Hallucinations - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

HALLUCINATIONS

A 3-IN-1 MEDICAL REFERENCE Medical Dictionary Bibliography & Annotated Research Guide TO I NTERNET

R EFERENCES

HALLUCINATIONS A M EDICAL D ICTIONARY , B IBLIOGRAPHY , AND A NNOTATED R ESEARCH G UIDE TO I NTERNET R E FERENCES

J AMES N. P ARKER , M.D. AND P HILIP M. P ARKER , P H .D., E DITORS

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ICON Health Publications ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, 4th Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Copyright 2004 by ICON Group International, Inc. Copyright 2004 by ICON Group International, Inc. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 4 5 3 2 1

Publisher, Health Care: Philip Parker, Ph.D. Editor(s): James Parker, M.D., Philip Parker, Ph.D. Publisher's note: The ideas, procedures, and suggestions contained in this book are not intended for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. As new medical or scientific information becomes available from academic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies may undergo changes. The authors, editors, and publisher have attempted to make the information in this book up to date and accurate in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of this book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised to always check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dosage and contraindications before prescribing any drug or pharmacological product. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs, herbal remedies, vitamins and supplements, alternative therapies, complementary therapies and medicines, and integrative medical treatments. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Parker, James N., 1961Parker, Philip M., 1960Hallucinations: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References / James N. Parker and Philip M. Parker, editors p. cm. Includes bibliographical references, glossary, and index. ISBN: 0-497-00506-9 1. Hallucinations-Popular works. I. Title.

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Disclaimer This publication is not intended to be used for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not engaging in the rendering of medical, psychological, financial, legal, or other professional services. References to any entity, product, service, or source of information that may be contained in this publication should not be considered an endorsement, either direct or implied, by the publisher, editors, or authors. ICON Group International, Inc., the editors, and the authors are not responsible for the content of any Web pages or publications referenced in this publication.

Copyright Notice If a physician wishes to copy limited passages from this book for patient use, this right is automatically granted without written permission from ICON Group International, Inc. (ICON Group). However, all of ICON Group publications have copyrights. With exception to the above, copying our publications in whole or in part, for whatever reason, is a violation of copyright laws and can lead to penalties and fines. Should you want to copy tables, graphs, or other materials, please contact us to request permission (E-mail: [email protected]). ICON Group often grants permission for very limited reproduction of our publications for internal use, press releases, and academic research. Such reproduction requires confirmed permission from ICON Group International, Inc. The disclaimer above must accompany all reproductions, in whole or in part, of this book.

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Acknowledgements The collective knowledge generated from academic and applied research summarized in various references has been critical in the creation of this book which is best viewed as a comprehensive compilation and collection of information prepared by various official agencies which produce publications on hallucinations. Books in this series draw from various agencies and institutions associated with the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and in particular, the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), the Administration on Aging (AOA), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Healthcare Financing Administration (HCFA), the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Indian Health Service (IHS), the institutions of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Program Support Center (PSC), and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). In addition to these sources, information gathered from the National Library of Medicine, the United States Patent Office, the European Union, and their related organizations has been invaluable in the creation of this book. Some of the work represented was financially supported by the Research and Development Committee at INSEAD. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, special thanks are owed to Tiffany Freeman for her excellent editorial support.

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About the Editors James N. Parker, M.D. Dr. James N. Parker received his Bachelor of Science degree in Psychobiology from the University of California, Riverside and his M.D. from the University of California, San Diego. In addition to authoring numerous research publications, he has lectured at various academic institutions. Dr. Parker is the medical editor for health books by ICON Health Publications. Philip M. Parker, Ph.D. Philip M. Parker is the Eli Lilly Chair Professor of Innovation, Business and Society at INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France and Singapore). Dr. Parker has also been Professor at the University of California, San Diego and has taught courses at Harvard University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and UCLA. Dr. Parker is the associate editor for ICON Health Publications.

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About ICON Health Publications To discover more about ICON Health Publications, simply check with your preferred online booksellers, including Barnes&Noble.com and Amazon.com which currently carry all of our titles. Or, feel free to contact us directly for bulk purchases or institutional discounts: ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, Fourth Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Fax: 858-546-4341 Web site: www.icongrouponline.com/health

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Table of Contents FORWARD .......................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON HALLUCINATIONS .................................................................................... 3 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 3 The Combined Health Information Database................................................................................. 3 Federally Funded Research on Hallucinations............................................................................... 6 E-Journals: PubMed Central ....................................................................................................... 27 The National Library of Medicine: PubMed ................................................................................ 27 CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND HALLUCINATIONS .......................................................................... 69 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 69 Finding Nutrition Studies on Hallucinations ............................................................................. 69 Federal Resources on Nutrition ................................................................................................... 70 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 71 CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND HALLUCINATIONS .................................................... 73 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 73 National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.................................................. 73 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 85 General References ....................................................................................................................... 87 CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON HALLUCINATIONS ...................................................................... 89 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 89 Dissertations on Hallucinations .................................................................................................. 89 Keeping Current .......................................................................................................................... 89 CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON HALLUCINATIONS ................................................................................. 91 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 91 Patents on Hallucinations............................................................................................................ 91 Patent Applications on Hallucinations........................................................................................ 92 Keeping Current .......................................................................................................................... 93 CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON HALLUCINATIONS .................................................................................... 95 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 95 Book Summaries: Federal Agencies.............................................................................................. 95 Book Summaries: Online Booksellers........................................................................................... 98 Chapters on Hallucinations ......................................................................................................... 99 CHAPTER 7. MULTIMEDIA ON HALLUCINATIONS ........................................................................ 103 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 103 Video Recordings ....................................................................................................................... 103 CHAPTER 8. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON HALLUCINATIONS ..................................................... 107 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 107 News Services and Press Releases.............................................................................................. 107 Newsletter Articles .................................................................................................................... 109 Academic Periodicals covering Hallucinations.......................................................................... 110 CHAPTER 9. RESEARCHING MEDICATIONS .................................................................................. 111 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 111 U.S. Pharmacopeia..................................................................................................................... 111 Commercial Databases ............................................................................................................... 112 Researching Orphan Drugs ....................................................................................................... 112 APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES .......................................................................................... 117 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 117 NIH Guidelines.......................................................................................................................... 117 NIH Databases........................................................................................................................... 119 Other Commercial Databases..................................................................................................... 121 APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES ............................................................................................... 123 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 123

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Patient Guideline Sources.......................................................................................................... 123 Finding Associations.................................................................................................................. 125 APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES ................................................................................ 129 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 129 Preparation................................................................................................................................. 129 Finding a Local Medical Library................................................................................................ 129 Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada ................................................................................. 129 ONLINE GLOSSARIES................................................................................................................ 135 Online Dictionary Directories ................................................................................................... 136 HALLUCINATIONS DICTIONARY ......................................................................................... 137 INDEX .............................................................................................................................................. 185

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FORWARD In March 2001, the National Institutes of Health issued the following warning: "The number of Web sites offering health-related resources grows every day. Many sites provide valuable information, while others may have information that is unreliable or misleading."1 Furthermore, because of the rapid increase in Internet-based information, many hours can be wasted searching, selecting, and printing. Since only the smallest fraction of information dealing with hallucinations is indexed in search engines, such as www.google.com or others, a non-systematic approach to Internet research can be not only time consuming, but also incomplete. This book was created for medical professionals, students, and members of the general public who want to know as much as possible about hallucinations, using the most advanced research tools available and spending the least amount of time doing so. In addition to offering a structured and comprehensive bibliography, the pages that follow will tell you where and how to find reliable information covering virtually all topics related to hallucinations, from the essentials to the most advanced areas of research. Public, academic, government, and peer-reviewed research studies are emphasized. Various abstracts are reproduced to give you some of the latest official information available to date on hallucinations. Abundant guidance is given on how to obtain free-of-charge primary research results via the Internet. While this book focuses on the field of medicine, when some sources provide access to non-medical information relating to hallucinations, these are noted in the text. E-book and electronic versions of this book are fully interactive with each of the Internet sites mentioned (clicking on a hyperlink automatically opens your browser to the site indicated). If you are using the hard copy version of this book, you can access a cited Web site by typing the provided Web address directly into your Internet browser. You may find it useful to refer to synonyms or related terms when accessing these Internet databases. NOTE: At the time of publication, the Web addresses were functional. However, some links may fail due to URL address changes, which is a common occurrence on the Internet. For readers unfamiliar with the Internet, detailed instructions are offered on how to access electronic resources. For readers unfamiliar with medical terminology, a comprehensive glossary is provided. For readers without access to Internet resources, a directory of medical libraries, that have or can locate references cited here, is given. We hope these resources will prove useful to the widest possible audience seeking information on hallucinations. The Editors

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From the NIH, National Cancer Institute (NCI): http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ten-things-to-know.

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CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON HALLUCINATIONS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to locate peer-reviewed references and studies on hallucinations.

The Combined Health Information Database The Combined Health Information Database summarizes studies across numerous federal agencies. To limit your investigation to research studies and hallucinations, you will need to use the advanced search options. First, go to http://chid.nih.gov/index.html. From there, select the “Detailed Search” option (or go directly to that page with the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html). The trick in extracting studies is found in the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Journal Article.” At the top of the search form, select the number of records you would like to see (we recommend 100) and check the box to display “whole records.” We recommend that you type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. Consider using the option “anywhere in record” to make your search as broad as possible. If you want to limit the search to only a particular field, such as the title of the journal, then select this option in the “Search in these fields” drop box. The following is what you can expect from this type of search: •

Optical Intervention for Visual Hallucinations Associated With Visual Impairment and Dementia in Elderly Patients Source: Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 8: 88-92. Winter 1996. Summary: This article describes the possible benefit of optical intervention to treat visual hallucinations in older patients with the combined diagnosis of visual impairment and hallucinations. The authors present three cases in which optical aids were evaluated for efficacy in reducing visual hallucinations in older patients with dementia and visual deficits. The three patients, ages 80, 80, and 71, were referred for low-vision evaluations. Patients and their families were aware that visual aids were being investigated as possible interventions for reducing visual hallucinations. In each case, appropriate aids, such as prisms and binoculars, were prescribed to help the patient attain visual goals. The results of these case reports are presented to encourage

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clinical trials of the use of optical aids in reducing visual hallucinations in patients with both cognitive and visual deficits. 3 figures, 14 references. •

Central Auditory Processing in Patients with Auditory Hallucinations Source: American Journal of Psychiatry. 157(5): 759-766. May 2000. Contact: Available from American Psychiatric Publishing Group. 1400 K Street NW, Washington, DC 20005. (800) 368-5777 or (202) 682-6240. E-mail: [email protected]. Summary: This article reports on a study in which data from a full assessment of auditory (hearing) perception in patients with schizophrenia were used to investigate whether auditory hallucinations are associated with abnormality of central auditory processing. Three groups of subjects participated in auditory assessments: 22 patients with psychosis and a recent history of auditory hallucinations; 16 patients with psychosis but no history of auditory hallucinations; and 22 normal subjects. Nine auditory assessments, including auditory brainstem response (ABR), monotic and dichotic speech perception tests, and nonspeech perceptual tests, were performed. The results showed significant individual variability among the subjects in both patient groups. There were no group differences on tests that are sensitive to low brainstem function. Both patient groups performed poorly in tests that are sensitive to cortical or high brainstem function, and hallucinating patients differed from nonhallucinating patients in scores on tests of filtered speech perception and response bias patterns on dichotic speech tests. Six patients in the hallucinating group had scores in the severely abnormal range on more than one test. The authors conclude that hallucinations may be associated with auditory dysfunction in the right hemisphere or in the interhemispheric pathways. However, comparison of results for the patient groups suggests that the deficits seen in hallucinating patients may represent a greater degree of the same types of deficits seen in nonhallucinating patients. 3 tables. 33 references.

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Management of Other Psychiatric States: Hallucinations, Delusions and Other Disturbances Source: Medical Clinics of North America. 78(4): 841-859. July 1994. Summary: This article reviews the nature and treatment of some of the noncognitive disturbances among nursing home residents with Alzheimer's disease (AD). It covers studies on the prevalence of behavioral disturbances and their relationship to severity of AD, including neurobiological findings, the risk factors of agitated behavior in people with dementia, the differential diagnosis and treatment of agitated behavior, and the use of various antipsychotics, antidepressants, and mood stabilizers. Final sections cover the prevalence rate and treatment of psychosis. 51 references.

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Detailed Phenomenological Comparison of Complex Visual Hallucinations in Dementia With Lewy Bodies and Alzheimer's Disease: Aspects of Dementia Source: International Psychogeriatrics. 9(4): 381-388. December 1997. Summary: This journal article describes a comparative study of the prevalence, characteristics, and course of visual hallucinations (VHs) in 42 patients diagnosed as having dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and 30 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Participants were diagnosed at the Institute for the Health of the Elderly in Newcastle, England. All patients were assessed for demographic data, presenting symptoms and course of illness, cognitive function, visual impairment, and detailed

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descriptions of VHs at baseline and 12-month and 24-month followups. VHs were significantly more common among patients with DLB (93 percent) than those with AD (27 percent). The most common hallucinations were people, animals, objects, children, and insects. Forty-six percent of patients with VHs had accompanying phantom boarder delusions in which they believed strangers were visiting or living in their homes. Patients with DLB also were significantly more likely to experience multiple different VHs, to experience VHs that persisted at followup, and to hear the VHs speak. There were no significant differences between the groups in other characteristics, including whether the VH moved, the time of day they occurred, their size, whether they were complete, and the patient's degree of insight into the abnormal nature of the experience. The authors conclude that VHs may be more likely to be multiple, to speak, and to be persistent in DLB, and that these distinctions may be useful to aid accurate diagnosis. 2 tables, 27 references. •

Occipital Atrophy is Associated With Visual Hallucinations in Alzheimer's Disease Source: Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 12(1): 25-28. Winter 2000. Summary: This journal article describes a study which compares patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) with and without visual hallucinations to determine if selective occipital lobe atrophy is associated with visual hallucinations. Seven AD patients with visual hallucinations were matched by cognitive score to seven AD patients without visual hallucinations. Three-dimensional brain images showed that patients with visual hallucinations had a significantly smaller occipital and/or whole brain ratio than those without. The results suggest visual hallucinations may be associated with neuropathology of the occipital lobe. 1 figure, 17 references. (AA-M).

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Delusions, Hallucinations and Depression in Alzheimer's Disease: A Biological Perspective Source: American Journal of Alzheimer's Care and Related Disorders and Research. 6(3): 21-28. May-June 1991. Contact: Available from Prime National Publishing Corp. 470 Boston Post Road, Weston, MA 02193. (617) 899-2702. PRICE: Single issue $8.00. Call for information. Summary: This journal article discusses, from a biological perspective, three symptoms that complicate Alzheimer's disease: delusions, hallucinations, and depression. Relevant clinical, neuroradiological, neuropathological, sensory impairment, and genetic data are reviewed concerning the possible biological mechanisms underlying the three behaviors and the behaviors' relationship to the Alzheimer's disease process. In addition, the pharmacological and physical treatments of these behaviors are discussed, including the fact that hallucinations seem to be less amenable to pharmacological treatment than are delusions. The findings of relevant research studies are discussed, and areas for future research are suggested. It is concluded that currently, hypotheses on the pathophysiology of these three complicating behaviors remain speculative and more data are needed if their etiology is to be clarified. 57 references.

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Association Among Visual Hallucinations, Visual Acuity, and Specific Eye Pathologies in Alzheimer's Disease: Treatment Implications Source: American Journal of Psychiatry. 156(12): 1983-1985. December 1999.

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Summary: This journal article examines the associations of visual acuity and specific eye pathologies with visual hallucinations in people with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Fifty patients with probable AD (20 with and 30 without visual hallucinations) were evaluated for psychotic symptoms with Columbia University Scale for Psychopathology in Alzheimer's Disease. Cognitive function was assessed with the cognitive section of the Cambridge Examination for Mental Disorders of the Elderly. Visual acuity was measured before and after refraction, and patients received standardized assessments for cataracts and macular degeneration. Impaired visual acuity and the severity of cognitive impairment were significantly associated with visual hallucinations. No patient with normal acuity (6/5 or 6/6 on the Snellen chart) had these symptoms. Impaired acuity improved with refraction in 60 percent of the patients with visual hallucinations. Of the specific eye pathologies, only cataracts were significantly associated with visual hallucinations. The authors conclude that glasses and cataract surgery should be investigated as prophylactic or adjunctive treatments for visual hallucinations in patients with probable AD. 1 table, 11 references. •

Hallucinations, Delusions, and Cognitive Decline in Alzheimer's Disease Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 69: 172-177. 2000. Summary: This journal article investigated the occurrence of delusions and hallucinations in people with Alzheimer's disease (AD), noting their relationship to the rate of cognitive decline. Participants completed annual clinical evaluations over four years. Results indicated that at baseline, 55 percent of participants had delusions, and 41 percent had hallucinations. When controlling for baseline level of cognitive function, demographics, parkinsonism, and use of antipsychotic medications, hallucinations related to a more rapid cognitive decline. This effect related to a subgroup with both visual and auditory hallucinations. The researchers concluded that hallucinations are selectively related to more rapid cognitive decline in people with AD. 2 figures, 2 tables, 34 references.

