccnt<e, In the monasteries, Psu/modia is performed dall.v, bUI in the city churches, il has become cuslom31)' 10 perfonn il only on Sunday eve, that is, Saturday night.

I

,

The texis IIml order of the prayers, th~' hymns. and the Iec:llons are to be found in the bo..II:, a/.A1>SflJmudiyYuh a/.Sanuwiyyah. Abo. a special book, a/·Ab.wlmlfdi)')·llh Il/-KiYrlhkiYYrlh. comains the

COIT\US

anti Present Music
hymns to be sung for Advent. that is. during the month of Klyahk. In both books, the basic hymn forms of thi... service are given a.~ folIO\VJ: I. The Ms (Coptic: 2IlC. derived from Egyptian h·s·j, "10 sing. 10 prai...e" (Arabic: Mis. pl. h"i,fat). lll'e four special songs of praise. Burmester rcfcr!l to them
Chantcr:

J...

r~ oy - - - CUtl2

~

• - $0),

H · •• tOy..

ou---6nh

c--vol

(c)m(e)phm)u-

t

If· "T~ Ii (e)o'''l(:

'N ...

tlOVt

nj·--nouti

People:

~5~'1 ~ X(; 116" ..

oy· . 'WN2

C--$OA

OU .• ·(Jllh

co-vol

N)"tll}Otl

01),

C--/162

jc pef - - nai shop sha

C - -neh

N- --it---60tC

N ---Ttl

m·-·60tC

(c)m-(clp- - -chois (I:)n- - ·te

ni··-chois

People:

~ u- - - -.

·.\11·· - --

--,\oy· - ti:

al . _.. - -Il:· - - - _. -Iou - - ia:

1725

XO IlO
0·· m;~.

jc pef·· naishopsha e - -neh.

ExlraCI fn'lIn/flu Two, Suullhes IWO and three with Refrain from HfJs Two (P~lm 136), from the service of PsufmodilJ. Transcriptioll by To'h.

1726

MUSIC, COPTIC, Description of the Corpus and Present Musical Practice

an Alleluia refrain in each strophe; Has Three, the Song of the Three Holy Children (Apocrypha, On. • 1-67; Coptic KCHAp
en ...

sisting of a ecoto of Psalm verses. Deriving from the ancient synagogal rites, the lu35 are very old. Indeed, according to Anton BAUMSTARK, Has One and Has Three were the first canticles to be used in the Christian liturgy. A fragment of papyrus, brought fmm the Fayyum by W. A. F. PETRIE, published by W. E. (RUM, and identified as a leaf from an ancient Egyptian office book, contains pieces of these two hymns. FUl1her, part of the

Ostracon showing text of Has Three ("The Three Holy Children"). Courtesy Coptic Museum, Cairo. Photo by S. K. Brown.

Greek text of Has Three has been found on an ostracon dating probably From the fifth century. From Has Three has grown the canticle known in the West as Benedicite. Descriptions of the four has dating from the fourteenth century, early twentieth century, and mid-twentieth century all concur, a fact that confirms the unchanged tradition of their usage. Each hos is framed by its proper PSAU. lQSSH. and TARI:I (see below). 2. The Theotokia: As mentioned above, the Theotokia are hymns dedicated to the Virgin Mary. There is one set for each day of the week, with each set presenting one aspect of Old Testament typology as it applies to Mary, the Mother of God (Greek: .;, {hmax.o<;, he theot6kos). The Theotokia for Saturday, Monday, and Thursday have nine sets of hymns each; those for Tuesday, Wednesday, and Friday have seven; the Sunday Theotokia (performed Saturday night) has eighteen. The strophes for all the sets of these seven Theotokia are nonrhyming quatrains, whose textual accents prescribe the rhythmic and melodic formulae. Each set has a common refrain of one to three strophes that acts as a link to unite the set. Along with each Theotokia, there are interpolations, which enlarge upon the text (Coptic: BW>., B61; Greek: ~PIL1Jllda, hermeneia, "interpreta· tion"), and every set ends with a paraphrase called labsh (see below). In actual practice, not all the sets of hymns in a Theotokia are perfonned in a single Psalmodia service because one hymn may suffice to represent the complete set. There is a special collection of Theotokia meant to be penormed only during the month of Kiyahk for Advent. De Lacy O'Leary has determined that although many of their texts resemble those of the Greek Orthodox church-especially those Greek hymns attributed to Saint John Damascene and Arsen ius the Monk (see ARSENIUS OF SCETIS AND TURAH, SAINT)-the Coptic Theotokia are not translations, but, rather, original poems composed on the Greek modeL De Lacy O'Leary's translation and editions of the Theotokia for Kiyahk pmvide ample material for analyzing the texts and comparing manuscripts. A succinct summary of their contents has been outlined by both Martha Roy and Ilona Borsai (see Musicologists, below). As was mentioned above, two of these Theotokia have given their names to the melody types most commonly used lhroughout the liturgy and offices, namely, Adam and BaIOS. Legend attributes the texts of the Theolokia to both Saint Athanasius (see ATHANASIUS I. APOSTOLIC SAINT), and Saint EPHRAEM SYRUS while ascribing the melodies to a saintly and virtuous man, a potter by

MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Present Musical Practice

tnKIe, who became a monk in the dcscl1 of Scetis. £oringer has idemlfied him as Simeon tl'e Potter of Gcshir (a village in the land of Antioch); he is also known as a poet and protege of the hYll\nist Jacob of Sarugh, who died in 521. This date inJicatcs that the Coptic Theotokia were composed ill Ihe carly pan of the liixth cenlul)'. Mallon, however, asscl1S that these works are of neither the same author nor the same period. He would date them no earlier than the filth centul)', but before the Arab conquest of Egypt (642-643). In the founeenlh cenlul)', AbU aJ·Barnk.at wrote that the Thcolokia for Kiyakh were nOI used in Upper Egypt, but were passed around among lhe churches of Mi,r, cairo, and the northern pan of the country. 3, The IlJbsh (Coptic: UlIo\t, IObsh, "crown," "con· summ.:r.tion"; Arabic: Illbsh and/or lrlf:;lr, pl. TAfASIR.. "ellplanation, inlerpretation") immedialely follows a ht15 or a Theotolda; it iii a nonbibli~1 text on a biblical theme. In hymn fonn. consisting of four· line strophes and usually unrhymed, the {oosl! is recited I'3ther than sung. However. ilS tille designates the appropriate falIn, either Adam or Blllos, which would scem to indicate that at one lime it was sung. 4. The Psall~ (Cop(ic: t).,U, Psali; Arabic: A~UV­ VAil. or mud/II. pI. madtfiJ.,. "praise, laudation") are metrical hymns Ihat accompally either a Th...-otokia or nOs. Muyser and YASSA 'ABD Al-MASH.I have pubIWled detailed edillons of ccrtain Psalis, using manuscripl$ daling from the founeenth and eigilleenth centuries. Their articles scrvc 10 demonstrate the high level of technique in handling Corti.. rhym..s and rhYlhms allained by Psali authon. EveI)' Psali has from Iwenty·~ix to forty·six slroph"s. caeh of which is a rhymed quatrain; the rhyming schemes may vary. The strophes arc often arranlll'd in acroslic order according to the Coplic or Greek alphabet by the 6nll letter of each strophe. Some arc even in double lIcrostic, and others in reverse acrostic. Such patterns servc os mnemonic devices, cmlbling the singers 10 perform the hymn~ in thdr en1irely with no ollli~sions. One feature which makes the Psalis ve,)' popular is the refrain, an elemenl mrely found in the ritual pieces of the liturgies and canonical houn;, or in the hOs and TheolOkia of the service of Psalmodi(l. Usually the refrain Is made by repealing only the founh line of the strophe. but sometim... ~ both the third and fOUl1h lines are repeatcd. AnOlher unusual aspect of the ?salis is that, ex· CCJM for a few paraphrases reserved for Kiyahk,

1727

Ihese are the only pieces of Coptic music whose authors arc identi6ed in the texl~. The writel"s name may be found embedded in a strophe, wilh a pica for mercy and pardon from sin, and with men· lion of him as "Ihe poor servant" or "a poor sin· ncr." In the paraphra.~es. the author'S name may be given in acroslic fonn as the fin;t leller of each strophe of the hymn, or as the initial leuer of each of a SCI of hymns armngcd seriatim. Man Psalis are 10 be sung eilher 10 Ihe melody· lypc Adam or BlliOS. depending on the day of the week, and are thus designaled as Psali Adam or rsali Balas. However, cenain ones specify the lide of anOlher familiar Psali or hymn 10 wh05C melody Ih...")' may be sung. These melodies are rhythmic and syllabic, that is. the notes malch the texts with little trace of melilirna or improvisation: Iheir range usu· ally cO\'ers four, or ill most, 6ve lones; lhey swing along in quasl-parlando slyle, and emphasis on lex· tual and melodic acccnu makcs them easy to sing, all of which encourages congregalional participalion. The vel)' simplicily of these hymns leads the listener 10 speculate that herein lies the oldest core of ancient Egyptian melody. A few PsaHs are wriuen in both Coptic and Greek. some in both Coptic and Arabic, and others in Arabic alone. Only one manuscript entirely in Greek has been discovered (Church of Saini Barbara, Old cairo. History 8, 1385). MOlil Psalis, however, are in the Bohairic dialect, and the dale of their composition is unknown. It is probable lhat some are no earlier than the thirteenth eenlury. On the other hand, certain Psalis in the Sahidic dialect have been a....~igned to the ninth and lenth centuries (Morgan Collection, vol. XIII). These latter :II"(' in acro~tic order, according to thc ICIlCU of the alpha· bet. and Ihey are unrhymed. .5. The TAltI) (pI. ("r(ll.rM) usually denoles a paraphmse used to explain a pr'eeeding hCJs, Theotokia, or Gospel reading. It diffcrs from the I6bsh or psali in that It is introduced with two unrhymed strophes in Coptic, which lire followed by an Arabic prose text. In gencl'al, il is recited, nOI sung. Sometimes the samc hymn is termed both Psali (Coptic) and (arl.' (Arabic), but, tcchnically speaking, it may be considered a (arii when it follow~ the Coptic hymn of the Gospel leclions. A luri) dOling (rom the ninth cenlul)' has been edited by Marla CRAMER. Wriuen in Sahidic for Palm Sunday, it was supposed to be sung. Abii ai-BarakAt referred to the {fJrII as a hymn. which further testifics 10 its once musical character. 6. The doxologies are hymns of praise sung duro ing the service of Psafm()l/ia in honor of the Sl.'3liOn,

1728

MUSIC, COPTIC: Dest:ription of the COI-pUS and Present Musical Practice

Ch~nh:r;

J. "

-,~ +-ooy--t (e)ph - nou - - Ii

tu. - •• ,toy ..

t

pa---nou-- Ii

e---f"1b: e·--go:

no· ..

Fe.. pc'.- -lcn - - -ref· ·T(lH - - -

~j---~ t

~ ..

Gil.

TUN

i····-rcu:

C6--'A(e}fU Hl----CJ"U

sO·ti ek

tnn

a·----g6:

Se- -. d(e)·rak Mi···· saak Ab-

a/-

-

Ae·-N~-·-··rcu:

de--na--···g6: """pie:

_'1 .

•

6---pO'l

),,--rt----to¥

o

6~C".

e· .. ror

a - ·ri·---hou

o

cbasf.

E.'I ....ll;1 from a Psuli. Slrophe Iwenty·one Wilh Refrain from the Service of PsalmuJiu, TrUIlSt'ripl;QII by To/Ii.

the Vir~in Mary, lhll angels, the apostles, the sainI of a panicular church, or ulher Coptic saints, as lime may lllluw. Their ledS are similar in slructurc to those of the Psali and (uri,!, having shan strophes of fall I' lines each and concluding with lhe lasl slrophc of the Theotokia for lhe d:ly. 'Abd al-MllsI1.l ha.~ published deluiled sludies of the doxologies. In lldJilion LO the foregoing, other special hymns tll'C sung by the Copts in commclllO"ation of their saints and martyrs. These are to be found in the DlFNAR or tll1/iplnJllurium (Greek: &vrl(!lwmpWl'. an.iph6n6l'ion. from CtIlTl,J,wI>t/ll, anlipl'Oneo, "to answel', to reply"), a book containing biugnlphil."S of the Coplic saints wtitlen in hYOlnic form. This \'01· ume alS() include!> hymn!> for the fasts and feasts. The tC;II:IS arc alTIlnged in su'Ophes of I'hymed qualrains, and IWO hymns are given for Ihe same saint, their use being dependent Oil Ihe day of the week.

P~'llli

Ar;ps"fjll ... , from

lhat is, one for lhc days of Adam, :md :mother for the days of Sll/os. Because lhesc hymns are quile lung, only twO or three strophes may be sung dur'ing the service of I'SlIlmodill 10 cornmem01'lltc the sainI of lhe dny. FUt1hel', if the SVNAXARJON is read as a commemonltiun, lhe singing of the diflllir hymn may be omllted completely. The compilation of the dif"lIr is ascribed 10 the seventielh palrltlrch, GM1RTP.1. II (1131-1145). How· ever, the oldesl known manulicript with ii/filar mao terial dates from 893 (MOlllun Library, New York, manuscript 575). Another unpublished dif'lllr from the fourteenth centUl)', found in the library of lhe Mona.~H'ry of SI. Antony (see Ill\VII. ANRA ANTONIVOS), hM been described by A. Piankolf and photognlphed by T. whitlemore. Mention should also be made of the numerous ritual books thaI conlain ful1her repertoire to be

MUSIC, COPTIC: Canticles

sung for plu1icular liturgical occasions such as the rite of holy lIAPTISM and the dIe for MARRIACE. Each of Ihese rnany rituals ha-~ it~ own hook detailing Ihe lipecificli of the rite, which of coun;(; include the usc of lIlusic. Olher rilllais with Iheir special boob conlaining hymns for thc lipccific occasions Ire those for Ihe feastS and fasts of Il,e liturgical calendar, liuch as t.he rilual for the feast of the Nativity, for the feast of Epiphany, for Ihe feast of lhe Resurreclion, for the fea...t of Pentecolit, for the !'asl of Holy Week, the fast of the Virgill Mary, and Olhers 100 nurnerolL~ to mention here (liCe J1'ASTS. NAJOR; F1!ASTS. MINOR: FASTING). There is one other book very impol1ant in Ihe description of lhe corpus, The Services of fhe DeClCO" (Arabic: KhidmQI QI·ShammIH), which wa.~ a-~. sembled. by AbUnA TaklA and first published in 1859. This work was compiled from lhe various boob and collecllons of hymns already in existence in order 10 lISSist the dca(:on, who, alol1g with the cantor, has the responsibilily for the proper selec· tion and order of the hymns and rt.'Sponses for each lilurgy lind office. This book oUllines the hymns lind responses in Coptic and Arabic for the lilurgies and canonical offices throughout the year-according 10 lhe various seasons and the calend:II' of feasts and fasa-and for lhe wriouli riles such as weddings. funel1lls, b."\ptisms, and so on. Ils rubrics aloe all In Arabic, bUI the hymnli and n:sponllCS arc in bolh Coplic and Arnbic. Musical tcrms arc employed in directing the singers. The name of the IQ~m for eilch hymn and response is specified, and lhe mbl'ic for lhe use of inSlrumenL~ (Arabic: bj·t1I·u6.qr..~. "with cymbals") is ;1150 iodie"t· cd where nel:l:SSllry. Sinl:e its firSI p,-jnting, The Service.~ of fill! Dcacml hali appeared in four edilions. RACHEB MOfTAH

M"ll.lilN

ck~

arc also sung llS h')$ during lhe office of Pstll· modia (HI'Js One, lhe Song of Muses, and I/M Three, the Song of the Three 110ly Children). The lhree from the New Testament arc embcdd<:d as Gospel lections in six of the hymns of the Sunday TheOlok· ia for Kiyakh (see Dl$cliplion of lhe Corpus and Presenl Musical Praclice above). These an~: the Song of Mary (lk. 1:46-.5.5, known in Ihe West as the Mllgnifieal): Ihe Song of Simt.'On (Lk. 2: 29-32, known as the Nunc I>imillls); and the Prayer of Zaehari$ (Lk. 2: 69-79, known as the Bcnedic· tus). The full sct of canticlC!li is perfomled al the vigil service on the nighl of Good Friday (thl: eve of Salurday). For this service, Ihe offieianl and hili deacons arc seated around a low table upon which are placed three lighted CllndlC3, and they read the Biblical prayers lind hymns, each deacon taking his tum al reading one canticle. The Song of Moses and the Song of the Three Holy Children arc performed in Coptic. Alllhe resl are recited in Arabic. The full set includes: OLD TESTAMENT (LXX)

I. Song of Moses (Ex. 15:1-21).

2. Second Song of Moses (Ot. 32:1-4]). 3. 4. 5. 6.

MAIl.GJT T6TH

of Hannah (I Sm. 2: 1-11). of Habakkuk (Hb. ]:2-19). of Jonah (Jon. 2: 2-10). of He7.eklah (Is. ]8: 10-20).

7. PI'::lyei' of MantL<:.'IC~ (Man. 1-1.5). Ow TE$I'AMI.ONT (LXX) 8. Pr.lYl:r of l!>OIiah (I) (Is. 26: 9-20).

9. Praise of Isaiah (2) (Is. 25: 1-12). 10. Praisl.: of 1S
12. Praise of Bllrtlch (l3al'. 2: 11- 16). 13. 14. [5.

16. 17.

Canticles

Prayer Prayer PI'::lyer Prnyer

APOCRYPHA

RUUElrrSON

MARTHA Roy

1729

OLD Tl!STilMt!NT (LXK) Praise or Elijah (I Kgs. 18:26-]9). Pr..lyer of David (II Kgs. 29:10-1]). Praycr or King Solol11on (I Kgs. 8:22-]0). Prayer or D(lIliel (On. 9:4-i9). Vision of Oaniel (On. ]:1-23). APOCRYPHA

18. Song or the 1'1ll'ee Holy Children (On. 1-67).

In addilion to the P.o;alms, some 01 the early Christian churches adopled inlo lheir systcm of ca· nonlcal officC!l cel1ain Old TClilament Ilraises and prayers whil:h 'In,: knuwn loday as ,·wl/ide$. The Coptic church recognizes twenty--one in all, eight· een from the Old Testament lind Ihree from the New T61llrnenL Two of the Old Teslament canti-

Nnw TESTAMENT

19. Song of Mllry (Lk. 1:46-.55).

20. Song of Simeon (lk. 2: 29-]2). 21. Pmyer of Zachariah (Lk. 1:68-79).

MOI'TAII MARTllA Roy

RACHEB

1730

MUSIC, COPTIC; The Oral Tradition

The Oral Tradition All the manuscripts discovered and books com· piled to d:ue re<:ord only texts and rubrics. There is no known notation now in existence ,Iesigned specifically for Coptic music, though manuscripts bearing ancient Greek notation ha...e been found in Egypl (see History, below). From the heginnings of the church, Ihe music has passed frono one person to another, from one generalion 10 Ihe next, by oral teaching and rotc learning. Thus Coptic nJusic has always depended on a continuous oral tradition. Because the Copts have tended to be fiercely can$erVouive about Ihe many rituals of Iheir rt'ligion, il is reasonable to suppo5C that thl.'Y must also have been meticulous in regard to the music. According to Hans Hlckmann (see Musicologists. below), this music wM held as a sacred trust by those who learned it, and indeed. was purp()5dy not tlOmscribed lest it fall into the wrong hands. For the mOSt pan, the instruction must have been very strict and rigid. as it is today (sec Cantors. belo....). To sludy the reliability of this tradition. Marian Robertson has compared transcriplion:s of Ihe same piece of music wriuen decades apart by different seholaf$. Thesc studies indicate Ihm the Simpler melodies may have remained imact for centuries. Other comparisons of recordings made years apart at the Institute of Coptic Studies also ~how that the basic melodics have remained unchanged. and that even the embellishments, though \'aJ)'ing slighdy, occur in the 50Iffie places throughout thc melody in question. This is especially true for tlu'oSe compositions ~ung by the choir. In the case of solo performers. variation and improvisation aroe ro be found. particularly in the embcm~hment~ and meli~mata. as nmy be expecled. In view of lhe abundance and complexity of Coptic musk, one mighl well wonder' if IIny mnemonic devices were used to aid in transmitting it. Hick· mann mainlt\lned that a system of chironomy thaI dalcs from the POUl1h Dynasty (2723- 2563 B.c.) is still employed. However. nol all sl:holan; have shared this opinion. Indeed. Ragheb Moftah, head of the Music Department at the Institute of Coptic Studies. allirms that ahhough a cantOI' may use his hands in directing other singen;. his sy&tem ill' &trictIy Individual and not consciously adopled from anyone. The chironomic gestures used in Coptic singing seem to relAte more to selling the rhythm than to delineating the pitches of a given melody. Scholan; do not agree concerning rhe antiquity

and purity of the Coptic Illusical tradition. Admittedly, without notated manuscript&. il ill' virtually impossible to unravel the sourcc§ of the many melodies. Nevenhelcss, spcciali&ls who have &ludied, transcribed. llnd analp.ed this music concur that, at the very le3.<;t, it does rellect an extremely ancient practice. Emt."St Newlandsmilh (see Musicologists. below) traced it 10 pharaonic Egypt. whereas Rene Menard, a bil morc cautiou&, proposed thai those melodiC$ sung in Coplic descended from the preIslamic era. In all probability, variOUlI' sections of the music, like the numerous texl6, were introduced into the rites during different stages of the early Coplic church, and the music 3.<; 11 whole does not date from any single era or region. It is clear, ho.....e...er. that the musical tradition has continued unbroken from its beginnings to the present day. Hickmann considered it 11 living link between the pa<;t and the present. RA(;IIf,B

MOFTAU

MARtAN ROBERTSON

MAJtTllA Roy

Melody, Its Relation to Different Languages The relation of vadous languages 10 Coptic melody is a !tudy still in ilS infancy. Comparison of pieces sung interchangeably in different languages could help identify the nature of change as well as indicatc roughly the age of cer1ain hymns whose texls have been identified in ancient manuscripts. The titles and rubrics for many hymns designate various linguistic origins (for the texts at least). with most bcirt¥ noted as Ruml, lhal is. from Byan· tium. or "the New Rome." a~ it was once known. Burmester referred to a number of Greek troparia from the ByJ.antlne offices which are also used in the Coptic office. Further, a.~ has been mentioned, scveral PSlllis show IIf1inilies to Greek (sec Desedp· tion of the COll)US and Present Musical Practice, above). Other hymns are designated tl.S Beheirl. from northern Egypt. So',dr, from southern Egypt, or MUfrl. from lhe central pal1 of the country. Each region has It.~ own distinctive dialect. Initial invc&tigation5 hllvc revcaled that when text.<; are t'ung interchangeably in different tongues, the melodies remain c&scntially intact. For example. in the Easter hymn. "Remember me, 0 Lord" (performf..-cl on Good Friday during the Sixth Hour). which is sung first In COptic (J.f'IIUJ.HI~ • ru.O"e.

• MUSIC, COPTIC: History

aripamevi 0 rachols) lind then ill Greek, lu",,",,1jn 1W1l1t~, mnklhctl mOll kYric), the mll.,ie docs nol change with the language. Other examples could be

ciled. Schola~

have observed that, with the tr.mslalion

of the Htulogies and numerous hymns llitO Arabic, those melodies put 10 an Arobic text ha\'c tended 10

become simpler, shorter, and less orna",ented lhan the original Coptic version. Fear ha.' been

ClI-

pressed lhal the Coptic melodies sung in Ambic

may lose their genius and character, especially where cxtcnsh'C vocalise is concerned. However, the few studies made of pieces sung inlerchangea. bly in Coptic (or Greek) and Arabic seem

(0

~ow

WI the bailie melodic lines and rhythms are kept intact, and thaI even the ornamentation is main·

tained to a remarkable degree. The Easter song r~rved for Maundy Thursday, "Judas. Judas " (Greek:

·I~.