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Incidence of and Risk Factors for Hallucinations and Delusions in Patients With Probable AD Source: Neurology. 54: 1965-1971. May 2000. Summary: This journal article reports on a study that investigated the incidence of and risk factors for delusions and hallucinations in people with probable Alzheimer's disease (AD). Researchers conducted psychiatric evaluations of 329 people with probable AD using data from annual clinical and neuropsychological evaluations to determine whether there were specific risk factors for developing delusions and hallucinations. Analysis indicated that the cumulative incidence rates for hallucinations and delusions increased over four annual post- baseline evaluations. Significant predictors included exaggerated semantic memory decline, exaggerated general cognitive decline, bradyphrenia, and Parkinsonian gait. Age, education, and gender were not significant predictors. 1 figure, 3 tables, 46 references.

Federally Funded Research on Hallucinations The U.S. Government supports a variety of research studies relating to hallucinations. These studies are tracked by the Office of Extramural Research at the National Institutes of

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Health.2 CRISP (Computerized Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects) is a searchable database of federally funded biomedical research projects conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. Search the CRISP Web site at http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/crisp_query.generate_screen. You will have the option to perform targeted searches by various criteria, including geography, date, and topics related to hallucinations. For most of the studies, the agencies reporting into CRISP provide summaries or abstracts. As opposed to clinical trial research using patients, many federally funded studies use animals or simulated models to explore hallucinations. The following is typical of the type of information found when searching the CRISP database for hallucinations: •

Project Title: A MODEL OF DEMENTIA WITH LEWY BODIES Principal Investigator & Institution: Sandler, Yakov; Molecular and Human Genetics; Baylor College of Medicine 1 Baylor Plaza Houston, Tx 77030 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUL-2002 Summary: The ultimate goal of this proposal is to utilize a Drosophila model of Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) to gain a better understanding of the molecular and genetic mechanisms that lead to the disease state. DLB is a progressive disorder that is the second most common dementia after Alzheimer's disease, accounting for 17-36% of all dementia cases. Clinically, it is characterized by mental state abnormalities such as cognitive impairment, psychosis and recurrent hallucinations. The pathologic hallmarks of the disease are cytoplasmic inclusions, called Lewy bodies (LB), that are widely distributed throughout paralimbic and neocortical regions and contain alphaSynuclein. Based on familial inheritance studies, mutations of the alpha-Synuclein gene have been associated with LB formation. Misexpression of alpha-Synuclein in both Drosophila and mice results in neuronal loss and inclusion formation. alpha-Synuclein knockout mice have abnormalities of dopamine release. However, neither the exact function of alpha-Synuclein nor its role in the pathogenesis of DLB have yet been elucidated. We plan to investigate the role of alpha-Synuclein in the pathophysiology of DLB using Drosophila eye as an animal model system. This genetic system is powerful and has been successfully used to study other CNS, disorders such as Huntington's Disease and Spinocerebellar Ataxia. In order to gain a better understanding of mechanisms of pathogenesis of DLB, we propose three Specific Aims: (1) To characterize alpha-Synuclein-induced pathogenesis in the Drosophila eye; (2) To study interactions between alpha-Synuclein and chaperones; (3) To screen for genes that affect alphaSynuclein-induced pathogenesis. The data we obtain from these experiments should give us a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms that lead to mental dysfunction in DLB. Furthermore, identification of genes involved will lead to new, or effective means of preventing, diagnosing and treatin DLB. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Healthcare projects are funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and Office of Assistant Secretary of Health (OASH).

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Project Title: A THYROID RECEPTOR CO-ACTIVATOR HYPOTHESIS FOR PSYCHOSIS Principal Investigator & Institution: Philibert, Robert A.; Psychiatry; University of Iowa Iowa City, Ia 52242 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JAN-2002; Project End 31-DEC-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant) Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental syndrome that affects approximately 1 percent of the U.S. population and is characterized by the presence of hallucinations and delusions. Genetic factors are thought to account for the majority of the vulnerability to illness for this syndrome. These genetic factors are thought to be composed of major, moderate ant mild effect loci. The identification and characterization of genetic factors of even mild effect loci is a critical step in the process of understanding the pathogenesis of this group of disorders. In prior moleular studies, the candidate has identified an exonic polymorphism (HOPA12bP) in a critical portion of a gene for a thyroid receptor co-activator named HOPAthat is associated with a behavioral endophenotype that include schizophrenia and hypothyroidism. In this five year training grant, the candidate proposes to focus on the behavioral syndrome that is associated with the polymorphism and 1) demonstrate segregation of the polymorphism with illness. 2 refine the phenotype associated with the polymorphism, and 3) identify other mutations that may be related to illness. Scientific Aims of this grant are 1). Peform case control analyses on schizophrenic probands with the HOPA12bp polymorphism. Schizophrenic HOPA probands will be identified and compared to matched case controls for cognitive/behavioral, endocrinological and medical differences. 2. Conduct a focused linkage study of the families of HOPA12bp probands. Structured interviews will be used to assess the presence of cognitive/behavioral and medical co-morbidity in the first-degree relatives of control and HOPA12bP probands. These results will be correlated with genetic status. 3). Conduct SSCP analysis across the HOPA Gene to detect other potentially pathogenic mutations. Mutation analysis will be performed using DNA from other schizophrenic patients to detect other mutations in theHOPA gene that can result in result in this syndrome or related phenotypes. Training Aims of this grant are to 1) develop clinical skills in the diagnosis and standardized measurement of complex behavior and endocrinological disorders, and 2) learn medical and psychiatric epidemiology, ethics, and biostatistical approaches to complex disorders. The net effect will be to produce an independent investigator capable of functional and translational research. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: AMPAKINES IN SCHIZOPHRENIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Johnson, Steven A.; Senior Scientist; Cortex Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 15231 Barranca Pkwy Irvine, Ca 926182201 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-FEB-1999; Project End 31-AUG-2004 Summary: (Adapted From the Applicant's Abstract) Currently available antipsychotics effectively control positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions), but persistent negative symptoms (withdrawal, apathy) and cognitive deficits are little affected and can be quite disabling in most patients with schizophrenia. Recently, a new class of orallybioavailable molecule that specifically enhances AMPA-type glutamate receptor activity has been developed. AMPAKINES facilitate acquisition and retention of memory in rodents and humans, and synergistically interact with modern antipsychotics. We recently completed an exploratory safety trial of the AMPAKINE CX516 added to clozapine in 19 treatment-resistant patients. CX516 was well tolerated and produced

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consistent improvements in negative symptoms, attention, and memory. We now propose to conduct a larger, placebo-controlled trial of CX516 added to olanzapine in patients with schizophrenia. The primary hypothesis is that CX516 will improve negative symptoms, attention, and verbal memory. Secondary aims are: 1) to asses the safety and tolerability of CX516 compared to placebo in olanzapine-treated patients; 2) to assess CX516 effects on positive symptoms, anxiety, depressive symptoms, executive function, and verbal fluency; and 3) to assess effects on extrapyramidal symptoms, including parkinsonism, akathisia and tardive dyskinesia. Positive effects on clinical (negative, positive, extrapyramidal) and neuropsychological (cognition, memory, attention) symptoms in a larger trial will strongly suggest that AMPAKINES may be useful for treatment of schizophrenia. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: This research may lead to the development of a new, improved class of antipsychotic drug for schizophrenia. These new drugs have the potential to treat the diverse symptoms of this complex disease. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: CELLULAR HALLUCINATIONS

BASIS

OF

AMPHETAMINE-INDUCED

Principal Investigator & Institution: Frost, William; Associate Professor; Cell Biology and Anatomy; Rosalind Franklin Univ of Medicine & Sci North Chicago, Il 60064 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2002; Project End 31-AUG-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): Hallucinations are perceptions of stimuli that are not really there. In humans, high doses of amphetamine can trigger hallucinations, as well as paranoid psychotic episodes that are virtually indistinguishable from those of schizophrenia. While the pharmacology of how amphetamine acts in the brain is known in some detail, the electrophysiological mechanisms underlying its psychotogenic effects are not yet understood. This laboratory recently found that single, high doses of amphetamine elicit apparent hallucinations in an invertebrate model system, the marine mollusk Tritonia Diomedea. In isolated brain preparations, amphetamine caused repeated, spontaneous eruptions of the animal's high-threshold escape swim motor program. This effect was traced to spontaneous bursts of action potentials in the centrally-located afferent neurons that normally trigger the swim. Because these neurons are disconnected from the skin in this preparation, the animal's brain is generating a complex response to a perceived skin stimulus that isn't really there -- i.e., it is experiencing a somatic hallucination. The project has three specific aims. The first aim will focus on the biophysical mechanism by which amphetamine induces plateau potential properties in the afferent neurons, rendering them bistable and thus prone to erupt into spontaneous bursts of activity. The second aim will determine whether the explosive spread of firing observed among the members of the afferent neuron population in the presence of amphetamine is due to enhanced chemical or electrical synaptic connections. The third aim will explore whether repeated amphetamine leads to sensitization of its effects over time. Our results should facilitate the development of improved pharmacotherapy for treating amphetamine overdose and addiction. They may also have relevance for the treatment of hallucinations caused by other drugs of abuse as well as by diseases such as schizophrenia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: APPROACHES

CLINICAL

TRIALS

IN

SCHIZOPHRENIA--MOLECULAR

Principal Investigator & Institution: Malhotra, Anil K.; Acting Director; Long Island Jewish Medical Center 270-05 76Th Ave New Hyde Park, Ny 11040 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-SEP-1999; Project End 31-AUG-2003 Summary: This application for a Mentored Patient-oriented Career Development Award (K23) is to support the development of the candidate into a independent investigator capable of conducting large scale clinical trials in psychiatry that address issues of treatment efficacy and effectiveness in addition to serving as the clinical basis for pharmacogenetic studies. The development plan has four major goals: 1) Gain expertise in the design of a clinical trial in schizophrenia, 2) Participate in the execution of a clinical trial, 3) Utilize statistical methodology to analyze clinical trials studies, and 4) Conduct pharmacogenetic analyses of clinical trials data. To accomplish these aims, three major career development activities are proposed: 1) A didactic program to prepare the candidate to independently design, conduct, and analyze clinical trials, 2) Participation in a large clinical trial comparing new antipsychotic medications in patients experiencing their first episode of schizophrenia. This will involve the candidate's participation in the clinical trial as an investigator and will provide the opportunity to develop a pharmacogenetic protocol and, 3) The design, conduct and analysis of a pilot study of the effects of adding the serotonin re-uptake inhibitor, sertraline, to the antipsychotic treatment regimen of schizophrenia patients with treatment-refractory hallucinations. The research plan incorporates two studies. The first is a pharmacogenetic assessment of response to the antipsychotic agents olanzapine and risperidone. This study involves determination of genotype at specific candidate loci within the dopamine and Serotonin receptor systems and case-control and familybased association analysis between these loci and clinical phenotypes of treatment response, drug-induced weight gain and drug-induced extra pyramidal symptoms. The second study is a clinical trial examining sertraline augmentation in schizophrenia patients with hallucinations. The basis of this study is evidence from clinical trials research as well as molecular genetics. This represents an initial effort to utilize the two distinct methodologies to enhance the treatment of schizophrenia. The career development activities and completion of the research studies described in this application are expected to provide the candidate with the knowledge and research experience to develop into an independent investigator with the expertise to conduct high quality clinical trials that incorporate pharmacogenetics into psychiatry. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: CORE--COMPUTATIONAL NEUROSCIENCE Principal Investigator & Institution: Hasselmo, Michael E.; Professor; Harvard University (Medical School) Medical School Campus Boston, Ma 02115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002 Summary: PRIMARY UNIFYING HYPOTHESES: The Computational Core is guided by three main unifying hypotheses. These hypotheses are as follows: 1.) a decrease in feedback inhibition due to loss of NMDA receptor activation on interneurons should contribute to greater spread of excitatory associative activity in models of region CA3, 3.) a decrease in perforant path input to hippocampus should prevent the matching mechanism in region CA1 (and subiculum) which normally regulates the nature of representations spreading along feedback connections to the neocortex. These two physiological level hypotheses underlie the third hypothesis: 3.) increased associative

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spread and decreased including delusions, hallucinations and loosening of associations, as well as certain negative symptoms, such as impaired memory performance. This would result from activity spread causing strengthening of erroneous associations, and lack of effective matching allowing erroneous representations to become consolidated in neocortex due to consolidation mechanisms summarized in a recent review. The process of matching has been analyzed extensively in the Hasselmo laboratory. Detailed modeling in the Computational Core will address hypotheses concerning the specific projects in this grant, linking the cellular, systems and behavioral levels. These include testing how NAAG effects could decrease Sternberg task performance, and Dcycloserine could increase performance (negative symptoms testing in Project VI), testing how NAAG effects could decrease verbal recall (negative symptoms studied in Project V), testing how NAAG and DA effects a perforant path input could underlie positive symptoms of schizophrenia (relating to physiological parameters studied in Projects II and II), testing how loss of GABAergic modulation could increases in place field size and decrease in sensitivity to cue rotation (relating the GABAergic parameters to place cell recording in Project I), and testing how differential sensitivity of interneuron NMDA receptors to NAAG could underlie both positive and negative symptoms (relating to physiological parameters tested in Project III). Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: EVOKED POTENTIALS AND VULNERABILITY TO KETAMINE IN MICE. Principal Investigator & Institution: Siegel, Steven J.; Psychiatry; University of Pennsylvania 3451 Walnut Street Philadelphia, Pa 19104 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 30-SEP-2003; Project End 31-JUL-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): Studies in this Cutting-Edge Basic Research Award proposal would create a mouse model to assess genetic variability for in vivo physiological effects of NMDA antagonist drugs of abuse using auditory event related potentials (ERPs). Background: Abuse of NMDA receptor antagonists, such as ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP), has been recognized for many years. However, recent studies indicate that ketamine abuse has become more common among a subset of the population including people who frequent rave club parties, as well as military and medical personnel. The consequences of ketamine and PCP abuse include hallucinations, paranoia, disorganization and cognitive impairments. While many symptoms resolve within hours, others have been reported to last for many days. However, few studies have addressed genetic and other biological factors and that influence individual differences in ketamine and PCP sensitivity. Hypothesis: Animal studies with ketamine/PCP indicate that their behavioral effects and cellular toxicity are dependent on genetic background, suggesting differential vulnerability to their mechanism of action. Subanesthetic doses of ketamine/PCP have been proposed to exert their effect primarily by disrupting NMDA receptor-mediated glutamate transmission on GABAergic interneurons. This supports a hypothesis that genetic background may influence disruption of NMDA-mediated transmission on GABAergic interneurons to modulate the acute presentation and long-term sequelae of PCP/ketamine abuse. Research Project: The PI has developed a method to assess auditory ERPs in non-anesthetized mice with preliminary data demonstrating differential effects of ketamine among three inbred mouse strains. Aim 1 would determine the dose response relationship for the effects of acute ketamine administration on auditory ERPs in three inbred mouse strains. Aim 2 would then determine the differential sensitivity to effects of chronic ketamine on auditory ERPs in

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these three strains. Lastly, Aim 3 would determine the sensitivity to long-term changes following acute and chronic exposure to ketamine. Environment: The Stanley Center for Experimental Therapeutics in Psychiatry is a basic science laboratory within the Division of Neuropsychiatry and is part of The Center for Neurobiology and Behavior at the University of Pennsylvania. This laboratory contains all of the necessary resources to conduct the proposed studies of ketamine modulation of auditory ERPs in mice. Future Directions: Development of this model would facilitate examination of environmental, genetic and pharmacological factors that modulate the in vivo effects of ketamine and PCP. Such studies would also contribute basic knowledge regarding the neurobiological mechanisms of action, predisposition to toxicity and development of interventions directed at prevention of long-term sequelae following ketamine and PCP exposure. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: FMRI SCHIZOPHRENIA

LOCALIZATION

OF

PSYCHOTIC

SYMPTOMS

IN

Principal Investigator & Institution: Silbersweig, David A.; Associate Professor; Psychiatry; Weill Medical College of Cornell Univ New York, Ny 10021 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 08-AUG-2002; Project End 31-JUL-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): Schizophrenia is a devastating and common disorder, affecting 1% of the population worldwide, and causing tremendous suffering at great societal cost. Psychosis, consisting of the symptoms of delusions andhallucinations, represents the most striking and severe part of the psychiatric symptom spectrum, and causes significant morbidity. Nevertheless, less is known about the pathophysiology of such positive symptoms, compared with the widely studied deficit or negative symptoms. Functional neuroimaging is uniquely suited to an in vivo, systems-level investigation of psychiatric disorders, and can be adapted for the study of psychosis. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) methods are now mature enough to reliably take advantage of the increased spatial and temporal resolution offered by this technology. The investigators have optimized methods of fMRI study design, image acquisition and analysis for the study of psychotic symptoms. They have also developed behavioral activation paradigms to target the specific neural circuits and neuropsychological functions implicated in these symptoms, based upon their previous work, in the context of current knowledge in the field. In this project these methods will be used with well-characterized, actively paranoid schizophrenic patients as well as non-psychotic patient and normal control subjects, to identify and characterize patterns of neural activity associated with the prominent psychotic symptom of paranoid delusions, and to test a neurobiologically specific model of psychosis in schizophrenia. This model is closely integrated with basic neuroscientific models and experiments, and focuses upon increased activity in mesotemporal and subcortical mesolimbic structures, in the setting of decreased activity in medial prefrontal regions. Such a neurobiological characterization of the major psychotic symptoms can increase our understanding of the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, and thereby provide a necessary foundation for the development of more targeted, biologically based diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: FUNCTIONAL SCHIZOPHRENIA

ORGANIZATION

OF

AUDITION

IN

Principal Investigator & Institution: Rojas, Donald C.; Associate Professor; Psychiatry; University of Colorado Hlth Sciences Ctr P.O. Box 6508, Grants and Contracts Aurora, Co 800450508

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Timing: Fiscal Year 2004; Project Start 01-AUG-1999; Project End 30-APR-2009 Summary: (provided by applicant): Alterations in basic auditory perception in persons with schizophrenia have been noted for some time, but very little is known regarding how the changes in auditory behavioral function relate to underlying changes in anatomy and physiology. The relationship between poor auditory performance and the salient clinical symptoms of the disorder such as auditory hallucinations, if any, is also poorly understood. We are proposing an additional 5 years of funding to continue our efforts to characterize changes in the basic organizational principles of the auditory cortex in schizophrenia and their relationship to auditory psychophysics, clinical symptomatology and working memory. Magnetoencephalography (MEG), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and psychoacoustic methods will be employed to study these relationships in 80 people with schizophrenia and matched controls. We hypothesize that alterations in auditory physiology such as disturbed topographic mapping (i.e., tonotopy) and poorer frequency tuning underlie fundamental changes in auditory perceptual processes in schizophrenia. The impact of working memory and attention on perceptual and physiological changes in schizophrenia will also be examined. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: GHB TOLERANCE AND DEPENDENCE Principal Investigator & Institution: Kuhn, Cynthia M.; Professor; Pharmacology and Cancer Biology; Duke University Durham, Nc 27710 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 20-SEP-2003; Project End 31-MAY-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): The purpose of this proposal is to investigate mechanisms of Gamma hydroxy butyrate (GHB) tolerance and dependence after chronic administration of low and high doses of GHB to rats. GHB is a novel sedative-hypnotic that is an emerging drug of abuse. GHB activates GHB, GABA-B and possibly GABA-A receptors, with a unique dose response relationship for each. When recreational users escalate use, tolerance develops and a withdrawal syndrome can occur that is characterized by insomnia, anxiety, and hallucinations. Tolerance and dependence to GHB are poorly characterized in animal models. We hypothesize that tolerance is related to dose and duration of exposure. We also hypothesize that the different receptor populations adapt at varying rates. We postulate that chronic treatment with lower doses or shorter regimens will cause tolerance at GHB and perhaps GABA-B receptors, while higher doses and longer treatments will lead to marked tolerance to GHB, GABA-A and GABA-B receptors. We will assess tolerance to GHB effects on sleep time, tilt plane and plus maze performance after chronic treatment with low or high doses for 7, 14 or 21 days. We will assess spontaneous and GHB (NCS-382) and GABA-B (CGP46381) antagonist-precipitated withdrawal by measuring sleep-wake cycle, locomotion as well as blood pressure and heart rate. Cross-tolerance to GABA-B (baclofen) and GABA-A (pentobarbital, diazepam) agonists will be assessed with the same behavioral measures. We will characterize inhibitory GHB mechanisms using electrophysiologic techniques in frontal cortex. GHB effects on spontaneous, evoked and mini GABA-A IPSCs and on postsynaptic potassium conductance will be determined. The effects of low and high GHB concentrations will be contrasted, and blockade by NCS-382 and CGP46381 on all parameters will be determined. Tolerance to specific GHB and GABA-B mechanisms will be studied by evaluating the same parameters in frontal cortex slices from animals treated chronically with low or high dose GHB. Finally, we will assess GHB effects on GABA-A receptors in naive and tolerant animals by measuring effects on GABA-mediated C1 uptake into synaptoneurosomes and its modulation by benzodiazepines, barbiturates and neurosteroids. These experiments

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Hallucinations

should ultimately lead to the development of more effective pharmacotherapies for GHB dependence, which is an emerging drug abuse problem. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: HYPOCRETIN RELEASE IN DISEASE STATES AND BEHAVIOR Principal Investigator & Institution: Siegel, Jerome M.; Professor; None; University of California Los Angeles 10920 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1200 Los Angeles, Ca 90024 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-2001; Project End 31-JUL-2005 Summary: Recent work in our laboratory has indicated that a degenerative loss of hypocretin (orexin) neurons underlies most cases of human narcolepsy. Several chronic diseases have symptomatic similarities to narcolepsy. This suggests that they may share abnormalities in the operation of the hypocretin (Hcrt) system. For example, patients with unipolar depression and schizophrenia exhibit REM sleep at sleep onset, one of the defining characteristics of narcolepsy. Nighttime sleep is frequently disrupted in both disorders, as in narcolepsy. The age of onset of both of these disorders is similar to that of narcolepsy. Many patients with schizophrenia have hallucinations resembling the hypnagogic hallucinations of narcolepsy. Alzheimer's disease, like narcolepsy, is characterized by daytime sleepiness and nighttime sleep disruption. This "sundowning" and related hallucinatory mentation is the most frequent cause of institutionalization. We have developed a far more sensitive assay for Hcrt than that used in prior published studies and have access to a large number of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from these three groups of patients and suitable controls. We will determine if low Hcrt levels are unique to narcolepsy or if they are present in one or more of these other disorders. We will determine if an Hcrt blood test can be developed to detect narcolepsy. Such a test would have an enormous impact upon the diagnosis and treatment of sleep disorders and on sleep research in general. We will compare blood Hcrt levels in narcoleptics, sleep apneics, REM sleep behavior disorder patients and controls. In parallel animal studies, we will determine the effect of behavior, including motor activity, feeding and short term sleep deprivation upon CSF Hcrt levels. Finally, we will use in vivo microdialysis to determine the pattern of Hcrt release in locus coeruleus, hypothalamus and ventrolateral preoptic area across the sleep wake cycle. We will contrast release patterns in active vs. quiet waking and REM vs. nonREM sleep. These studies will help define the role of this newly identified neurotransmitter system in relation to motor behavior, the sleep wake cycle and in human disease. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: LSD AND SEROTONIN RECEPTOR FUNCTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Gresch, Paul J.; Pharmacology; Vanderbilt University 3319 West End Ave. Nashville, Tn 372036917 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-SEP-2002 Summary: Provided by applicant): Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder with core symptoms that include delusions, disorganized thought and speech, and hallucinations. The neural substrate for the formation of hallucinations is, at present, unclear. In this application, biochemical and behavioral experiments will be performed to examine the loci of action of the hallucinogenic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). LSD is thought to mediate its actions primarily through serotonin-2A (5-HT2a) and serotonin2C (5-HT2c) receptors. Specific Aim I will examine the contribution of 5-HT2A and 5HT2c receptors to the induction of the immediate early gene, c-fos, in rat brain after LSD treatment. Specific Aim H will utilize direct microinfusion to isolate which brain site(s)

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are involve in the LSD-induced discriminative stimulus. Finally, Specific Aim Ill will examine whether there are functional alterations of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2c receptors after repeated LSD exposure. A long-term goal is to understand the neuronal mechanism of action of LSD, a potent hallucinogen, and how these neuronal processes might be dysfunctional in a disease state such as schizophrenia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: MECHANISMS OF SENSORY/COGNITIVE INTERACTIONS IN AUDITION Principal Investigator & Institution: Janata, Petr; Psychological & Brain Scis; Dartmouth College 11 Rope Ferry Rd. #6210 Hanover, Nh 03755 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 20-AUG-2002; Project End 31-JUL-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): Mental images and expectancies shape our perception of the world. Cognitive psychologists have determined such influences on sensory processing with psychophysical measures of phenomena such as mental rotation of objects, apparent motion, and perceptual restoration of speech sounds. They concluded that remembered representations of the world actively structure sensory processing. "Adaptive resonance" and "reentrant" theories propose that interactions of incoming sensory information and experientially derived expectations generate dynamic activity patterns within networks of reciprocal cortico-cortical, corticothalamic, and cortico-limbic connections. Unfortunately, very little is known about the actual neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the perceptual interface. In the proposed research, we will use dense-array electroencephalography (EEG) to dissociate sensory and cognitive components of auditory evoked potentials (AEPs). We will do so using a novel approach that measures potentials emitted in response to well-defined cognitive events that occur in the absence of sensory input. Our initial data indicate that imagining continuations of pitch sequences elicits emitted potentials, even when there is no expectation to hear a sound. In the first step, we will further establish conditions necessary for generating emitted potentials and compare emitted potentials elicited using our method with emitted potentials elicited using the traditional "oddball" paradigm. Next, we will compare and contrast elements of AEPs and emitted potentials in order to evaluate and extend current theories pertaining to the mechanisms by which attention and memory mediate interactions of expectancies/images with sensory input. Additionally, we hope our experiments will establish the use of simple musical materials as a tool for studying non-verbal auditory working memory and sequence learning. The proposed research will set the stage for an R01-scale project in which we seek to identify the neural generators and circuits involved in auditory mental image formation using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), intracranial EEG recordings, and constrained source localization modeling of EEG recorded at the scalp. If successful, our proposed line of research may produce many wide-ranging benefits. Subsequent research based on our results may ultimately lead to the diagnosis and treatment of learning disorders, an understanding of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia, and the creation of neural prostheses that control external devices based on the specific mental images generated by the user. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: MOLECULAR PHARMACOLOGY OF PSYCHOSIS RISK IN AD Principal Investigator & Institution: Sweet, Robert; Scientist; University of Pittsburgh at Pittsburgh 350 Thackeray Hall Pittsburgh, Pa 15260

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Hallucinations

Timing: Fiscal Year 2002 Summary: The psychotic symptoms, delusions and hallucinations, are present in at least 30-40% of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Psychotic symptoms in AD patients (AD+P) predict more rapid functional decline and premature institutionalization. Current treatments for AD+P are inadequate. We have hypothesized a polygenic model of AD+P. In preliminary tests of this hypothesis of this hypothesis, we have found that AD+P was significantly more frequent in patients with specific genotypes at the dopamine1 (D1) and D3 receptor loci (Sweet et a., 1998). Similarly, Holmes et al. (1998) reported an association in AD patients with variation in the serotonin/2A (5-HT2A) and 5-HT2C receptor genes. We propose to establish a cohort of 644 subjects, prospectively and longitudinally characterized with regard to psychosis phenotype, for examination of the genetic determinants of AD+P. Subjects with mild cognitive impairment, possible AD and probable AD will be evaluated at presentation to the Alzheimer's Disease Research Centers of the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Pennsylvania. Genetic material will be obtained. Neuropsychiatric assessments of psychotic symptoms will be conducted, with ratings on the CERAD Behavioral Rating Scale. Subjects without current or prior psychotic symptoms will be followed longitudinally with repeat assessments for psychotic symptoms every 6 months. Telephone assessments will be used for subjects unable to return to minimize incomplete data due to drop-outs. We project 20%-30% of the 644 subjects without psychosis at baseline will develop incident AD+P during the study interval. We hypothesize: 1) D1 receptor genotype will predict onset of AD+P; 2) D3 receptor genotype will predict onset of AD+P; 3) 5-HT2A receptor genotype will predict onset of visual hallucinations; 4) H-HT2C receptor genotype will predict onset of visual hallucinations. This study would be the first to prospectively evaluate the contribution of specific genes to predicting the onset of psychotic symptoms in any disorder. Replicated findings would provide a compelling rationale for family-based studies to address population stratification effects and for pursuit of the identified receptors as targets for drug development. Finally, establishing an AD cohort with prospectively determined psychosis phenotype will facilitate the research for novel risk genes as new genetic technologies become available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: NEURAL SCHIZOPHRENIA

CORRELATES

OF

SOURCE

MONITORING

IN

Principal Investigator & Institution: Weiss, Anthony P.; Massachusetts General Hospital 55 Fruit St Boston, Ma 02114 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-FEB-2003; Project End 31-JAN-2008 Summary: (provided by applicant): This is an application for an NIMH Mentored Patient-Oriented Research Career Development Award (K-23), entitled "Neural Correlates of Source Monitoring in Schizophrenia." The candidate's interest is in understanding the neural basis for the aberrant memory processes seen in schizophrenia, with an eventual goal of examining the role of these faulty cognitive processes in the production of hallucinations and delusions. In addition to the proposed research described below, the candidate seeks training in functional neuroimaging acquisition and analysis, the cognitive psychology of abnormal memory, and the conduct of ethical clinical research. The proposed research plan, didactic courses, and tutorial instruction from mentors and advisors will serve to foster the candidate's development into an independent clinical researcher in the functional neuroimaging of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is associated with a particular type of memory

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disturbance, with intact old/new recognition (i.e., deciding whether an event had occurred previously), but impaired recollection of the contextual details of an experienced event. With limited contextual memory, these patients show deficits in source monitoring, the ability to specify the origin of recollected events. Thus, they may recognize an event as familiar, but have difficulty determining whether the recollected event was actually witnessed, or simply imagined. Although old/new recognition and source monitoring rely on similar neural regions, namely the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC), source monitoring requires greater activity in these regions. Intact old/new recognition with aberrant source monitoring, as seen in schizophrenia, may therefore indicate that the hippocampaI-PFC network is functioning, but is unable to up-regulate its activity in the face of greater cognitive demands. The proposed experiments will test this hypothesis by using the complimentary approaches of functional MRI and magnetoencephalography to examine both the spatial extent and time-course of neural activity during old/new recognition and source monitoring performance in schizophrenia. In addition to providing greater insight into the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, it is hoped that the proposed experiments will lead to objective biological markers for psychiatric illness states, a critical step in developing and monitoring novel treatment interventions. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: NEUROBIOLOGY OF RESPONSE FAILURE IN SCHIZOPHRENIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Ford, Judith M.; Associate Professor; Psychiatry and Behavioral Sci; Stanford University Stanford, Ca 94305 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-SEP-2003; Project End 31-MAR-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): Dr. Ford' s career to date incorporates applications of electrophysiological techniques to illuminate cognitive and experiential aspects of schizophrenia not readily amenable to behavioral assessments. Her career goals for the K02 Award include: * Enhancing skills in design of functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) studies; * Enhancing skills for analysis of event-related potential (ERP) data; * Exploring ways to integrate fMRI and ERP data; * Acquiring skills for simultaneous recording of fMRI and ERP; * Acquiring skills in magnetoencephalography (MEG) recording and analysis; * Improving skills in clinical assessment of psychotic symptoms. These skills will be applied to ongoing studies designed to test hypotheses about the contribution of corollary discharge deficits to the experience of hallucinations and response processing deficits in patients with schizophrenia. Specific work proposed includes: * Use ERPs in two separate experiments to directly compare two manifestations of failure of corollary discharge (N1 non-suppression and error-related negativity [ERN] non-suppression) in patients with schizophrenia, with and without hallucinations; * Directly compare these phenomena using fMRI in the same subjects; * Integrate ERP and fMRI data from these two experiments; * Add a clinical comparison group of psychotic depressed patients with and without hallucinations; * Perform a parallel study to explore the potential of magnetoencephalogram (MEG) for assessing the source of auditory N1m, an analog of the auditory N1. Stanford University provides a technologically and intellectually rich environment for extending Dr. Ford's research into new directions. The facilities and staff of the Department of Psychiatry, Lucas Imaging Center, as well as of the Bio-X program at Stanford will continue to be available to Dr. Ford. These will be supplemented by collaborations with investigators at University of California, San Francisco to conduct MEG studies, University of Pennsylvania to study multi-lead EEG processing, and Institute for Psychiatry, London to study phenomenology of hallucinations.