'Ioio&ro; ...• (olidas, lolidas ; Arabic: YaJlIldh<2, YlIlllidhll ... ), may be cited as an

example. Nonetheleu, conclusions must await much further comparison. Other hymns written originally in Arabic (mad<2'il]) have been introduced into the liturgy in relatively recc:nt tim~. Those well acqu:limed with the age--old traditions aver that despite the populari. ty of the allractive melodies and rhythms of the madd'il], Ih~ newer hymns contain lilllc of theological or spiritual value. Further, Copts now maintaining residence in for· eign lands have begun to petform their lilurgk-s in French, English, and Gennan. bpcrts once again expres.~ fear that, with Ihls trend, the unique style and navor of the true Coptic melodies will be absorbed into new eKprcssions unable to rellect their distinctive herit:lge. They feel thai Coptic music must be sung In Ihe Coptic language if it is to cKpreSll the splriluality of Ihe ancient church. MARIAN ROBERTSON

History Possible Sources and Antecedents There are three primary traditions from which Coptic music very likely absorbed elelllellts in varying proportions: the Jewish, the Greek. and the an· cicnt Egyptian. POlilble Jewl,h Jnnuenee. Many aspt'ct.~ of the Jewish services Wi!re adopted by the Christian church in Egypt. As elscwhere in thl' primitive c:hu~h, the whole of the Old Testament was proba-

1731

bly adopted, with the PSlIller being the oldest and most venerated song book. The AU.ElJJtA (Ps. 105ISO) and Sanetus {Coptic: *OY),1 *oyu *oyu ... , (e)Khouab, (e)Khouab, (e)Khouab ... , "Holy, Holy, Holy .. :') (Is. 6:3) are IWO notable hymn teltt.~ that have become an integral part of the Coptie ritcs. According 10 John Gillespie. the benediction, Bamh Ahfah Adonai ('11lanks be to nu:c, 0 Lord"), was also adopted by Ihe Copts. UOWi!ver, how much Jewish liturgical music came into the Coplic church, either from Jerusalem or Alc:o;andria, must remain a mailer of speculation al this point. To date, no specific melodies have been identified lUi belonging to both traditions. Hans Hick· mann even postulated that although the music: from the synagogue played an important role in the de\'elopment of the Syrian and Byatntine Ijturgi~, in Egypl the case might have been reversed, thai is, Jewish music in Egypt could ilSclf have been influenced by the pagan Egyptian liturgies. POHlble Greek Influence. The Greek koine (kOl~), which was the lingua franca of the eastern Mediterranean. became the language of the primitive Christian church. The Helleni7.ed centers of Egypt-AICJIandria in particular-produced notable Greco-Egyptian music theorists and teachers such as the grammarian Didymus of AleKandria (finn century A.D.), for whom the "Didymian Comma" (an intcrv",1 betwcen a major and minor lone) i.~ named; Pseudo-Demctrius of Phalcron (first ccntury A.D.), who wrote the first composition manual known in music history; Claudius Ptolemy (second century A.D.), whose Hannonics beeame the stan· dnrd mathematical treatise on music; Alypios of AI· eKandria (c. 360 A.n.), whose comprehensive survey of Greek notation mllde the dcelphering of Greek mu~ic po~~lble; the poet·teacher· OIQSCORUS Of' API/MOOITO (fourth century); the Gnostic VAlENTtNUS (foUlth century); nod Pl'oclus (421-485). Two manuscripts containing carly Greek musicl\l notation have been found in Egypt. The first one is pre·Christian; it dates from about Ihe middle of Ihe third centuI)' B.C. and is one of the most ancient pieces of musical notlltian yet discovered (Zenon, Cairo Museum, no. 59532). The second is a hymn fragment daling from the middle of the third centuI)' A.D. (from the Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 1786, ed. Grenfell and Hunt). Recognized as the earliest c:o;· ample of nOlated Christian hymnody, it was probably once part or the Coptic repenoire, allhough it b nm known to the church tooay. A study of these two manuscripts, as they have been transcribed by modem scholtlrs, shows that both contain an

1732

ambitu.~

MUSIC, COPTIC: History

and intervals much larl:',~I' lhun lhose nor"!lIlly hCltrd in Coplic music: nor arc the imerval progreuiom; similar. However, there may be some cadential likencsscs. Another manuscript disco,'e ..ed in Egypt Is a hymn fr.lgmellt, Hymu uf file Sa"iQr, lL~ribed 10 CLEl.1ENT 01' At£XANI>RIA (c. 150220), which, however, may date from an ClIrIicr period. Only the telll is given. Three more papyri from Egypt, edited by Jourdan·Hemmen.linger. contain a system of dots related to letters of" the lext, which may perhaps indicate a type of musiC-'ll notation. Two of thl'SC date from the third cemury s.c.. but one of them (British Museum, 1m'. 230), found in the Fayyl1m and dating from the third or founh century UI.. appears to be from a Psalter wrilten in Greek. None of these has yel been deciphered into musical fonn. One other manuscript of Egyptian provenance, dating from the fifth or sixth cemury 10.0.. Is contruversial. Covered with circles of varied si'l'C$ and colors. it "'"as considcrcl.! by A. Gulezyan of New York to represent musical notation, which he transcribed IIlIO Western notation and subsequemly published. Jourdan-Hemmcrdinger. viewing it as a po.s.~ible development from the system of dots, has tentatively identified it as an elememary manual of practical music. Eric Werner and Rcn~ Menard, on Ihe other hand, do not consider it to be any kind of musical notation. Although it is obvious Ihat many texts are common 10 both lhe Coptic and Gn'ek Churches, it doe~ nOI necCMarily secm 10 follow Ihal Ihe melodies have been held in common as well. For e~am· pie, Ihe great hymns The OIt/y-81'~ottell (Creek: b P.OJiO'Yfv1F.. ho trIonogenes) and the TRISAGION havc the same text In bOlh traditions, bUI the Greek and Coplic mclOi:lies for lhem arc entirely different. In view of this facI and mher supporting obselvations, one might lent:ltivcly propose that hOlh the melodic style lind Individual melodies of the Coptic \;hurch appet\r to have remained diSlinct. However, since lhe relalion of Greek and Coptic music is il study slill in its infancy, no comprehen~ive or definitive Sltllement can be made nbout Ihls problem at pres· ent. Poulble Egyptian Influence. Despite Greek innuenees in lhe urban centers, in th~, pharaonic tern' ple5 and throughout lhe nlrnl 1l1'eaS in general, an· cient E&yplilln music continued to bc pcrfomled. "The people lhought, fclt, and sang 'Egyptian'" (Hickmann. 1961, p. 17). Homdsha, a haflJist. and 'Ankh·hep, a temple musician and cymbal player (bolh Iirst century A.D.), arc IWo prufl:Ssionals whose names indicate their Egyptian lOOK Hicklllllnn pmpo.~ed a connection between the

Kyrie and the ancient Egyptian riles of lhe sun-god, and according to Baumstark, a litanic form of the l~i~ prayer is found in lhe Olfyrhynchu.~ Papyrus 1380; even the Invocations of the saints in the RolIIan formulary arc dosdy relnted to this andent cult. In the Songs 01 Isis and Nepht/lYs (Middle Kingdom teXiS, trans. both Faulkner and Schou), evidcOl;:e exists of antiphonal singing, which still remains today as a basic feature of Coplic music (see ANTIPHON and Description of the COIPUS and Present Musical Practice, above). This pnlclice was also known among Ihe Thempeutae, an a.~etic sect of Alexandria (c. 100 R.C.). Another Coptic musical characteristic that might have exisled in pharaonic EcYPt is Ihc vocalise and/or melisma (sec Description of the Corpus, above). After research into Middle Kingdom texl5, Hickmann suggested that certain repeated syllables (translitenltctl by him as X', X', Xf ... , khe, khe, khe ... ) mighl be inteflJrctl-od as such. Further. some Gnostic lexts contain vocal· ises said to be built on the seven "magic vowels." Pseudo-Demetrius of Phaleron referred to this phe· nomenon as well, calling it "kalophony." Other holdovers from ancient Egypt could be the use of professional blind singers in Ihe performance of the liturgical services (see Cantors, below). and the use of percussion instrumenls in certain rituals (see Musical Instruments, below). Hickmann and Borsai felt that Ihe folk song.~ of Egyptian villagers have melodies and rhythms similar to those of Coptic ehanl. Much more l'CSCarch needs to be done, however. From the Beginning or the Church to the Council orChnlccdon (451 A.D.) Uke other Christian churches in the early centur· ies, the Coptic church was a nUlional one. It used the musical style and perhl1p~ even some melodies familillf 10 the people. According to Baumstark, the primitive Iiltlrgiclll leX1S were, for lhe mOSl part, ImproviSlltions. 'nle riles developed gradually, and varied from region 10 r·egion. But there was throughoUl lhe church a common font of telfts meant to be sung. The Coptic hr)s might possibly be assigned to this first period (see De.~riplion of the Corpus, above). De LlIcy O'leary, maintaining that the earliesl hymns were composed in imitation of the Psalm.~, .~uggcsted that such works should be dated before Ihe second half of the third century. In Ihis regard, he cited three hymns (rom Coptic ser· vices that appenr to have derived from the Syrian rite or "its ByulOtine daughter," the GLORIA IN EXCELSIS (Luke 2: 14), lhe Trisagioll, and the Prayer

MUSIC, COPTIC: HislOry

• of E.osalllli (excerpl~ from b. 8 and 9, nol to be

confused with the canlides; sec Cilnliclet;. above). This last hymn is no longer found In recem Coptic liturgical boc.Jks. FIJI' its part. the Copti<" church probably influenced the rites of the Syrian church, for by 350, public obscn.'ancc of the daily office (the Third, Sixth, lind Nimh Houl's) had begun in Syria, and il is n;:asonablc 10 suppose that th", general plans of psalm chanting and lessons were suggested by the already existing monastic prncliccs of Lower Ea,ypl. However, the outline of Ihe Coptic f/orofogi· 011 (see C4NONlCAl. HOURS. BOOK OF) might not really

have laken shape until the firth cenllJl)'. The COptll adopted SainI Paul's classification of sanas suitable for worship (£ph. 5:19 ;md Col. 3:16), Psalms (Cre1!Ic: tIoA~. psalmoi: Coptic: ,!,UHOC, Psalmos), hymns (Creek: ·ii~J'OI.. hymnal; Coptic; btoy, (e)smOll), lind spiritual song.'i (Greek: ~i, Odai; Coptic: tuAH, hodc:). Some experts k-cl thai these lem15 refer to the texIS to he used, wheuas olhers propose lhat they relate to the style of singing, According 10 Werner, lhe psalms, hvmns, and eamides were established as three distinci forms in the founh cenlUry. A.oi 10 Ihe three divine liturgies, Iheir texIS must have been sct in the founh and fifth centuries, when the church IH Alexandria played a very active role throughout the Meditemmt'an, Ahhough the puthors of the liturgies calllc frolll Cappodocia, each had close ties wilh Egypt. Saint Il.\.sll. TilE CIlEAT (c. 330-379) scrvt.:d an llpprentic(..oship in a Pachomi:m mona.~lcry before inlroducing mona.~ti· cism Into DYlanlium: Suint GR£GORY Of NAZIANZUS (c, 257-337) w....~ a pupil of IlIllI'MUS TilE IIUNO in the renowned CATIlIlCIlETICAL SCIIOOL OF AUiXANDRIA: and Saint CYRIL t THE GRF.AT (412-444), as patriarch of Alexandria, stood :11 the head of the Coptk church. In these early centuries, the church exprcssed varying attitudes towal'd music. AI its inceplion. lhe church used music :IS a means of attracting proselytes; an example is Ihe story of Philemon, "the disciple of Saint Peter," who Is credited with can· verting many s.ouls by means of his beautiful sing' lng, The church fathers had valioUli aHitude.~ toward music, Clcment of Alexandria (sec above) did nOI approve of instl'\llllents, but accepted ~inging. He did, nonetheless, seek to bim t:hromatie and nondi· atonic scales from church music as being too voluptuOla, ORIGEN (c. 185-254), that controvcrsial figure in Coptic church hi~lory, altested Ihe wide use of singing in many languages througllout the church. Saint ATHANASlUS I (326-373). palriarch of

1733

Alexandria, sought to keep psalm singing from be· coming overclabor,jte; the C<Jpts have aseril)!:-d to him the hymn The OuJy.8l!gotll!ll (the Gnaek church ascribes it to the Emperor JL/l)TINIAN I. who is said to have written it in 528; the Syrian church ascribes il to SEVERUS OF ANTIOCH, c, 465-538), Saini Basil, the aUlhor of the liturgy bearing his name, ddcnded the singing of psalms both antiphonally and reo spons.orially, a praclice popular in many lands induding Egypt, Libya, Pale5line, and Syria. Accord· ing to Dc Lacy O'leary, it was Saint Basil who inlroduced this more melodious, antiphonal type of singing inlo Ihe Byzantine chureh 10 supplement an older, more severe style known as "Alexandrian." Although this scholar describes the new slyle as "Syrian," if one considers Saint Basil's own remarks, Ihe antiphon::!l style must have already been known in Egypt and elsewhere in Ihe Eastem M\,.'di· tcrrnncan. Though not a church father, ARIUS (c. 250-336), author of the Arian heresy, should also be mentioned, for he versified his theology in a collection of hymns known as TlIuliu (Feas!). com· posing Ihem on models of popular folk songs in an effort to win Ihe people to his cause. In the monastic communities, altitudes toward music varied as well. PAI.lJoOIUS· LQluiac His/aT)' relate!' that in Ihe days of $aint ANTONY, "the habita· tions of the monks were m,:cepled as tabernacles of praises, and Psalms, and hymns ... ," and it was cxpected that the monks "should proy eonlinually and be retldy [10 sing] Ps.'llms and [to recitel Ihe Office before Ihey went to sleep." It i.~ also told Ihat when SainI Anlony and Saini Paul met, "they said together the Psatm~ twelve times ... , and then they sung (Ind pmyed until morning." However, as the mona.~u~rie~ developed, the monks. in Iheir ex· lreme aScelicism. COndemned music, An aneedute from JOHN OF MAYUMA telt~ of Abbot Stl.V"NUS (foul1h century) who, :IS a munk lil'lit (It Scetis, then :It Sinai, and finally In Palestine, felt Ihut singing hurd· ened lhe hearl, was (I prim:ll)' :lcl of pride, :IOd thtlt u~ such, was not fol' the monks but I'ather for those uutside the munasteries. Abbot PAMBO (c. 320-373) was another to deplore any use of music, In these early centuries of Chl'istianity, the inllu· ence of the Coptic church and its Htm'gic:lI services was felt nol only throughout the eastel'll Mediterl'a· nean, but beyond. Through the e(fonll of Coptic missionaries, who spread Ihe Gospel even as far as lr't'I/l.I1d, and tlll'ough traCe5 left by Ihe Theban Le· gion in northern Iialy, Swilzcrland, and down the Rhine Valley, I'elllnanl.~ of the Coptic fuith werc Icft throughout western Europe. Music probably fol· lowed closely upon Ihis lI-:liI. Stanley Lane·Poole, a.~

1734

MUSIC, COPTIC: History

quoted by Aliya, has called Irish Christianity "the child of the Egyptian Chun::h" (Aliya, 1968, p. 54), and one i~ templed to wonder if thuse early Coptic missionaries brought a bit of th.'ir own highly developed music with them to this distant land and left it along with their names. According to

O'Cuny. the famous Irish harp may ha~ come from Egypt. In Ireland are found three representatiOl1$ of a harp withalll a forcpillar. The first such items hilhel10 discovered outside of Egypt, they arc an omamenlal cover of an Irish manuscript dating from at le::ut 1064; II Jruwing tnken from one of the ornament"l compartments of a sculptured cross at Monasterboicc sct up before 830; and a similar monurncllt at the old church of Ullard. County Kilkenny, which appears 10 be even older than the MonasteriKlice item. O'CufT)' also felt thaI the quadnmgular halll of Ihe ancient Tuathe ~ Danaan people, though nOI exactly the sallie, could have lx.'Cn modeled upon lhe early Greco-Egyptian harp of this same forlll. How these harps were introduced into Ireland is unknown at present, As well a.~ missionarie~, Coptic mOna.~leries influ· cnced ,'itual in Europe. To cile one e",ample, Ihe eslablished Coplic n:cit:llion of Iwelve psalms was almost certainly lhe basis of the .\oimilar twelve· psalm series in the Gallic and ROffian churche$. 1.3 yet, no melodies have b«:n discO\·eret! that are idemical to any specific Coptic hymns or chants, lI':'t there is a ~imilarity of slyle (inte'vals. ambitus, rhythms), particularly In the simpler Coptic syll
happened regarding mu~ic is unknown. l-lowevel", there is some indiclltion that the COpis kept their music distinct lind apan from Byzantine influence. Speclfie mention Is made in the IIlSTORY OF THt: PATRtARCIlS of the people rejoicing when Palriarch tSAAC (686-689, sec ISAAC, SArNT) had the liturgics rel'lored in the churches of the Orthodox (Coplic) which had been prohibited due to Melchite (Hrzan· line) domination. Elsewhere in the same His/ory there is a description of Ihe monks going forth from their 1ll0nastery, OAYR ANoJ. MAOAR. singing their tTa' dilional sacred songs to greet the patriarch, who had been exiled from Alc:umdria to this desct1 reo treat. This work funher states that long afler the Arab conquest, during the reigns of Patriarchs Chrislodoulus (1046-1077, sec! Jtl&USA1.£M. COPTIC SEE OP), CYRIL 11 (1078-1092), and MICIIAFJ... IV (10921102), the Copts worshiped sc)X\Tately from all other Chrislians and kept their own rituals. Dc.~pile their self.imposed separation from IlYl.8ntiurn and Rome, the Copts continued to maimain eontnct with the Syl'lan church and its music. Our' inll the fifth nnd sixth centuries, there was n flour· ishing musie school at the Syrian Monastery of Saint Sibas near the Dead !ira where Coptic monks came to study. Here, Ihey were probably acquaint· ed with the form known as .1:41110/1 (Greek: ,uu'lilu), which. in Coptic usage, became a hymn with sll'Ophes of five lines, distinguisht:'d by a refrain of two lines. A Coplie melody type bears its name (AI1lbic: lCl~lI1 qClm1/1). Arter the Arnb Conquest (642{643) When lhe Arabs entered Egypt, they brought a new religion and language, bur this made no change in Ihe Coplic riluals. Coptic slill remainc:<1 in general use among the ChriSIIans even as laIc as the reign of Patriarch ZACIIARJAS (1004-1032) and though the Gospels and other church books had been put into Arabic under the rule of Patriarch PItrLOTHI!US (979-1 003), Cyril II continued to con· ducl Ihe Divine Lilurgy entirely in Coptic. Manu· scripts dOlling from the sevenlh lhrough the nine-tC1:nth cenluries show that the tCJlts of the anciem hymns-the ThCOlokia, Psalis, IUTl-'~{It, and so on {5ee Description of the CollluS. above)-wcre kept in Greek, Greco·Coptic, and Coptic with little or no aher-alion. 11 seems logical to a!,SUllle Ihal thc music also remained essentially intact. A~ has beeo indio cated llbove, even aflcr Arabic was introduced into parts of the rites for those who no longer under· stood Coptic, this did not seem to change the basic elements of the music (rhythms and melodic lines)

MUSIC, COPTIC: History

(see Melody, lis Relation to Different Languages, above). Coptic manuscriplS, probably dating from the tenth or eleventh centuries (Rylands Ubnuy at Manchester, Insinger Collection, Leiden Museum of Antiquities) contain unusual signs as )'et unde· ciphered. Some scholars have tenlatively suggested that they may be a sort of ckphonetic notation (a system of symbols placed above the syll..blcs in a tCJlt) that fell into disuse. At the MOU"'''' SINAI MONASTERY OF SAINT CATlIERINl!. many ancient m:museriplS of hymn and psalm text... have been discovered. None is in Coptic, but there are several in Arabic, with the earliest dating from 977, A study of these Arabie manuscripts could be very useful, for al· though Saint Catherine's is Greek 011hodo.x, it has a complicated history connected to Egypt yet to be fully elucidated, During the Middle Ages, three authOl'5 described the rites and musical practices of the church. The first, Is~aq al·Mu'taman Abu IBN AI.·'AS.';,\1. (thir· teenth century), devoted a chaptcr from his K;ldb MA.JMO' U$OL AL·DIN (The Foundations of Religion) to a discussion about the growlh of music in the church, citing Scripture and historical ev.:nts (this chapter has been edited and troru;latcd by Georg GRAf as "Der kirchliche Cesang nach Abu Is~Aq , , . Ibn a1.'Ass4I:' Vocal Church Music Acc"rding to Abo Is~q ... ). The second, Yuh1nna ibn Abi laltlri)'Yi IBN 51&' (late thirteenth century) detailed contemporary usages or liturgical music in his opus, AI'JAWHARAH AL-HAFISAH " 'Ulilm u/·Krmi5tlh (I1Je Precious Essence ... , cd. and lrans. Jean Pi!rier as La Peril' prtcirmse). The third author, Shams al·Ri'1isah Abu al·Barakat ION "AllAR (early fourteenth century), penned MISuA.J AL-~ULMAH '1 Id(J~ al·Khidmali (The Lamp of Darkness, cd. and ,rans. Louis VTllECQU\I.T as La Lampe cit'S lenebr(!.~), in which he listed and specified the use of lhe mllny melodies (Arabic: allJlm, sec Description of the Cor' pus and Present Musical Practlce, above) known to the church in Egypt. Although he reported eertain local variations in the order and choice uf ulllii/l, the names of the songs and practices he discussed are virtually the same loday. These three authors also outlined the Coptic schema of the okwr'chos, which had been developing for many centuries in Egypt, Syria, and Byzanti· um. A teml of several meanings in the early church, oktoechos eventually came to refer to a group of eighl adaptable melody-types (ullOl) used in the B)'lllntine chureh in a cyde or eight Sundays to correspond with an eight·week titurgical cycle. Their invention is allribUled 10 saint John Dama·

1735

scene (d. 754), but his contribution was probably one of organization sincc they were already in existence long before his time. His classification of the et:hQ; into four authentic (xiip«K, kurioi, i.e., "lords"), to be paired wilh four plapl (d~. pl!gos, "side:' OT perhaps daE, plax, "flat and broad"), was likely based on some symbolic principic ralher than any purely musical reason. The eltpression okJoechos first appeared in the P/erophorla by John of Mayuma (c. SIS) in an anec· dote indicating that this word referred both to a kind of proyerbook and to a collection of songs an-anged from a musical standpoint. According to E. Werner, Ihe telm may originally have derived from the Gnostic teon Oge/oas, which, as the num· ber eight, wa.s identified with the Cl'entOI' and the essence of music in an apocryphtll hymn of Jc.sus that probably originated in Egypt or southern Pales· tine in the middle of the second century, The philo. sophie Ideas of the Ogdoas, the Gnostic mngic vow· els as thcy relatcd to the tone~ of a cosmic oclave, the fOUl' essential clements (air, water, fire, and earth). and the four essential qualities (dl'Y, humid, hot, and cold)-aJl indiscriminately milled with mon,: or Icss biblical conceplS, and ari~ing in Egypt and southem Palestine during the K'Cond and early third cenlurie,-funher contributed to the forma· tion of the oklrHchos. The alchemist Zosimos of PanopoJis (now Akhmim) (c. 3(0) is credited with a brief passage about ecllo; found in a treatise that basically concems alchemy. However. the work is likely DYLantine, dating from Ihe late eighth or C'aT' ly ninth century. l-terein, Pseudo-Zosilnos estab· lished a system of echoi based on six !\Cries of four elements (rcprest:nt<:d by the Greek symbols for the numbers I to 4) to produce twenty.four entities that were to serve as the foundation for the composition of all the hymn~ and olher religious melodies. In the By.t.....ntine and Syrian churches, the oklo· cellos was systematized onty in the eleventh century. Two CenlUries later, Ibn at·'Assal, following this lead, quoled lhe priest Yll'qub nl-M~riclilnI, who stated that the sense of hearing has eight levels of feeling (tempel'nrllents), and that therefore songs must be bascd on eight kinds of ccho; (Arabic: alJ.liJn): these he then classified and describ..-d. In the early fourteenth century, Abu IlI·Bnrak1t em· braced this ~me classification and described its usage in Egypt llS follows: The first (11f'DTOC) and fifth (1\UHHf06O'(, planerothou, or ~ , planprOtou) echo; excite joy, and arc USI.-d fur purc and glorious feasts; thcir temperoment is hot and humid. The second (n;ynlf'oc, teuteros) and sixth (n,uHT6yT6fOC, planteuteros) humble 0$, and

1736

arc

u~d

MUSIC, COPTIC: Canturs, Their Role and Musical Training

for times of humility amI hUlllilialion like

Holy Week; their temperament is cold and humid. The third (Tf'TOC, Iritos) :md seventh (U('IC, baris, from Greek /3«pk, Ixll'us. "heavy"), make us sad. and l'll'(: lherdo,'e most frequently UM..-d for funerals and buriab; their temperament is hoi and

Mu'allim GhubriyAI of OAy, Abu &I'd al·Ablilljl, and Jirjis al·Shinniwl. RACHEB MOFTAII MARIAN ROBI'.RTSON MARTHA ROY

dl)'. TIle fourth (nrr),fTOC. telanus) :md eighth (llUHT6TJ'loTO)'. plnnlctralOu) em;:oumge br.J\'cl)', lift the heart, and are meant to encourngc listeners, nOI put fear into their souls: their tempera·

me

ment is cold and dry. In all other descriptions of the Coptic a{l]a,1 and their usage. Abo al·BaraUt made no funher refer-

ence 10 these eight edroi. nor arc th\")' known or mentioned elsewhere in Coptic church mwsic. Thus, whether the schema of the olaoechos was merely theoretical or actually put into practicc by Coptic mu.~iciam; is an open quc:;tron. Regarding a possible Arabic influence on Coptic mUllie over the ye:ln, it has been observed that there are some truces of similarity between Coptic incantilliltion and Our':1n chaming, However, at this writing, it would be impossible to say who bor· rowed ~lIld who lent. The Ambs may have had somc li'ffect on the singing style of certain individuals, but for the t",1ditional manner of singing trnnsmiuoo by the canton as a whole, it would be dillicuh to pinpoint anything as specifically Arabic, The uhi'llate provenance of the improviS3tional style heard in both Coptil: Dnd Arabic cantillation, a.~ well a.~ in other Middle Eastern musical systems. is unknuwn al prcscnt. This cmire problem is )'el awaiting much·needed comparative study. fn conclusion, sumc remarks ab"ut authors should be mllde. Although Coptic arti~ts, compos' ers, ltnd writers havc largely remained anonymou.~ by tradition, the authorll of a few hym/ls have been idl.'ntified. Mention hlls been made of h"w some left lheir names in lhe Psalis (sec Description of lhe Corpus. above), Other ascl'iplions have been noted in lheir historical conlext. In the currently used (J1-Ah.~(Jlllludi>,yah al.Ki)'ahki)')'alr (sec Dl'S\;ription or the Corpus, IIbovc), the following are some of the more prominent authors named (IS having euntrib· Uled hymns to the collection, sorne mOr'e prolifical. Iy Ihan otllers: ro,' I'salis Mu'allim Yu'annis (six Coptic patOlphr.L'lCs), Sarltis (ninc Greek p;lra· phrases), :lOd Nicodemus (nine Coptic Psalis): for lIlada'l1.1 Dnd pamphmsc:; in Ardbil: 'Abd al·Masll,t al·Masu'di from DAYR A1A.tUt;tARRAQ. al·B"rallludah of BahnasA, and Fa41 AllAh al.Jbyari; and for hymns in Ar,lbic with frequent Coptic terms and phra.'lCs interpolated, Patriarch MARK VIII (1796-1809),

Cantors, Their Role and Musical Training Because members of the clergy were not equally talented as singel1i, it became and has rcmaint..J the tr.ldilion to entrust perfonnance of the music 10 a professional canlor (Arabic: 'ari!, "one who knows:' or mu'al/im, "teacher"), who is employed and tmined by the ehurch to be responsible for the eurr«t delivery of the hymru; and responses in all the services. He is uwaUy blind, due to the popular belief dating from anciem limes that the 5Cnsitivity of ey~lght w.15 transferred frum the eyes of a blind person to his cars, and that such transference l'nhanced oluslcal skills. He is ellpcctcd to be at the church to perform and siog all the ritcs at their proper times and ill thereby assured his Jiving. The camor is not an ordained member of the ch~,'ical orders, but in timl'S past, a prdyer used to be said for him as the llppoimed singer in the church. This pmyer, entitled A Proyer Over Ooe Who Shall Be Made a Singe,' (COI)tic: oyeyxE E.XEN OYJlI 6yt!J.J.l't !1tJ.>,HI,IAOC, oueukhe ejen ouai eunanir (e)mpsalmOd01i), is as follows: Master, Lord God, the Almighty, ... This Thy servant, who stands before Thee and hath hastened to Thy Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church, do Thou illumine him for rendering sweetly Thy holy words. and give grace to him to chant unto Thec, with un
MUSIC, COPTIC: Cantors, Their Role and Musical Training

1737

him 10 be teacher of melodie~. Later, this teacher was ordaincJ II deacon, Abllnli Takla by name. M p:an of his ta.~k, AbOna Takla corrected the pronuncialion of the language, Jemanding propcr enunciation lind delivet)' of Ihe hymns. III 1859, al the order of Pope Cyril IV. he published the Ii!"'!:t edition of the book Thll Services vI Ihe Dt'(lCUII (sec Dc$criplion of the Corpus, above), with the help of Deacon IRyAN JllUlS MUI'TAJ,I. teacher of Coplic in the Patriarchal College. Abo at the direction of the pope, AbOnA Takll1 included Iherein four Greek hymns, which he translaled into Coptic, llnd which are sung ~t today for Ihe fcasts of thc N:,tivity and Resurreclion, They have kept their Greek melodiC!> and are designated as Y/flll"11 (Gn..'Ck), FUr1hcr, Ab
of Bey. AbOnl Takll had 5Cvcn students to whom he transmitted his knowk-dge and skills, Among these were two <:ant011l, AbOna. Murqus of M;I!ay, and Mu'allim Arrnanyus. In the generation following, aile of thei,' students was the blind cantor Mu'allim MIKHA'lt. JtRJIS al· BatanOnI, who wa.~ blessed with an e...celient, very clear voice and a prodigious memory, AJ.> a youlh, he was senl to visit churches in many lowns of f.&ypttO learn and collect hymns. A faithfulteachcr al the Inslitute of &lint Didymus, he was the CantOr chosen by Raglteb Moftah to sing to the English musicologist, Ernest Newlandsmilh, wl.o, from 1928 to 1936, notaled the complete Uturg,v nf Saint Basil and many hymlls rcscrved for Advent and Lent (sec Tmnscriptions in Western Notalion, be· low). Thereby, Mu'ollim Mikhll"l beCllme Ihe means through which many of Ihe great trea~urc~ of Cop· lie hymnology h:lVc been preserved in writing. He died In 1957, over seventy·five years old. Cantors :md deacons of today who were taught by Mu'alllrn Mlkhll'll Include Mu'allim Tawflq Yiissuf of the Monastel)' DAYR Al.-MUI:M,RRAQ. Mu'allim S~diq Allalltih, Dr, YI1ssuf Mf\n*lir, and m:my others in the churches of Cairo and the provinces. Tl,ese men art acknowledged today as the c"pen.~ for Ihe Iitul" gical services and correct rendering of hylllns, They have also assisted in the recordings of the 1i1U11~ies and offices now being made by Ragheb Moftah. In 1893, at Mahmashnh, Cairo, Patriarch CYRil. V (1874-1927) opened lhe Theological seminary, of which one brolnch was th<: Saint Didymus Institute for the BUnd. It ....-as only natural for lhe blind

Mu'allim MikM'U, emlr/llsy Egyptiall Alfliqllitic$ 0,ganization. Photo by 11. JlidwlCum,

canlors to come here rOl' theh' Il1lining. This insti· tute is now locllied in Shubrll, under the direction of Mu'nllim Faraj. Today, the HIGIl£R INSnTlrm or COPTIC STUOIBS has a music depal'tl11ent where the music of the church rileS is lliso t:'lugh!. Rllgheb Monah h;lS helldeJ this department since its beginning in 1954 and has been responsible for the training of those wishing to maSler the myriad hymns :md mclotlies nccessary 10 Coptic ritual. Mr. Moftah has also been in charge of the Icaching of the hymns and responses to the .~tudent.S in the Coptic Clerical College adja· cenl to lhe Im;litute. ThClie Jailer students are not cantors, but loathe,' will beeome priests. Each sum· mer, Mr. Moflah takes a group of talentcd pupils to summer camp in Alexandria for addilionaltl'aining. Here, they review what Ihey have b<:cn taught, correct their intoning and language, and slUdy new repertoire. In all this work, Mr, Moftah is assisted

1738

MUSIC, COPTIC: Musical Instruments

by priests having good eal'S and strong voices. All instruction is donc by rotC, with the students repeating the melodies until they become note perfect. Thereby, music, which perhaps was in danger of being lost and forgollen, is now heing preserved for a new generation. RACHED MOFrAH MAltT1tA ROY

Musical Instruments When Christianity was cstablished in Egypt, many musical instrnments of dh'ene fonns and origins were known. However, they wert'. in the main, frowned upon by the church and the early fathers wrote stricl injunctions forbidding lheir US(:. Clem· enl of Alexandria (c, 150-220) in,-eighed against playing the psaltery, the trumpet, the timbrel or Iympanon, and the pipe. However. he seems to have tolerated the lyr(J and kilh(lr(l, because of King David's allcged use of them. Origen (c. 185-254) altributed delinile spiritual qualities to the sound of cenain instrnmems, with Ihe trumpet represenling the power of God's word, Ihe Iympanon depicling the dcstruction of IUSI, and the cymbals expressing the eager !(lui enamored of Chmt. Saint ATiiANAS1US I (326-373) also g..w e instruments symbolic: me-.Illings (Reese, pr. 61-62). For his pan, Saim CYRtL I (412-444) dUll'ilClerized a psalm as "Il musiCal ut· terance for which the instrument is played rhylhmi. cally according to haononic notes" (Werner, 1959, p. 3 IS), thcreby recalling the Greek definition of this ancient form as a song sung to the accompaniment of a harp, or k{thuru, or Iyr«. Three Arabic manuscripts from Saint Catherine's MonaStelY (nO, 30, 977; no. 21, el('venth century: no. 22, twelfth century) quote hyllln and Psalm

Hand cymbals. COllrtesy Coptic Mus"lIm, Cairo.

texis that name many dilfercnt instruments suitable for praising the Lord: cymbals (fanj), small drum (daff), two dilfcrent chordophonL'S, whose sound is produced by a vibrating string, either bowed 01' plucked (awl6r and ma'6tif), drum.~ (!IIM/), and r.u· tics (~(l/iJfi1), all of which indicate the variety of inSlrumenl$ known at IhL~ time (ALiya, 1970, pp. 77, 21 and 25), Today, two percussion instruments are used in the rites of many of the Coptic churches: the small hand cymbals (Anlbic.:: fun;, or colloquially fajjiJ/), and the metallriangle (Arabic: "'If/halla/h, or colloquially wriall/a), L'ltch played by one of the deacons and/or the camor. Providing a mythmic accompa· niment to spet.:ifi<..-d hymns and responsts sung by the choir and/or congregation, they signal the con· gregation to panicipate and unify the singing. The hand cymbals art: mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments (h. 150; I Cor, 13:1), which might be considered as a sanction for their use in the Coptic services. They were probably brought into Egypt from the Near East, bUI when Ihey wert: introduced into the church is as yet unknown. They art: a pair of slighlly concave metal disks (usually silver) about 7 inches (IS cm) in diameter, with a cupped center I V. inch (3 cm) in depth. A hole in the cente,' of each disk pemlil$ the passage of a string held in plnce by a woodcn pin that acts as It handle for manipulating the cymbals. Throughout the bymn which they accompany, two movements of the cymbals characterize the beat: a diagonal sliding of tbe tWO di~ks again~t eac.:h othcr, and a circular motion of the two rims alternately against each other. Both movements produce a varied depth in tone, A trill of the rims with a linal d&p complete~ the rendition of the hymn, The Arabic word daff is It controversinl terlll pop' ularly used by sOllle Copts to refer either to the cymbals or sometimes to the tri..mgle, but this is a misnolnet' since the dall' is a membranophone can· strueted of a circular wooden fmme ovcr one side of which a fish or goat skin is stretched taut: such instruments are considered unsuitable for use in cburch services. The Arabic word n6qiis (pI. IlawQqls) is the only teon mentioned in the rubrics of the liturgical books (notably the Khidmu/ ul·SI,ultm:l
MUSIC, COPTIC: Musical Instruments

came into the early church perilllp~ via Alexandria, where it replaced the small wooden clapper'S lISed in antiquity as an instroment to signal the beginning of worship services. Writing in the fourteenth century, AbO al·BarakAt (see Description of the eo...· pus. and History, above) referred 10 Ihl' niiqiis in his description of the rite of consecration of the ahar in Ihe church: ''The bishop proceeds around the ahar and beats the ndqils three times. after which the ministers holding many nQw/iqis strike them:' However, the exae! fonn of the n
1739

existed among the COpts. The follOWing infonnation about them is based mainly on research published by Hans Hickmann.

Idlophones

I, Clapper. A kind of casUtnel, the: clapper consists of two small boards that strike against a third, central board which also fonns the handle. AIIhough nothing can be affinned as to ilS use in Ihe early church, many clappers dating from the: third 10 sixth centuries have been conserved. These have been found at Saqqara (DAYR API. JEJtEMIAH). the Fayyl1m, llnd elsewhere in Em'Pt. 2. CaslQnet. Made of concavc shells of h'ory or hard wood which are struck one against the olher, the castanet CJtistcd in ancient Egypt, but it proba· bly took its definitive fonn only in the second cen' tury A.D. In the Coptic Mu..~eum in Old Cairo there

Clappers. COrlrlesy Ellen Hickmall/I. Pholo by H. Hick· mall/I.

1740

MUSIC, COPTIC: Musical Instruments

are a numbel' of them dating from the Coptic era, found at Akhmlm and Elephantine. It is thought that they descended from the hand·shaped clappers of pharaonic times. J. Cro/alum. Composed of two small c)'Illbals auached to the cnds of a son of elastic fork that strike against each other when the fork is shaken. the crotalum was invented by Egyptian musicians of the Lower Epoch. Examples dating from the Coptic Epoch have been found at Thebes. 4. Sismml. ConSisting of bars Iitkd loosely into a metal frame that rattle when the handle is shaken. the sistrum ""'as the instrument sac,ed to I-Ialhor and other goddesses such as Isis and Baslel. From Egypt it spread to Gree<:e. Rome, and wherever else the cults of these Egyptian goddesses penetrated, In Western Europe, Isidor of Seville (560-636) men' tioned its use (Serl//mtia!' d!' musica). as did Pscudo-Odo (OdQ Qf Cluny. 879-942). According to Hickm;mn, the sislrum was also used by Ihe Copts for many centuries.

S. Bdl. Not found in Egypt until the Late Kingdom, most of the bells recovered from ancient times stem from the third to sixth centuries A.D. Ancient Coptic bells. which may be decoraled with the sign of the cross. have been found mostly in the FayyOm or other centers of early Coptic life. Hickmann felt Ihal Ihe usc of Coptic bells might be the origin for the sounding of bells during the Roman Catholic mau, and Ihal these instruments appeared in Rome following lhe cult of Saint Anlony. Aerophones

I. Flute. The long flute. which is held vertkally when played. is the most ancienl ....ind instrument of E&,ypl, having existed in prehistoric limes. Exam· plC$ made of bone dating from the third 10 sixth centuries A.D. have hexn found at Saqqara (ncar DayI' Apa. Jeremiah). Known in Arabic as the Plliy. its descendent is still heard today in Egyptian folk music. 2. Clarir'!'t. Like Ihe flute, the Egyptian clarinet descends from very ancient times. The double c1ari· nel, which has IWo pipt."S Iinkcd together, dales from the Fifth Dynasty. Similar instruments dating from Ihe Coplic era have been found at Saqqara (near Dayr Apa Jeremiah). These are the prototype for the modem Egyptian lWPlmliran. J. lIydrlllllis. According to Athentlius. Ihe hy· draulis (water organ) was invented by Clesibus of Alexandria, surnamed "the Egyptian" (c. 246 !J.e-). It wa.~ delicribed firsl by Philo of Alcxandria (sccond century Ii.C.), and !tIler, in more detail, by Hero of Alexandria (c. ISO A.I).) and Vitl'uvius. A favor'ite instrument at gladiatorial shows, it became vcl)' popular with the Romans. Although thc organ later became the m(lin instrument for thc rites of the Latin chur'Ch, it has nevcr been accepleu in the Coptic church.

Chordophones The harp i~ prohably of Egyptian ori· gin, llnd during its long history, it has assumed many forms which have been amply described elsewhere. The Copts did not usc the harp In r.acrcd scnlice.~, bUI it might have been popular alllong the people. O'Curl)' maintained that the Egyptian harp may have senled a~ the prototype for the Irish harp (sec HistQry. aIXlVe). which spread from l.-eland into haly. 2. LII/e. A lute found al DayI' Apa krrmiah. dating probably from the .seventh or eighth century. is I. Harp.

Crolalum, sistrum. and flute (from left to right). C(mrtesy Coptic Museum. Cairo.

MUSIC, COPTIC: Musicologists

1741

important because It repn~sents a tmnsilion from the long lutl,,'; uf antiquity (both Egyptian and Asiat· ic) and the shOl' lutes of Arabic, Imnian, and Indian origin (Ambic: uf.'lld), Described by many schol· ars. il is characlclilcd by twu c....'S<.:~llt·shaped notches, that is, il is doub/emem echallcri. There are examples in the Coptic MUSCUIII in (lid Cairo and in the Metropolitall Mu.~eum of An in New York. Hickmann suggestcd that it might lx' the foreronncr of the guitar. c..,;pecially the guilllrro Itlorisco. funher, he fell that such lutC5 indicate the role Egypt playl,:d in musical lIistol)' between antiquity and the Middle Ages, a role not cunfin,od to the development of lh~ liturgy. but also imponant in the history of musical instl'\lmcnUi (sc..'C METALWORK.

come:

WOODWORK.

conIC). RAGHE.D MOf'TAIl

ROHEJITSON MARTHA Roy

MARIAN

Musicologists Borsal, Ilona (1925- I982) After graduating from the University of Kolo:r.swr, in her native clly of Cluj, Rumania, qualified to teach Greek and French Innguages, Ilona Borsni attended the Academy of Music in Budap'-'lit. Hungary, whcre she received the Diploma of Music Education, Completing ful,her studies in th" field of mU!lieology under Bence Swloksi, she hegan to work in rese81'Ch In folk music undcr the direction oflolt;!.n Korlaly at the Academy of Science, Having retirtd in 1978. she died in Budapest on July 8, 1982,

Her r-esenrch led irHO mu.~lcological studies of Egyptian music, pharaonic, folk, :md Cuptk. During three visilS 10 EilYpl, she made many recordings of folk and Coptic music in 1967-196810 wllcct rc' con.lings for lI'onsel'ipllons lind lllllllyscs, in 1969 to nllcnd the Second Conrel'ence of Arllb Music where she presented ,I paper, and in 197010 follow up on the studies and recordings of Coptic music. As a result of thcse visits she prudueed (I number of lranscriptions in collahorl\iion with Margit T6th and publications describing the result.s of her research (sec bibliu!l:....."hy). She was (I member of the Coptic Archeological Societ)'. the Uungnl'ian Ethnolographical Society, the Association of Hungal'ian Musicians, the Hungarian Society of Studies uf Anti
Coptic lute. Courtesy Cuplic MmsellllJ, Cuiro. Koililly Society. and the International Associatioo of Coptic Studies, Her pioneering research Into the details of the historical. analytical, and liturgical sigllificanee of Coptic music opc:ned the field of Coptic musicology and defined its direction, Her I,:ontribution has had an impact not only on Coptic studies but also on all research concerning music whuse histurical roots have been tr.msmillcd through the centul'ie.~ by oral tnulition. MARTHA Roy

Hickmann, Hans (1908-1968) I'lickmann, a Gel'mnn musicologist, was known primarily :IS an (luthurity on the musical instru· menls of ancient Egypt. He devotcd much study to the music of the Coptic church, which he felt was a living link hlliween the past and tlte present (for more details of his l'e!«:arch into the Coptic musical tradition, sec 01".. 1 Traditiun, History, and Musical Instl'\lmenl$, above, and Tran!lCriptions in Western Notation, below), I30rn 19 May, 1908, in Ros.~lau bei Dessau, Ger· many, he received his early education in Halle lind cominued his studies in mu.~icology at the Universi· ty of Berlin under the dinxtion or some of the most

1742

MUSIC, COPTIC: Trnnscriptions

In

distinguished 5cholars of the time. including Erich M. von Hornbostel and Cun Sachs. After his gmuualion in I\lJ4, he studied tit the Slaallichc Akadcmie fUr Kirchen- und Schulmusik (Berlin-Charlot· lenberg) and the Berliner Hochschulc rur Muslk. His interest in Eastern music wa~ first aroused by a field trip to the Siw,\ oasis (1932-193]), sponsored by the Berliner Phonogl1lmmarchlv. In 1933, he sculed in Cairo, and from here he conducted extensive investigations into the music of Egypt for more than two decades. From 1949 to 1952, he lectured ill many coun· tries of Western Europe. In 1957 he left Egypt be· cause of political conditions and returned to Germany to head the depanmcnl of Elhnomusicology al the University of Hamburg (see Tr:,nscriptions in Western NOlation, below). In 1958, as the new di· rector of the Musikhistorisches Studio (Archlv· Produktion) of lhe Deutsche Grammophon Gesell· sehaft in Hamburg, he p,'Qduced m.my recordings of ancient music, all of great scholllrship Rnd au' thenticity. He dicd 4 Seplcmbcr 1968, in Blandford Forum. Dorset, En~land. His published work.~ cover morc than three dec· ades (1934-1968. plus articles published posthu· mously). A comprehensive bibliography, comprising !>Ome 198 entries, is listed in the Journal of the !)()ciely of EtlmomusicoloJ:J, vol. IX, no. I (January 1965), pp. 45-53, and vol. XII, no. 2 (May 1969), PI'. 317-19. MARtAN ROBERTSON Newlandsmlth, Ernesl (1875-? [arler 1936]) British violinist, composer, and writer, besl known for his eXlensive lr.mscription.~ of Coptic lilurgical music. The !>On of a clergyman, he wa~ horn 10 April, 1875. Having shown a talent for music, he eme"ed the Royal Academy of Music in 1893. from which he graduated with distinction in 189~, earning the A.R.A.M. (Associate of Royal Acadellly of Music). Disillusioned as a music teacher and concen violinist, he turned his back on music as a profession (1908) and became a "pilgrim" or "minstrel friar." Henceforth, he traveled through the countryside pTC5Cnting musical religious services and living by the generosity of olhers. In 1926 he undertook a musical pilgrimage to the Holy Land. En route, he Slopped at Cairo where he met Ragheb Moftah (sec Cantors, ab<we), who ar· ranged for him to compile a book of lilurgical mu· sic of lhe ancient Coplic church. Newlandsmith conlinued his journey to the Holy Land (Mount

Western Notation

Carmel), but soon returned to Cairo. Here, ali Ihe guest of Mr. Moflah, he lived in a houseboat on lhe Nile. nolaling the music as chanters-among them the great ma~ter chanter Mu'allim M1KHA'IL JJIU1S (see Canlors, above)-sang their limL~honored mel· odies hour afler hour, day aher day (1926-1931). He also spent some lime at Abu al-Shuquq working with Mr. Moflah on the transcriptions (1929). Thc complete projecl lasled about len years (1926-1936), and during this time. Ncwlandsmith lranscribed some sixteen folio volumes of music, including the Lilurgy of Saint Basil (vol. I), numer· ous olher special songs for lhe various feasts and fasts, and special songs reserved for high church officials. Impressed by the dignity and beaUly of this mu' sic, Newlandsmith used certain melodies in his own violin compositions, and upon relurn trips to England (1928,1931), he played lh~ works as part of his music services. He also gave cnthusialitic lec· turcs about the antiqoity of the Coptic musical tra' dition. During his life Newlandsmith founded various musical-religious societies, the most significant being "The New Life Movement." A prolific wriler, he penned sever-Ii pamphlets and books wherein he ellpounded his ideas about music. A bibliography of his early musical compositions is listed in the Universal Hatldblldr der M"siklilera. tur alter lei/en lind Vij/ku (Vienna. n. d.). vol. I, pt. I, p. 124. He based his laler works on Coptic melo· dies, of which two, dating from 1929, remain signif· icant: his Orienlal Sliite for violin and piano, and lhc Cannt'lile Rhapsody for solo violin. MARIA."l

ROBERTSON

Transcriptions in Western Notation Although there may be some evidences of a nOla' tion system using dots and a primitivc ekphonelic notation for Coptic music, the Copts have prL'SCrved their music over the cenluries css<:ntially by means of an oral ITadition (sec Oral Tradition, above). Only in the nineteenlh century did scholars begin to lranscribe Coplic melodies using the notation system cslablished for Weslern music. Guillaume Andrl: Villoteau. a French Kholar who was pan of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, wa~ the Ilrst to tltlcmpl such a transcription when he devoled !lOme five pages of his De$cription de I'Egypte (1809) 10 an Alleluia From the Divine Liturgy. Later, near the end of the nineteenlh century, other transcriplions

MUSIC, COPTiC: Transcriptions 10 Western Notation

were made by Jules Blin (ChallIs Ulurgiqucs copies, 1888) and Louis Dadet (Ch<:lll/s lil"rgi""es des Copfes, (899). Whereas BUn's trnnscriptions are unreliable, those of Badet are fairly accurate as to the general $Cherne of the melodies. In the twentieth century, Kl\mil Ibrtlhhll Ghubri· )'11 published a small volume of transcriptions of hymns and rcsponsoria, Af·TawqI'jjf Qf·Musiqiyyah !i-Maradd4/ <:If·KtlIlts<:lh al-Afllrqusiyy<:lh (1916). Unlike previous tran$Cribers, Ghubriy:il, a lieUlenant in the Egyptian army, was a Copt, and deeply steeped in the musical tradilion of hili church. He designed his lranscriptions for Coptic YOUlh. and in an effort to make them more attractive to his audience, he adapted them for piano, adding a rhythmic accompaniment (no hannany, notes at the octave only) and making certain changes in the pitch and rhythm of Ihe vocal melodies. Notwithstanding such obvious altcrations, the basic mclodk line was kept intact, and Ghubriylil is to be recognized for his pioneering elforU as II Copt seeking to notate the music of his people. Nearly one generation laler, onc of the most ambitious efforts in this regard was undertaken by the English musicologist Ernest Newlandsmith (see Mu· sicoloaists. above), who came to Egypt at the invitation and sponJOrshlp of R.::igheb MofUlh ror the ell' press purpose of trnnscribing the music of the Coptic services. From 1926 to 1936 he compiled, from listening to the best Coptic cantor.;, some sillteen folio volumes of music, which inc1ulte the en· tire Uturgy of Saint Ba.~il, and other impOJ1ant hymns, responsoria, and so on, reserved fur special feasts (vol. I alone comprises more Ihan 100 pagcs). Because he fdt that the abundant ornamen· Union in Coptic music was primarily "Mabic de· bris," Newlandsmith tended to ignore must uf the embellishmentS. Thus. his transcl'iptions depict sim· pie melodic lines, lIdapted to the rhythm.~ and key signatures of the West. Nevertheless, for that pan of Coptic music which is devoid of embdlishmcnt, these transcriptions compare: favoJ1lbly with the work of recent scholar.;, and his vast O::0ll'us of notation offers much material for comparative study and mnalysis. All the foregoing transcribers, nut havillg the ad· vantage of recol'dlng equipment, had no way to compare what they heard with what they had notat· cd. Hence, Dlany intricacies of rhythm and intona· tlon wert neither perceived nor indicated accurntely. Fortunately, when, in the 19505, interested musicologists began to work with tapes, they were able to produce transcriptions of much greater detail and accuracy. Among these $Cholan were Hans

1743

Hickmann and Rene! Me!nard, who. working both separately and together, transcribed a rew short pieces. Me!nard, by slowing the tape, was able to hear. lind thus notate, the embelJishmenlS with more exactitude than had been possible before. In so doing, he observed that the Western notation systcm cannOI really indicate all the nuances of rhythm and expression inherent in Coptic music, and suggestcd that certain andent signs used in notating Gregorian chant might be usdul. Following directives of Hickmann, scholar.; In the ElhnomusicololY Laboratory at the University of Hamburg, employing the most modem acoustical equipment which allowed them to record the exact oscillations of the $OUnd waves, notated the complicated variances of intonation in Coptic music to the nearest quarter·tone. In 1967, Ilona Borsai (sec Musicologists, aOO\'e) went to Egypt to collect materials for study and analysis. During her short span of ethnomusicolog. ical studies, she was ablc to publish SQmc lievcntecn articles containin. tran$Criptions and observations on facets of Coptic music never before touched upon. In 1969, Margit T61h, also of Hungary, came to Cairo to study Coptic music. Working with Ragheb Moftah and the recordings he had made, she, like Newlandsmith, noulled the entire Uturgy of Saint B41sil. By using the new methods for recording and playback, she has completed transcriptions of enormous detail, wherein nOI only the audible embellishments arc transcribed, but also aultiliary tones discernable only at a slow tempo. This project wilt enable scholars to make many comparntive studies and analyses. In the I:I.te 1970s, Marian Robertson, of the United States, also workinil with tapes, began transcribing excerpts from the Liturgy of Saint Basil and Holy Week services. Having specialized lhus fur in music sung by the choir, In which the embellish· mcnts (Ire somewhat blurred by the individuality of each singer, Robertson has not tl'anscl'ibed the OJ'namentation with the Slime detail as T6th. Explanations in accompanying tellts scrve to describe the phenomenon produced by the varying vibratos and embellishments of the pcrionners. In 1976, Nab!l Kamal BOIl"OS, violin teacher in the Faculty of Music Education at Helwan University and a member of the Arabic Classical Music En· semble, completed 11 master's thesis, "Coptic Music and 11$ Relation to Pharaonic Music:' in which he made a comparative transcription and analysis of one hymn as sung by several different choirs. Although Western notation was not designed for

1744

MUSIC, COPTIC: Nooliturgicn1 Musk

transcribing Coptic music. it may be the fonn in which this ancient music from the Near East will at la~t be written. By comparing the \·"riO\.l$ transcriptions of dedicated 5Cholars, one may at least glimpse the eomple:dt)' and variety of the Coptic musical tradition. RACHEB

MOtTAII

MARlAN ROBERTSON MARTItA

ROY

Nonlliurgical Music In recent yean;. stricdy nonJitul'l?ical songs hllve been developed for use In the Sund"y schools. They bear the genepdl title al~l(m. but thirteen. composed especially in honor or the Virgin MlllY. (lrc designnt· cd laranlm (sing. Illm/lllall). BOIh the ,,1!J{m and IlIr(m/m have texts of pTllisc ,md worship, strophic in form. Sung antiphonally or in unison by both men and women. they arc monophonic. Ouite dis· tinct in style from both Ambic c1ulIlting of thc Ou.... 'lan and Coptic liturgical melody, they hetrny much Western influence, for example, tile singing is always accompanied by the violin, plano, and/or organ; this inslI"umental accompani'ncnt has rudi· mentary hannony; and some lIOng.~ harrow phrases from well-known Western melodk-s such as Handel's "Joy to the World" and Mendelssohn's "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing:' Thl.')' may be described a~ light-heaned, charming, and allr:ao.:tivc to youth. However, Coptic purists dl.,,(:ry their existence and maintain that they have neither the dignity nor the spirituality or the ancient liturgical trndition. MARIAN ROBERTSON BIRUOCRAt'HY

Recordings

Th... Coptic Litlllgy uf St. Gregury, l..'(\. Ragheb Mortah. Recorded at the Higher Institute of Coptic Studi~. Cairo, 1984. The Coplic Marriag/! Savie/!, ed. Ragheb Monah. RA:eordcd at the Higher Instltute of Coplic Studies. Cairo, 1984. Coplic Musie. Recorded in the Coptic Cathedral of Saint Mark, with notes by Ml S. Atiya. Folkways RI."C,:ords. FR 8960. New York. 1960. IJoxolor.ies and Their H)"flIl$ for the Vir£in Mary und Ihe Saill/s, cd. Ragheb MOftllh. Recorded at the Higher In~titute of Coptic Studies. Cairo, 1984. Tire flo/y Week SenJ;ces, cd. Ragheb Moftah. Recorded at the ~ligher Inslitute of Coptic Studies. Cairo. 1972. rile Ull/riO' of 51. Basil. sUl1g by Mu'allim ,"ji'ldiq, cd. Ragheb Moftah. Recorded at the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies. Cairo. 1968. The Order of £Vmil1j; PY(j}'er~' ('fUllS r/4sbiJ,WI 'Ashi}'· yah). cd. Ragheb Mortah. Recorded al the Higher Institute or Coptic Sludies. Cairo. 1976. The Order of Midnighl Prayers ('faq.~ Tashi~lUt N4f al.Lay/). cd. Ragheb MOftllh, Recorded al lhe Higher Institute of Coptic Studies. Cairo, 1978. The Rilllni far Ihe Fellst of Ihe Resurrectioll, cd, Ilagheb Moftah. Recorded at the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies. Cairo, 1974. SeleClions from the LiwfJ:)' of 5,. Basil. with ComlIle11lQry by Azil: S. Aliyn, ed. Ragheb Mortah. Re· corded at the Higher Inslitute of Coplic Studies. Cairo, 1955. SpeciD.l IIY",lIs for lhe Palriarr;hs Qlld Bishops, ed. Ilagheb Mortah. Recorded at the Higher Institute of Coplic Studies. Cairo, 1980.