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Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF DEMENTIA WITH LEWY BODIES Principal Investigator & Institution: Ferman, Tanis J.; Mayo Clinic Coll of Medicine, Rochester 200 1St St Sw Rochester, Mn 55905 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-MAY-1999; Project End 30-APR-2004 Summary: This is an amended New Investigator R0-1 application designed to test the hypothesis that neuropsychological tests can aid in the differentiation of clinically diagnosed dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease (AD). Studies of the neuropsychology of DLB have been primarily retrospective, but suggest a different pattern of performance than AD. A Consortium on dementia with Lewy bodies has identified core clinical features necessary for a diagnosis of DLB, and use of this criteria provides for greater reliability of antemortem diagnosis. Making an early diagnosis is important for purposes of treatment, predicting course and for safety and optimization of function. Participants will include 100 patients with clinically diagnosed DLB, and 100 patients with clinically diagnosed AD. Secondary aims include determining whether clinical features are associated with distinct patterns of cognitive performance in DLB and whether there are differences in disease course of DLB relative to AD. New interview measures of visual hallucinations and fluctuating cognition, clinical features considered to be the hallmark of DLB, will be evaluated for psychometric properties and to obtain a finer characterization of the type, severity and persistence of these features. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: PARKINSONS HALLUCINATIONS

DISEASE:VISUAL

DYSFUNCTION

AND

Principal Investigator & Institution: Holroyd, Suzanne; Psychiatric Medicine; University of Virginia Charlottesville Box 400195 Charlottesville, Va 22904 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 15-JUL-2003; Project End 30-JUN-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): The purpose of this three year grant is to examine the relationship between visual hallucinations and visual system abnormality in Parkinson's disease. Visual hallucinations are common symptoms and frequent causes of morbidity in Parkinson's disease, yet little is known about their etiology. Increasing evidence suggests that hallucinations in Parkinson's disease are not simply a medication effect, but are associated with the underlying disease process. Specificallly, evidence exists that suggest visual hallucinations in Parkinson's disease may be related to known visual system dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. In this study, thirty Parkinson's disease patients with visual hallucinations will be matched to thirty Parkinson's disease patients without visual hallucinations. They will be examined on neuropsychological tests assessing visual cognitive function, and will undergo visual evoked potentials. A subset of these patients (20 matched pairs) will also undergo functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to assess visual cortex function. It is hypothesized that Parkinson's disease patients with visual hallucinations will have greater evidence of visual system abnormality. Specifically they will demonstrate greater deficits of visual-cognitive function, greater latency on visual evoked potential and differences in activation of visual cortical regions on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) than those without visual hallucinations. It is hypothesized that these results will support a proposed biologic model of VH in PD regarding the role of dopamine abnormality in both the retina and basal ganglia that effect the regulation of

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function of visual cortex. The results of this study will increase knowledge regarding the neural mechanisms of visual hallucinations in Parkinson's disease and knowledge of visual system abnormality in Parkinson's disease. The results may also increase our understanding of visual hallucinations in other disorders. Conceivably, such knowledge could lead to strategies to prevent, minimize or treat such symptoms. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: PARTIAL SCHIZOPHRENIA

DOPAMINEAGONIST

TREATMENT

OF

Principal Investigator & Institution: Tamminga, Carol A.; Professor; Psychiatry; University of Maryland Balt Prof School Baltimore, Md 21201 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-SEP-1992; Project End 31-MAR-2003 Summary: The strategy of using partial dopamine (DA) agonists as antidopaminergic antipsychotic agents is based on two sets of observations: first, that DA neurons have autoreceptors which function to decrease DA synthesis, release and neuronal firing, and hence mediate antidopaminergic signals; and, second, that partial agonists have full affinity but reduced intrinsic activity at DA receptors, consequently they exert relatively lower receptor stimulation in competition with the natural neurotransmitter, dopamine. The investigators have suggested that antipsychotic treatment with partial DA agonists, compared to treatment with DA receptor antagonists may have significant clinical advantages. Efficacy and side effects of partial DA agonists will depend on the level intrinsic activity of the partial agonist, a range which can extend from less than 10 percent to over 90 percent. The investigators work to date (see Progress Report) suggests that a partial agonist activity somewhat below 40 percent may be optimal for schizophrenia. The investigators most useful partial DA agonist is (-)-3PPP. The strategy of combining a small proporb'on of a full antagonist (e.g. haloperidol or clozopine) with the partial agonist (-)-3PPP, to produce a functionally lower intrinsic activity of (-)-3PPP, adds flexibility to the clinical testing of the partial agonist strategy. The investigators first clinical study will focus on testing the antipsychotic action of a very low dose of haloperidol (0.5 haloperidol + (-)-3PPP (flexible dose range) or (-)3PPP placebo, compared to a third active control arm (5 mg bid haloperidol + (-)-3PPP placebo). Treatment in each of these three aims will be evaluated in the three primary symptom cluster of schizophrenia: 1) hallucinations/delusions; 2) disorganization, and 3) negative symptoms, and on cognitive function. Our second study will be designed exactly like the first study, except that a very low dose of clazopine will be utilized. Clazapine is low affinity tigand and may, in combination with (-)-3PPP, produce a better antipsychotic action based on its greater displacability. Because the investigators have already demonstrated significant efflcacy, but efflcacy to which tolerance occurs, the investigators current goal is to demonstrate that the efficacy of (-)-3PPP treatment, by modifying intrinsic activity and dosing schedules can be extended. If the investigators are able to overcome the efficacy tolerance, then one of these treatments would be ready for broader multicenter testing. Application of this strategy to other syndromes where neuroleptics improve psychosis is also indicated. In the biochemistry laboratory, we propose to use the D2', D4 2. D4 4 and D4 7 cloned receptors in cultured CHO cells to examine the intrinsic activity and the desensitization potential of different DA agonists at the human D2-family receptors, in vitro. Cloned receptor desensitization, change in GTPyS activation, and arachidonic acid release will be used to study the mechanisms of tolerance and desensitization operating here. These data will predict and later help us to select optimal agonist intrinsic activity ior clinical testing for antipsychotic actvity, duration of therapeutic action, and side effects.

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Hallucinations

Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: PATHWAYS TO DISTURED EMOTIONS, PERCEPTIONS & BELIEFS Principal Investigator & Institution: Berenbaum, Howard; Associate Professor; Psychology; University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Henry Administration Bldg Champaign, Il 61820 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 10-SEP-2001; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): The proposed project has four major goals: (1) to examine in a large representative community sample the strength of the association between a history of psychological trauma and elevated levels of peculiar perceptions and beliefs, assessed by measuring symptoms of schizotypal personality disorder; (2) to examine whether the effects of neurodevelopmental factors and psychological trauma on vulnerability to peculiar perceptions and beliefs are additive or interactive; (3) to examine the relation between peculiar perceptions and beliefs and disturbances in emotional awareness and the processing and utilization of emotionally-valenced information; and (4) to examine psychological mechanisms (disturbances in emotional awareness and the processing and utilization of emotionally-valenced information, dissociation, absorption, and an intuitive-experiential thinking style) that may mediate the links between distal vulnerability factors, such as psychological trauma and neurodevelopmental factors, and the later development of elevated levels of peculiar perceptions and beliefs. The association between trauma history and schizotypal personality disorder will be examined in a telephone survey of 1500 individuals randomly selected from the community. The remaining goals will be addressed by conducting intensive laboratory/interview assessments of 300 individuals, recruited via telephone screening and newspaper advertising, intentionally oversampling individuals with high levels of schizotypal symptoms. The laboratory/interview assessments will include the assessment of minor physical anomalies, handedness, dermatoglyphic asymmetries, Cluster A personality disorders, childhood maltreatment as well as other traumas, and questionnaire and behavioral measures of the processing and utilization of emotionally-valenced information. The proposed project will improve our understanding of the nature and etiology of schizotypal, schizoid, and paranoid personality disorders. The proposed project will also provide clues concerning which psychological mechanisms might contribute to peculiar perceptions and beliefs across the psychiatric spectrum, such as the hallucinations and delusions exhibited by individuals with psychotic and mood disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: PHARMACOKINETICS & PHARMACODYNAMICS OF ANTIINFLAMMATORY BOTANICALS Principal Investigator & Institution: Nix, David E.; University of Arizona P O Box 3308 Tucson, Az 857223308 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002 Summary: (Applicant's Abstract): Despite the availability of numerous medications to treat inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, asthma and inflammatory bowel disease, treatments are not ideal. The toxicity of the steriodal and non-steroidal anti-flammatory agents (NSAID) can be devastating to the overall health and quality of life of these individuals. NSAID can cause severe gastric ulcers requiring surgery; corticosteroids can cause severe toxic effects to the bone, muscle and endocrine systems and psychic disturbances such as euphoria, hallucinations and mental depression. Some patients

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with inflammatory conditions are resistant to medications and require long-term treatment with large doses, which further increases the toxic potential. Because of these limitations to inflammatory disease treatment, patients are increasingly looking for safe and natural alternatives. Traditionally, Indian Medicine (Ayurvedic Medicine) has used several combinations of botanicals to treat inflammatory conditions such as arthritis and respiratory illnesses. These combinations commonly include Curcuma longa rhizome (powdered turmeric root), Zingiber officinale rhizome (powdered ginger root) and the gum resin of Boswellia serrata. Very little data exist to support the efficacy or safety of these products. Before clinical trials can be undertaken however, more needs to be known about the human pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic properties of these products. The long range goal of this project is to determine the basic pharmacodynamic properties of these products. The long range goal of this project is to determine the basic pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of anti-inflammatory botanical dietary supplements (ABDS) to provide the information needed to target appropriate inflammatory conditions in phase II and phase III studies using appropriate doses and intervals. The information obtained will also help predict drug interactions both positive and negative among the botanicals and combining these botanicals with conventional medicines. This project proposes to assess the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics of three commonly used Ayurvedic ABDS. The primary aims and hypotheses for this four year study (years 2 to 5 of the grant) include the following: 1. Evaluate the pharmacokinetics of turmeric, ginger, and boswellia alone and in combination. Hypothesis A: Normal healthy volunteers will show equal bioavailability of individual components to achieve measurable serum concentrations and pharmacological activity. Hypothesis B: Normal healthy volunteers will show equal bioavailability of individual components when turmeric, ginger or boswellia are combined. 2. Evaluate the pharmacodynamics of turmeric, ginger and boswellia. Hypothesis C: Dose normalized peak serum concentrations (Cmax) and the area under the curve (AUC) will be equivalent for varied doses of turmeric, ginger and boswellia. Hypothesis D: Blood taken from normal healthy volunteers and stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) will show inhibition of one or more key inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), interleukin-1 (IL-1), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and increased production of an anti-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-10 (IL-10), after the oral ingestion of turmeric, ginger or boswellia taken singly or in combination. 3. Evaluate the platelet inhibiting effects of turmeric, ginger and boswellia. Hypothesis E: Bleeding times measured before and after the ingestion of turmeric, ginger, or boswellia, or combinations of these botanicals are equivalent. Our expectations are that this information will help design future clinical trials utilizing turmeric, ginger and boswellia in humans. The pharmacokinetic information will help guide dosing and help predict the potential for drug interactions and contraindications. The pharmacodynamic information will help guide which inflammatory diseases are likely to be responsive to treatment with these ABDS. The principal investigators will be collaborating with recognized experts in the field of inflammatory diseases (Dr. Michael Maurice, see letter of support) and integrative medicine (Dr. Andrew Weil, see letter of support). This collaboration will serve as a needed bridge between the basic sciences, i.e. in vitro and animal testing and clinical testing in humans. One of the primary reasons we have chosen to begin our studies of ABDS with turmeric, ginger and boswellia is that Dr. Weil recommends these botanicals to his patients with rheumatoid arthritis. He has clinical experience showing the potential for efficacy, but recognizes the need for further research to demonstrate what are the most effective products, doses and dosage forms Also, since these products have traditionally been used for other inflammatory diseases such as asthma and inflammatory bowel disease, he further recognizes the need for testing in area outside of

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Hallucinations

his clinical experience that may ultimately benefit patients. Drs. Maricic and Weil will provide the clinical expertise in providing physician services in this Phase I trial and will help us design and recruit patients for subsequent clinical trials in Phase II testing. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: RECEPTORS

POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL

REGULATION

OF

SEROTONIN

Principal Investigator & Institution: Emeson, Ronald B.; Joel G. Hardman Chair; Pharmacology; Vanderbilt University 3319 West End Ave. Nashville, Tn 372036917 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-FEB-1997; Project End 31-JAN-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) is a monoaminergic neurotransmitter that modulates numerous sensory and motor processes as well as a wide variety of behaviors including sleep, appetite, pain perception, locomotion, thermoregulation, hallucinations, and sexual behavior. Recent studies from our laboratory have indicated that the function of the 2C-subtype of serotonin receptor (5-HT2 c R) is modulated by a novel RNA modification process referred to as RNA editing. Editing of 5-HL2cR transcripts is responsible for the tissuespecific expression of as many as twenty-four 5-HT2cR isoforms and is proposed to represent a regulatory mechanism by which cells modulate their response to extracellular signals by altering the efficacy and specificity of receptor/G-protein interactions; the long term objectives of the proposed research are to define the cellular mechanisms involved in the regulation of serotonergic signal transduction in the central nervous system. We propose to examine the signaling properties of distinct 5-HT2cR isoforms using a high-throughput, cell-based assay to identify functional interactions between 5-HT, cR isoforms and the a-subunits of several heterotrimeric G-proteins. These studies will be extended to examine the functional responses of other edited 5HT2cR isoforms that are highly expressed in the rat and human brain and to dissect the 5-HT2cR-activated signaling pathways leading to activation of phospholipase D, mitogenactivated (MAP) kinase and rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton. To examine the physiological relevance of multiple, edited 5-HT2cR isoforms, mice capable of expressing only, a single 5-HT2CR isoform will be generated by targeted gene modification in embryonic stem cells; the non-edited (INI) and fully-edited (VGV) 5HT2c R isoforms have been selected for these studies, as they demonstrate the greatest differences in receptor: G-protein coupling efficacy In additional to gross alterations in animal phenotype and brain morphology, mutant mice will be examined for alterations in physiological systems in which the 5-HT2cR has already been implicated, including tumorigenesis, seizure activity, feeding behavior, locomotor activity and hippocampal function. To further examine the role of 5-HT2cR editing in cellular transformation, NIH-3T3 cells expressing specific 5-HT2cR isoforms will be assessed for a number of transformed cellular characteristics including increased mitogenesis, loss of contact inhibition, loss of anchorage dependence and the ability to generate tumors in nude mice. It is anticipated that these studies will provide new insights concerning the regulation of cellular processes involved in the transduction of serotonergic signals and the role(s) of multiple serotonin receptors in the nervous system. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: PSYCHOTIC SCHIZOPHRENIA

SYMPTOMS

ON

VISUAL

LEARNING

IN

Principal Investigator & Institution: Holcomb, Henry H.; Associate Professor; Psychiatry; University of Maryland Balt Prof School Baltimore, Md 21201