Bookl and AJ1Ic1es 'Abd al·Masi~. Y. "Doxologies in the Coptic Church." Bulletin de la Societe d'arclleo/ogie t"uple 4 (1938):97-99; 5 (1939):175-78; 6 (1940):19-25; 7 (1942):31-61; II (1945):95-158. -::-_ "The Hymn or the Three Childrell in the Furnace," Bullelin de la Socibi d'Art"htJulugie COfllll

AII,1(m MU~ll'bbah and Tar(mfm wfl Madil'i~1 Iii· Sayyldah al·'Adhrli.. Twelve l'ecol'ds or nonliturgi. cal music made in Cairo (8-968053-8-968065). In the Audio·Visual Dcpanmcnt, Marriott Ubrary, University of Uilih. AII.'1l1! Spedlll 10 Popu IIIId Bishops, cd. Ragheb Mortah. RCi:orded at the Higher Institute or Coptic Studies. Cairo, 1983. Calaloglle d'ellregiSlrtltlell/s de III IfUisiqu... folklori. qu... egyptienlle, ed. H. Hickmann and Charles Gregoire due de Medlcmbourg. Strasbourg and Baden-Baden. 1958. The C(mlplele Li/llrgy of 51. Basil, cd. Ragheb Mortah. Recorded at the Wgher Institute of Cop· tic Studies. Cairo, 196.5.

12 (1946-1947):1-15.

_ _ . "A Greco-Arab Psall.'· !Jullelill de 1'1IlS/lllI/ de~ ill/des copIes (1958):77-100. Amclineau. E. C. "&lint Antoine et les commence· ments du IIlOnachismc chretien en Egyple." Re"lie d'histoire el de /itleralure religieuses 65 (1912):16-78. Atiya. A. S. History of EnSlen! ChristianilY. Notre D."lme. Ind., 1968. _:-~ CQtnlogllc RQisomli of Ihe 1.10111I1 Sinai Ara· hic 1.1allllScriplS. Tmns. into Ambic by J. N. Vussef. Alexandria. 1970. Badet. L Cllallts fitllrgiqlles des Caples. Cairo, 1899. Baumstark, A. Comparluive Liwrgy. Revised by Ber-

nard Bolle, 0.S.8. English edition by F. L Cross. London. 1958.

MUSIC, COPTIC: Nonlilurgical Music

Bennel, J. P. "Mu~ie in the Coptic Chun~l, of Egypt and EthIOpio.." Unpublished M.A. lhesi_~. Seaule, 1945. Blin, J. Cllmlts fj/llrgiqu/l.S cuptes. Cairo, 1888.

Borsai, I. "A la recherche de I'ancienm' musiquc pharaonique." Cahiers d'!liJtoire egypt;cnne II (1968):25-42.

-,__ "Melodies 1t'lI(Jilionnelles des I;g)'pticns et leur lIuponancc dans la n.'Cherche de I'ancienne muslque pharaoniquc." 5wdia Musicologica AcademiaI.' Sclentiam", HlfIlgaricae 10 (1968):6990. Musical transcriptions made in eollabonllion "'ith Margit TOth. "Quelques lraits caractcrisliqucs de Ja mu· sique cople." 1 CongrcS50 Inlcmazionalc Grono· ferrata, Roma, 6-11 May, 1968. Studio Mllsieu/ugiea, 10 {19(8):l6O-63. ___ "Az l.ogyiptomi :tenei szajhagyomflny Yizsgalalinak uerepe a1. o-egyiptorni dallamok kutat3..s3.· ban." A. M. Tud. Akadl:mia I, Os:;Jal)',hlak K(nkmbl)'ei 26 (1969);]87 -99. ___ "Varialions omcml.·ntak'S dolos l'intelTlrelalion d'un hymne copte." SllIdiQ Musico/OKi,;u AeademiQt SciclI/iamJtl HWlgarieQe II (1%9);91105. With musical transcriptions by Ma'-gil Tolh. "Concordances et divergences entre Ics mt!lodies coptes ct celk'S du fellah (·gyplien." Deuxil:me Congn.'s Inlcmalionalc de Musique "nbc au Caire, 16-23. December, 1969. Studia MIlSicologica AcademiaI.' Scien/iam", IImlguricae 12

(I970)~325-30.

"Melody Types or Egyptian Wedding Songs." Acta Etlmograplriea AeademilJt Sdl'ntiu· rrml Hlll/garic"e 19 (1970):65-81. With nIusical lranscripliuns by Margil TOth. "Cllmcterisliques generales (Iu ch,mt de la messe copte." $ll4Ilia vrie'lllllill christian" llegypU· 111'11, colll'ctultl'u 14 (1970-1971 ):412-42. _ _ . "Un TylXl mclodique paniculiel' des hymnes coptes du mois de Kiahk." 8mdia MusiculuKieu Academille Sclemiarum J1l1n~arit'ue 13 (1971): 73-85.

-,_ . "I.e Tr"Opllil\: byWnlin '0 Monogcnes' dans la pmlique du chilnl cuple." SltUliu MII.I'icologica Academlul' Sdimrillrlllll Hunguricac 14 (1972): 329-54. _:-. "Y a·t·il un 'Octocchos' dans Ie sy.'lel1lC du chanl coptc?" SrI/diu Aegyfltiaca 1 (1974}:J9-53. _ _. "Die musikhislolische Bedeutung del" ori· entalischen christ1ichen Rilen." SrI/diu MilSic%g. iea ACQ,lemiill' Sdeuliarum Hllllgilricae 16 (1974):3-14.

--::-. "A kiscbb keleti egyh:17..ak Ihul'gikus zenejCnck l.Cncludom:inyi jelemtis(:ge." Vigilia 6 (1974):404-9.

"Mt!lodies copIes d~ lelltes grt..'<"s byzan. tins." AelCS du 14c Cungrts Inlernational des Etudes lJy".!Intincs, Bucharest, 6-12 September"

1745

1971. E,lilura ACQdl.'miei ReJlllblicii SocialiSI/' Ruum,mia (1976):493-503. "lJ.eux melodies em'lclCristiqucs de la se· maine salnle copte." Sllfdi~ ill EasterN Challl 4 (1979):5-27.

_ _ . "Melodic et mel rique dolns Ics thCOlokies coptes." Slmlia Mlfsico/ogica Academiae Sciemi· arum HungaricQt 22 (1980)~15-60. _,,-_ "Music or lhe Coptic Rite:' The Nell' Grove Dictiollary of Music and Musicialls, 61h cd. Vol. 4, pp. 7Off., ed. Swnley sadie. London, Washington, D.C., and I-long Kong, 1980. Brightman, F. Eo Liturgies Eastern alld Weslenr, Vol. I. Eastern Litllrgies. Oxford, 1896. Budge, Eo A. W., tmns. and ed. TIr, PArAdise or Garden of the Holy FalheJ'$.... London, 1907. --:,,-~' trans. The Wil alld Wisdom of the Christum Falhers of El:Ypt. ... Oxford and London, 1934. Burmester, O. H. Eo The Egyplian or Coptic Church i'l Cairo, A. Detailed Description of lIer Lilllrgical Services Qlld the Rites and Ce"mOlli~ Observed in the Admillislralic)tl of lI,r Sacraltlt'nts. Cairo, 1967. BUle, J. P. The Coptic Momblg Service for Ihe Lord's Day. London, 1882. BOlros, N. K. "Coptic Music and lis Relalion to

Pharaonic Music." Unpublished M. A. thesis. Hcl· wan University. Cairo, 1976. Cramer, M. "Studien 7.U kOplischcn Paseha· BUchern." Oriens Chri~'liaIllIS 47 (l963):118fF.; 49 (1965):90-115; 50 (1966):72-130.

- __ . KQpt;sche HYlrtllu/ogie itl dt'tlucher UberSd· VIII/<: (Eillc AnsIVaJiI liltS sal"dischell IlIId baltair. isch!:1l AllIiplrollaricu 110m 9. Jahrhwlderl bi.~ wr Gegemvart). Wiesbaden, 1969. Euringer, S. "Dcr mUtmnssliehe Vcrfasscr der koptischen Thcotokia." Oriens Christianus (1911): 225ff.

Faulkner", R.O., lnltls. Sungs of Isis and Nl'ptity.! _ Described by H. G. Farmer, "The Music of An· cicnt Egypl." In Allcielll "lid Oriellta/ Music, pp. 253-82. The New Oxford Hlslory or Music, cd. E. Wa!Jcs7., Vol. I. London, 1966. Ghuhl'iy:.l, Kdmil Ibl'l1hlt11. A/·TulI'ql'a! III·MI1S/· qiyyah

li-Mar,)ddlll u!·KurIIsllh II/.M"rq/Isiy)'ah. Cail'O, 1916. Gillespic, J. "The Egyplian Copts and Their Music." Noles preccding the Tralls/atlrm of Ihe !Alurl:j' of 51. Basil. n.p., n.d.

Gmf, G., lrans. find cd. "Ocr kirchliche Gcsang nneh Abo ]shdq ... " Exlmcls from The FOImdll· 1;011 of R!digioll by Ibn al·Ass!1. B/fllelill de /a Sot"iete ,/'arclreo!ogie cOJlII' 13 (1948-1949): 16178.

Hickmann, E. MIIJicQ hlstrllmell/a{;s (Sludiell Vir Klas.~ifikatioll des Musikillstmmetllar;mlls im Mil· felalter). Baden·BIlden, 1971. Hickmann, H. "Un Instrument a cordes inconnu de

1746

MUSIC, COPTIC: Nonlilurgical Music

I'tpoquc coptc," Blllletirl de /a Sociit,' d'archioloKie cop" 12 (1946-1941):63-80. "NOle sur une harpe: au MUsel' du Cairesur I'accordage des instrunlents .. cordes. Miscel· lanea Musieologica." Am'll/es dr, Sen.iet des Anli· q,dtis de I'Egyp/e 48 (1948):639-63. ___ "La C!iquelte, un instrument d.. percussion l:l)"Plien de I'epoque eopte." Bulletin de la Socii· te d'archiologie copte J3 (1948-1949): 1-12. ___ Catalogue giniral des Ilntiqflilts ityptiennts dll Musie dll Caire. Nos. 69201-69852, Instm· menlS de MlIsiqlle. Cairo. 1949. _ _. "Observations sur Ics liunlivanCi$ de la ehironomie egyptienne dans Ie chanl Iiturgique caple." Miscellanea MII$icolo>:i"a (1949):417-45. "Ouelques observatiOns slir 101 musique Ii· turgique copte des Copies u'EI/:VJ"tc," Atti del con· gre.~so imemuziul1ule eli //II/sica .l
Lannc, E. "Textes el riles de In liturgic pascale dans I'antienne egli.se COpIC," L'Orieffl .fYrieOl 6/1 (1961 ):279-300. L.Oq3 Sayyid SldarUs. mcmH ,"6 nau.c:o. GeOyJo.I (The Book of Holy Easler). cairo, 1981.

Mallon, A. "Lcs Theolokies au l'Office de III Sainte Vicrge dans Ie rite eopte." Rellue de I'orient chre· lien 9 (1904):17-31. Mearns, J. Camicles 01 the Christiull Chllrck Cam· bridge, 1914. Menard, R. "Note sur Ics musiques arabe et copte." Cahiers coptes 2 (1952):48-54. _,....,. "Notes sur 1es musiques arabe et coptc." Cahiers coptes 2 (1952):4811. "Nolation el transcription de la mu."ique copte." CaMers caple:> 3 (1953):34-44. ___ "Une clape de l'al1 musical egyptien: la mu· sique cople-rccherchC$ aCluelles." Rellue de lu musiqae 36 (I954):2Iff. _ ' - ' "Note sur la ml-morisation et I'improllisa· lion dans Ie chant cople." Eludes grtgoriemres 4 (1959): 135-43. Moftah, R. "The Sludy of the Recording of the Coplie Airs: The History of Mu'allim Mikha'II." AI·Kir· atah, 10, 17, anu 14 January (197S). _ _ . "Coptic Music." Bulletin de l'buliwl de~ itudes caples, (\958):42-53. _:-. "Coplic Music." Sailll Mark alld Ilze Caplic Churcll. Cairo, 1968. Moumford, J. F. "A Nl.'W Fragment of Greek Music in Cairo." JOl/mal 01 Hellenic Studies 51 ( 1931):91-100. Muyser, J. "I...e 'Psali' caPle pour la premitrc hcurc du samedi de la joie." I.e MllseOrl 65 (1952): 17584. _:-~. "Un 'Psali' acrostiche copte," I.e MUS~0I1 66 ( 1953):31-40. Newlandsmith, E. Religion arid Ihe ArIS. London. 1918. A Mirlstrel Friar. London, 1927. '1'he Music of Ihe Mass as Sung in the _ Coptic Church, and Some Special Hymns in Ihe Coptic Liturgy." Sixteen Folio VO/llmes 01 flllPllbfished trallscriplions, Vols. I and 2. Cairo. 19291933. Subsequent vols. are not dated. ---;__ "The Ancient Music of Ihe Coptic church," lecture delivered at Ihe University Church, Ox· fnrd. London, 1931. : - ' - ' A Mlisidml's Pilgrimage. London, 1932. O'CIlI'ry, E. O~l tile Manllers alld Clls/oms of the Andenl Irish, ed. with an Introduction, Appen· dices, and Notes by W. K. Sullivlm. New York, 1971. O'Leary, De L Tile Daily O/Tif:e fwd Theowkia ol/he Coptic Church. London, 1911. The Coptic TheolOkia. London, 1923. _ . The Oi/nar (AnliphollarirmtJ 0/ Ihe Coptic Chl/reh. London, 1926-1930. Pl:rier, J., ed. and lrans. La Perlll pricilluse . .. by Ibn Si~'. Paris, 1922Phl!ll!hliwus al·Maq3rt. Kitllb Dal/lll wa Tartfb Jllm'Il1 al·Alllm wa 'ld al·Fi~;' a/-Majid. Cairo, 1920.

-===

-=::=.

MUSTAFA KAMIL

Reese, G. Music i'l tIJe Middle Ages willI lin hrtH}' drlclion OIl the Music of Ancil'/1/ Times, pp. 57-94. New York, 1940. Robertson, M. "It. Trunscrlpilon and Moth-ic Analy· sis of Two Coplic Hymns." Unpl,lblish,x1 manuscript. Salt Lake City, 1980.

____ "Hymns from the Uturgy of SI. B;lSil." Unpublished m;lnu~ripts. &all Lake City, 19801983. ___ "The Modern Copdc Tamtmah, 'I'al-ah!nln. faraJ:!anln' ('We An: Joyful, We Arc Joyful')." Coptologla S (1984):77-34. '''The Rcliahilily of Ihe OTaI Tr.ldition in Preserving Coptic Music: A Comparison of Three Musical Transcriptions of an Extract from the Uturgy of Saint Basil." Bufle/in dt lu Socibi d'llrchiotogie cople 26 (1984):8]-9]; 27 (1985): 73-85. _:--_ ''Vocal Music in lhe Early Coptic Church." COplo/Ofia 6 (1985):23-27. _:::-_ "The Good Friday Trisagion of the Coptic Church (A Musical Transcription and Analysis). ,. Misul/ally ill 1I0tlOllr of ACQd. lwm Duj(~~v. Sofia, Bulgaria (in press). --,:::c "A Coptic Melody Sung Inlerchangeably in Different languages: Comparisons Thereof and Proposed Daling Therefor." Paper presemed OIl the Third International Congress uf Cuptic Studies in Warsaw. Poland, 1984. -c-= "Which Came first, the Music or the Wurds (A Greek Tcxt and Coptic Melody: Musical Transcription and Analysis uf the SettingJ." In By S/udy Q/!d Abo By Failh: Essays ill lIU>wr of Hugh Nibley 011 Ihe Occasioll of His EiglllieJh Birlh(luy, 27 Murch 1990, ed. S. D. Ricks, pp. 416lf. salt Lake City, 1990. Sachs, C. Die MIUiki/!s/rwllellle /llts ailen AgyPleIlS. Berlin,192l. Die Mluik der Arrlike. Putsdam. 1':135. The Risl! of Ml/sic irl /he Arlcienl Wurfd, East ((nd West. New Yor'k, 1943. Schott, S., cd. (lnd lrans. AIJilgyp/ische Lh'bes/ieder. ZUrich, 1950, Shawan, s, :,1·. "An Annulllied lJibliography of Cop· tic Music." Unpublished M.A. thesis, Colurnbia University. New York, 1975. Sidnrous, A. "La Pilque sainle au 13 Scmaine sainte selon la liturgic copte." Proche-OriclIl cllrelifm 18 (1967):3-43. Tawfl'q l;Iablb. AI~I(Hl a/·Krll1/s/l}r /I1.Qib!iY}'nh (melo· dies of lhe Coptic church). Leclurc given a' the Coplic Girls College. Cairo, 30 March 1917. T6th, M. "A Trunscriplion of lhe Complele LilUrgy of 51. Basil." Cairo, 1970-1980. Villecoun, L.. cd. and mJns. "Us Observances li'ur· giques et la discipline du jeune dan.~ I'eglise copte" (chaplers XVI-XIX from Mi~ah al. lulmah by Abu aJ·Bamk51 ibn Kabar). I,~ Musto/!

==. :

1747

36 {I92J):249-92; 37 (1924):201-280; 38 ( 1925):261-320. Villoteau, G. A. Descriplioll de l'E.gypre, tlat mo· deme, Vol. 2: De I'ttal ae/llef de I'arl lIu4$ical ttl Egypt. pp. 754fr. Paris, 1809. Wellesz, E. "The Earliest Example uf Chlistian Hymnudy." Chrislian Q14amrly 39 (1945):34ff. -:::-::. EQs/em E/emell/s in We.flcm Chall/. Oxronl, 1947. Wel'Oer. E. The Sacred Bridge. London and New York. 1959. -:::-. "The Origin of the Eight Modes or Music (Octucchus)." CurrJrib14/iorl.J 10 a Hisloric(ll S/14dy of Jewish Music. N.P., 1976. Ziegler, C. CalQloglie des ins/rumenls de lIlusiq.u· (gyp/iens. Paris, 1979.

MUSIC, CORPUS OF. See Music, Coplic: De· scription.

MUSIC. HISTORY OF, Sell Music. Coplic: HislOry.

MUSIC, NONLITURGICAL. See Music, Coptic: Nonliturgical Music.

MUSIC, ORAL TRADITION OF. See Music. Coptic: Oral Tradition.

MUSIC, RELATIONSHIP TO GUAGES, See Music, Coptic: Melody.

LAN·

MUSIC, WESTERN TRANSCRIPTION OF COPTIC. See Music, Coptic: Transcriptions. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, See Music, Cop· tic: Musiellllnstruments; Metalwork, Coptic: Wood· work, Coptic.

MUSIC AND CHURCH FATHERS. See Mu· sic, Coptic: Hlsl01)'; Music, Coptic: Musical Instru· ments.

MUSICOLOGISTS. Sel! Music, Coptic: Musicul· ogists.

MUSTAFA KAMIL (1874-1908), Nationaiisl pal·ty leader. He sludied law at the Khcdivial School of Law and later a, Toulouse in France, where he

1748

MUSTURUD

received a dea,'ct in 1894. His political inll::rCSls :lnd his intention 10 fight the British oecup:!tion staned l'at lln cady IIge. In 1890 he founu(."(] a nlilionalisl litcl1l1)' society and followed that by publish. ing his anicles in the prominent Egyptian ncwspapel'll of thaI lime.

MlIs!af:i K.imil's political career may be divided into three stages. 'nle first stage c.wered the period bctwl-en 1894 and 1900, dUling which he founded the clandestine Nationalist party :Illd i55ucd his famous paper Af-LiWD·.

The second slage ....'as between lhe years 1900 and 1904, when he concentrated on making the Egyplian question an international onl', in order to rnanct.l\'cr the European powers, mainly France, to put rressure all England [0 force it to withdrnw from

_..

During the third stage he conCl'nmllcd on escalating internal ~ist.anee to Britain as revealed by

the erisis that arose bctw(..ocn the Ottoman and Brit· i... h empires in 1906 over T::iW on Ihe Gulf of 'Aqa· ba. He incited Islamic reactions in Egypt against the British occupation and to the Dinshway incident, when the British resoned to panicularly bru· tal measur(:s in dealing with thl' fellahin of that village. 1·le exploited the occasion to inllame EgyptiOln and European feelings regarding the:-;e measo~. This stage ended with the formation of the Nationalist Pany on 22 October 1907. Mu."!3f=i !(jlIlil died shol'tly :.fterward, in Fcb"l:lry 1908. Most Coptl'; refused to join the political move· ment initillled by Mus!afa !Camil because they resented Its religious a... peet and rhe call to Pan, IslamiMIl ;Idopted by Mus!afa Kiimil. The small number of Copts who joined his pany is evident from the f;let thilt of the thirty members who constituted the adminisU"ative conllniue", only one was a Cupt, WlliSA WASSEr, while out of th~' 113 founders of the olher' big party, Hi~b al,Ullllllah (Nation's Party), rOUl1ccn were Copts. However', lowaru the cnd of his life, Mus!,.f<'i Kumil tried to creale a society uniting Copts and Mus· lims, b;lseu un pure Ell.Yptian sentiment. The motto o( it.. adherent... was Egyptians First of All. Even so, the Copts hl'siHlted to join the Niltionalist party, on account of the r'Casons mentioned and on llceount of Mus!af5. K5.mil's connection with the Ottoman empire, YONAN UBIB

MUSYURUD, See Pilgrimages.

KtZO

MU'YAMAN ABO ISJ:lAQ IBRAHIM IBN AL,'ASSAL (Mu'tuumn al-Oawlah), llpparcntly the third and youngest brother of al-As'ad Abo alFllraj moot-AllAh ibn al-'Asstil, the seo;ond being Oil· $ali AbO al Faga'i1 ibn al·'Assal (Saft al·Dawlah). He lived in the first half uf the Ihinecnlh century, though no precise date could be as.~igned 10 him from the sources. Mallon (1907) ascribes 10 him two wol'l,-s thai appear under al'As'ad in KaI;1I;1!\la's dictionary based on Cheikho's catalog of Christian Arabic manu' seripts, They are Majmij U~id al·Ditl wa·Mas""j' Ma~~al al·YaqIIl (Recunb of FounUatiuns of Relig· ion), and AI-Tab~irah al.Mllkllltl!iarah (Abridged Contemplation), Other works by Abu I.s~q quoted by Mallon indude Adiib rlf·KallIsah (cccksiastical usag..' S) and Klur!ab al-A'yllJ ul-Sayyidiyyah (fcslal homilies). But his major and enduring contribution lies in the field 0( philoloaical studies. specifically his fa· mous scala under the Arabic title AI·Sullam aU.fu· qafftJ wa·af·Dhahub u'·MIr~affd, Several attempts were made before Abu isl;1;iq to present a lexical compilation of Coptic vocabuillry into Arabio;, but most of them wel-e confused and hardly lISllble except perhaps the work of Anoo Yu'annis, bishop of SamannOd, who made his selection from liturgical works, the Gospels, aod Theotokia. Abu Isl;1aq used the work of AnM Yu'annis and impl'Oved on it by Iilling lacunae and by alphabetiZing entries. He illso profited from the knowledge of eminent contempo· raries, notably the priest AbO·al·'lzz Mukhallis, alWajih Yu~annft of Oalyiib, and the sharldl al-Tuqu ibn al-DahlrT. For the first time, it could be said that a d~finitive and r~llable Coptic suI/am was achieved: this was the le~t thut Kh'Cher presented in his famoll~ Lil/gua lIegyp/illcll Res/il/4Iu, Apart from the three Awl.!ld al-'AssAi al ..eady ched In thiR al1icle, two others are W0l1hy of mention. Orlc WIlS their father', Ab.l al.Fa~J1 ibn IsI.ldq ibn Abi Sahl ibn Ab! YURr Yul)annd ibn al·'As~;iI, knuwn as Fakr ;II-D(lwltlh (;II-Ktltib al-Mi~rl. the Egyptian scribe). The other personality is that of al·Amjad Aba al-Majd ibn lll·'AssM, :t pruminellt Ayyubid functional)' who lacked the literal)' glamor of lhe three older brothel'S, but who sClved as the eminent fimmder of the distinguished family. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kh'Chel'. A. Li"~,,u A~KYP/ia"a Restilllla. Rome, 1648. Mallon, A. Melanges dc f(l Filmlle Oriclliule, Vol. 2. pp. 260-63. Beirut, 1907.

MYSTERI ES OF GREEK LEITERS

'Umar RI~a Kahh:ilah. MII'ia'll af·MI/'ut/iff", 15 vols. Damascus, 1957-1961.

1749

MYRON, See Chrism.

AzIZ S. ATiYA

MYSTERIES OF GREEK LEITERS, a MUWAFFAQ AL.oIN ABO SHAKIR IBN ABI SULAVMAN DAWOD (u. 1216),,, skilled physician, unc of IIll'ce brolhel"5, the olher IWu bt-.... ing AIll) AI~FAI)L IRN ASI SUUr.vt.1AN and Abu S
Ibn AbI

~ybi'ah. 'Uytill

Q/·A"bd·

/I 'fabDqdl al-A{ib-

bll', pp. 589-90. Beirut, 1965. PENELOPE JO+lNsro~E

MUWAFFAW AL·DlN

IBN

SA'ID

AL·

DAWLAH. See Hibal Allah 'Abd-1lllah 11m Sa'id al·Dawlah al-Qib!l.

MUYSER, JACOB LOUIS LAMBERT (18961956), Dulch CoplOlogisl. He was born in the Hague and sludied Iheulogy and Egyptology at Frihours in Swil1.erland with Eugenc DCV'olUd and wcnl to Egypt in 1920 as a missiunilry for the African Mission Society. In jle bruary 1921 he was ordained il priest In the Coptic Calhulic church and was assigned to the city of Zagnzlg. 1·le built a typical Coptic church named after Saint Pachumius in Ihe city of Faqu5. He conlributcd extcnslvely to rescarch in th..:: his· tory of the chun:h, Bible studies, biographie.~ of church fathers, and related materials. He wrule in English, French, Germ,ln, lind Spanish. In addition, he maSlered Coptic, Greek, Hebrew, .lOd Arllbic. He publlshed numeruus arllcles in bolh Arabic and Eurup"::lIn lungullges. One of hi.~ imp0l1ani eun· lributions to Cnptic studies is "Lcs Pclt-rinages copIes en Egypte" (ed. Gi!1'31'd Viaud, Bf4/1Ctill de I'lnslilll/ fnmfai., d'archeologit: urie"lu/e, 1979). IJIIJLlOGRAPUY

Dawson, W. R., Egypl%£)', p. Kammerer, W., Arbor, Mich.,

and E. P. Uphill. Wlru WIlS Who ill 211. London, 1972. compo A Coptic Bibliograpfly. Ann 1950: rcpr. New VOl*-, 196'). M. L BIF.II.RRIF.R

SUUr.vMAN NAsir.!

myslic ITealisc un Ihe symbolical interpreUltion of the leuers of the Greek alphabet possibly wriuen by an Egyptian 01' Pak'Slinilin monk in the fifth or sixlh cenlury. The comp]"t" litle of the work is given in Arahic: fll/iill; qllfnlUl nl.qnss al/ba Saba ol·Sll·j!, Ii sirr labalal Af/d}, al·mok",;" /1 ~lIffjl alld wllll ("Ex· planation or a defense pronounced by the priesl S},Qr~

Anb:i Saba the Hennil cunceming the mystery of the philosophy or God hidden In lhe letters uf Ihe Greek alphabet"). This ...."ork is still very little known. E. Revillout menlioned it in 1873 in eonnectkln with lhe Gnos· tic 1iternture ur the lirsl centuries. A. Hebbfolynck gavc rather more pre<:ise details in a brid account publL~hed in 1896. It WdS not unlil 1900-1901 that his edition of the 5ahidic telll was finally published. accompanied by a shon study and a translalion in French. This lcxt is known from a bilingual 5ahidic Coptic and Arabic manuscript preserved in the Bodlcian Library in Oltrord (Huntington 396). It contains 119 folios and was desc-ribed by John Uri in 1787, as number 55 of lhe Coplic manuscripls. The .$ahidic leltl i.'l cenainly Il"olnslatcd from the Greek. In 1989 Joseph Paramclle, S.J., who had discovered lhe original Greek vcn;ion uf this texl, wa.'. prelXlring hs publicaliun. The Sahidic text cumt.'S to II h!llt on folio 113. What folluws (15 pages, fok 113v-119v) is exclusively in Arabic. This Al"olblc versiun was made by the copyist of the mAnuscript himselr, who does nat give his name bUI who rcearus lhal he compleled his wnrk on 14 Ilashans 1109 A,M./9 May 1393. The A1'
The author of the trealise wrOle in Greek, but he knew Syl'iac and Hebrew. He llved after Eplphanius of Cyprus, from whom he quutes lhe following llU' thors (according 10 Hebbelynck 1900-
1750

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Amazons

monk sa.b.'1. The ract lhal he kuew Greek, Syriac, and Hebrew suggests that he Jived in Pales,ine. He may have been lhe person, born in 439 and died in 531, who rounded several Palestinian monastcri<."S. This is nOI a Gnostic or magi" work bUI belongs 10 a branch or Egyptian literature concerned with the hidden meanings or Ieucr.;. "From the rOUl1h cenlury onward:' writcs Hcbbelynck, "Egypt alTer.; relnark3ble examples or Ihe br.mch or Iitenllure. The writings, or which St. Jerome has given us II Latin veBion entitled MaNila S. Pachomii, 55. Pachomii el Theodori Eputofae, Verba mystiea (So Pachomli), contain 3 series of OIdmonitions and pn>nouneemenlS. each one more "nigmMie than the other, ba.r.ed on the occult significance of the alphabet" (Hcbbelynck, 1900, pp. 9-10; d. Patrologia Latina 23, eols. 61-1(0). Hebbclynck gives other enmplcs (pp. 10-11) or this kind or literature as .....ell. This view leads to a different hypothesis con· eeming the identity of the author. ~b! might have been an Egyptian hiemlllonk trained in Alexandria, .....ho composed his trealise dire<.·tly in Greek. BIBLlO(;RAFHY

Uebbelynck, A. "Une Page d'utl manuscrit copte intitul~ 'Le5 mystcrcs des leures grecques' (Description cosmogonique)." In Melallges CJulTfes de lI(lrfez. pp. 127-32. Leiden. 1896. _ _. "Les mysteres des letln:s grecques d'apres un manuscrit copte·arabe de la Bibliotheque bodleienne d'Oxford." u Musi,m 19 (1900):5-36, 105-36,269-300; 20 (1901):5-33, 369-414, and phues 1-3. Revilluul, E. Premi~re ~wde sllr Ie mouveme/lt des esprits JUIlS les premiers siecl,!s de /lotrll ere. Vie el Sllll/el/ees de Seci/udus, d'"pre.( divers ma/lu, .~crif.! oriemaux. Les aualogies de ee livre (lvec ies omITage$ g!1o$tiqut!s. Paris, 1873. Uri, J. B;bliotllec(le Bodle/a/lae cudicum ma/luscripturl/III urietl/aliw/l ... C(lWIOgl'S, Vol. I, p. 327 (110. 55). Oxford, 1787. KHALIL SAMIR. 5.1.

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COP· TIC ART, liml (llld (l

[Thi~' Iml')'

cotlsists of (l brief imrodllc. number of short artide.s by various (Il/-

tllors: AIllIl7.0nS Aphrodite Apollo Ilnd Daphne Bdlcrophon ami tile Chimera o..neers

Daphne Dionysus Hercules Horos Jason '-'do Nereids The Nile God Nilotic Scenes Pastoral Scenes The Seasons Thetis The Three Graces] The ancient civilizations of the Middle Easl abounded in myths, which expressed sacred troths in words. Mythological subjects were a fenile souree of inspiralion for artists. As one civilization succeeded another in the same area, Ihe newer my· thology gradually superseded the old, and lhe iconography changed accordingly. But elements of the older faith often blended with or wcre assimilated to the ncwer onc or continucd 10 ellisl alongside it. Thus in Roman Egypl, elements of pharaonic mythology Ilnd iconography were absorbed into GrecoRomlln mythology and iconogrnphy. And in Ihe Christian and early Muslim periods, from lhe midfifth cenlury 10 Ihe l.....elfth century, a grcat many pagan themes persisled in Coptic an. In some instances a pagan theme, such as rcbinh, was assimilated to a Christian lheme. In olher in· stances, the pagan symbol was so often repeated Ihlll all its original religious significance was lost and it became merely a decoralive device. In still olher situations, the pagan symbol was relained for ilS magic value, refleeling lhe ancient Egyplian be· lid in lhe efricacy of magic, which was deemed 10 prevail over the new faith.

Amazons In Greek lr..ldilion, lhe Ama~ons are a nation of women warriors ruled by a queen, said 10 Jive in nonhern Asia Minor. Descendants of the Gl'eek W3r god, Ares, lhey are a.~sociated with combat in such evell\~ a.~ Ihe Trojan W.. r; the battle against the hero Hercules (GI'eck, Herakles), tbeir enemy par excellence l>ecausc be killed lheir queen, Hippoly. ta; .md ,he invasion of Attica in vengeance against an expedition by the hero Theseus. 10 addition Ihey arc linked wilh funeral divinities and wilh the cor· lege of Ihe wine god, Dionysus, probably as an ellpTC55ion of Ihe forces of change. A cult was devoled

r

•

,

,

, ,

,

j

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Amazons

\0 them. In ESYI)\ a demOtic papyrus mCOllions the

Amazons and their queen as allies of Pctckhons (P:·ti·Hl'lIw) in a millfat)' expcdilion to Illdia (Vol-

len, 1962). In Coptic aI" the Amazons appear chiefly in n:::la·

tion to the labors of Hercules and the Dionysiac world. They moe most deady depicted ill textiles; their identification remains doubtful in olher nledia $Uch as a small ivol)' tlll"¥ing in the Slale Collection of Egyptian An, Munich. As warriors th,')' wear a light chilon, lung or shon, sometimes spedled with small circles, leaying one or both breasrs bare so Ihey can wield weapons more freely. They also wear the cap of the Phrygian archers and the trousers (Illlillsyrides) worn by Eastern people.... When

on ho~back, Ihey are anned. either drawing II bow with an arrow filled 10 it or brandishing a two-edged hatchel. The ~hicld i$ on thl' ground, betwa:n the hOf$e'$ hoofs, The Amll7.ons gellendly appear in scenl'S oC violence-occMionally In war, more often duding with • hero or hunling. Representations of warlarc, Ama· zonomachy, are, in fact, rather rare. In a textile in Jerusalem (Baginski and Tidhar, 1980, no. 13), Amazons and Greek wan;ol'$ face each Oilier bdligerently, with three Amazons on hon;eback and two others fallen conquered. An unusual t~lilc, Crom the clIcavations of A. Gayct at Antinoopolis (Rutschowseaya, 1984) nnd doting from Ihe Courth to fifth centuries, depicts a scene wilh two Ama:wns kneeling bcsit.le a male figure who is subduing them. A lextile in the Museum of Ancient Arl, Mi· lan, from the sixth to scventh centuries (D'Andria. 1968) preSf!l....es the figure of a hero gl'asping a kneeling Amazon by Ihe hair, while another figure bearing a shield advances on the opposite sidc. This composition goes bOlek to the shield of Ihe Athena Parthenos by Phidins, which also served as the model for the schema of Ihe kneeling Amazon held by the hero-when Ihis is nn Isolated SUbjCl'l. Far more common arc the themes of the AmazOll dueling with the hero and the Am:twn hun ling, The theme of the Amamn dueling is al1ested in two Iconographical schelnas. In Ihe first, thc Amazon riding her hone bl'alldishes an alt while tl,c warrior pursues her, seizeli her by the wrist or by the hair, and i~ about to pierce her with his sword. In the second theme, the unhorsed Amazon ha.~ fallen to her kne-e5 disarmed, wilh her llmlS b<:hind her body, The hero, ~ei7..ing her by lhe hair, pulls her head back and prepares 10 Slab her. The first schema has been idenLilled in a tel(lile from Ille Rcnnki Museum, Athens (du lJourgucl,

1751

1964, no. 242) lmd in a textile from tile St:tte Pu~h­ kin Mw;eum of Fi'le Arls, Moscow (Shurinova, 1967, no. 7). Sever.!1 other clUlrnples that have remained unidentified or hllve been wl'Ongly interpreted may be cited, such as, for ellample. a piece from the Vicloria and Albert Museum, London (Kendrick, 1920. no. 100), and another from lhe Museum of Fine Ans, Dijon, France (C..~ut.lerlier, 1986, no, 158). The all brandished by the Amamn, who is always in the same posilion, !K:ems transformed into a CI'05..~, a portrayal that has given much food for thought (perhaps loa much) to those who have sllldied il. The S\.'Cond schema may be rccognized in mllOY elt;:l,mples, ranging from very leaible representations (Kendrick, 1920, no. 56; Akashi, 195], no. 12), lhmugh a progressive stylization (Shurinow, 1967, no. 86; du Bourguet, 1964, no. 177; Forrer, 189], P IX, 8), to an almOSI lotal t.Iisaggn:gation of Ihe figures (du Bourguel, 1964, F 22]; Kendrick, 1920, no. 57). A subcategory eom,titulcs IhO!iC renderings that appear to be divided hori:>:ontally by the hero's cloak. In laic examples (sevenlh century) of this schema, the figures are: no longer in conlact. In the Lundon textile menlionc.:d by Kendrick, it i.~ the Amill'.on herself who bl'ings her hand to her head, which reentls the originnl formula. The hero, hen: clearly Hen:ure~, leans on his club, while a cupid in night holds Ihe crown of viclory above his head. Although it ill not easy to identify dellnitely the two prulligonists of Ihe $eene, il seems thlll Ihe Coptic artisl u~ually tended 10 Ddopt, til(, Dnd rcpeal a schema, chosen from :tmong the great variely of matel'ial in the traditional ,·epertoil·e. In this textile the anist apparently wanted to memoriali7.e the duel between Hercules and Hippolyta., tire ninth of his twelve ktbor:!, in which Hcrcules wrest~ from her the prccious lIirdle Ihul WllS a \lift from Arcs. Such an interpretation is ~upported by the fact that io other' textiles this representution fi\lurcs amung the l:tboNl of Hercule~. Moreover, the hero Is recog· nizable beyond a doubt in both the Athens and London lelttiles, The theme of the Anlllzun hunting, which seems mOSl widesprelld in the sevenlh century, can be seen on textile~ notahly in the medallions-often in silk-thal enclose IWO AmllWOS, each astride Il rearing hol"5C and ~ymmelrically sepal'ated in rela· tion to a cenlrnl axis (von Flllkc, 1913, nos. 4S and 47; Wessel, 1964, no, 126; Kendlick, 1922, oos. 810-16). Wearing shoft ehilons and long, flowing iKanot:s, they hold their bows ready to shoot the felines I>icturcd in the lower pal1 of Ihe mc.:dallion.

, 1752

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Aphrodilc

Two dogs also :'I'llClII" nn occasion (Kendrick. 1922. n.... 821). On olher lUlilcs, wo",,,n I,iclurcd ... n horsclxlck ",e;I(;III: I'h'ygian cap' and ;H:COIllFl"nicrobably excruled ;'1 lhe rC(I"~1 of a cuhh'llied and refined c1ieulc1e ;n dIOse cities mo.~l imbued wilh lIe1leni1.oo cuhure such all Alex· andri;, "",J l'anopolis ("1'11.\111-1), Ihey circul:lloo IhmughoUI the cnlin, Medilerrnnean ba:;in.

whose wvr:;hill had spread to EII}'I'I. Th~ EIl~Pli:",~ p,...bahly found the falUily linb bet"'c<"O Aphrodite, her tonT, the war god I\n."II. and her son. Eros, r"miliar hecause of tlie ,~Inlions between their own beloved divine ramily-Ihe godd\:.$ Isis. her hus· band. Osiris, and Iheir son, Ilo.....s. Aphrodite was idemilled with Isis. who had :>Iready fuso..-d wilh the

homed sky goddess H:uhor. and incorpomlcd sume of the "..cYrli"n di"iniey's :lllrihula; in her own appearance. Tcrrn
arms

c1OS<:-li<':t 10

the

bod)'

in the I4;yI,tian slyle and

bear on Iheir h...ad Ihe disk of the sun between cow's honls charnclcrislic of Ha,hor.

IJIIII.IOGItAI'II Y

Akasni. K. Cuplic Texfiles from BIt";i,,x Gro""ds i" f,-,:)'pl ju lire Cul/cclw" of Ihe KQl/egQfuchi Spill' "'''I CO"'fIil"~' K)"'IO, 1953. lkigillsli. A., and A. lidh:,r, TOit,f~ from I:&>'pl 4th IJII. C""I"ries C,I:, Je""...lcm, I'JIlO. 8clurlWct, P. duo I:Arf cople, Pelil Palais. l'aris, I .... CQlalog du boffes ctJpIC.>. Vol. I. MusCc Nalional du Lo ·re. Pam, 1%4. Caudedier. J>. l"cs TiS5"J cupl,,$. Ca'alogue ... isonnt' du Mu$Cc tk... lkaux·A,u de Oijo.>n. llijon, 1986. O'Andria. F. "Un l<:$$ulO CDpIO con AIIlUOtlomachia del MU:M'U del ClLSlclio Srorzesc... a Mila"o:' Ao'g)'pms 43 (1968):141-46. Fllllte, O. \'On. K,mslgt:JClrielr/t! del' Sl'idl'",wbl'rei. Berlin. 1913, Fum:r, R. Oi" frill,ehrisllicll
In another ,'(Orsion of Aphrodite's SlOry. she

"'as

-.,--c

.'U"

,n

LUKl!""~

unt. FRANCIA

Aphl"oJile Aptlluditc was ,he Greek goddl'SS of love rind

!J.e;,u'y, who probably o1'i"i""led in As'a or C}'Prus. She was the ",osl pOI,ular or "II lhe G~'Ck divinilies

COllch .hell rcprescll1ing Arlmxli,l'. Third-fourlh

ceIlIUl)'.

CUlm~'J'

Co!"ie AI",·em". Caif(>.

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Apollo and Daphnc

1753

Aphrodile Anlld)'Ome~ hi:1""~...,n .. Trilon and" Nen,id. lime5lOoe. $i.,lh eenlul)'. C(mrl~s)' /.Ol...r~ ,11"51:'11I". Purl•. believ"d 10 hi: born of the foom of Ih" sc" and ..... a.~ blown Iv land. I'lossihly in Cyprus in a conch shell. As tlphrodihl AlI"d)'ornene ("'rising fr()l" the wa· ters"). under the inlluellce vf the Platonic COllccpt of itle"s, she became Ihe symbol vf spiritu:ll 100·e. A new intluence. this time Chrisli:m. alf,·cl<.'c! Ihe myth of Aphrodile. According 10 a Syrian legend. Nonl105. II fiflh·century bishop of tteliop.,lis. w:as present "I I~ Council of Anlioeh. n.cre he played a decish-e role in the eOfwersion of Ihe cdd>l':loled cou,1l$IIl Pe("gia, who was d.,dieatcd 10 Aphrodite Anad)"Omene. I'clagia is s.:lid to h:1\'e wilhd ....wn '0 Gcthscmane in j;(>liltJlJe "5 Pelagia ,he anchoritc. Thus the l'''&,IIl sea·horn goddess Aphrodite Anally· ollie'", see"'s to h.."., becoJlll' "ssocim"d willt the rehil1h of Ihe soul in the waler of Christian bap· tism. As much PI,"ollic ,IS Cht'islian in inSllir;"ion. she al'pc(lrcd with rern'lI'knbl<: frequency in COJllic an. ~pcel.:>.lly in Middle Eg,)l>t, as 1:11" as Ihe Muslim ~rioo. She is Il.'prescnted as a woman. :l coneh shell. or:l cross in relids in SlOne as at II..., m<.>nas· tet)' of I""VII Mil. JEJlE.IollA1I :11 S"qqa"" or in wood ;n lhe. monaste,)' al 11.~wl1. She lliso apt'le;,ors In lapesI~. IIOW in the Lou\'~, Paris.

Apollo ;H1d Dallhnc In Crtck IllylholoBY Al>ollo W"S the god of the sun. archei)'. soolltS:lying, medicine. and lIlusic. He had Illany amorous esc:lJ'adcs. induding Ihe ":lin pursuil of Ihe nymph D(lphnc (see below). who W(lS ch""I:<'-.1 by the c:lnh goddess into (I laurel tre" to a,...id cnplure. Coptic ani.~s occasionally d<'1>icl~'d the SIal)' of Apollo and Daphne in ''nriou.~ Ilkcc:s of sculplure and textiles. A bt.-:lutiful h'ory can"i,,!; of th~' fifth 10 si.~lh cen· lUI)' in Ihe National Museum of k:l\'cnna bears :I sccne in which it nude Apollo is playing hiS lyre in a" crfv!1 to charm tl1e u"happy Daphne. enlmpped in the I,·ce. The flgul·e.~ arc ~er:u~'tt:uy,'e. II 1I,,'gniflcently d"co-....le5 onc of tl,e 1,'pc'Hly .«juarcs of a hanging

IIII1UOGR,u'IIY

Bourguel. I'. duo L'A,-I coplC. Collecl;on l'At't ([,illS Ie 1110,,<'Ie. Pads. 1968. Fr~"ei;l. L. del. "Un ICMltlO c<.>pl<.> c<.>n m.sciw
AJ,hnxlilc. UmCSlone can'ed relief. Ahnilsiph. Third century. Co,mt:sy Coptic 1>1,,5"""'. Cairo.

1754

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Ariadne

The Shawll'lf Sabine. Delail: A square depicting the myth of Apolln and Daphne. Fmgllllml of a lapc~lry, Anlinoc. SiXlh centUl)', CUur(fi.~.v L01l1're MII$(lllrII, P(lfi.~.

known as lhe Shawl of Sabine (fiflh to sixth century), Here the god is depicted as ;1 hunter holding hili bow in one hand and laking an ;Irrow from his quiver wilh the 0111<;1'. He is nUlk under the cloak thrown over his shouider. H is lyre leans against a Cl'llumn entwined by two gariand~ in a .~ign of can· sccl1ltion. Daphne aPreaD in Ih.: laurel lree, unclnlhed but bedecked with earrin~, bmcelcls, and a necklace. Al lhe instant of her mctamorphosis, she 011('11i Apollo a nower in the shape of a cross, which gives a Christian significnnce 10 the scene, The other tcxtile, a medallion of Ihe nimh century, shows Ihe Slime subject but is poor in style and difficult to identify.

god of the vine (sec bdow), Accurding to onl: version of Ihe myth. Al'iadne en;aped from Crete with Ihe Greek hero Theseus but was lefl by him on Naxos, the h.land of Dionysus. Her c1evalion 10 divinity through the god's love symbolized the ascent of the soul to the divine light and immortality_ Dionysus and his I'etinue-the shepherd god Pall, satyrs and sileni (woodland spirits), maellads or bacchantes (female devotees), gmpe-gatltering cupids, and Ar'iadne-were fl'cquently dcpicted in Coptic a", Nevertheless, the only certain reprcscnlation of Ariadne is in a tapcstry squal'C in the Mu· seum of Fine Arts, Vienna. Within the SQuare, framed by a scroll of acanthus leaves with fmil, "OWCI1i, and bi..-ds, is her bust surmounted by her name in GI'eek. Ariadne, seen full-face with he,' cyes turned toward the left, IHls on her head a jeweled diadem and wears a necklace wilh a ouIJa (hollow pendant) and eanings, Her head stands out against an aureole, an aUribule of the ancient solar deities and a symbol of immortalilY. This square is the counterpart of an identical square in Ihe museum representing Diunysus' head and shoulders in the same attitude. The fact Ihat they match suggests that if a tap.::Slt)' square in the Louvre thal presents a maseulille bust crowned with ivy i.~ indl.'Cd Dionysus, then we must recognize Ariadne in a similar square also in the Louvre, In Ihis piece her finery consists of a diadem, earrings, and II necklace adorned with pendanl pomegranales. All these squares show the same style of round face with large ringed eyes and url: marked by a slight shad· ing of colors, reminiscent of bas-relief, that is char· 'Ielcl"islic of the fifth eentUl)'. IUDLIOGRAPHY Bourguet, P. duo ell/a/oglle du boffe:s copt~!l. Vol. I. Mus('C nalional du Louvre. Paris, 1964. Wessel, K, L'M/ cople, figs, 112, 113. Brussels, 1964.

MARIE·Httl!Nu RUTSCIlOWSCAYA

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dourguet, P. duo 1,'Art cuple, pp. 47, 88, 89. Paris, 1968. CI.f\..MENCE NtlVItF.1"

Ariadne Ariadne was a Minoan princ{'''S and vegetation goddess whu was the spouse 01 Diunysus, Gred

Bellerophon and the Chimera Bcllerophon was a Greek IIcl'O from Corinth who rode the divine winged horse PellaSUS and slcw thc fire·bretllhing, lion·headed Chimera, The two fig· Uf(..'S sYlllhoH~e the Il'iumph of good nver evil. a parallel 10 the ancienl Egyplian myth of the sun god Horus who conquers Ille evil god seth, rcpresl.:nted as a monster, or various vicioriOU5 Chrislian saints:

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Dancers

1755

SislnniOll, conqueror of Alab:1Sll';a; (;eQ''l:.e, slayer of the d''llgOllS; Michacl, conqueror of Lucifcr; and olher sainls on horscbllCk, Bellerophon and Ihe Chime..a appea.. only once in Coplic an, in a lapt'Slry mf,.'(I;,[Iion in Ihe si~lh· cenlUl)' Shawl of Sabine in the Louvre. They may be gh'en a Cluislian inlerpretalion, as appears in Ihe nearby small panel of Daphne, holding OUI a cnJcifonn flo.....e.. 10 Ihe pursuing Apollo, pl"rhap!l 10 keep him al a dislance, BI8L1OGRAPHY

Bool'(Ucl, P, duo "L'An eople. Pctil Pill.,is." In CIl-

tllJosue d'Expasition, nv. 152. Paris, 1')64. Ptllllll.E DU BouRGUET, SJ.

Dancers In ancient EGYPt, dance was closely linked with many a5J)l.'Cts of life-religious ceremonies. funeral rilCS, and ::r.gricuhural feslivals. Dancers. Ihcrcfon:, arc among the oldest (lnd most frequently represented subjects in pharaonic art. In Ihl" period of

Ariadne. TapC5try, Fifth centUl)'. COl/r/esy l..ouvre Alusewn, Pllris.

111e Shawl of Sabine. Oetail: aellcl'Ophon and the Chimera.. Tapestry, Anlinot:. Sixlh celilury, Courtesy Lmlllre Ml/scl/m, PtlO$.

1756

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Dancers

like a tamoouline). Genel"illly. however, these danc· ers UfC recognized by their cros.~ed legs. which be· come rigid like crossed sticks arter the Muslim conQuest in the seventh centul)', when Coptic a.l1 declined. An eltample is a stone n:licf in the Coptic Muscum, Cairo. Dancers are found especially in textiles. TIll:Y evolve in stylI', pose, and costume in three stage.~. At first, by means of hatching (line criss-erosscd lines) achieved with the !lying shullle, Ihe figures present the illusion uf modeling in the round, and a great \'01riely of poses unfol& freely and endlessly. The dancer. male or female, is l,asily confused with the pUllO (cupid). especially when !he dancer is holding a winged creature. M;de and female couplcs are often found. The man L1Sually wears a loinc1Q.(h. The woman often wears only a long necklace

Patera with the handle shaped like a (lancer carrying a CI"OS$. Bronze. Eighth century. Comlcsy Coptic AllliSlWlII, Cuiro.

the Plolemies, dancing wns associalcd with the bacCh:;InIC5, who look part in Dionysiac riles of Greek origin, which probably blended with older Egyptian rilCS. In Christian timell, dance di(l not vanish. II continued 10 be p....1l1 uf sCilsonal festivals such as saints' blt1hdays, which still exist, 01' was an c1emllnl of piltlrimallCs, often confused with festivals, or was simply an expression of joy in an African countl)'. The fruit of vine of the Gospels wa.~ substituted without .~cl'uple for the exaltillion of wine in Dionysim: celebrations. Thus dancing is one of the most favored themes in Coplic tin from the second or third centulY to iL~ diSn)lp¢lll'nnce in the twelfth ccntut")'. Its long life is explained by the chnnging symbolism aunched 10 it. A nOlable example of the Cht"istianization of the Egyptian dancing girl 01" Greek bacchante is on the handle uf :111 eighth-century bronze saucer (patera). The upright figure has her legs ct"OS-~ed and holds a compo:;ilc cross above her head. On stonework. bronl.c vases. 0" moldt.-d day forms. the dancer. male or female. is an isolated figure in relier. A bl'On7.e figure of a daneing girl in the Louvre from the sixth century has stroight leg.~ and roised ann..~ and holds a sistnrm (instrument

D:lI1cer with a sistl'Um. Stone r-eHef. Seventh century. Crmrlcsy Coplic Museum, CUiTO.

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Daphne

and II sellrf on one IIrm. Occa.~ionaJJy shc wcan; a lOO!;I' robe leaving one breast bare. In the second 51age, Ihe poses sliffen and the body is tending towolrd a silhouette willi limbs out of proportion. In lhe third slage, afler the Muslim conquest, the figure becomes nothing bUI a fullface, sllIT silhouelle, which becomes p,-ogressively more disproportionate, until in the Falimid period (I01h-12th cenlury) lhc head reslS on Ihe legs. The couples give way 10 isolated individuals. usually girls. The dominant posture is both lOmlS raised, with or without castanets, and the legs par.1l1e1 instead of crossl:d. If she is nOI holding castanelS. the girl dancer may have on one arm II scarf, wreath, plant, or shepherd's crook. A mille dancer usually has one arm raised or both arms bent ....oith each hand holding an implemcnt that might be a trident or a plan!. By lhis lime bolh the male and female dancer are fully clothed in a long robe falling from the shoulden.

1757

Two dancer! In a square, with I\Qwerel decorations. Tapestry. Ninth cemury.I'leight: 25 em: widlh: 24 em. COl/rlt!$y Wllvre Mluelfm, Paris.