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Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JAN-2003; Project End 31-DEC-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): Most, but not all, persons diagnosed with schizophrenia are able to learn when given systematic, repetitive exposure to a perceptual or motor task. In spite of their normal skill acquisition, persons with thought disorder or reality distortion might not be able to learn by using normal brain physiology. The behavioral and physiological impact of particular symptom profiles on perceptual learning has not been assessed in an experimental design explicitly created to generate similar performance across subjects of differing abilities. This proposal will use event related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with normal healthy volunteers and persons with schizophrenia, to determine whether thought disorder (disorganization), or reality distortion (hallucinations plus delusions) specifically influence the physiological response to learning a visual / spatial recognition task. We expect thought disorder to have a significantly greater effect on a schizophrenic's neural activity patterns associated with learning, than reality distortion. Thought disorder is hypothesized to diminish hippocampal and frontal cortex response to training, especially during the encode phase of the trial. We will determine the dynamic roles of particular cortical systems in normal subjects before and after visual recognition training. We will then assess the relative impact of these two symptom profiles, in persons with schizophrenia learning a visual Delayed Match to Sample Task (DMST), on the changes found in these regions. We will obtain event related fMRI studies on 30 clinically stable, medicated persons with schizophrenia (15 with thought disorder and 15 with reality distortion) and 25 age and sex matched comparison subjects (normal volunteers) before (first fMRI) and after (second fMRI) visual skill training using a visual DMST. Clinical characteristics, thought disorder (TD) and reality distortion (RD), of the schizophrenic volunteers will be correlated with the physiological (especially encode components of the trial) and behavioral response to visual learning. A third fMRI study after 8 weeks of intensive visual training, will be done on all schizophrenic volunteers following the second study. SZ with predominantly RD may be able to use this extended training to further normalize their task-activated BOLD signal patterns but SZ with predominantly TD may not benefit. Our understanding of how symptom clusters contribute to abnormal physiological activity patterns associated with learning visual recognition. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: ROLE OF CONFLICT IN MEMORY Principal Investigator & Institution: Johnson, Marcia K.; Professor; Princeton University 4 New South Building Princeton, Nj 085440036 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002 Summary: Episodic memories, in contrast to semantic memories or beliefs, are distinguished by features that specify the circumstances of encoding, that is, the source of the memory (the what, where, when, who, and other features that make up an "event"). Uncertainty and conflict in episodic memory often revolves around the source of memories, e.g., "Did I mail the check or only think about mailing it?" "Did I hear that advice from my doctor or from my neighbor?" Disruption of source monitoring is a common consequence from normal aging and a frequent symptom (e.g., hallucinations and delusions) in psychotherapy, and a potential consequence of brain damage, especially in frontal areas. The source monitoring framework (SMF) characterizes the processes involving in encoding and remembering (and falsely remembering) episodic memories, and provides a theoretical approaches for understanding both normal and abnormal memory distortion. The present research has three goals: The first is to

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Hallucinations

develop a formal model of the role of cognitive conflict and control in source monitoring, using a dynamical (Hopfield) neural net model. Results of behavioral studies in which participants make judgements about the source of previously presented items (e.g. was a word seen or heard?) Will be used to derived parameters of the model. The second goal is to further our understanding of the neural substrates of source monitoring. In particular, fMRI studies will be conducted to test the hypothesis that the anterior cingulate (ACC) is sensitive to cognitive conflict during episodic remembering, and that different regions of ACC detect conflict between features of memories and conflict between tasks (e.g., monitoring for multiple features of memories). Additionally hypothesis to be tested include that conflict, and thus ACC activity is modulated by the motivation to be accurate, the task relevance of potentially competing representations, and selective focus on a subset of information in memory. The third goal is to integrate the dynamical model of source monitoring. The long-range goal is to characterize the way in which ACC and other brain regions, particularly prefrontal cortex, interact during the retrieval and evaluation of memories, and the ways in which this memory monitoring system can be disrupted (e.g., by aging, injury, and disease). Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: SENSITIVITY NEURODEGENERATION

OF

AGED

RATS

TO

NRHYPO

Principal Investigator & Institution: Jevtovic-Todorovic, Vesna; Washington University Lindell and Skinker Blvd St. Louis, Mo 63130 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUL-2002; Project End 30-JUN-2003 Summary: Modern medicine is faced with a growing geriatric population and with an increase in the number of elderly patients who require surgical procedures under general anesthesia. Ketamine and nitrous oxide (N2O, laughing gas) are used common as general anesthetics for patients of all ages, and in some cases are considered the agents of choice for elderly patients. Both of these agents are frequently used in combination with other general anesthetic agents, and sometimes are used in combination with one another, especially for elderly patients who cannot tolerate the cardiopulmonary depressant properties of other general anesthetics. It has been known for some time that ketamine, a non-competitive N-methyl-D- aspartate neurons of adult rats. This is a property of ketamine shares with other NMDA antagonist drugs. Over the years, N2O has been considered safe for patients of all ages, although very little insight has been gained into its mechanism of action. Recently the applicant disocver4ed that N2O acts by the same mechanism as ketamine- it blocks NMDA glutamate receptors and has all of the same properties as other NMDA antagonists-it blocks NMDA glutamate receptors and has all of the same properties as other NMDA antagonists, including the same neurotoxic properties, The applicant has also observed that when N2O is administered together with ketamine to young adult rats the two agents appear to potentiate one another's neurotoxicity, i.e., the toxicity is augmented to a degree that is greater than can be explained by simple additivity. In other pilot studies, we have observed that the NMDA antagonist, MK801, at a given dose induces much more severe brain damage in aged than in young adult rats. This raises questions about whether N2O and ketamine, either alone or in combination, might contribute to the postoperative delirious state (agitation, delusions, hallucinations, disorientation, confusion, memory impairment) that sometimes occurs post-operatively, and is known to occur much more frequently in elderly than young adult patients. Therefore, we propose studies in young adult and aged rats to clarify the nature and degree of risk associated

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with exposing the aged brain to N2O and ketamine, either individually or in combination. The experiments will be designed in a way that will help clarify the mechanism underlying the observed increased toxicity of MK801 in aged rats. In addition, we will explore pharmacological mechanisms by which the neurotoxic side effects of these two agents can be prevented. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: SPECTRUM OF NARCOLEPSY AND ITS SYMPTOMS Principal Investigator & Institution: Young, Terry B.; Professor of Prventative Medicine; Stanford University Stanford, Ca 94305 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUN-2002; Project End 31-MAY-2003 Summary: The overall goal of the epidemiology study proposed here is to provide population-based knowledge on the occurrence and correlates of narcolepsy-related symptoms and polygraphic signs as a foundation for characterizing and refining the working definition of human narcolepsy. We propose the collection of new data from participants enrolled in the Wisconsin Sleep Cohort Study, a longitudinal epidemiology study of the natural history of sleep disorders. This will be established by: a) administering a narcolepsy-related symptom questionnaire to a sample of 5000 middleaged men and women; b) on a subsample of 820, conducting multiple-sleep latency tests (MSLTs) designed to detect episodes of sleep-onset rapid eye movement sleep periods (SOREMPs); and c) HLA typing to determine DQP1 positivity These new data will be added to extensive subjective and objective data on a sample of 1400, including baseline and follow-up polysomnography, experimental MSLTs, and other tests collected previously and currently as part of the Wisconsin Sleep Cohort Study. The anticipated results will be of direct application to the development of more specific and more sensitive guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of narcolepsy. In addition, the expected new knowledge on the spectrum and correlates of narcolepsy symptoms and signals will provide a foundation for further research on risk factors and adverse health outcomes on narcolepsy. The specific aims are: 1. To determine in the general adult population the distribution and correlates of narcolepsy-related symptoms (cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hypnagogic hallucinations, automatic behavior, excessive daytime sleepiness, and disturbed nocturnal sleep), and polygraphic signs including SOREMPs; 2. To confirm that HLA-DQ polymorphisms in the general population influence nocturnal sleep architecture; 3. To evaluate the influence of HLA susceptibility alleles on narcolepsy-related symptoms and signals, diagnostic groupings, and symptom clusters. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: TMS HALLUCINATIONS

INTERVENTION

DEVELOPMENT

FOR

AUDITORY

Principal Investigator & Institution: Hoffman, Ralph E.; Psychiatry; Yale University 47 College Street, Suite 203 New Haven, Ct 065208047 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-MAR-2001; Project End 28-FEB-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): Auditory hallucinations of speech reported by patients with schizophrenia are often resistant to psychotropic drugs and can cause significant distress, functional disability and behavioral dyscontrol. The long-term objective of this application is to develop an alternative somatic intervention for these patients using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). The PI has completed a pilot study of twelve schizophrenic patients showing that 1 hertz rTMS delivered to left temporoparietal cortex, a brain region underlying speech perception,

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Hallucinations

can curtail auditory hallucinations. A more extended trial where patients receive nine instances of 1 Hz rTMS has now been initiated. Early data from this second study suggest that active rTMS robustly reduces auditory hallucinations when compared to sham stimulation in 60-70% of patients with a sustained duration of at least many months. Specific Aim #1 of our study application is to undertake a preliminary test of the efficacy of our extended rTMS protocol. Forty patients reporting AHs will be enrolled in a randomized double-blind, parallel design. Procedures for monitoring patients for emergence of cognitive impairments will be implemented and tested. Pilot data will be used to estimate effect size, statistical power, rates of adverse effects and attrition, and rate and duration of clinical response. One-year follow-along assessments of symptoms and treatment course will be conducted to ascertain longer-terms effects of active rTMS. Specific Aim #2 is to test an alternative method for positioning rTMS using [18F] fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG PET) for an intervention trial in a subgroup of schizophrenic patients with constant auditory hallucinations. PET metabolic brain maps will be used to identify the region of maximum abnormal cortical activation for individual patients. A computerized frameless stereotaxy system will then be used to position the rTMS coil based on patient-specific neuroimaging data. We hypothesize that rTMS positioned according to PET findings will be superior to rTMS positioned at our standard stimulation site (left temporoparietal cortex) and sham stimulation in reducing hallucinations and other symptoms. Fifteen schizophrenic patients with constant auditory hallucinations will be studied using a randomized, double blind, crossover design to test this hypothesis. The results of these studies will be used to design an intervention algorithm for a full-scale trial of rTMS in a larger group of schizophrenic patients with medication-resistant AHs. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: TREATMENT AND OUTCOME OF EARLY ONSET BIPOLAR DISORDER Principal Investigator & Institution: Kafantaris, Vivian; Assistant Professor; Long Island Jewish Medical Center 270-05 76Th Ave New Hyde Park, Ny 11040 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-MAR-2001; Project End 28-FEB-2003 Summary: (Adapted from the Applicant's Abstract): Onset of bipolar disorder during adolescence increases the risk of school failure, out-of-home placement, drug abuse and addiction, and suicide. In adolescents, bipolar disorder is often accompanied by delusions, hallucinations, or severe assaultive or destructive behaviors that require acute treatment with adjunctive antipsychotic medication in addition to a mood stabilizer. There are no data on when to withdraw antipsychotic medication or whether to withdraw it at all. Although it is important to identify patients who could be maintained on lithium alone to decrease the risk of developing long-term adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia (TD), it is also important to prevent disruptive recurrences of episodes of illness. There is a high rate of failure on lithium maintenance treatment in general. For adolescents who have had psychotic features or assaultive, destructive behavior as part of their mania, continued adjunctive antipsychotic medication may offer additional prophylactic efficacy. In addition, a lower risk of TD with the novel antipsychotics may alter the risk: benefit ratio in favor of longer-term antipsychotic treatment. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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E-Journals: PubMed Central3 PubMed Central (PMC) is a digital archive of life sciences journal literature developed and managed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).4 Access to this growing archive of e-journals is free and unrestricted.5 To search, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Pmc, and type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the search box. This search gives you access to full-text articles. The following is a sample of items found for hallucinations in the PubMed Central database: •

Left with the voices or hearing right? Lateralization of auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia. by Sommer IE, Aleman A, Kahn RS.; 2003 May; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=161746

The National Library of Medicine: PubMed One of the quickest and most comprehensive ways to find academic studies in both English and other languages is to use PubMed, maintained by the National Library of Medicine.6 The advantage of PubMed over previously mentioned sources is that it covers a greater number of domestic and foreign references. It is also free to use. If the publisher has a Web site that offers full text of its journals, PubMed will provide links to that site, as well as to sites offering other related data. User registration, a subscription fee, or some other type of fee may be required to access the full text of articles in some journals. To generate your own bibliography of studies dealing with hallucinations, simply go to the PubMed Web site at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed. Type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” The following is the type of output you can expect from PubMed for hallucinations (hyperlinks lead to article summaries): •

3 4

A blind man with Parkinson's disease, visual hallucinations, and Capgras syndrome. Author(s): Hermanowicz N. Source: The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2002 Fall; 14(4): 462-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12426417

Adapted from the National Library of Medicine: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/about/intro.html.

With PubMed Central, NCBI is taking the lead in preservation and maintenance of open access to electronic literature, just as NLM has done for decades with printed biomedical literature. PubMed Central aims to become a world-class library of the digital age. 5 The value of PubMed Central, in addition to its role as an archive, lies in the availability of data from diverse sources stored in a common format in a single repository. Many journals already have online publishing operations, and there is a growing tendency to publish material online only, to the exclusion of print. 6 PubMed was developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The PubMed database was developed in conjunction with publishers of biomedical literature as a search tool for accessing literature citations and linking to full-text journal articles at Web sites of participating publishers. Publishers that participate in PubMed supply NLM with their citations electronically prior to or at the time of publication.

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Hallucinations

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A child presenting with disordered consciousness, hallucinations, screaming episodes and abdominal pain. Author(s): Hussain K, Mundy H, Aynsley-Green A, Champion M. Source: European Journal of Pediatrics. 2002 February; 161(2): 127-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11954752

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A child who visited the emergency room with stress-related nonpsychotic hallucinations. Author(s): Murase S, Honjo S, Inoko K, Ohta T. Source: General Hospital Psychiatry. 2002 November-December; 24(6): 453-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12490352

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A comparison of auditory hallucinations in a psychiatric and non-psychiatric group. Author(s): Johns LC, Hemsley D, Kuipers E. Source: The British Journal of Clinical Psychology / the British Psychological Society. 2002 March; 41(Pt 1): 81-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11931680

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A comparison of metacognitions in patients with hallucinations, delusions, panic disorder, and non-patient controls. Author(s): Morrison AP, Wells A. Source: Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2003 February; 41(2): 251-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12547384

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A computational morphometric MRI study of schizophrenia: effects of hallucinations. Author(s): Shapleske J, Rossell SL, Chitnis XA, Suckling J, Simmons A, Bullmore ET, Woodruff PW, David AS. Source: Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991). 2002 December; 12(12): 1331-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12427683

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A response to 'Sexual hallucinations during and after sedation and anaesthesia' Balasubramaniam B, Park GR, Anaesthesia 2003; 58: 549-53. Author(s): Satya-Krishna R. Source: Anaesthesia. 2003 November; 58(11): 1149-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14616644

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A subtype of auditory verbal hallucinations responds to fluvoxamine. Author(s): Stephane M, Polis I, Barton SN. Source: The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2001 Summer; 13(3): 425-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11514657

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•

Affective reactions to auditory hallucinations in psychotic, evangelical and control groups. Author(s): Davies MF, Griffin M, Vice S. Source: The British Journal of Clinical Psychology / the British Psychological Society. 2001 November; 40(Pt 4): 361-70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11760613

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Aging and visual hallucinations in elderly psychiatric outpatients. Author(s): Soeda S, Terao T, Nishimura M, Nakamura J, Iwata N. Source: Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 2004 March; 28(2): 401-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14751440

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An exploration of evolved mental mechanisms for dominant and subordinate behaviour in relation to auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia and critical thoughts in depression. Author(s): Gilbert P, Birchwood M, Gilbert J, Trower P, Hay J, Murray B, Meaden A, Olsen K, Miles JN. Source: Psychological Medicine. 2001 August; 31(6): 1117-27. Erratum In: Psychol Med. 2002 May; 32(4): 757. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11513379

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An integrative treatment for patients with persistent auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Jenner JA. Source: Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.). 2002 July; 53(7): 897-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12096179

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Auditory hallucinations and cognitive impairment in a patient with a lesion restricted to the hippocampus. Author(s): Suzuki K, Takei N, Toyoda T, Iwata Y, Hoshino R, Minabe Y, Mori N. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 2003 November 1; 64(1): 87-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14511806

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Auditory hallucinations associated with migraine. Author(s): Rubin D, McAbee GN, Feldman-Winter LB. Source: Headache. 2002 July-August; 42(7): 646-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12482218

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Auditory hallucinations associated with topiramate. Author(s): Matthews SC, Miller BP. Source: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2001 August; 62(8): 653. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11561939

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Auditory hallucinations in schizophrenic and affective disorder Nigerian patients: phenomenological comparison. Author(s): Okulate GT, Jones OB. Source: Transcultural Psychiatry. 2003 December; 40(4): 531-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14979466

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Auditory hallucinations, source monitoring, and the belief that "voices" are real. Author(s): Garrett M, Silva R. Source: Schizophrenia Bulletin. 2003; 29(3): 445-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14609239