BIBLIOGRAPlIY

Beckwith, J. Coptic Sc"lpf"re. London, 1963. Bourguct, P. duo Cafaloglllt des efoff~ l'ap/n, Vol. I. Musec: nalional du louvre. ~ris, 1964. ___ L'A" cOP/t!o Collection I'an dans Ie monde. Paris, 1968. PIERIII! OU BOUMGUtrr. S.J.

shown nude, her legs vanishing into thc tree and her neck ornamented wilh a necklace of heavy bul· lac in Ii'll.' form of Oowers. She is holding the laurel Il-ee with a geslu,-e analagous 10 that of Aphrodite Anadyomene, rising from the Sl.'a Iwisting her long hair. Whelher these Ihree reliefs bear any Christian signilicanc;:e remnins obscure, butlhe interprelation

Daphne In Greek mythology, Ihe nymph 1r..l'hne is the daughter of lhe river god, Peneus, and lhe beloved of Leuclppu$, son of Oenomeus. She is pw'Sued by lhe god Apollo, whose love she rejects. and when he is about 10 seize her', the nymph beg~ help rrom the earth goddess, who Immediately causes her to disappear by transforming her inlO (I l(llll'el tree. In sculpture, tlccording to well·known examples, lhe nymph alone seems to have found preference over the dnuble representation of Apollo and Daph· ne that appciil"li in other media, A group of reliefs based on mythologIcal Ihemes has been discovered al Ahnas al·Madlnah In Middle Egypt, but it cannot be determined whether they C(lmc frum a pagan temple or a Christian church. Two of these reliefs, from the lifth cenlllry, in the Coptk Museum, Cairo, depict Dtlphne, unclolhed and bereft of her jewels, clinaina with both anns 10 Ihe tree br..nches. In a relief (from the fifth 10 sixth century) from Shaykh 'A~dnh, now in the Louvre, Daphne is

Niche representing the goddess D:,phnc. LimeslOne. Ahnl\siyah. Third cenlury. Courlesy Coptic: ,unsell"', Cairo.

1758

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Dionysus

D-Jphne as an oranl emerging from Ihe IR.'C. lillIe"'Ione. Shaykh 'AMdah. Fifth century. Co"rle:>)' UJI/vre Musellm, Paris.

of nn 111'ched stela of Ihe late period. in the Louvre, is dc.u. Daphne is clepiclcu in an .lIlituue of prJyer within a beaded medallion, which is placed on a column flanked by two dolphins. A funcrary inscrif)tion slaning with a cross runs around the hordeI'. Thus the Christitlniution of Daphne is accomplished. The nyrnpll in thc mcdallion derives from funerary pol11'1lIts in medallions on Roman s:lrcoph. agi, and the dulphins m'e symbolic of Chds!. II seems clear that the r'csurTcction or Daphne in the form of 1\ laurel trec musl be llssilllilatcu to a sce· ond Ilnd Illore imp('lI1ant l)i'1h-lh:lt of the l100ul into eternal Jife. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bour(l:uet, I', duo f,'Arf cop/e, PI". 86-121. Co!le<.:lion l'An dans Ie Illollde. Paris, 1968. Coche de la Fel1e, E. L'Anliqllit'· dm!tiemlc au Mlls~e dll LOIll're. p, 88. Paris, 1958. Outhuit, G. La SClllpllm! COpIC. PI" 3slf, Paris, 1931. ClEMEKCE NEYRET

Funerary stela in Ihe name ofTebika. decol1l1ed wilh Ihe Iheme of Daphne. Painlecl limc:;tonc. Eighthninlh century. Height: 38 em: width: 28 em; Ihickness: 8 em. Courtesy LOI",re Mllsellm, Par/5.

Dionysus The Greek wine Kod Dionysus was Ihe focus of a mystel)' religion introduced into Egypl al Ihe time of its conquest by Ale~ander the Gr'ellt in the fourlh centulY B.C. [n rac:t. Alcsandcr justified hi.~ claim 10 guvern Egypt by dcel:H'ing himself to be a descendent of Zeus·Amon and Dinnysus. That claim was appropriated by his suel:cssors, Ihe PlOlcmics, who developed the Dionysiac cult. it Ilourished widely during the Ptolemaic period and the first three l:cntudes of Ihe Christian e''Il. Dionysus and his retinue W3.ll the pagan subject most frequently depicted by Coptic aI·tists. His popularity was probably due 10 the Egyptians' lntcre!lt In mystery n~lIgions and es· pecially to the emphasis given his cult by the Ptolemie.... Dionysus was the SOil of ZCus pnd a mortal, Semele, She, pl'egnant with Dionysus, wa.-. dClitroycd by the god's lighlning when he appeared in his divine ...plendor, Zeus thcn had to carl)' Ihe baby (0 tenn

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN Cor'TIC ART: Dionysus

,n hi~ Ihl(lh-hcn~" II,,, I.>aby'~ """''' "T",io,;,,-I.>uno:· lIe,n's \'cngenncc against her husband's child coo· M,,,uly I'U,."..,,lIc those IU whum he h;ul been entrus,cd. 'Illd Dionysus. IInns· fo","ed by 7".;:"s i.llu a kiJ, "~..s ..ca~'d b)' nymphs. A.< :In adul1, he di.~co\'ered Ihe "inc "nd its usc. Himsclf dli .....'n .m.d b}' Hl'n., hc "'3.I1<1e...:d .hrough the world until ,he mOl her goddess (')'bcle-Rhe" eun:d him, when:upon he dl'p'lI1ed on a IXllh of CO"qllC$', 1I10unl"d un his ch"lio' dr..wn by ",In' then; and adoml"d wi,h ,·inC' Icnd,;L~ and iry le:l'·es. It conege or 51lenl, batth;.. ntcs. and s;,.....s "u,·"d...'d him ill his Ir:wds. En-muany Dionysus descended inro ,he nndc,wtlrld '0 :lsk II:wJcs 10 release his nlOlher. Scm,:Il·. Triumph:m'. he 'Y:\j; wdcoroed inlO hen.'en. Cddmned b), NonllQ!; of I'anopolis in his epie pucm the Ou.,,'ys;uC$ in II.... founh ccn.UI)' A_D.• he :lppCOlr5 as Ihe en,·o)' from the gods senl 10 comfun diSlrcs.....-d mankinJ :>nd bring tu th...·m the ville. which Is :> symbol of ...:binh, Diunysus is gencr..ll) depk:'l-U as:> gUIde, holding a .h)'r'Sus, a long Malr '~Or.,'cU wi.h iV) "nd ,ippo..-u with a pine eonc ur 3. bunch of grnpc.-s. Mosl of,en nude:. he has the chla"')'5, a dook of Mae"don;;m origin. Ihrown o"cr hi. shoulder, :md i~ shod wi,h ...",h"J<:s ("rell shoes"), " >OO\1\'e"ir ur hi>< sojuurn in Indi:•. Hc is piclu.....d a.~ blond, al rea~t where\'er colur pla)'S a role, and his curly loch arc crowned ....i.h II......",.,;. ivy. amI ~incs. lie is wi
1759

Niche d...,)ictin~ l)ion\'5US :onJ his folluwcl'll. Umc' s,one f",gmC'n. from Ahnllshnh, Third ccn,urv, Co..... "'sy Coplic MII$<''''", CillfO.

,he .")11. of Diony$Us. ",e god, holding Ol '"egC,al diadcm ~imilar to OsIris' crown of jUSlifica'lon. is shu"",, ,n his 'riumph.anl ,,-'SUIT«,ion from II.., world of the dead as 3 guide for m.ankind loward lik artcr oc·alh. I{ememlle,;ng 111.3, Uion)'Mlll "':l.~ the o,;gin:llor of "iticultun' :0....1 ,h", wine w.os arrc;>
Diunysus e:.u!:ht '" Ihe ";ne. CUlme.'), Cupl;,' Af"sc· m", C,,;ro.

1760

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Dionysus

Dion)'!lu$ $CCnt;. Sixth c,·nlury. Cour/ts)' DlIIIlbfJrlQII QfJU ColleclloII, WasJrillgtoll, D.C. plele without menlioning the exislcnce of his "offi· cial" ponroilS. There are. in fuel. many Ic:c:tih..'S wherein his mlmc is inscribed in complele lellers alongside his half·length ponrait, for example, a textile in the Vienml An Museum. Such ponroi15 have lheir eounterpans picturing his wife Ariadne. Dionysus is also pictured afoot, as on OJ ribbon frag· ment in thc An Museum in Dilsseldorf. These por-

lrayals gh'e an irrefutable identity to the peI~mage represented, and lhereby pennit one to identify as Dion)'5Uli all piC'(:es of u:xlilC$ or $Culptureoo in wood, slone, or ivory that are iconographically similar. At the beginning of lhe twentieth century, schol· ars W(lndered if lhe cult of Dion)'SU5 had nOI mn important in the origins of Christianity in Egypt, notably bectiuSC' of the dual role of victim and savior pl:lyed by both Dionysus and Chrisl and Ihe importance of wine in Dionysiae ritual and in the Eucharist. It is true lhat lhe vine nppenr5 frequenlly in both clUtlcOmb paintings and Coptic an. It does nOI seem, however, that lhe personage of Dionysus ~\S evcr assimilated 10 that of the Christ crucified at Golgotha, lhough the Greck god was a figure of great human and religious significance. Nonctheless, owing to its frequency, the theme of the vine must have been imperceptibly blended with that of the troe vine of the Chri~tjans mentioncd in In. 15:1 without any refcrence to lhe pagan god. OIBLlOGRAPHY

Dour!iluel,

r.

du. l.'Ari COp/l,l. Petit Palais. Paris,

1964, ___ . L'Ar/ cop/e. Colleclion l'An dans Ie monJe.

P(ll'is, 1968. BI'lln de Saint Hippolytc, C. La CUIl/amina/ion dll

Dion)'1'inc pt'l"$Onagc. LimeSlone relief from Shaykh 'AbAdnh. Founh ccntUl)'. Height: nt cm: width: 60 em: ThicknC'!l<;: Niche, 7 em; perso"age in 1"C'lief, 14 em. Courles)' WllI're Muscum. Paris.

m)'/he d'Osiris e/ dll my/hI! de Dionysos clans les tiuus cop/u. Paris, 1984. ElTcnberger, A. Kop/i~'dre Kllns/. Leip7.ig, 1975. Glimal, P. DicliomlQire c/e fa m)'/hofogie grt'CqrlC el romaille. Paris, 1963. Jeanlllah'e, H. Dioll)'sos, Histoire dlf clffte de 80.c· elms. Pal'is, 1970.

Koplische K.wst. Christentum alii Nil. Catalog of the Exposition al Villa BUgel. Essen, 1963.

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART; Horus

1761

f'icard·Schmiller, M. T. "Une Tapls.~erie hel· I~nisliq"e d'A/llinOC:' du li,Iu..ce du I.nuvn,:· Mum,· mems Piu! 51 (1962);27-75. lI.ul$Chowsc"p. M.·H. "Un" Tenlure cuplc 'lUX "mou"", ,..,n.dangeurs.·· III 1-<1 Re"I,e dl' w.,,'re,

bsc. 3. Paris, 1911O. Turc2n, 11.. lA'S !Wrr:QI,lwges rom"itls ;, upr&UltI1i
Hercules Ilercules ""as" GRock hero nOled f.... r his great br,,\·cl)'. Slrt:nglh, and good hUlllor. The son of Zeus and the morlal Alemcnc, he 'I'M drh'en mad by Zeus' I'engeful wife, lIem, "ml ~i'h:J his own wife "nd children. After performing Iwell'" I... burs 'IS penance, he heeame illllllurl"l. In Egypt Hercules w,,~ "ssimil... ted to Horus, and two tOWI1S were named Ilemklcopoli~ ill hi, l\tmor, b1J1 Ihen, are few rcprescnl:llioM of him in Cuptic "rt. A stela from the 11.0111,,,, !X'1'iod nQw In Ihe LoUl're sllOws him in " niche of Egyptian illsri""lio". I-lis long eh",,,,, of the hind of eeryne:" one of his Iwell'e laburs. can be n'eognil.ed in II thlrd·eelltury tapestry prescl""ed in Ihe llc""ki MUK'um. In anmher Ulpcstry from that museutll, the A",a~ou 'lu..ocn Hippolyt", killed b}' Hen:ulcs in ont' of his laoon<, l~ surt"OU"'....d by the figures of lIeo"(:ul..,., his second wife, [)(:ian;r..., and th~' centaur Nessus. IlerculC$ appca"", on four reliefs of the fiflh or shth eemul)' in Ih" Cuplioc Mus.:um in Cairo. Two of Ihem, from Ahna.~ aJ·Madinah or IIcraklcopulis, show his head and shoulde"", only. surrounded by omamenl"l foli· age. III the Ihird relief, he is bcanlcd, ... "ars only a dr;lpcd mantlt', and holds his duh a.~ h..- fights Ihe Nemellll lion, one of liis 11l!xJl'l;. This dynamic com· ]1'O:>iliull indud.-s a second charncler, '...."rin& " re· line skin, which no doubl r"l,rcscnts ~kreules afler his viclUry. In the foul1h rdief, he slllnds in heroic nudity bel ween the liun "nd hi_~ cluh, cro....ned by two Victories, On a pit'C..- or '''I:>cstl)' ;n tIll' Coptic Museum, Ihe lion I<.:ap" upon the hern, who is :lI'Illed with his club. Nu",erol1S Coptic t"pestr)' decomiion" ,lnd sculptures sho.... II Illan al grips wilh II feline heast, This ieollugr;lphy p<:rh"ps de· I'iv..-, r"om the fl'at of Hercules hut lias b,'en "pplied to simple hunlin!: 01' ei,'>,;u,; sccnes,

F";e~e

showing llereu I..-s. rift h·sixt h cen Iuric'li, CourIe)'" C<J/lI;C M"sc"",. Cairo. Z"loscl'r, H., "Une secllc dc chasse sur (Ille (lI'(;hi. trav" nil Mus"'e cople," /)"lIc/;" tic I" Sud.
Horus Horus was Ihe ...::gyptian sun goo who avcng.:d thc "e"lh of his falher, Osirl~, by killing Osiris' IImlher :and murderer, the goo Selh. Osiris, who is fre· quently n:pn'Sl.'nt"d with a faleon'S head. s}ll1bo1il' ~ &OOl1. $elh, in ,h... fonn of a monster, s)'mbolizcs ",,·il. 11K' m)1h of Horus., traditi<>nal in ph:"oonic lilcrdtorc:am! iconogr.tphy, \\'3S empha.~;1.ed juS! !Joe. fore the l"tolemaic period, .... hen a lemple ",,
H1HUOGRArIIY Duthuit, G. I.a S""lplllre CQPle, p, 39. and pI. 24. ....Os. 1931.

lIereu"'",. Relid fmm Ahllasiyah. ThinJ ccnllll)'. Courtesy COplit: M".~,m" Cairo.

1762

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Jason

ChZll';)cterlstic of Con.u
Hercules pursuing:a feminine pel":'lonn:age. T:apestry. from the yoke ofa lunic cont:aining this det:ail. Height 15 cm; length: 35 cm. C()"rlr:~y wuvre Museum, Paris. to him in Khal)~nh, am.! ill lhe Ptolemaic perioo. as evidenccd by his temple in Idfl1. In lhe Rom:an :and even tlie endy Coplil; period, the !;':ou. still fakon· headed, is shown as :a foot soldier in a Roman lcllion. An equestrian represenlation of Ho'us as a legion auxiliary, lhuu~h rem:.inin!;,: pOlgan, appears in relief on a late Sixlh.cenlu,y frogment of all ornamental openwork s:mdstone window now in the Louvre. Probably the odginal window .~how"d the whole SlUry. In Ihe rnlt\t1lent the mounted Horus OlppeOlrs in prolile, slill wilh a falcon's head, Iransfixing the Sethi:m crocodile with his lance. The ragan subject and Ihe "CllJiSlil;(,l1y rounded forms of Ihe horse originally suggested a date in the third centulY. But the equeslrian r:ank accorded to Ihe god, at a period when it was denied 10 Copls, llnd thl' foreshortening of the horse to flatten out thc relid forms make the slxth<entu,y dille more plausible. The fragmenl lllUy be comp.'1rcd with the mounted emperor Jus· lini:an in the Bm1>el'ini ivo,y of lhe middle or late sillth century now in the Louvre, which is more relined in matcrial :and mo'oe !lkillfully Illlxleled, althout\h showin~ a slightly mochankal classicism

Jason Jason was a legendary Greek he,'O who sailed in the Argo wilh the Argonauts to Colchis and brought the Goldcn Fleel;c and lhe witch princess Medell back to Greece. Three ,'cctangul:ar limestone panels arc the only known eXHmples of Coplic art llevot<..'(1 to thc stolY of Jason. Thc mOSl complcte is in thc William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas Cily, Mis.",ouri. The olher lWo, fragmenlalY, are known from pholollraphs at Princeton University. According to M. !lell, Ihe borders of florets 01' knOl' led dbbonll and lraces of detachment on one side indiClltc thllt Ihese panels wet'e o,'iginally in pail'S and mUSl have been ul1:lehed to some surface, per' haps a wnll. The fi~llres, sculpled in low relief, form a lalliee. Since the subjecl was widely used in funernry u'1, Ihe pllnels mllY h;lVe adorned tile Sl;reen of a shline sheltcdng a tomb, On Ihe Kanll:l~ City panel, Jason Iries to lay hold of lhe Golden Fleece, which is hanging from an oak. Nl'ar him, Medea, sitting on a throne. holds a branch of juniper in one hand :and in the other the cup from whil:h the Sl.:rpcnt who guards the F1(:IX:(: comes to dlink, as described in Apollonius of Rhodes' ArgOI/Q/I/ika. Jason is accompanied by an Argonaut holding a ja\'elin, white two soldiers asleep in the lowl'r part of the panel iIIustr~le in

MYTHOLOGICAL SUI3JECTS IN COPTIC ART: Nereids

.:;<;ull'lurc lh.: "a,.,·"li,·e as lold by l)Iod("u_~ Siculu.~ (4.48, 1-5}."h.., right upJlCr comer is occupied by Ihe Arx<> """ili"g 011 II,,, lide fOl' the reIL,rn or Il,e Argonaul~. while the left corner presents a bl.lSl. perhaps of the muse Culliopo:, ,'elk-d, n:adillll " scroll. The !;:Ime icollOCr:apl'ly appc:lrs OIl '':lSCS from haly of thc rounh ceolOl)" lI,e ulld. in Ihe Roman period. on sarcophagi. gem.~, and a Campa· nian plaque in ll'ITIH:OIlU (in I"'" Urilb,h Mu!>Cum, 1.o",lon) tu which Ihis I",nd is nlo,;l closdy similar. '''e second pand, of which ooly Ihe IlJlJlC" hair is pl'(.~n·cd. prescnlS lhe goddCM Victory cmwning 5OI1Ie Jll-'rsonagc (10,;1) and .. hurscm.. n. pOliloibly J.. iWII. 'I"e Ihird paJld illu.trall.'" dlC Ilighl ur J;,,;o,, ;md ~kdca prcsu"",bly "flel' Ihe C;Ipl",.e of Ihe Golden I'leiX:e. On I)' Ihe bU.1< of Jason and Mcd"a rem"in, ~I~ w.-ll ~" lhc Alllu in Ihe "ppCI' righl·I",,,d Curner tllHI (wO) I;,,:onls ill Ihe lefl enl'llel'. The loss of .-lassie pl'Oporlluns ~lI\d Ihe Il'e"lmelll of sl'"ce wilhuut illusionist elt'cci h'lVe led so""e schnlal1l; to compal'e these pancl.~ with th" seulplUl'CS of Ahnas "1·M..di",,h ",,,I O;\),I'hyndIUS ill Ihe Ime rOUl'll1 or l'arly nfth eenil"" and I" cunsidc" lhcm "S being of IOgyI" ian manubclure. '1 hcir origi· nalily r..sts in Iheir nalTIlt;"e char:><:ler. n,n: 011 sculptul'\.'S ill slolle but ",,,I-e f,-equent in bb";cs 01' ivoril'j;, which may have sen'cd as modds, lllDUOGRAl'llY

Bdl, M. "A Coptic Jason Relief," Gul.., I"'"n",'io'l' 01 CerrleT 01 MedicI'ol "" 18 (1979);45-52. WCil~_",ann. K., ed. Age of S,,,ri,,,,,I,/)': '-,,'e "",iq.. c f",d Earl, Chrisli"" Arl, TMrd fO $<:"c",l, Cc",,,ry. Cat:,IOll of the E.~hibilio", no. 214, M.·tl'Opolitan Museum or An. Ncw Yod,. 1979,

1763

afler the sillth CClltmy. lhcsc ,-elicfs I",ow.bly bolo lung..-d to loc:ll l)lIgan lemples. wben' since the da)'5 of I"'" Plolcmics Ihe phur.lonic gods ""rc KI':,du..lly n·pl.. n'd by Greco-Roman di~i{litics. Such .empll-!i "~re swept clear by Christianity in Ihe Silllh c"nllll)' oT ab.anoonl.-d In Ihe sevenlh century ;tfler Ihe /'.I,KIi", COII(I"esl. HIIII.IOGMAPIIY

Llourguc', P. duo 1.·Ar' e(>I""', p. 121. Colkction l'An dans Ie Il10lKIc. l'aris. 196.8. Driolu{l, Eo 1....5 Se"lp/llr...s copies d" "i/omen" dl: ROOo/,. C:,Iro, 1942. RemOlloon, R. "EJ!)'ple Chre,ienll":' In /);cliol!' .wire ,Ie ,
Nereids NCI'dds, in Creek 'nylholog)", were the dallghtcrs of Ncrells, .. !I\.'ll J!0d, As 1""idclIS ;l~imed Wllh waler. Ihcy supply II lively motif in Coptic llrt, The e"ItUl~'1. IlUlilic:,1. ;Jml iX:onomic ueh;lI1g"~ ....,. tween Rome and Alexandria and the conu"on ele· ment or ",..Ier in Ihe Nile 1I.;"er and Ihe i'oC::L.~ around G,"'ecc cenail.ly ra ....rcd th" popularily or the Ih,,",e in Eg)'pl, The Nereids apf>C:lrccJ o";ginally In ,oosaie floors In Ihe lIellenislic and Roman periods. later they a...• round in Coptic Slone reliers and in
MARIE·Hl!:Lt.N1! RUTSCIWI-\-'SCAYA

Leda In Greek mylhology u:d~I WI'S (I ""een of Sp"r!~, who, bclm'cd uf Zeus in thc for", of n swnn. he· come Ille mother of Helen of Truy, Ttl<' Ihelne of Lcd~l and thc swan "ppe"rs on \',II';OUS n'licl" scull" tlll"<:, from AI,nas al·,\1"dinah or Ihe Nilon'elcr of Rod"h. Th,-)" ",." ,,11 assigl'cd to Ihe lifl), "nd si",11 cenlu,'iC!! heeause Ihe;,' erudl' upJlCm~'{lel' rescm· bles Ihe 'I)-Ic or uther lVo,'ks of the ,..·..iod. The cn;lI'S<: ,realment of a pagan subjeci "t such .. laiC date is surprising in U pocI·io<.l .hal we Ihink of as predominan'ly Cbristlall. Because Ibc subjeel doo..'S not :Willi. or Christian symbolism ;",d is not found

Niche wilh decor r''Presenlillg a N,'reid IlinK 011 lhe hack of a ~ca cr"ature. third-fourth c"ntury. Calif'''' 51 CUI,lie

M"s",,"'. CoirO.

1764

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: The Nile God

centering on the Nile or the TibeL In the Nile cycles lhey are onen confused with putti. Some· times Ihey appear on Iheir own and may offer a cup, suggesting a religious implication. As a pagan motif, Nereids survived in Iiule pagan pockets righl down 10 Ihe lasl manifestations of Coplic an in Ihe Iwelr1h cenlury. An especially line tapeslry panel from Ihe seventh century is in the Cleveland Museum of An. As a Christian motif, from the fifih 10 Ihe twclfih century. Nereids are 50metlmes accompanied by a cross or arc shown with a nimbus supponing a cross. Even if such an emblem is absent, it does not mClin lhe mOlif is 5t."Cular. Its ChriMian meaning remains implicit be· cause its reference 10 Aphrodite rising from the sea suggests the internal transformation of lhe soul in Ihe waler of hap/ism. BIBLIOGRAPHY

BourguC:I, P. duo Catalogue des i/offes caples. Vol. I, no. FJ67. Musee National du lnuvre. Paris.

,....

Nereid. Greco-Roman'Slyle \YOUI and linen tapeslry. Third-fiflh centuril,:s. Courtesy The Cleveland Muse· mil of "'rt, Purchase from the J. H. W"de 1-',,,,d, 53./8.

L'A" cOP/e, Pl'. 140 ff., passim. Collection l'An dans Ie monde. Parilll, 1968. Kopluchc Kuns/. Chris/crullm am Nil. Catalog of the Exposition at Villa HUgel. Essen, 1963. PIERRE 00 BoURCUET, SJ.

The Nile God

The Nile god. T<tpcstry. End of s..:cond century. Diameter: 25.5 em. COI/rtts)' Pllshki" Slate MI/seum of Fine "'rIS, Muscuw. Pholo b)' M. Scitltl.

The Egyptians have always seen a supernatural power in their life'giving river. Myths, legends, and fe!ilivals engendel'ed by its yearly flooding have sur· vived the civilizations and religions adopted succes· sively hy the country. Dudng the ph:mlOnic period, the Nile, the source of prosperity, was represented as plump tutelary spidts luden with gifts. Greco· Rom.m .111 depicted it in the image of its river gods: a.~ an old 1110n, bc:orded, hlllf·n::dining, crowned wilh lotus, and holding a horn of plenty, an ear of COl'll, or It wilter plan!. The godde$$ Euthenia and pUlli wel'e a.~sociated with him. Coptic ar·t, inspired by Greeo·Roman iconogm· phy, ha.~ continued 10 use the Nile ItS a theme. Sumetimes it is personified as an old man in a Nilotic ~lIing. He may b¢ a bus!, a full figure, or indolently lying down with a mantle draped over his legs and his nude IOrso emerging from it; he iii crowned with aquatic plants, holds a horn of plen· Iy. and may be accompanied by pUlli or a goddess. A few examples in various media survive. One is a tapeslry medallion of the latc: second century in the

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Nilotie Scenes

Pushkin Museum, A calved capital of the third or fourth century from Ahnas 1l1·Mlldlnllh is a land· mark in the transition of the iconography from Greco-Roman to Coptic. The figure is still uf an old man crowned with plants, holding a napkin, and Banked by pUlli, but iu style, influcntx--d by Palm· yran art, is Coptic in its frontal pose, d",corative appearance of the diadem, and wide'Opcn ~ye.s in a disproponionatc face. Anothe... a...chitt.octur..l1 sculpture of two centuries later, in the Brooklyn MuSC' um, presents the Nile as an old man lying noncha· lantly among lotus blossoms. Folds of flesh underline his chest, and his drapery evukes the course of the rive.... The decorath'e treatment of his crown recalls the earlier Nile on the capital, but the whole figure belongs to Coptic an. On an ivory pyx of the fourth or fifth century in lM Wiesbadcn Museum, the iconography is identi· cal, but the workm3nship b liner because the mate· rial is softe.... In two tapestry orbicufll in the Louvre, lM Nile is eltccuted in the style of siltth-cemury Coptic fabrics. Firmlly, a seventh-<:entury wall painting discovered at Kellia shows a mao half·lying on an ovcnumed amphora: the inscription suggests that he may be a new allegory of the Nile. Thus the image of the Nile god, having become a simple .nefOry of the prosperity dispensed by tiJe flood, was kept fo... it.~ decorative value by anists who wished to enrich the Nilotic evocations so highly prized by Coptic a'1. BtHlIOCMAPHY Andreux, G., and R,·G. Coquin. "Septil~me cam· pagne de fouliles (lUX Kellia." 811lf~lin d~ r"ISlllul f"mfllis d'ArcheQIQl>(ie Qr;ellw/e 81 (1981): 174- 75, and fig. 5(c). Badawy, A. Coplif: Art IIml ArdweQ!ugy. Cambridge,

Mass., and London, 1978. Pfi~ter, R. "Nil, nllometrc ct I'orientation du pay' sage helleni~tlque." ReV/u! des arl.~ a.lialiqucs 7 (1931):120-40. DOMINIQUE BENAZETH

Nllotlc Scenes In conlrasl to the sun, aj'lCnnanCnl and unchang. ing source of light and heat in Egypt, the Nile from the beginning hIlS dlspen!letl beneliu only through human collabOnltion, The Ptolemaic and Roman governments in tum recognil.ed the rive" god and took careful account of the seasonal rise and fall of the river mea..\ured on a Nilomete.... The COI)ts were no less aware of thc importance of the river and its

1765

The Nile god. Umcstonc relicf. Fourth ccntury. Cour· ttsy Mlucul'l of Finc Ans, Brook/)'/!. god and, like the pagans, paid him their respects. This intcrest in the rive... naturally pa.sscd into Egyptian an. During the Roman period when Greco-Roman themes gencnally replaced pharaonic themes, the range of ~ubjeclS involving the Nile continued to appea... in art. Aleundria profoundly influenced the art of the Mediterranean basin, and Roman an in· lIuenct.-d that of Alexand...ia, Fo... Clt;lmplc. Nilotic scenes notably provide the subject matter for a fa· mous mosaic in Palestrina, Italy. nle river god is pictu~ with Romanll.ed features. An expanse of water represents his Egyptian domain and is crossed by pulli guiding small boats. Other putli ride marine animab and chase aquatic bird~ in thc intense :lbund;lO<:C of lire that enlivens the rive ... and lhe vegetation It Cl'Cotes fal' beyond Its banks. Coptic art docs not conceive wholc panomma~ of this kind. I( is satisfied either to borrow isolated details, su<:h as une ur seve...al Nereids in a specific scene, 01' to usc NC"eids and puui rol' deCOnllion 10 accompany a portrait or a mythological ~ccne used as a centl'al motlr. The pUll! often mingle wilh the Nereids, laking on femInine characteristics. The greatest variety prevails, outdoing Pompciian fres· coes in invenlive Capacily. Such tl'CRtment of thc theme may be seen in Coptic carved reliefs and in tnpeslry or boucle deco"'ll1ions on shawls, lunics, 01' cushion COVCf!ii, whe...e the nalTOW ~hape~ of the orbicllla, squa...es, and bands required fI:strained subjects. The stylistic treatment of the figures cvolvt.'d from the picturesque realiSIll of Hellenistic Alelt3ndria 10 a dcIo ...mt.-d schcmati:rotion from the sixth to the twelfth cemu,)'. The I~~ of realism lIlay be due to carelt.-ssnt."SS or the routine repetition required by a

1766

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Pastoral Scenes

Square ol'Tklmented with putli swimming or booting. Tapestry. Aminol! (?). Sixth century. Length: 30 em; width: 28 em. COur/t!.)'Y WUl're Mlfwum, Paris.

Cl1Ift, hut it 1:<0 most oftcn the result of the search

rOl"

imaginllllvc om:lIncnlaliun Ihal is pl:culiar lO Cop" lie (Ul. The ligul'eS may be used pUl~~ly decol'lllivdy,

without thought of their former mylhological 5ig· nlficance, or they may convey sorlie sense of ancient m"sic power, or they may have taken nn Christian symbolism. The proct.'Sliiuns of Nereids and pUlti may he linked wilh Aphrodite Anadyomenc, sylllbuli,dng rebirth of lhe soul in the waler5 of hapti51l1, or wilh Dionysu._, palron of the vinc, whu was as.simil:llcd tu the Christ as the Tnlc Vine. D1DLlOCRAI'HY

Bourgucl, P. duo CArl coplC.

P;),ri.~,

1968.

I'mlllll! du IJOURGUET, 5,1.

Pustoral Scenes Bucolic or pa~iloral poeu)' was a creation of the Hellenistil,: age, beginning in GR'Ck with Tht:ocrilus and then Longus, nnd In Lalin, wilh Virgil. The tasle In Hellenisli,,; art for genre ligures, such as markel women, fo~ignel"!l, and cripples, and for individunlized portrails cxpr,,;sSl::S this literary lradi·

tion by showing the SlIme new inlerest in nalure. Roman art, pal'tieularly North Africao mosaics, con, linllt."tl 10 draw subjl.."t:1 m:lltl,:r from it. Allhough pagan iconography in Coplie al1 con· sists chicOy of Dionysian motifs, a few represt'nla· lions ~lIecl Ihe p;L.'lloral lilel-ary II'adilion. PaslOra] image!; are relaled 10 n:pR'SCnlations of specific mythologIcal evenlS or personages. A silver dish from Thebes. which m;),y h;),\'e heen made al Alexnndria {daled 10 lhe fifth or sixlh cen' tury bill possibly a Iiltle earlier}, exemplifies bueol· ic scenes in Coptic art, On il a shephenless wilh her child on her back and canying a baskel of huit diR'Cls a flock of sheep led by a goat. in a landscape wilh simple buildings and a sheepdog. A similar expression of Alexandrian style is !iCcn on a frag· mentary ivory camng from Ramlah showing car· pcnlefS at wotil;, which cxpresses the interest in nalul"e and tvtryday lire that accompanies th,;: Jevelopment of the Iilerary JXI.~toral tradition. The Coptic continuation of bucolic iconography is beller rcpreSl::ntt.-d in texliles. Notable is an in· eomplcu.· J;el of lapestry ornaments in mute
•

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MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COI'TIC ART: The Three Graces

lewis, S. "A Coplil: R..." resenilltion of Theti~;u the Forgl: of HephaisIO'l:' American Jo.m,al of Ar. chowlOf:177 (1973):309-318. SlIZANNI! LEwIS

The Three Graces

Thetis in lhe forge of Ilcphaeslus. Tapeslry. Sixth eenlul)'. Each side: 12.5 em. Ct,mrlesy Viewr;I' tmd AlI,"'t Museu"" (.(J,,,lo". in lhe 51"le Museum, Fmnkfun, tlOd prohably d;ues from lhe sixllt cenlury. Th" London leMil" repl"\:' "",nl" Thelis "I lhe fOl'ge of lhe blacksmith god He· ph~tU5, as he mal<es new ar",or for Achilles. an epiw''';l.n 'eplicas in Pompeian fre!lCOeS. The indU!iion of lhe nude figure of Achilles is cont/aled from arlOlher ve,~ion rcp.-e. sented on Roman s;,,~oph:Jgi and wall p;>inlings in the Casa dei Dioscuri in I'ompdi. The lIumeric imllge, howe,·"r. has be..,n ll':lnsformcd inlo a Copl:ic ellp1"-'S5ion of eschatological belief (&1'llrO!"illle 10 ilS funelion as "n om"menl on a buri:ll lunic or a shroud. Based on lhe A"I1,cio/,is, all ;weienl epic 9""e. lhe ponrnil in a rnC"daliion M1spcnded fmm a tree introduces a symoolie allusion 10 the itllmort"lity of Achillcs by repreS<:lnting the hel"'eled hero np01heosized 011 his shield ;,ner dealh. In this tYlli· 1';,1 sixth·centu,)' pa~lieh<,:. elcmcnts of lhe HOIlIerie epic ha"e been lr;lI1sfOl"lned imo ;, Cnplic nllegol)' of hemic immortnli,y nSSIH'cd by the Nereid Thetis [0" her wn. BlDUOGRAI'IIY I)wy<':", E. W, '"N"rr.lli,·c and Allegory in a Coplic TeXlilc:' A",,,rican 10m/wi of IIrc/we%gy 78 (1974):295-97.

In Greek rnylhology. the Three Grnc~ are daugh· ters of Zcu~ who personify beamy in ils inw;u"tl and outw:>rd fOl'ln. n,ty are OflCn altend:lnls on lhe goddess Aphrodite. TI,ei,' n:lme in Gn:cl<. K/,nriles ('·g'accs"). is a WQ,-d rich in Chr.SI;:ln meaning. 'l1le subjecl could have been ..dop'ed by ChriSli",n COplS bUI sec"'" only 'Q ha"" becn used by p..gan COpl~. A wooden ca~ket covereJ with a thi .. sheet of embussed bronze now in the Coptic Muscu", dc· picts Illree personages associ:.ted with Aphrodite. alung wilh gorgon hcad•. I.i•• uckling Il000us. and Apbrodile slalldinll benemh an ~,rcadc, J. Slrzygowski (1904) considers this a Coptic worl< from Akhrnl"" Although the C~ISkCI is akin 10 simi· luI' cxumplcs in Ihe Egyptian Muscu",. Berlin: lhe Greco·Ronmll Museum. Alexandria: Museum of Fine An". Budapl'$t: llnd the Capitoline Muscum in Rome. il is lypic;,lIy Alexandrian in st)·le. The proIX'I1ions of lhl: bodi" rcm:lin nor"':ll, even if lhere is less rcspt:CI for lhe modeling of Ihe limb!;. dmraeteristie of a period of decadence. Then: an: none Qf lhe eonscious deformations characlerislic of COfI'Iic art. nlC casl<el must consequently dall: from lhe """"nlh century. A lapeslry orlnc..''''''. possibly from Ihe 5:)me period as Ihe easl<et, presents the Three GmcCli in eannine red on a "ern,ilion background belween carmine borders. Ilere Ihey are crowned wilh a diadem and lhe h...- "ds and It·gs are turned to the opposite side from lhal on lhe embossed bron1£ ca.~l<el in Cairo, The f... "IU1"-"; of lhe faces in p,"Olile, through the u~ of the flying shull Ie. :'1''' a tillie twisted: lhe w:lists He low and lhe leg.~ are shorl. The lreatmenl is nol e!cg"nl or pr<:lenliuus. AJ, thullg]' no doubt lhis w:lS nOI ill1cnded. il atlraCtS one's ollentlon "lid even provukes sume mnuse· mellt. Thesc a,'c all characleriSlics of Coptic ",'I, w

UlULlOGK-'I'HY 130""Il"et, P. duo CIJI,,/ogue des elolfes copies, Vol. I. Mus(:e Nalion:ll du Louvre. I'aris, 1%4. Strzygowski. J. KO/I/ische K,msi. Vicnn:l. 1904. PiI!RRE DU BooRC,uF.T.

SJ.

NABAR(JH, town in the Egyptian Delta. located

NABIS, fourth-6fth.cenJury bishop or ·AydhAb. The

.bout Smiles (8 km) northwest or al-Man~urah in the Gharbiyyah province. Nabanlh 6rsl look on importance fo... Chri5liami during the patriarchate of MARl( ,,(799-819) when • certain Macarius who administered the district of Sakhl urged 'Abd al-Au;t to write to Patriarch Ma...k bidding him to establish his residencc in Nabariih. The lette... was written and Mark acceded 10 Macarius' wishes. Nabariih received the patrian.:h with dut: respect and Mark resided there in the church dedicated to Macarius from W:'I.di Habib until his dealh. Other 1I11estations or Christianity in Nabariih are lacking, but there is still a Coptic church in the town.

commemoration or Bishop Nabis in the Arabic Syn· axarion or the Copts on 22 Kiyahk provides the only piece or evidence of an episcopate situated on the coast of the Red sea. This Arabic lellt bean all the indications of a lranslation from the Coplic. The "scala copte 44" identifies 'Aydhab with Berenice in Nubia (Munier. 1930). J. Muyser W"4S inclined to believe that Bishop Nabis lived belween the M:venlh and tenth ccnluries (Muyse.... 1944). Nabis was born in a village near COplOS (Oi'1) and became a monk at an early age. The compiler of the Synax;uion lclls us Ihat he was found worthy of Ihe episcopal dignity over the church!.'! of 'Aydhab, "for our fatheD held this scat from the beginning, SO lhnl merchants and sailors who voyaged over thc Red Sea could receive com· munlon there." Bishop Nabls did nOt reside in 'Ay· dhab but in a small church at Coptos. Hc scnt one priesl lind onc deacon to 'Aydhll.b. When it wns neccssary for thc bishop to go there himself, the 8illA, a tl'ibe that lived in Nubia and the Eastern Desert in UppCI' Egypt, carried him and the church ornamcnts on thei... camels, receiving a priee fol' the hire of theh' beasts. Three bishops arc mentioncd in thc Synaxarion lIS conlemporaries of Nabis: "The fathers, lhe bish· ops who lived dUling his time, a.~ked him often 10 gather with 1hem in the Cathedral. Those were An· b1 Phoibammon, who is indeed worthy or mention, Anrn\ John, and Anm\ Papnou1e." Since the residence of Bishop Nabis was in Coptos, the cpiscopates or these three bishops most have been located in thaI same pan of southcm Upper Egypt. A certain bishop or Hermonthis (Armalll) named Johu

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Timm, S. Das t'hriSllich·kopfjsche Agypt<:n in arabiJehu Zeit, pI. 4, pp. 1718-19. WiesbIH.len, 1988. RANDALL STEWART

NABD(JNAH, Coplic woman known frum a single manuscript (National Ubral'y, Paris, Arabe 4887, fols. 4Iv-48r). The daughter of a king Ya'qob, she wore masculine gamlents and became a monk in the monastery of Saint Maearius (DAYR ANDA MAoAR). We do not know at what period she lived. BIBLIOGRAPIIY

Troupeau, G. Cala/oglle des malluscrils arabes, Vol. 2. Paris, 1974. RENE-GEORCES COOUtN

1769

1770

NABRAHA, SAINT

was COtlse<:I'tlled by I'alrillrch THOOl'HILUS (385412); Papnoutc, bishop of Ou~, also lived al tllat lime (Gabra, 1983, 1986). The third bishop, Phoioommon, is among the bishops who panicipaled in Ihe Coundl of l!I'In:.SUS in 431 (Municr, 1943). Thu.~ Nabis musl have lived in the founh/fihh cenlury. According to Ihe Synaxarion, his epise-opal ministry 13.'lled fOI'Y years, and he died when he was nincly yL-an; of age-, TIle COllllllcllloralion of Nabis in Ihe Synaxarion is importanl in thai it provides evidence conceming a bishop who had 10 deal wilh diITen:nt groups of people having varying interests. The first were lhe Beja (B1ellllllyes), who oflen allack.·d Egypt and m3de the flow of trade between the Red Sea and Coptos unSllfe. Significanlly, Bishop Nabi5 had can· siderable contaCt with them long before the spread of Christianity Ihroughout Nubia. The second group were lhe military reprcscnlalives of lhe laIc Roman Empire. The Ihird group consisted of merchants and sailors. Moreover, lhe bishop look care of Ihe congregation of his own diocese. The relatively long text about Nabis diffcrs from olh"r texts of the Synaxarion in that it preserves the e-hame-terislics of an encomium (Gabra, 1986).

Gabra, G. "Zu cinelli ;mlbischen IJcricht fiber Pcsynthells, cincn Hciligcn aus Hnmonlhis im 4.-5. Jh." Bulle/ill de /a Societe d'archia/ogic eopte 25 (1983):54-57. "Bemerkungen 1.U den Auss;,gen des ard' bischet\ Synaxars del' Kopten tlber N:Jbis, .tcn Bischof vun 'Ai91.mb:" In Procel'-ding.~ 0/ the Fi//h buem(l/iona/ Con/ere/Ice 0/ NljbitJ/J Smdie_~, ed. M. Krause, pp. 231-36. Mainz, 1986. G:ucin, J.·C. Un celllre 1It1l.mlmall de til /lall/eEI:YP/c IIlMMvalc: QIIS, PI'. 31-34. Cairo, 1976. Meinardus, O. ",0\ Compm'lltive Sludy .,n thc Suurc' es of lhe SYJH'~:lri\J1I1 uf lhc Cuptk Church." 8u/· //'./in de III S()~·ielf!. d'i/rc/leu/ugi/'. cop/e 17 (19631964):111-56. Munier, H. La scala eop/e 44 de ia Bibli()/heqllc 'la/ionale de /loris, Vol. I, Trmlscn'/,/ion, p. 162, no. 44. Caim, 1930. _ _ . Reclltti! dll~ fj)'/es ep{R·()PIlI.'~ de l'eglise cupit), p. 14, no. 7. Cairo, 1943. Muyscr, J. "ContJibution il. l'elUde de liSles epi.'lCo,

was sent into exile, and became an ascetic (feast day: 8 Ablb). He is not in the Copto·Arabic SYNAXAR· ION. and hi.~ Pa....~ion ha.~ survived only in a damaged Sahidic codex of the ninth Cl'nlUry in the Egyptian MUliCum, Cairo (Hamuli E.), published by H. Munier (1918). He is one of the very few confes.'lOO'S who survived until the reign of t:OtiSTANTtNll. The text opens with the edict of Diocfetian sent to the prefect ARtAHUS in Egypt instructing him 10 force the Chrililian.li to sacrifice to the pagan gods. NabraN' coma forward confC5Sing his faith and rcfUsing to .sacrifie-e: he is therefore senlenced to death. The lk.'Vii app.,ar5 and lric.s 10 discourage him. Then follows hili confrontation with the prefeel and subsequcnt tonurcs. Both hcavcnly appari· tions (Raphael, Jesus) and diabolical ones appear during his wnurcs. AI a ccnain moment Arianu.~ has 10 leave fOt" the soulh, and hI: d\."(:ides lu take Nabraha with him to Antinoopolis. During Ihe jour· ney Nabraha pe:rionn.li a miracle aboard the ship they are trneling on. In pri5Qn al Antinoopolis, he cures the warden's son of an ailmcnt. In Ihe law COlIn, in Ihe COUnlC of renewed tonurcs. once again he has the vision of Jesus, who makes it c1C3r to him that a unCluary will be erected in his name. This seems to be the nlain rcason for which the text was wriuen. At last Alianus decides to send N:Jbrah:- to exile. The texi ends with the death of Dioclctian and Maximianus and the accession of Constantine to the thronc, leading to the relea.~e of Nabraha from prison. Thereafter hc 1x.:eoJllcs an ascetic until hili death. 'fhe wriling of the lext is very carelcss and it must bc datcd toward the end of lhe original Coptic hagiograrhic activity (eighth ccnlury: sec II"CIOGRA· PIlY). Moreover it mUM have heen conceived in a suburban arca, since il docs nut belong to any cycle tlnd, as we said before, it ha.~ not been accepted in the Synaxarion. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Munier', H. "Un Nouvctlu nlllr1yrc eopte, Saint Na· br'tllm." Dulle/in de I'blSli/ll/ frartt;ais d'Arclt· eu/ogle orieltlale 14 (1918):97 -190. TlTo ORU-NDI

pales de J'eglisc copte." Bulletin de ia Societe d'arc!tc%gle cop/e 10 (1944): 137-3X. GAWDAT GABRA

NABRAHA, SAINT, a founh.cenhll)' confessor who

1o.'aS

tonured under vrOCl£TtAN but survived,

NAG HAMMADI, town in Upper Egypl in the province of Oin;] that has become famoul' for the discovery there in 1945 of the Coplic-Gnostk codi· CL'S that laune-hed a ncw era in Coptic litudiCli (see NAG HAMMAOt U8RARY). The town, situated on lhe

NAG HAMMADI LIBRARY

1771

._---

west bank of the Nile some 50 miles (I«) kill) southeast of Suh:'j, has no Christian tradition apart from hs relatively recent fame. RANDAlL STEWART

NAG HAMMAD) LIBRARY, thi'1een ancient papynu CodieC5 translated from Greek into Coptic, accidentally discovered in De<:ember 1945 by farmers in Upper Egypt. They contain fOrly-flY<" distinct works, including our chief sources of firsl-hand knowledge of CNOSTICIS,,,,. Although the demils of the discovery have relTU:lined unverified, despite archaeological invelitigation, there is Iiule re;)$()n 10 doubt the eyewilness reports Ihal the books ....ere found in a ceramic jar hidden at the Jabal al·Tiirif, a section of the Ca5tem wall of the Nile Vallcy ncar the modem village of I;lamrah Oilm. There are no tntces of ancient habitation in the immediate vicinity of this site, except for aboUI 150 pharaonic tombs cut into the cliff face. Some of these lombs conlain evidence of use during the Greco-Roman period and later. It is nol known who originally owned thc codices or why they were thus hidden. Hence, whether or not they should be regarded .11; an an· cient "library" is also a mailer of dispute. Chcnoboskclon (Chcnoboskia), the town nearest the burial site at the time the codices wen: written, has been used by some scholars and bibliographers to name the collcction. But it is standanl now to refer to the codicC!l by the name of th.: largest modern city in the urell, NUll Humm.,di. The indio vidual codices are referred to with the abbn~via· tions NHC (Natl Humnmdi Codex) or simply NH or, less commonly, CG (CairenJis GnO$ticus). The stan· dard numeration of lhe codices is thaI eslablished by the ARE-UNESCO F(jc.~imile EdilitJll, though several other nUlllberintl systems have "Iso b~'cn used. The Nag Hammadi codice.~ are cU!Tcntly the property of lhree instilutions. The bulk of the collection Is kepi Ilt the COptic Museum in Coit'O (Nos. 4851. 10544-55, 10589, 10590, 11597, and 11640), which began to acquire them in 1946. Fot" a time, part of Codex I ....as the properly of the psychologist C. G. Jung, llod it is also known us the lung Codex. lung's heirs retul1led his ]lOl1ioo to Egypt, where it joined the rest of the collcction in the Coptic Museum. The leather cover of Codex I, together with the scrop papyrus (cllrlonnage) thlll lined it, is owned by the Institute for Antiquity and Christiunity in Claremont, Califorllia. Part of one leaf of Codex III (pp. 145-46) is owned by the Beinecke Ubrary,

• Natl Hammadi Library. Codex II, Upper part: End of the Apoeryphu of lohn. Lower P:lrt: Beginning of the Gospel of Thomas. Courles>, Coptic Museum, Cairo. Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (Yale 1784), It is rossible llmt other parts of lhe collection sUrlive el.~ewhere, nwaiting identification. BCtlinnintl in the late 19508, lhc Coplie Muscum, with the help of the Germnn Institute of AI"Cheology in Cairo, undertook 10 conSCrle the manuscripts by taking apa"l each codex and placing Ihe leaves and fragments between panes of acrylic plastic, During the following decade, Ihese aCI)'lic frames were photographed, under the auspicell of the United Na· tions Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiwtion (UNESCO), with a vicw to\wrd publishing a complete photographic facsimile edition.' During

1772

NAG I·IAMMADJ LIBRARY

the 19105 a UNESCO Intemation:>1 Commillcc for the N:>g lI:>mmadi Codices w;lS (onnt.-d to overst.-c Ihe work on the manuscripts. ]:>mes M. Robinson. seerel:>ry of Ihe UNESCO com III inee, also org:>uluxl lind dlr~"'h.xl tWO olhe.- proj\.'Ct~ thm facililaled Ihe commlu..,e·s work: the Coptic (;l1oslic Lib... ry I'raj. eCI or Ih.., lnSlhule lor AIlliquity and ChJ'i~Ii"llily and Ihe Nag H,,,,,,,,,uli Codiee~ Editing Project of the Amerie,m Ites<:ardl Cent..,.' in Egypi. Th,;: I'llier project w:.s d\.'lSigned prim:lI'ily to conserve the manuseriplS, a p:linSlnking lask llul il $Uec~(ulJy (oncluded in 1918. The originllol 5Cquence of lhe pagel in C3(h (ode~ was detem,i.>\.-d wilh only a r\.·'W urKcnaimies. and hundreds of fragmenls were reslol'cd '0 Iheir prof>' er posilions. Se\'cn hundred and Ihincen inscribed fr.lgmenlli ""''''!lin unplaced. hut mOSt of these ,u-e vcry small. Robinsoll's Icam al:cciilUy d..,· signed cabillets. The unplaccd fr,lgmenlli. e
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iJ• .". Al-.l ~ r.~ .,'" u>cE-llo~"2>i

N:>g Hamlll;odi Library. From Codex III. COlme.sy Coptic MII"""', CII/ro.

lealher co,",~r of whi<:h ;II'" :L'lSUmed 10 h,,,,c been lost si"ce the disco,,,,,,)' (Codex XII); and eiChl lea,'cs (Codex XllI) thai had been ,,,,,,,o"cd in on· liquily fro", II thirteenlh (odex and laid inside Ihe front eo.'er of Cudex VI, The o,.lginal extent of Ihe collecllon may be e"l· culated at a minimum of 1,240 Insc,'ibed pages. or lh<:sc Pl'lle. 1,156 .:H'C CUITently ,.epresentc,1 by;1I least a f,'tlglllent. The majOl' loss (el'timaled (II III Ica:sl 5 I pages) is fro." CodCl< Xli a'one. While Codices 1_111. VI. VII. aod XIlI cont3io many co",· plete or nearly complete I.,..lv,'$, Codices IV. V. and VlIl-XIi arc fragmenlary enough IMt comprehen, sion of Ihe tUIS cO"lain\.-d in Ihem is ~v"rely hampered. T'lIuughout me CollCCllon Ihen.- arc ~me P;1$liagcs of 1<:11 thai are now presel...·et! only, or ~meti",Cli p,...,scrved best I" phologldphs. The Nag JlarnnH,di eodice~ conl;,I" f,flY-Qne text~. Some uf Ihese are copie~ or ",a,.blll vCI.,;iolIS or other lexlS ill Ih,;: collection. so tlrat there 1ll"C aClu, ally ollly fOl1y·five dlSlinct worb. Ihiny·slx of which were previously unknown in IIny fonll. In addition. u'aecs of 31 lea.st tWO fUrlher leXls 3.rt' recOllni7~,ble in Codices 1 and XII. The number of lelU$ per codex ,-ariC$ from one (Co:KJ" X) to eighl (Code" VI). All the te"t$ ",...,re originally compo;l5fiJ in Creek, al dilTerent limcs (mostly during II", firsl four centunt'$ of the Chnstian era) and in ,.;arious p:u's of Ihe M~-dilerraneJm world. They we,'<': I"",s· lated illlo Coplle, pr('sumably during the f00l1h cenlul)' or sHghlly carlier. Although soUle of Ihe texts wCI'e 1",,,sh,led inl0 a v"dety of the Lycnpol· il:\Il dialect (Codices I. X. and Ihe f'l'st IWO lexl~ in Xl). most were lransl"leu into Ihe Sahidic di:,lecl. with val)'ing dellrc\.'S o( devialiou frum what is gen, "l1Il1y n,eogni7.ed IlS the c1aliSical standard. Nonc of Ihe Nag lIa'"II1,>
NAJ' AL-I;IAJAR

moved, much of this cartonnage was found to be inscribed in both Coptic and Greek. One of several dated telllS used in the cover of Codcx VII indicates thaI il was nlimufaclUred sometime afler A-D. 348. Variow; documenl$ used in the covers of c..:odices I, V, VII, and XI mention places in the Nag lIammadi resion. It is generally assumed that all 01 the Nag Hammadi CodicC1i were produe<.-od in the bller half of the fourth cenlury, somewhere in Ihe area surrounding lhe site of their discovery. They are among the old~t well-preserved books in codex form 10 have survived the centuries. (See also: Ael5 of Peter and the Twelve Apostles; AllogenC$; Apocalypse of Adam; Apooc;alypse of James, First; Apocalypse of James, Second; Apocalypse of Paul; Apocalypse of Peler; Apoc,yphon of James; Apocryphan of Jonn; Asclepius 21-29; Authentikos logOli; Book of Thomas the Contenrayer of the Apostle Paul; Second Treatise of the Greal selh; Senumccs of Scxtus; TC'"dchings of Silvanus; Three SIdes of Seth; Thunder, Penect Mind; Treatise on the Resurreclion; Trimorphic Protennoia; Tripartite Tractale; Valenlinian Exposition; Zostrianus.) BIBLIOGRAPHY

Emmel, S. "Unique Pholographic Evidence for Nag Hammadi Texts." 811/1~till of tlze Americull Society ofPapJruiu/:i$lsI4 (1977):109-21; 15 (1978):195205, 251-61; 16 (l979}:179-91, 263-75; 17 (1980): 143-44. _ _ . "The Nag Hammadi Codices Ediling Project: A FInal Rep0l1." Americal1 Research Cellter ill Eg)'pf Newslt:/Ier 104 (1978):10-32. Focsimilo: Edilioll uf Iho: Nug Hammadi Codices, published under the auspices of the Deparunent of Antiquities of the Ar,lb Republic of Egypl in con· junction with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi7.lltion, 12 vols. Leiden, 1972-1984. Robinson, J. M. "From the Cliff to Cairo: The StOl)' of the Discoverers and Middlemen of lhe Nag Hammadi Codices." In Colloqlle infemaliollal sur Its /I:,rtes de Nat: Hammadi (Ollibec, 22-25 aOll/ /978), ed. B. Barc. Bibliothequc copte de Nag Hammadi, Section "Etudes," vol. I, pp. 21-58. Quebec and Louvain, 1981.