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Auditory verbal hallucinations and dysfunction of the neural substrates of speech. Author(s): Stephane M, Barton S, Boutros NN. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 2001 May 30; 50(1-2): 61-78. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11378315

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Auditory verbal hallucinations--breaking the silence of inner dialogue. Author(s): Stanghellini G, Cutting J. Source: Psychopathology. 2003 May-June; 36(3): 120-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12845282

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Auras and other hallucinations: windows on the visual brain. Author(s): Wilkinson F. Source: Prog Brain Res. 2004; 144: 305-20. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14650857

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Behavioural disturbance and visual hallucinations in a 78 year old man. Author(s): Schultz DW, Lennox GG, Ironside JW, Warlow CP. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1998 December; 65(6): 9338. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9854977

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Beneficial effect of high-dose clotiazepam on intractable auditory hallucinations in chronic schizophrenic patients. An open trial. Author(s): Jibiki I, Yamaguchi N, Momonoi F. Source: European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 1994; 46(4): 367-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7957524

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Benzodiazepines and the ear--tinnitus, hallucinations and schizophrenia. Author(s): Gordon AG. Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 1993 March; 38(2): 156-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8467446

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Bereavement among elderly people: grief reactions, post-bereavement hallucinations and quality of life. Author(s): Grimby A. Source: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1993 January; 87(1): 72-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8424323

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Beta-agonist inhaler causing hallucinations. Author(s): Schnapf BM, Santeiro ML. Source: Pediatric Emergency Care. 1994 April; 10(2): 87-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8029117

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Blank hallucinations in the fiction of Poe and Hemingway. Author(s): Tarbox R. Source: Am Imago. 1967 Winter; 24(4): 312-43. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4868453

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Brain metabolism during auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Cleghorn J. Source: Nurs Times. 1991 March 27-April 2; 87(13): 53. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2008369

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Brain-mind states: reciprocal variation in thoughts and hallucinations. Author(s): Fosse R, Stickgold R, Hobson JA. Source: Psychological Science : a Journal of the American Psychological Society / Aps. 2001 January; 12(1): 30-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11294225

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Bromocriptine and hallucinations. Author(s): Harris PL. Source: Annals of Internal Medicine. 1984 July; 101(1): 149. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6732088

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Caregiver report of hallucinations and paranoid delusions in elders aged 70 or older. Author(s): Turvey CL, Schultz SK, Arndt S, Ellingrod V, Wallace R, Herzog R. Source: Int Psychogeriatr. 2001 June; 13(2): 241-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11495398

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Cerebral activity associated with auditory verbal hallucinations: a functional magnetic resonance imaging case study. Author(s): Bentaleb LA, Beauregard M, Liddle P, Stip E. Source: Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience : Jpn. 2002 March; 27(2): 110-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11944506

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Characteristics of functional auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Hunter MD, Woodruff PW. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2004 May; 161(5): 923. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15121664

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Charles Bonnet syndrome with visual hallucinations of childhood experience: successful treatment of 1 patient with risperidone. Author(s): Maeda K, Shirayama Y, Nukina S, Yoshioka S, Kawahara R. Source: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2003 September; 64(9): 1131-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14628992

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Charles Bonnet syndrome--elderly people and visual hallucinations. Author(s): Jacob A, Prasad S, Boggild M, Chandratre S. Source: Bmj (Clinical Research Ed.). 2004 June 26; 328(7455): 1552-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15217875

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Charles Bonnet's syndrome: complete remission of complex visual hallucinations treated by gabapentin. Author(s): Paulig M, Mentrup H. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 2001 June; 70(6): 813-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11430294

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Childhood trauma and hallucinations in bipolar affective disorder: preliminary investigation. Author(s): Hammersley P, Dias A, Todd G, Bowen-Jones K, Reilly B, Bentall RP. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 2003 June; 182: 543-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12777347

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Cognitive behaviour therapy with coping training for persistent auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia: a naturalistic follow-up study of the durability of effects. Author(s): Wiersma D, Jenner JA, van de Willige G, Spakman M, Nienhuis FJ. Source: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2001 May; 103(5): 393-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11380310

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Cognitive therapy for auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Gordon AG. Source: International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2004 June; 19(6): 597-8; Author's Reply 598-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15211546

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Cognitive therapy for command hallucinations: randomised controlled trial. Author(s): Trower P, Birchwood M, Meaden A, Byrne S, Nelson A, Ross K. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 2004 April; 184: 312-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15056575

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Command hallucinations: who obeys and who resists when? Author(s): Erkwoh R, Willmes K, Eming-Erdmann A, Kunert HJ. Source: Psychopathology. 2002 September-October; 35(5): 272-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12457018

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Complex hallucinations following occipital lobe damage. Author(s): Beniczky S, Keri S, Voros E, Ungurean A, Benedek G, Janka Z, Vecsei L. Source: European Journal of Neurology : the Official Journal of the European Federation of Neurological Societies. 2002 March; 9(2): 175-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11882059

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Connecting neurosis and psychosis: the direct influence of emotion on delusions and hallucinations. Author(s): Freeman D, Garety PA. Source: Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2003 August; 41(8): 923-47. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12880647

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Coping strategies for visual hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Diederich NJ, Pieri V, Goetz CG. Source: Movement Disorders : Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society. 2003 July; 18(7): 831-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12815665

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Coping with voices: selective attention training for persistent auditory hallucinations in treatment refractory schizophrenia. Author(s): Hatashita-Wong M, Silverstein SM. Source: Psychiatry. 2003 Fall; 66(3): 255-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14587362

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Cortical activation associated with the experience of auditory hallucinations and perception of human speech in schizophrenia: a PET correlation study. Author(s): Copolov DL, Seal ML, Maruff P, Ulusoy R, Wong MT, Tochon-Danguy HJ, Egan GF. Source: Psychiatry Research. 2003 April 1; 122(3): 139-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12694889

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Cortical activity associated with auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Ropohl A, Sperling W, Elstner S, Tomandl B, Reulbach U, Kaltenhauser M, Kornhuber J, Maihofner C. Source: Neuroreport. 2004 March 1; 15(3): 523-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15094516

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Cost-effectiveness of the HIT programme in patients with schizophrenia and persistent auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Stant AD, TenVergert EM, Groen H, Jenner JA, Nienhuis FJ, van de Willige G, Wiersma D. Source: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2003 May; 107(5): 361-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12752032

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Delusions and hallucinations as a reflection of the subcultural milieu among psychotic patients of the 1930s and 1980s. Author(s): Mitchell J, Vierkant AD. Source: The Journal of Psychology. 1989 May; 123(3): 269-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2754632

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Delusions and hallucinations in Alzheimer's disease: prevalence and clinical correlates. Author(s): Bassiony MM, Steinberg MS, Warren A, Rosenblatt A, Baker AS, Lyketsos CG. Source: International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2000 February; 15(2): 99-107. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10679840

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Delusions and hallucinations in Alzheimer's disease: review of the brain decade. Author(s): Bassiony MM, Lyketsos CG. Source: Psychosomatics. 2003 September-October; 44(5): 388-401. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12954913

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Delusions and hallucinations in an adult day care population. A longitudinal study. Author(s): Cohen-Mansfield J, Taylor L, Werner P. Source: The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry : Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry. 1998 Spring; 6(2): 104-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9581206

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Delusions and hallucinations in patients with borderline personality disorder. Author(s): Suzuki H, Tsukamoto C, Nakano Y, Aoki S, Kuroda S. Source: Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 1998 December; 52(6): 605-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9895209

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Delusions and hallucinations of cocaine abusers and paranoid schizophrenics: a comparative study. Author(s): Mitchell J, Vierkant AD. Source: The Journal of Psychology. 1991 May; 125(3): 301-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1880755

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Dementia with Lewy bodies may present as dementia and REM sleep behavior disorder without parkinsonism or hallucinations. Author(s): Ferman TJ, Boeve BF, Smith GE, Silber MH, Lucas JA, Graff-Radford NR, Dickson DW, Parisi JE, Petersen RC, Ivnik RJ. Source: Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : Jins. 2002 November; 8(7): 907-14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12405541

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Depression, anxiety and hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Meara J, Hobson P. Source: Elder Care. 1998 August-September; 10(4): Suppl 4-5. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9855934

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Determinants of occurrence and recovery from hallucinations in daily life. Author(s): Delespaul P, deVries M, van Os J. Source: Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2002 March; 37(3): 97-104. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11990012

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Diagnostic outcome of self-reported hallucinations in a community sample of adolescents. Author(s): Dhossche D, Ferdinand R, Van der Ende J, Hofstra MB, Verhulst F. Source: Psychological Medicine. 2002 May; 32(4): 619-27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12102376

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Dichotic listening in college students who report auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Conn R, Posey TB. Source: Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2000 August; 109(3): 546-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11016125

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Differences in regional cerebral blood flow during musical and verbal hallucinations. Author(s): Izumi Y, Terao T, Ishino Y, Nakamura J. Source: Psychiatry Research. 2002 November 30; 116(1-2): 119-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12426039

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Disconnected networks during auditory hallucinations and dreams: a topological problem for neuroimaging? Author(s): Gomez JF. Source: Archives of General Psychiatry. 2002 May; 59(5): 468-9; Author Reply 469. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11982454

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Dissociation as a mediator of the relationship between recalled parenting and the clinical correlates of auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Offen L, Thomas G, Waller G. Source: The British Journal of Clinical Psychology / the British Psychological Society. 2003 September; 42(Pt 3): 231-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14565890

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Doctor, there's a fly in my soup! Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, endogenous opioids and visual hallucinations. Author(s): Rabinowitz I, Reis S. Source: Isr Med Assoc J. 2001 December; 3(12): 963-4. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11794927

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Does guanfacine cause hallucinations in children? Author(s): Luthra V, Markov D, Ambrosini P. Source: Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 1999; 9(4): 313-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10630462

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Donepezil in the treatment of hallucinations and delusions in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Fabbrini G, Barbanti P, Aurilia C, Pauletti C, Lenzi GL, Meco G. Source: Neurological Sciences : Official Journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology. 2002 April; 23(1): 41-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12111620

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Drug-induced musical hallucinations. Author(s): Gordon AG. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1998 October; 186(10): 652-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9788643

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Dysphoria in male alcoholics with a history of hallucinations. Author(s): Hayne CH, Louks JL. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1991 July; 179(7): 415-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1869870

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Early dopaminergic drug-induced hallucinations in parkinsonian patients. Author(s): Goetz CG, Vogel C, Tanner CM, Stebbins GT. Source: Neurology. 1998 September; 51(3): 811-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9748031

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EEG coherence in post-LSD visual hallucinations. Author(s): Abraham HD, Duffy FH. Source: Psychiatry Research. 2001 October 1; 107(3): 151-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11566431

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Effect of culture and environment on the phenomenology of delusions and hallucinations. Author(s): Suhail K, Cochrane R. Source: The International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2002 June; 48(2): 126-38. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12182508

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Effect of the benzodiazepine derivative estazolam in patients with auditory hallucinations. A multicentre double-blind, cross-over study. Author(s): Lingjaerde O. Source: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1982 May; 65(5): 339-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6126067

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Effectiveness of cognitive therapy with coping training for persistent auditory hallucinations: a retrospective study of attenders of a psychiatric out-patient department. Author(s): Jenner JA, van de Willige G, Wiersma D. Source: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1998 November; 98(5): 384-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9845177

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Elementary visual hallucinations in migraine and epilepsy. Author(s): Wilder-Smith E. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1995 April; 58(4): 518-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7738581

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Elementary visual hallucinations in migraine and epilepsy. Author(s): Panayiotopoulos CP. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1994 November; 57(11): 1371-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7964814

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Elementary visual hallucinations, blindness, and headache in idiopathic occipital epilepsy: differentiation from migraine. Author(s): Panayiotopoulos CP. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1999 April; 66(4): 536-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10201433

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Engagement of brain areas implicated in processing inner speech in people with auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Shergill SS, Brammer MJ, Fukuda R, Williams SC, Murray RM, McGuire PK. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 2003 June; 182: 525-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12777344

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Erythropoietin and visual hallucinations in patients on dialysis. Author(s): Delanty N, Needell N. Source: Psychosomatics. 1998 January-February; 39(1): 83-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9538683

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Erythropoietin and visual hallucinations in patients on dialysis. Author(s): Steinberg H, Saravay SM, Wadhwa N, Pollack S, Maesaka J. Source: Psychosomatics. 1996 November-December; 37(6): 556-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8942206

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Erythropoietin and visual hallucinations. Author(s): Steinberg H. Source: The New England Journal of Medicine. 1991 July 25; 325(4): 285. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2057032

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Erythropoietin induced visual hallucinations after bone marrow transplantation. Author(s): van den Bent MJ, Bos GM, Sillevis Smitt PA, Cornelissen JJ. Source: Journal of Neurology. 1999 July; 246(7): 614-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10463368

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Estrogen and visual hallucinations in a patient with Charles Bonnet syndrome. Author(s): Fernandes LH, Scassellati-Sforzolini B, Spaide RF. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2000 March; 129(3): 407. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10704572

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Etiology of unilateral auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Gordon AG. Source: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1987 June; 75(6): 664-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3618290

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Etizolam for auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Author(s): Benazzi F, Mazzoli M, Rossi E. Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 1994 March; 39(2): 127-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8149319

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Evidence for a cognitive model of auditory hallucinations. Author(s): van der Gaag M, Hageman MC, Birchwood M. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 2003 August; 191(8): 542-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12972858

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Evidence for functional abnormality in the right auditory cortex during musical hallucinations. Author(s): Kasai K, Asada T, Yumoto M, Takeya J, Matsuda H. Source: Lancet. 1999 November 13; 354(9191): 1703-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10568580

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Extracampine hallucinations. Author(s): Sato Y, Berrios GE. Source: Lancet. 2003 April 26; 361(9367): 1479-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12727431

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Extracampine hallucinations. Author(s): Ohry A. Source: Lancet. 2003 April 26; 361(9367): 1479. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12727430

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Factors associated with compliance and resistance to command hallucinations. Author(s): Mackinnon A, Copolov DL, Trauer T. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 2004 May; 192(5): 357-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15126890

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Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic choreo-athetosis in a child with visual hallucinations and obsessive-compulsive behaviour. Author(s): Jan JE, Freeman RD, Good WV. Source: Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 1995 April; 37(4): 366-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7698527

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Fluoxetine and visual hallucinations in dementia. Author(s): Omar SJ, Robinson D, Davies HD, Miller TP, Tinklenberg JR. Source: Biological Psychiatry. 1995 October 15; 38(8): 556-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8562668

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Fluoxetine induced auditory hallucinations in an adolescent. Author(s): Webb A, Cranswick N. Source: Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health. 2003 November; 39(8): 637-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14629537

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Formal qualities of hallucinations: a comparative study of the visual hallucinations in patients with schizophrenic, organic, and affective psychoses. Author(s): Frieske DA, Wilson WP. Source: Proc Annu Meet Am Psychopathol Assoc. 1966; 54: 49-62. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5951932

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Formed visual hallucinations after metrizamide myelography. Author(s): Bachman DM. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1984 January; 97(1): 78-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6696024

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Formed visual hallucinations as digitalis toxicity. Author(s): Volpe BT, Soave R. Source: Annals of Internal Medicine. 1979 December; 91(6): 865-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=517886

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Formed visual hallucinations in an elderly patient. Author(s): Miller F, Magee J, Jacobs R. Source: Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1987 May; 38(5): 527-9. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2885253

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Formed visual hallucinations with pituitary adenomas. Author(s): Dawson DJ, Enoch BA, Shepherd DI. Source: British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.). 1984 August 18; 289(6442): 414. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6432123

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Formed visual hallucinations: a symptom of cranial arteritis. Author(s): Hart CT. Source: British Medical Journal. 1967 September 9; 3(566): 643-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6038335

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Frequency and dependence on body posture of hallucinations and sleep paralysis in a community sample. Author(s): Dahmen N, Kasten M, Muller MJ, Mittag K. Source: Journal of Sleep Research. 2002 June; 11(2): 179-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12028483

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Functional neuroimaging of hallucinations in schizophrenia: toward an integration of bottom-up and top-down approaches. Author(s): Silbersweig D, Stern E. Source: Molecular Psychiatry. 1996 November; 1(5): 367-75. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9154229

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Further evidence of the multi-dimensionality of hallucinatory predisposition: factor structure of a modified version of the Launay-Slade Hallucinations Scale in a normal sample. Author(s): Laroi F, Marczewski P, Van der Linden M. Source: European Psychiatry : the Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists. 2004 February; 19(1): 15-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14969776