1773

Scholer, D. M. Nag Hammadi BibliocraphJ 1948/969. Nag Hammadi Studies I. Leiden, 1971. Supplemented annually in the aUlumn issue of Novlim Tes/Qltlell/um, beginning with Vol. 13 (1971). STEPHI!.N

EMMEL

NAGUIB MAHFOUZ (1882-1972), pioneer of gyn<.-"Cology and obstell;cs. He was born at al· Manfilrah, Egypt, the youngest son of a family of eight. Al the age of sixteen he entered the Egyptian School of Medicine at (}~r al-'Aynl, from which he graduated four years Inter in 1902. Appoinlcd an· aesthetist in his CllTly career, he later decided 10 specialiu: in obstetrics. An exchange of visits between him and surgeons in Europ<: brought him 10 the limelight. He headed ~vera.l departmenu of gynecology in Cairo's major hospitals. In 1914 he was appoint<.--d head surgeon in the O~r al-'Aynl hospital. later he was entrusted with the establishmenl of Ihe firsl outpaticnl gynecological clinic in Ihat hospilal as well as a child welfare scction. To him is also attributed the establishment of the school of nursing. Duling his long years of teaching and rrsearch he collecled a VIlSI number of diSC'a.~ specimens that he presented 10 his school in 1929 on the occasion of its centenary. They became the MaMou:/, Obstetric and Gynecological Museum. He received many honorary degrees from Europe and America. In 1942 the honorary fellowship of lhe Royal College of Surgeons was awarded 10 him along wilh Sir Alexander Fleming, the discoverer or penicillin. His principal works are The Ufe of an Egypliall Do,·/or (Edinburgh and London, 1966); The History of Medical Edllculiul1 ill Ef:Ypl (Cairo, 1935); Alias of Muh!uuz's Obstelric a,td GJIIQecoiogicQI Museum (3 'lois., London, 1949); Arl uf Midwifery (in Arabic, Cairo, 1933); Eleme/ltary GYllaecology (in Arabic, Cai· 1'0, 1927); and Practical GYllao:cology (in Arabic, Cairo, 1927). SOPHY AL-13AYAIlI

NAI' AL-DAYR. See Dayr 1lo1·Shahld Phllilthawtlus. NAJ' AL.J:lAJAR, site on the east bank of the Nile about 10 miles (15 km) north of ,\swan. A few years ago in the course of excavations carried out by the Egyptian Antiquities OrganiUltion in the area between the <.-odgc of the town and the bank of the

1774

NAOS

Nile. ruln§ of:l. Romall Cllnlp wer'e Jiso;·oven..x1. They <:an be d'ltcd. on the oosis of a few in~cribed blocks of l;tone found on the site. to the firsl century A.D.. thc period of the emperor Vespa~i:ln. On the west §ide there callie 10 lighl a fine gllle O
GRoss.\lANN

NAOS. See Architectural Elements of Churcht."S.

NAQADAH. [This cily

ill Upper EgyPI is situated •)11 the west batik 01 lite Nile opposit,· Q{'f Ihe prollillce 01 Qil/II. Tflis elltry discllsses Ihe geograp1ly

i.,

"lid the SCQlII archaeological remail/s.]

Geography Although ample :ltlestation elli~ts to show thai Naq:'l.d:lh wa.~ the scat of a bishop, il is 1I0t kllown when the eity frrsl beeame a bi~hopdc_ The SYNAX. ARION commemOl'UleS ~l Bishop Michael from Nuqlldah on 22 Baramhflt, hut It gilles no indication when this bishop lived. The nexi bishup uf Naqfidah atlested in elltant SOUI'ces did not live until the sillteenlh cenlUry. However, lhe evidl>nee for this bishop i~ ambiguous. In a list of bjsh~,ps from thc year 15011 we find a Bishup Basilius of Ou~ and Naqadah :lS well as a Bishop Gabriel of the same cities (Muyser, 1944, pp. 162-63). It is nOI clear why the Il§t names IWO bishops uf the samc area. In lhe fifteenth CC",ury al'MAQRIZI lisled four chun:he5 for NaqAdah without specifying whether they were located io NaqAdah il"Clf or simply with· in the enllirons of the city: a church of the Virgin, a church of John the Baptist, a church of Gabriel, and a Ghureh of John the Compassionate (1845, p. 141).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Muyser. J. "Contribution a I'etude des Jisles episcopalcs de I'egli~ coptc." 8"lIel;n de 1.1 Societe d'archcologie cOpte 10 (1944):115-76. Tilllm. S. /JIIS christlicll·koptische ){gyplcJI ill arabi. scher Zeit. Wicsooden. 1988. RANllAU. STfiW"RT

Architecture No medieval churches halle been preserved in Naqadah. On the edge of the desen there are three monasterles-Dayr IlI·Giw. Da)'T a.I.Majma·. Da)'T al'!?allb-in which some medieval remains of build· illgs are still containt.x1, at lellSt ill part. or were visible to earlier travelers. UtUl.IOGRAPHY

Meinardus, O. Chmlian Egypt, Arrcifml flrrJ Modem. Cairo. 1965. PtrrER GROSSMANN

NAQIZAH, town in the province of Gharbiyyah. "80 Al~MAKARIM. in his d...'SCription of the churches

and monasteries of Lower Egypt. situates at Na· OUlUS lived there lIecluded in a cell, and in it was the body of S:lint nmCLA. the disciple of the apostle Paul. Thill reclulle hel;:lI11e lhe si.~ly·sl)(th patr'iar'Ch of Ale)(llnrJrl~1 (1047-1077). This hlst rc' mark is certainly horrowed from the trrSTOIf.Y OF Tlrli PATlf.rAIf.CtrS where we rcad it almust wurd for \vOl·d. Howeller, Abo al·Mak:'l.rim'~ testimony is impor1ant, for il allows us here 10 correct (he tt'llt of the Histo· ry of tire PMriarchs, where Nafwah is wrillen ill place of NaqJ~;\h. The author of this hiography of the Patriarch Chl'istodoulus, Mawhl1b ibn Man~iir ibn Mufarrij, adds that during the patriarchate of Christodoulus the body of Saint Thecla was tl1ln~· ferred to Sinj:'l.r. !!.eat of the patriarch. This infomla· tion is also found in (he notice of Saint Thecla in the SYNAXARtON at 2.5 Abfb. "al Sinj:'ir. in lhe hermit· age." The geographical situation is clIplaincd by M
NASTAS IBN lURAYl

thors think that the Arabic Naqlz.ah derives [rom the Coplie NikcjOu.

1775

Tfibah A.M. 1474/26 January ....0. 1758, and nlS(l giv· en to Ihe Church of the MU'allaqah. It is a large· sized manU."Cl'lpt (29.5 )I 21 cm).

8IHI.IOCMA)'HV Amtlinc:au, Ii l..u Geographic de I'Eg)'PfC a l'i!poquc cuP/c:. ..... ris, 1893. Maspero, J., and O. Wiet. Afa/criQUX pollr St'n';r a IQ giugrQphic: dc: I'IIJ:Yple. Cairo, 1919. R£Nt.GEORGES COQUIN MAURICE MARTIN. S.J.

NARTH:EX.

Sc:c:

Arehiltttural

ElemenlS

of

Churches.

NASH PAPYRUS,

papyl'Uli named after the buy-

er, W. L Nash, now in the Cambridge University Library (Or. 233; facsimile in Albright, p. II). The papyrus contains the Decalogue (Ex. 20:2-17) and the Sh'ma (DI. 6:1-5) in Hebrew. 11$ datc is debated. While Albright dates it in Ihe second cenlury u.c.. most Old Tt:Stamem scholar5 place it in the first century before or after Chrhil. It is to be inlerpreled not as a paPYI'IS bUI as a phylactery. BIHI.IOGRAPHY

Albrighl, W. F. "On the Date of the Scrolls from 'Ain Fcshkha and the Nash Papyrus." Blll/e/ill 01 the Am/iriCIJ/I Sc/wufs ul Oriel/lof H.eS/lllrch 115 (1949):10-19. Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. who wo' whu in Egyp/%X)', 2nd ed, p. 213. London, 1972. M ... II'r1N KR"'USE

NASIM ABO SA'D IBN 'ABO AL.SAYYID, eigilleenth.cenlur)' deacon, archon, shQ)'kh, and mt<'Qllim. He had aome liturgical manuscripts cop· ied by the dencon ...BIB IBN N"'$R in Coptic ;,nJ in Ambic for the Church or the Mu'allaqal, in Old Cairo. The first of the two manuscripts is II lccliontuy in Coplie (Lilul'K,)' 317) for Ihe second tJimcslcr of the Coplic year (Klyahk, ro.bah, and Amshlr), u[ which, however, only lhe month of Arnshil' sUlvives (fols. 241-363). This manuscript was complel<.,d on I Bashans A.M. 1472/7 May ....1). 1756, and given 10 the Church of the Mu'allaqah in Old Cairo. It is a large· sized manuscripl (32 )I 21 CIll). The second manuscripl is a lectionary in Ar..bic (Ulurgy 320) for the weekdays of the first three months of the Coptic year, Hit. Babah, and Hlilfir (fols. 4-246). This manuscripl was complered nn 20

DIOLIOGRAPIlY

Ol'af, O. CQ/o!ogllt! dc... malluscr;pls "rubes r:hretie.u cunsen'i.~ all CQinl, pp. 254-55. Vatican Cily, 1934. KIIM.n. s.unil..

SJ.

NASTARUH (Naslara....~.th), lown in Egypt that seems 10 havll been located in the nonhern Della along the eoalit of Ihe Mediterranean Sea on Lake Bashrnur (Maspero, 1919, p. 211). The [act that lhe repeatlld onslaughts of the Greeks against Dumy.i! in the middle of Ihe ninth century prompted the citi7-cn.~ of Rashtd, A[exandri:l, and Nastaroh to strengthen lheir walls is an Indication of Naslaruh's proximity to the sea and t;:onsequent vulnerability to 3.lIack. Nastaruh's position in medieval CopticArabic scales lind IisL~ of Egyptian bishoprics, as well as the evidence or Inedieval MU!l1im authors, poinlS to Korn Ma.~taruh west of Nisf Charb !II· Burullus as the probable site of lhe old town. Naslaruh is lI11ested in the M)urt;:es as a bishopric !lince lhe tenth c;:enlury. The IIlSTOIO' Of mE "...TRI· Ail.CHS relllies lhal around 960 the bishopric of Nas· Inruh had to he combined wilh neighboring bishop· rics bec.lUlie lil"rvntion ntld poor harvC1\ts had severely diminished the popuJulion of Ihc dtics in the region. D10UOGRAPHV

Amclinemr. E. Lfl GiwMrupllie de /'Egyp/c a /'CpOqIIC coptc, pp. 275-76. Pnds, 1893. Maspcl'o, J., and G. Wiet. Milterillux PUII~ su,';r a la gtogrllphic de I'Egypte. Cairo, 1919. Tim!ll, S. Da.~ c"ri,~tllclr·koptisclle iigypletl in arabi· sdler Zeit, pI. 4, pp. 1739-42. WicsbaJcn, I\lSS. RANfM.I.!. STEW... RT

NASrAS IBN JURAYJ, lenth.century Christian physician of E.gypt. The Arabic !iOurees do nol rllllke it dear whether he was fI Copt or a Melchite. HoweveI', Schachl and Meycrhof (1937, p. 137, 12) and M. Ullmann (1970, p. 1)8) stale that he wa.~ a Copt. P. Sb!llh (1940) calls him a "Coplie monk," which is impossible unless he became n monk after becoming n widower, since hc had a fllmous grandson, IS~:iq ibn IbrAhIm ibn Nas!AS. Nas!As lived at the time of al·lkhshld Mu~amnlad

1776

NATIONALIST PARTY

ibn Tughj (A.H. 935-946), just before the arrival of the Filtimitls. He was primarily famous for his knowledge of urology. He passed on the medical tradition to his family, and his gr.lndson ISl;iAo IBN lRRAIlI-.t IBN NASTAS became the personal doctor of al·ljAKIM BI·.ulR luAH (996-1021). Nas!As corresponded about medical mallen; with the famous Christian physician of Cordoba, Khalid ibn YiWd ibn RumAn al.NaJ:irunT. Conccming this physician, see the hislory of physicians by Ibn Juljul (1955, p. 96), a work composed in 987. Nasw's Risilioh fl kOyfiyyol ol.islidllJf bi·ol-bowl 'ollJ a~WiJl Il/·shtlkhf wll'llmrlJt!ih (Epistle on How to Know the Situation and Sicknesses of a Person, on the Basis of his Urine) is preserved at Cairo in two manuscripts (D~r al·Kutub. TaymOr, Riyfu:liyy.it 139, seventeenth ccntury, fols. Ib-4a; and a manuscript belonging to Dimitri Oandalaft, a Gn'ek Orthodox shopkeeper, dated 1347, Sbath, 1940, p. 32, no. 2695). Nas!1s abo composed a CofleClion of Dn.gs Ihal is preserved in a manuscript dated 1347 belonging to Dimitri Qandalaft (Sbath, 1940. p. _ll, no. 2694). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abo Ofr,wt1d ibn Juljul al·AndalusI. Le.~ Gbu!r(J/ions du mtdecins el du sages, ed. Fu'Ad Sayyid. Cairo, 1955. Sooth, P. A.{·Fihris (Callliogue de mUrlu~crilS arabes), Supplement. Cairo, 1940. Schacht, J., and M. Meyerhof. The Medico·PJ,ilosophical COII/roversy between Ibn BUllall of Baghdad a"d fhll Ridwan of Cairo. Cairn, 1937. Se2.gin, F., ed. Gesehichle des ((rabiscneu Sch,iflIIIIIlS, Vol. 3, p. 303. l.ciden, 1970. Ullmann, M. Die Medizi'l illl IslulIl. l.ciden and Co' logne, 1970. KIIALIl, SilMIIl., S.!.

1(1585): 4 (thirteenth centul)'): 5 (fifteenth centul)'): 6 (1433): 8 (~i"teenth century): 9(1284): 10 (1330):

NATIONALIST PARTY. See PoJilleal Pal11es.

NATIONAL LIBRARY, PARIS, ARABIC MANUSCRIPTS OF COPTIC PROVENANCE IN. The principal source for knowledge of the Coptic euhure of the Middle Ages is the Arabic Chri$tinn manuscript tradilion. It is, however. very difficult 10 distinguish which of these manu· scripts originate rrom Copl,lc unless an examination is made on Ihe basis of experience with Arabic pa1eoar.lphy. In order 10 facilitate research work in this domain, this article contains a listing of Arabic manuscripts In the National Ubrary, Paris, lhat were copied by Copu or difft.ued among them. Disregarding the coment of the manuscript, ccr· tain Coplic texts have been excluded because Ihey were in circulation outside the Coptic world. for example, Ihe "is/ory of al·Makln Jilji5 ibn al·'Amld copied by the Tunisian Muslim MuJ.1ammad Mahdi ibn AmIn al·Tilnisl (Arabe 295). or the Life of Saini PQchomius and His Disciple 7'1leodonu. copied by a Melchite (Arabe 261). l'lowever, the /lislory of the Mclchilc Sa'ld ibn Ba!l1q copied by Copts (Arnbe 288, 289, and 290) and lhat of the West Syrian Ibn al·'lbrJ (Arnbc 296) qualify for inclusion. The manuscriplS are in the National Library's Ar· abic series. In the following list, the dale (A.D.) or the presumed period appears in parentheses. For the collections, the dominant genre (hagiography, plitriSlics, homiletics, elc.) is given. For furthcr in· formation, reference should be made to the manu· 5Cript catalogs for Ihis library. Arabic Muslim man· uscrlpts al'e excluded although these could be studied in order to discover which were copied by Copts. This tllsk remains to be done.

Bible: Old Testament Bible: Pentateuch Bible: Samaritan Pentateuch Bible: Samal;tan Pentateuch Bible: Pentateuch Bible: Pentateuch Bible: Pentateuch with the Commentary of Mark ibn Oanbar II (1331): Bible: Pentateuch with the Commentary of Mark ibn Oanbar 12 (1353): Bible: Pent.aleuch Bible: Pentateuch 13 (fifteenth century): 14 (fourteenth ccmury): Bible: Pentateuch IS (founeenth centul')'): Bible: Pentateuch

NATIONAL LIBRARY, PARIS

Bible: Pentateuch with the Comlllenlary of MOl'k ibn Q:onbar Bible: Pentateuch with patristic commenta..y, 17 (1661): plus Leviticus wilh lhe Comlllenlary of Mark ibn Qanbar 18 (fourteenth centul)'): Bible: Genesis with the Commenlal)' of Mark ibn Qallbar 19 (siJw..-enth ccntury): Bible: Genesis with the Commentary of Mark ibll Qanbar 20 (1590): Bible: Genesis with the Comlllenl.uy of Mnrk ibn Qanbar 21 (1596): Bible: Genesis with the COlllmelllary of Mark ibn Qanbar 22 (1344): Bible: Historical books 24 (fourteenth century): Bible: Chronicles 25 (1586): Bible: The prophets 40 (1292): Varia 4\ (fifteenth century): Colh,-clion of the Psalms 42 (1433): Colkction of the Psalms 4] (fifteenth century): Colkction of the Psalms 44 (1635): Bible: Psalms 45 (seventeenth century): PsaIITlli and Canticles (copied from a Coptic manuscript dolled 1386) 16 (12]8):

49 (fifteenth century): Wisdom collection 50 (fifteenth century): Bible: Wisdom books Bible: Gospels 5 I (1412): 54(1619): Bible: Gospel... SS (1619): Commentary on the Gospels by the fJthef5 56 (seventeenth century): Bible: Gospels 57 (1656): Bible: Gospel... 59 (rifteenth eentuly): Commentary on the synoptic Gospels by the fathe ..s 61 (1665): Bibl...: Gospel of John 62 (sixteenth century): Biblc: Gospel of John 63 (1340): Bibk: Paul, Catholicon, llnu Acts 64 (Mteenth century): Bible: Paul, Catholicon, and Acts 65 (1614): Bible: Paul, Catholicon, and Acts 66 (1651): Bible: Pliul. Catholicon, lind Acts 67 (fifteenth century): Bible: Commentar)' on Revelation by Ibn KlItlb OHy~ar

69 72 73 74

(1343): (1358): (fifteenth century): (fifteenth t.:entUly): 75 (fifteenth t.:Ciltury):

Vari:l

Hagiographical collection Homiletic collection Hagiogl1lphical collection Book of the Rolls of Pseudo-Clement of Rome 76 (1337): Book of the Rolls of Pseudo-Clement of Rome 77 (1665): 78 (fourteenth cel1\llry): Book of the Rolls of Pseudo-Clement of Rome Apocryphal texl.~ on the apostles 81 {siltteemh centUly): 82 (fourteenth centuly): Theological apologetic collection 85 (thil'eelllh cenlUry): Commentary on the Gospels of Luke find JOhll by 'Ahdalliih ibn aJ-'fayyib 86(1247): Commentary on the Gospels of Mark, Luke, find John by 'Abdallah ibn al-'fayyib 87 (foul1eenth century): Commentary on the Gospels for Sundflys and feasts, according to the Coplle Iilllrgy

1777

1778

NATIONAL LIBRARY, PARIS

88 (fourteenth centu1")'): Commentary on the Gospels for Sundays and fcasts. according 10 the Coptic lilllr'lP' 89 (I 595): COmmCnlM'y on the Gospels and Epistles of Creal

Wed 90 (fifteenth century):

91 (fifteenth century):

92 (rifleelllh century):

Commentary on the Gospds and Epislk'S for the Sundays and feasts of the first six months, according (0 Coptic liturgy Commentary on the Gospels and Epistles for the Sundays and feasts of the 1:1.". !'>ix months, according II) lhe Coptic liturgy Comments,)' on Manhew (homilies 76-90) by

John ChrysoslOlll 93 (fourteclllh century): Commentary on John drawn from lhe fathers 94 (1236): Homilies of John CllI)'SOSlOlll on lhe Epistles

•

95(1218):

10 the Corinthians and on Mallhe.... Homilies of John Chrysostom on the Epistle to the Hcbn:ws Ritual of Gabriel V

98 (fifteenth century): 100 (fourteenth century): Collection on holy chrism 112 (sbneenth centuI)'): Key to lhe pericopes for lhe offices of the COptic yt:ar 113 (IJI2): Lectionary for Greal Week 114 (lirteenth ceillury): Collection of praye~ and 'ncO/oha 131 (1440): Predominantly hagiographicnl collection 132 (1629): Varia 133 (fifteenth cemury): 26 Homilies of Basil, including seventeen nn the P~lms 134 (fifteenth century): Homilit$ on the Hellaemeron by 8oL..i1 and Gregory of N)'SSll 135 (thh1eenth century): Collection of the 52 honlilies of Ephrcm 136 (thil1eeOlh century): Collection of the 52 homilies of Ephrem 137 (foul1eenth centuI)"): Collection of the 52 homilies of Ephrem 138 (fo0l1eenth centOl)'): Collection of the 52 homilies of Eplll'em 139 (fOurleenth cenIOl)'): Collection of the 52 homilies of Eplll'em 140 (1689): Collection of the 52 homilies of Ephrem 141 (fifteenth century): Marlan homiletic collection 143 (fourteenlh century): Coptic anu Mclehitc homilal)' 144(1617): Ascetic homilies lInu four Gospels 145 (1641): Homiletic collection on the Annunciation and Saint Michael 146 (sillteelHh cenlul)'): 87 homilies of John Chry"~o5tom for Sundays and Lent 147 (thirteenlh celllul)'): Vllria 14ft (1645): Homiletic and hagiogrnphical collection 149 (thh1eenlh century): Ascetic works of Simon rind Stylite and Issac of Nineveh 150 (1606): Patristic collection lSI (foul1Ctlnth century): Patristic collectioo 152 (sixteenth centuI)'): Hagiogmphical colk-ction 153 (seventeenth century): Hagiogrnphical collection 154 (1604): Coptic hagiogrnphical collection 155 (1486): Colleclion on the Virgin MrU'y

NATIONAL LIBRARY, PARIS

157 (fourteenth century): Ascetical collection: Evagrius, John Climacus, John of Carpathus, Issac of Nineveh, John Sabas 158 (fourteenth century): John Chrysostom: moral theology and Christ's divinity John s;',b:ls 159(1]14): John S;,lbaS 160 (fifteenth century): 161 (fourteenth century): John Climacus Exegctil:al apologetical replies by Ibrahim Ibn 'Awn 166(I22Z/]): Refutation of Mu~ammad ibn Hlil11n III-Wam'iq by Ya~y!libn 167 (l2Z7): 'Ad. 168 (fourteenth century): Refutation of al·Warr.lq by YaJ.1yi ibn 'AdT Apologl'lical trealiscs of Y.,J.1y.l ibn' AdT anu Abu 169(1654): !ta'i!ah al·TakrttI 170 (lllirteenth century): Kitllb ol·l4a~ (Iwelve chapters) of Severus of al·Ashmo.nayn Two tht.'Olog.ical works of Severus of al·Asl1rnunayn 171 (1618): Severus of al·Ashmo.nayn (Book of Ihe Cmmciu) and 172 (1291): Refwation of Ihe JeM'S by Abo al,Fakhr al-Ma.~hj~j

\73 (fourteenth century):

\74 (fourtcenlh century): 175 (1299): 176 (sixteenth century): 177 (fourteenth cennllY): 178(1452): 179(1642): 180 (1664): \83 (thirteenth ec::n\tlry): 184 (1214):

J 85 (thirteenth cenlury): 191 (fourteenth centlllY): 19Z (foultecnth CerllUlY): 193 (1584): 197 (I 27!l): 198 (~ixtecllth century): 199 (thirtcenth century): ZOO (sixtecnlh century): ZOI (thirteenlh century):

Apolog('tical and spiritual collection Apolog('tical treatises o( 'f.sa ibn Zur'ah The Dar a{oHamm of Elias of Nisibis The Dar o{·Humm by Elias of Nisibis; and the Politics of PseuJo-Aristotle Theological varia and apocrypha AI·Rashid Abu al·Khayr ibn al-Tayyib (Coptic Manuscript of Syria) AI-Rasl,id Abo. al·Khayr ibn al.Tl..'yyib AI-Rashid Abu a1-Khayr ibn al'Tayyib The CUIl!essio PDlrlmr (dogmatic pau·i.~tic anlhology) The Kilub al,RIl'u$ (large work on spiritual uirection and ,-on(ession) Ki/(lb ,,1_Ru'us BOfJk 01 the Tower by MiiTi ibn Suloym:!n (Part I) DOfJk 01 the Tower by MiiTi ibn Sulayman (P.trt II) Sim'an ibn Kalil ibn Maq:lra (large theological tlnd spiritual work) Ki/(lb ,,1·Shifi'1' by l3ulrus ibn .tl-Rahlb Controversy between Abo Qun'tlh and v.trious Muslims Theologicl.ll varia Swt,nUl Theoiogiac by Abn IsI.laq ibn .11,' Assil.1 SI/mlliu Theoiogiac by Abu Isl.lil.q Ibn ll!