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Gamma-band electroencephalographic oscillations in a patient with somatic hallucinations. Author(s): Baldeweg T, Spence S, Hirsch SR, Gruzelier J. Source: Lancet. 1998 August 22; 352(9128): 620-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9746027

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Genetic variation analysis in parkinson disease patients with and without hallucinations: case-control study. Author(s): Goetz CG, Burke PF, Leurgans S, Berry-Kravis E, Blasucci LM, Raman R, Zhou L. Source: Archives of Neurology. 2001 February; 58(2): 209-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11176958

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Geniculocalcarine hyperintensities on brain magnetic resonance imaging associated with visual hallucinations in the elderly. Author(s): Shedlack KJ, McDonald WM, Laskowitz DT, Krishnan KR. Source: Psychiatry Research. 1994 December; 54(3): 283-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7792332

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Geometric visual hallucinations, Euclidean symmetry and the functional architecture of striate cortex. Author(s): Bressloff PC, Cowan JD, Golubitsky M, Thomas PJ, Wiener MC. Source: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 2001 March 29; 356(1407): 299-330. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11316482

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Grief hallucinations: true or pseudo? Serious or not? An inquiry into psychopathological and clinical features of a common phenomenon. Author(s): Baethge C. Source: Psychopathology. 2002 September-October; 35(5): 296-302. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12457021

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Group treatment of auditory hallucinations. Exploratory study of effectiveness. Author(s): Wykes T, Parr AM, Landau S. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1999 August; 175: 180-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10627803

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Gustatory hallucinations in epileptic seizures. Electrophysiological, clinical and anatomical correlates. Author(s): Hausser-Hauw C, Bancaud J. Source: Brain; a Journal of Neurology. 1987 April; 110 ( Pt 2): 339-59. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3105808

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Hallucinations and psychosis. Author(s): Holzer L, Willis R, Halfon O. Source: Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2001 July; 40(7): 739-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11437009

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Hallucinations and sleep-wake cycle in PD: a 24-hour continuous polysomnographic study. Author(s): Manni R, Pacchetti C, Terzaghi M, Sartori I, Mancini F, Nappi G. Source: Neurology. 2002 December 24; 59(12): 1979-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12499497

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Hallucinations and the cerebral hemispheres. Author(s): Aleman A. Source: Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience : Jpn. 2001 January; 26(1): 64-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11212596

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Hallucinations associated with initiation of guanfacine. Author(s): Boreman CD, Arnold LE. Source: Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2003 December; 42(12): 1387. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14627872

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Hallucinations in Alzheimer"s disease and Charles Bonnet syndrome. Author(s): Terao T. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2000 December; 157(12): 2062. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11097994

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Hallucinations in an elderly cancer patient: opioid neurotoxicity or dementia with Lewy bodies? Author(s): Benitez del Rosario MA, Feria M, Monton Alvarez FI. Source: Palliative Medicine. 2002 January; 16(1): 71-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11963458

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Hallucinations in Latino psychiatric outpatients: a preliminary investigation. Author(s): Geltman D, Chang G. Source: General Hospital Psychiatry. 2004 March-April; 26(2): 153-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15038934

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Hallucinations in nonpsychotic children: findings from a psychiatric emergency service. Author(s): Edelsohn GA, Rabinovich H, Portnoy R. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2003 December; 1008: 261-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14998892

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Hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Korczyn AD. Source: Lancet. 2001 September 29; 358(9287): 1031-2. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11589931

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Hallucinations predict attentional improvements with rivastigmine in dementia with lewy bodies. Author(s): McKeith IG, Wesnes KA, Perry E, Ferrara R. Source: Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders. 2004; 18(1): 94-100. Epub 2004 April 14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15087584

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Hallucinations related to artificial ventilation in the prone position. Author(s): Vick TL, Roberts RG. Source: Anaesthesia. 2002 May; 57(5): 504. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12004813

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Hallucinations related to artificial ventilation in the prone position. Author(s): Hudsmith JG, Navapurkar VU. Source: Anaesthesia. 2001 November; 56(11): 1124-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11703258

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Hallucinations with therapeutic doses of clarithromycin. Author(s): Jimenez-Pulido, Navarro-Ruiz A, Sendra P, Martinez-Ramirez M, GarciaMotos C, Montesinos-Ros A. Source: Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2002 January; 40(1): 20-2. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11837378

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Hallucinations with zolpidem and fluoxetine in an impaired driver. Author(s): Coleman DE, Ota K. Source: J Forensic Sci. 2004 March; 49(2): 392-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15027567

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Hallucinations, REM sleep, and Parkinson's disease: a medical hypothesis. Author(s): Manni R, Mazzarello P. Source: Neurology. 2001 October 9; 57(7): 1350-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11591875

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Hallucinations: synchronisation of thalamocortical gamma oscillations underconstrained by sensory input. Author(s): Behrendt RP. Source: Consciousness and Cognition. 2003 September; 12(3): 413-51. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12941286

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Hear my song: auditory hallucinations with tramadol hydrochloride. Author(s): Keeley PW, Foster G, Whitelaw L. Source: Bmj (Clinical Research Ed.). 2000 December 23-30; 321(7276): 1608. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11124199

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HIT, hallucination focused integrative treatment as early intervention in psychotic adolescents with auditory hallucinations: a pilot study. Author(s): Jenner JA, van de Willige G. Source: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2001 February; 103(2): 148-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11167318

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HLA typing does not predict REM sleep behaviour disorder and hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Onofrj M, Luciano AL, Iacono D, Thomas A, Stocchi F, Papola F, Adorno D, Di Mascio R. Source: Movement Disorders : Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society. 2003 March; 18(3): 337-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12621640

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Hypnopompic hallucinations with donepezil. Author(s): Yorston GA, Gray R. Source: Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England). 2000; 14(3): 303-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11106313

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Ictal magnetoencephalographic discharges from elementary visual hallucinations of status epilepticus. Author(s): Oishi M, Otsubo H, Kameyama S, Wachi M, Tanaka K, Masuda H, Tanaka R. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 2003 April; 74(4): 525-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12640082

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Ictal visual hallucinations and post-ictal hemianopia with anosognosia. Author(s): Spatt J, Mamoli B. Source: Seizure : the Journal of the British Epilepsy Association. 2000 October; 9(7): 5024. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11034876

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Idiopathic musical hallucinations in the elderly. Author(s): Pasquini F, Cole MG. Source: Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology. 1997 January; 10(1): 11-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9100153

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Imaging auditory verbal hallucinations during their occurrence. Author(s): Stephane M, Folstein M, Matthew E, Hill TC. Source: The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2000 Spring; 12(2): 286-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11001614

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Incidence of and risk factors for hallucinations and delusions in patients with probable AD. Author(s): Rozzini L, Padovani A, Borroni B, Trabucchi M. Source: Neurology. 2000 October 24; 55(8): 1240-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11071517

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Incidence of recall, nightmares, and hallucinations during analgosedation in intensive care. Author(s): Rundshagen I, Schnabel K, Wegner C, am Esch S. Source: Intensive Care Medicine. 2002 January; 28(1): 38-43. Epub 2001 December 06. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11818997

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Independent course of childhood auditory hallucinations: a sequential 3-year followup study. Author(s): Escher S, Romme M, Buiks A, Delespaul P, Van Os J. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement. 2002 September; 43: S10-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12271794

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Individual cognitive-behavior therapy in the treatment of hallucinations and delusions: a review. Author(s): Haddock G, Tarrier N, Spaulding W, Yusupoff L, Kinney C, McCarthy E. Source: Clinical Psychology Review. 1998 November; 18(7): 821-38. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9827323

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Inhibition in schizophrenia: association with auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Waters FA, Badcock JC, Maybery MT, Michie PT. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 2003 August 1; 62(3): 275-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12837525

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Insight into auditory hallucinations and psychosis. Author(s): Gordon AG. Source: International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 1997 March; 12(3): 410-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9152729

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Instruments for assessment of auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Frederick JA, Killeen MR. Source: Archives of Psychiatric Nursing. 1998 October; 12(5): 255-63. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9793212

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Intimidation at the helm: superego and hallucinations in the analytic treatment of a psychosis. Author(s): De Masi F. Source: The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1997 June; 78 ( Pt 3): 561-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9257168

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Intracerebral haemorrhage presenting as olfactory hallucinations. Author(s): Nye E, Arendts G. Source: Emergency Medicine (Fremantle, W.A.). 2002 December; 14(4): 447-9. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12534490

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Intravenous levodopa in hallucinating Parkinson's disease patients: high-dose challenge does not precipitate hallucinations. Author(s): Goetz CG, Pappert EJ, Blasucci LM, Stebbins GT, Ling ZD, Nora MV, Carvey PM. Source: Neurology. 1998 February; 50(2): 515-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9484386

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Intrusive thoughts and auditory hallucinations: a comparative study of intrusions in psychosis. Author(s): Morrison AP, Baker CA. Source: Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2000 November; 38(11): 1097-106. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11060938

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Inverse correlation between hallucinations and serum prolactin in patients with nonaffective psychoses. Author(s): Appleberg B, Katila H, Rimon R. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 2000 September 1; 44(3): 183-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10962220

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Is hemispheric language dominance relevant in musical hallucinations? Two case reports. Author(s): Evers S, Ellger T, Ringelstein EB, Knecht S. Source: European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2002 December; 252(6): 299-302. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12563539

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Is it heaven? Pleasant visual hallucinations in nonagenarians. Author(s): Rozzini R, Mai R, Facchetti D, Trabucchi M. Source: Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 1995 March; 43(3): 315-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7884129

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Is reported childhood sexual abuse associated with the psychopathological characteristics of patients who experience auditory hallucinations? Author(s): Offen L, Waller G, Thomas G. Source: Child Abuse & Neglect. 2003 August; 27(8): 919-27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12951140

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Is seeing believing? Visual hallucinations in age-related macular degeneration and Charles Bonnet. Author(s): Goldberg KB, Goldberg RE. Source: J Ophthalmic Nurs Technol. 2000 January-February; 19(1): 39-42. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11033668

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Ketamine tolerance and hallucinations in children. Author(s): MacLennan FM. Source: Anaesthesia. 1982 December; 37(12): 1214-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7181072

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Lack of effect of naloxone and schizophrenic auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Freeman CP, Fairburn CG. Source: Psychological Medicine. 1981 May; 11(2): 405-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7022531

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Laetiporus sulphureus causing visual hallucinations and ataxia in a child. Author(s): Appleton RE, Jan JE, Kroeger PD. Source: Cmaj : Canadian Medical Association Journal = Journal De L'association Medicale Canadienne. 1988 July 1; 139(1): 48-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3383041

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Late-onset auditory hallucinations treated with cognitive behaviour therapy. Author(s): Wilkinson P, Schuller S. Source: International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2003 June; 18(6): 537-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12789676

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Laterality of auditory hallucinations in psychiatric patients. Author(s): Gruber LN, Mangat BS, Abou-Taleb H. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1984 April; 141(4): 586-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6703143

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Lateralization of visual hallucinations in chronic schizophrenia. Author(s): Bracha HS, Cabrera FJ Jr, Karson CN, Bigelow LB. Source: Biological Psychiatry. 1985 October; 20(10): 1132-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4041515

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Lateralization phenomenon of complex auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Tanabe H, Sawada T, Asai H, Okuda J, Shiraishi J. Source: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1986 August; 74(2): 178-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3776662

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Lead encephalopathy and hallucinations. Author(s): Parker R. Source: The Medical Journal of Australia. 1993 November 15; 159(10): 710-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8232024

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Left with the voices or hearing right? Lateralization of auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia. Author(s): Sommer IE, Aleman A, Kahn RS. Source: Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience : Jpn. 2003 May; 28(3): 217-8; Author Reply 218-9. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12790162

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Letter: Auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Torda C. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1976 May; 133(5): 583. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1267069

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Letter: Hallucinations during delirium tremens. Author(s): David NF. Source: Jama : the Journal of the American Medical Association. 1976 April 19; 235(16): 1688. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=946460

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Lilliputian and negative hallucinations in a patient with probable encephalomyelitis disseminata. Author(s): Estler HC, Deckert J, Riedmann G, Becker T, Lesch KP. Source: Psychopathology. 1995; 28(2): 65-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7701063

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Lilliputian hallucinations and medical illness. Author(s): Cohen MA, Alfonso CA, Haque MM. Source: General Hospital Psychiatry. 1994 March; 16(2): 141-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8039694

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Lilliputian hallucinations in schizophrenia: case report and review of literature. Author(s): Hendrickson J, Adityanjee. Source: Psychopathology. 1996; 29(1): 35-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8711073

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Lithium-induced visual hallucinations: evidence for possible opioid mediation. Author(s): Sandyk R, Gillman MA. Source: Annals of Neurology. 1985 June; 17(6): 619-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4026237

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Long-term evaluation of the effect of quetiapine on hallucinations, delusions and motor function in advanced Parkinson disease. Author(s): Mancini F, Tassorelli C, Martignoni E, Moglia A, Nappi G, Cristina S, Pacchetti C. Source: Clinical Neuropharmacology. 2004 January-February; 27(1): 33-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15090935

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Lorazepam as an adjunct in the treatment of auditory hallucinations in a schizophrenic patient. Author(s): Yassa R, Nastase C, Belzile L. Source: Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 1989 October; 9(5): 386. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2794102

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Low dose bromocriptine ameliorates hallucinations in a demented parkinsonian patient. Author(s): Sandyk R. Source: Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 1987 April; 7(2): 114-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3584516

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L-tryptophan administration in L-dopa-induced hallucinations in elderly Parkinsonian patients. Author(s): Rabey JM, Vardi J, Askenazi JJ, Streifler M. Source: Gerontology. 1977; 23(6): 438-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=892450

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Mapping auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Author(s): Shergill SS, Brammer MJ, Williams SC, Murray RM, McGuire PK. Source: Archives of General Psychiatry. 2000 November; 57(11): 1033-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11074868

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Migraine-like visual hallucinations in occipital lesions of cysticercosis. Author(s): Garg RK, Sharma SR. Source: Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology : the Official Journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society. 2003 June; 23(2): 182-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12782936

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Migraine-like visual hallucinations in occipital lesions of cysticercosis. Author(s): Sharma K, Wahi J, Phadke RV, Varma A, Jain VK. Source: Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology : the Official Journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society. 2002 June; 22(2): 82-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12131464

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Musical hallucinations and triazolam use. Author(s): Nevins MA. Source: N J Med. 1991 December; 88(12): 907-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1762707

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Musical hallucinations associated with seizures originating from an intracranial aneurysm. Author(s): Roberts DL, Tatini U, Zimmerman RS, Bortz JJ, Sirven JI. Source: Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2001 April; 76(4): 423-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11322359

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Musical hallucinations during a treatment with benzodiazepine. Author(s): Curtin F, Redmund C. Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 2002 October; 47(8): 789-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12420663

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Musical hallucinations in patients with Lyme disease. Author(s): Stricker RB, Winger EE. Source: Southern Medical Journal. 2003 July; 96(7): 711-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12940329

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Musical hallucinations in schizophrenia. 2. Relations with verbal hallucinations. Author(s): Baba A, Hamada H, Kocha H. Source: Psychopathology. 2003 March-April; 36(2): 104-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12766321

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Musical hallucinations induced by oxycodone. Author(s): Moore TA. Source: The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry : Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry. 2003 July-August; 11(4): 470. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12837679

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Musical hallucinations: prevalence in psychotic and nonpsychotic outpatients. Author(s): Hermesh H, Konas S, Shiloh R, Dar R, Marom S, Weizman A, Gross-Isseroff R. Source: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2004 February; 65(2): 191-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15003072

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Musical hallucinations: report of two unusual cases. Author(s): Fisman M. Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 1991 October; 36(8): 609-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1742718

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Musical obsessions or hallucinations? Author(s): Terao T, Ikemura N. Source: The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2000 Fall; 12(4): 518-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11083174

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Naloxone-induced reversal of schizophrenic hallucinations. Author(s): Gunne LM, Lindstrom L, Terenius L. Source: Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna, Austria : 1996). 1977; 40(1): 13-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=319204

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Near fatal auditory hallucinations after buprenorphine. Author(s): Paraskevaides EC. Source: British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.). 1988 January 16; 296(6616): 214. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3123005

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Negative hallucinations, other irretrievable experiences and two functions of consciousness. Author(s): Brakel LW. Source: The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1989; 70 ( Pt 3): 461-79. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2793325

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Negative hallucinations: an ictal phenomenon of partial complex seizures. Author(s): Keefover RT, Ringel R, Roy EP 3rd. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1988 March; 51(3): 454-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3361345

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Neuroanatomy of "hearing voices": a frontotemporal brain structural abnormality associated with auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Author(s): Gaser C, Nenadic I, Volz HP, Buchel C, Sauer H. Source: Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991). 2004 January; 14(1): 91-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14654460

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Neuroendocrine evidence that clozapine's serotonergic antagonism is relevant to its efficacy in treating hallucinations and other positive schizophrenic symptoms. Author(s): Jones H, Curtis VA, Wright P, Lucey JV. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1998 June; 155(6): 838-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9619161

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Neuroimaging of hallucinations: a review of the literature. Author(s): Weiss AP, Heckers S. Source: Psychiatry Research. 1999 December 20; 92(2-3): 61-74. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10674360

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Neurophysiological aspects of auditory hallucinations. 99mTc-(HMPAO)-SPECT investigations in patients with auditory hallucinations and normal controls--a preliminary report. Author(s): Musalek M, Podreka I, Suess E, Nutzinger D, Passweg V, Strobl R, Walter H, Baumgartner C, Lesch OM. Source: Psychopathology. 1988; 21(6): 275-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3266341

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Neuropsychological correlates of auditory and visual hallucinations. Author(s): McKay SE, Golden CJ, Scott M. Source: The International Journal of Neuroscience. 1981; 15(1-2): 87-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7287330

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New-onset auditory hallucinations after right temporal lobectomy. Author(s): Bremer J. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1996 March; 153(3): 442-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8610841

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New-onset delusions and hallucinations in patients infected with HIV. Author(s): Alciati A, Fusi A, D'Arminio Monforte A, Coen M, Ferri A, Mellado C. Source: Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience : Jpn. 2001 May; 26(3): 229-34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11394192

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Nightmares and hallucinations after long-term intake of tramadol combined with antidepressants. Author(s): Devulder J, De Laat M, Dumoulin K, Renson A, Rolly G. Source: Acta Clin Belg. 1996; 51(3): 184-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8766220

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Nitrous oxide hallucinations. Author(s): Bennett CR. Source: The Journal of the American Dental Association. 1980 October; 101(4): 595, 597. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6934209

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Nonlanguage cognitive deficits and hallucinations in schizophrenia. Author(s): Aleman A, De Haan EH. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2000 March; 157(3): 487. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10698855

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Nursing action guide: hallucinations. Author(s): Grosicki JP, Harmonson M. Source: J Psychiatr Nurs Ment Health Serv. 1969 May-June; 7(3): 133-5. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4307805

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Occipital atrophy is associated with visual hallucinations in Alzheimer's disease. Author(s): Holroyd S, Shepherd ML, Downs JH 3rd. Source: The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2000 Winter; 12(1): 25-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10678508

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Ocular motility testing in the evaluation of visual hallucinations. Author(s): Lessell S, Currie JN. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1983 June; 95(6): 772-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6859186

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Olanzapine treatment for dopaminergic-induced hallucinations. Author(s): Ondo WG, Levy JK, Vuong KD, Hunter C, Jankovic J. Source: Movement Disorders : Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society. 2002 September; 17(5): 1031-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12360554

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Olfactory and visual hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Tousi B, Frankel M. Source: Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 2004 June; 10(4): 253-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15120101

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Olfactory hallucinations after the infusion of caffeine during sleep. Author(s): Koenigsberg HW, Pollak CP, Fine J. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1993 December; 150(12): 1897-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8238651

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Olfactory hallucinations and olfactory identification ability in patients with schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders. Author(s): Kopala LC, Good KP, Honer WG. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 1994 June; 12(3): 205-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8054312

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Olfactory hallucinations during migraine in an adolescent with an MRI temporal lobe lesion. Author(s): McAbee G, Sagan A, Winter L. Source: Headache. 2000 July-August; 40(7): 592-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10940099

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Olfactory hallucinations evoked from stimulation of human thalamus. Author(s): Nashold BS, Wilson WP. Source: Confin Neurol. 1970; 32(2): 298-306. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4926192

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Olfactory hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Sandyk R. Source: South African Medical Journal. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif Vir Geneeskunde. 1981 December 19; 60(25): 950. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7330739

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Olfactory hallucinations. Author(s): Burstein A. Source: Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1987 January; 38(1): 80. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3804247

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Olfactory hallucinations. Author(s): Meats P. Source: British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.). 1988 February 27; 296(6622): 645. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3126944

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On distinguishing a visual signal from noise by patients with visual agnosia and visual hallucinations. Author(s): Bazhin EF, Meerson YA, Tonkonogii IM. Source: Neuropsychologia. 1973 July; 11(3): 319-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4792183

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On pseudo-hallucinations. Author(s): Taylor FK. Source: Psychological Medicine. 1981 May; 11(2): 265-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7022529

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On the diversity of visual hallucinations. Author(s): Raschka LB, Schlager FM. Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 1982 February; 27(1): 48-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7066838

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On the non-significance of internal versus external auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Copolov D, Trauer T, Mackinnon A. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 2004 July 1; 69(1): 1-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15145464

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Ondansetron, a 5-HT3 antagonist for visual hallucinations and paranoid delusional disorder associated with chronic L-DOPA therapy in advanced Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Zoldan J, Friedberg G, Weizman A, Melamed E. Source: Adv Neurol. 1996; 69: 541-4. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8615178

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Opening the mouth to abolish auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Palumbo JM, Price LH. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1988 June; 145(6): 767. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3369573

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Origin and treatment of hallucinations. Author(s): Green P, Flor-Henry P. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1988 February; 145(2): 274-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3341485

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Ornade and anticholinergic toxicity: hypertension, hallucinations, and arrhythmias. Author(s): Rumack BH, Anderson RJ, Wolfe R, Fletcher EC, Vestal BK. Source: Clin Toxicol. 1974; 7(6): 573-81. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4156509

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P300 alterations in schizophrenic patients experiencing auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Papageorgiou C, Oulis P, Vasios C, Kontopantelis E, Uzunoglu N, Rabavilas A, Christodoulou GN. Source: European Neuropsychopharmacology : the Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004 May; 14(3): 227-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15056482

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Parkinson's disease: the treatment of drug-induced hallucinations and psychosis. Author(s): Molho ES, Factor SA. Source: Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2001 July; 1(4): 320-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11898537

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Pathways that make voices: white matter changes in auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Hubl D, Koenig T, Strik W, Federspiel A, Kreis R, Boesch C, Maier SE, Schroth G, Lovblad K, Dierks T. Source: Archives of General Psychiatry. 2004 July; 61(7): 658-68. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15237078

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Peduncular hallucinations associated with large posterior fossa meningiomas. Author(s): Maiuri F, Iaconetta G, Sardo L, Buonamassa S. Source: Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2002 January; 104(1): 41-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11792475

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Persisting visual hallucinations and illusions in previously drug-addicted patients. Author(s): Gaillard MC, Borruat FX. Source: Klinische Monatsblatter Fur Augenheilkunde. 2003 March; 220(3): 176-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12664374

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Phenomenology of hallucinations: a factor analytic approach. Author(s): Singh G, Sharan P, Kulhara P. Source: Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2003 June; 57(3): 333-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12753575

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Phenomenology of visual hallucinations in psychiatric conditions. Author(s): Gauntlett-Gilbert J, Kuipers E. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 2003 March; 191(3): 203-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12637850

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Polymorphisms of dopamine receptor and transporter genes and hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Wang J, Zhao C, Chen B, Liu ZL. Source: Neuroscience Letters. 2004 January 30; 355(3): 193-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14732464

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Prevalence and relationship to delusions and hallucinations of anxiety disorders in schizophrenia. Author(s): Tibbo P, Swainson J, Chue P, LeMelledo JM. Source: Depression and Anxiety. 2003; 17(2): 65-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12621594

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Prospective longitudinal assessment of hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Goetz CG, Leurgans S, Pappert EJ, Raman R, Stemer AB. Source: Neurology. 2001 December 11; 57(11): 2078-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11739829

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Qualitative changes in hallucinations. Author(s): Miller LJ. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1996 February; 153(2): 265-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8561210

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Quetiapine for hypnogogic musical release hallucinations. Author(s): David RR, Fernandez HH. Source: Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology. 2000 Winter; 13(4): 210-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11128061

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Re: The apolipoprotein E epsilon4 allele increases the risk of drug-induced hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Inzelberg R, Paleacu D, Chapman J, Korczyn AD. Source: Clinical Neuropharmacology. 2000 July-August; 23(4): 230-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11020132

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Reality monitoring and visual hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Barnes J, Boubert L, Harris J, Lee A, David AS. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2003; 41(5): 565-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12559149

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Recurrent attacks of fear and visual hallucinations in a child. Author(s): Huppertz HJ, Franck P, Korinthenberg R, Schulze-Bonhage A. Source: Journal of Child Neurology. 2002 March; 17(3): 230-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12026243

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Recurrent Lilliputian hallucinations as visual aura symptom in migraine. Author(s): Podoll K, Robinson D. Source: Cephalalgia : an International Journal of Headache. 2001 December; 21(10): 9902. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11843872

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Reduced frontotemporal functional connectivity in schizophrenia associated with auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Lawrie SM, Buechel C, Whalley HC, Frith CD, Friston KJ, Johnstone EC. Source: Biological Psychiatry. 2002 June 15; 51(12): 1008-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12062886

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Relationships between hallucinations and disorganization in schizophrenic patients. Author(s): Kecskemeti S, Loas G. Source: Psychological Reports. 2001 August; 89(1): 106. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11729527

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REM-associated hallucinations and sleep paralysis are dependent on body posture. Author(s): Dahmen N, Kasten M. Source: Journal of Neurology. 2001 May; 248(5): 423-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11437167

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Retinal involvement in dementia with Lewy bodies: a clue to hallucinations? Author(s): Maurage CA, Ruchoux MM, de Vos R, Surguchov A, Destee A. Source: Annals of Neurology. 2003 October; 54(4): 542-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14520672

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Role of coping strategies and attitudes in mediating distress due to hallucinations in schizophrenia. Author(s): Singh G, Sharan P, Kulhara P. Source: Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2003 October; 57(5): 517-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12950707

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Scope and presumed mechanisms of hallucinations in partial epileptic seizures. Author(s): Mauguiere F. Source: Epileptic Disorders : International Epilepsy Journal with Videotape. 1999 June; 1(2): 81-91. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10937137

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Separation anxiety leads to nonpsychotic hallucinations. Author(s): Murase S, Ochiai S, Ohta T. Source: Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2000 November; 39(11): 1345. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11068887

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Sexual and physical abuse during childhood and adulthood as predictors of hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder. Author(s): Read J, Agar K, Argyle N, Aderhold V. Source: Psychology and Psychotherapy. 2003 March; 76(Pt 1): 1-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12689431

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Sexual hallucinations during and after sedation and anaesthesia. Author(s): Balasubramaniam B, Park GR. Source: Anaesthesia. 2003 June; 58(6): 549-53. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12846619

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Situational factors affecting sleep paralysis and associated hallucinations: position and timing effects. Author(s): Cheyne JA. Source: Journal of Sleep Research. 2002 June; 11(2): 169-77. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12028482

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Steroid-responsive encephalopathy associated with Hashimoto's thyroiditis in an adolescent with chronic hallucinations and depression: case report and review. Author(s): Mahmud FH, Lteif AN, Renaud DL, Reed AM, Brands CK. Source: Pediatrics. 2003 September; 112(3 Pt 1): 686-90. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12949305

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Subvocal activity and auditory hallucinations: clues for behavioral treatments? Author(s): Green MF, Kinsbourne M. Source: Schizophrenia Bulletin. 1990; 16(4): 617-25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2077639

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Suicide attempts in schizophrenia: the role of command auditory hallucinations for suicide. Author(s): Harkavy-Friedman JM, Kimhy D, Nelson EA, Venarde DF, Malaspina D, Mann JJ. Source: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2003 August; 64(8): 871-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12927000

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Superior temporal gyral volumes and laterality correlates of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Author(s): Levitan C, Ward PB, Catts SV. Source: Biological Psychiatry. 1999 October 1; 46(7): 955-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10509178

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Tc SPECT scan in a patient with occipital lobe infarction and complex visual hallucinations. Author(s): Assadi M, Baseman S, Hyman D. Source: The Journal of Neuroscience Nursing : Journal of the American Association of Neuroscience Nurses. 2003 June; 35(3): 175-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12830666

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The A9 allele of the dopamine transporter gene increases the risk of visual hallucinations during alcohol withdrawal in alcohol-dependent women. Author(s): Limosin F, Loze JY, Boni C, Fedeli LP, Hamon M, Rouillon F, Ades J, Gorwood P. Source: Neuroscience Letters. 2004 May 20; 362(2): 91-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15193761

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The beneficial effect of donepezil on visual hallucinations in three patients with Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Kurita A, Ochiai Y, Kono Y, Suzuki M, Inoue K. Source: Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology. 2003 September; 16(3): 184-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12967063

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The effects of focus of attention on attributional bias in patients experiencing auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Ensum I, Morrison AP. Source: Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2003 August; 41(8): 895-907. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12880645

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The internal structure of the phenomenology of auditory verbal hallucinations. Author(s): Stephane M, Thuras P, Nasrallah H, Georgopoulos AP. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 2003 June 1; 61(2-3): 185-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12729870

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The management of idiopathic olfactory hallucinations: a study of two patients. Author(s): Majumdar S, Jones NS, McKerrow WS, Scadding G. Source: The Laryngoscope. 2003 May; 113(5): 879-81. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12792326

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The psychodynamics of grief hallucinations - a psychopathological phenomenon of normal and pathological grief. Author(s): Kersting A. Source: Psychopathology. 2004 January-February; 37(1): 50-1. Epub 2004 February 24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14988651

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Transient memory impairment and hallucinations associated with tolterodine use. Author(s): Tsao JW, Heilman KM. Source: The New England Journal of Medicine. 2003 December 4; 349(23): 2274-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14657444

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Two cases of quetiapine augmentation for donepezil-refractory visual hallucinations in dementia with Lewy bodies. Author(s): Terao T, Shimomura T, Izumi Y, Nakamura J. Source: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2003 December; 64(12): 1520-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14728121

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Underconstrained perception: a theoretical approach to the nature and function of verbal hallucinations. Author(s): Behrendt RP. Source: Comprehensive Psychiatry. 1998 July-August; 39(4): 236-48. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9675510

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Unilateral auditory hallucinations in a boy with ipsilateral conductive hearing loss. Author(s): Brasic JR, Perry R. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1997 March; 62(3): 302. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9069505

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Unilateral auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia after damage to the right hippocampus. Author(s): Takebayashi H, Takei N, Mori N, Suzuki S. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 2002 December 1; 58(2-3): 329-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12409174

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Unilateral auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Almeida OP, Forstl H, Howard R, David AS. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1993 February; 162: 262-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8435701

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Unilateral auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Khan AM, Clark T, Oyebode F. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1988 February; 152: 297-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3167361

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Unilateral auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Bergman PS. Source: Trans Am Neurol Assoc. 1965; 90: 226-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5857747

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Unilateral auditory hallucinations: ear or brain? Author(s): Gordon AG. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1997 December; 63(6): 8145. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9416830

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Unilateral auditory occlusions and auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Levick SE, Peselow E. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1986 June; 148: 747-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3779260

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Unilateral hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms due to otosclerosis. Author(s): Marneros A, Beyenburg S, Berghaus A. Source: Psychopathology. 1997 March-April; 30(2): 89-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9168564

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Unilateral musical hallucinations and all that jazz. Author(s): Couper J. Source: The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 1994 September; 28(3): 516-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7893249

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Visual and auditory hallucinations with excessive intake of paroxetine. Author(s): Kumagai R, Ohnuma T, Nagata T, Arai H. Source: Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2003 October; 57(5): 548-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12950713

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Visual command hallucinations in a patient with pure alexia. Author(s): Ffytche DH, Lappin JM, Philpot M. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 2004 January; 75(1): 80-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14707313

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Visual hallucinations and Charles Bonnet syndrome after photodynamic therapy for age related macular degeneration. Author(s): Cohen SY, Bulik A, Tadayoni R, Quentel G. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2003 August; 87(8): 977-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12881339

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Visual hallucinations and the risk of visual loss in patients with giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Author(s): Liozon E, Ly K, Loustaud V, Vidal E. Source: The Journal of Rheumatology. 2002 April; 29(4): 855-7; Author Reply 857. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11950035

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Visual hallucinations as REM sleep behavior disorders in patients with Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Nomura T, Inoue Y, Mitani H, Kawahara R, Miyake M, Nakashima K. Source: Movement Disorders : Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society. 2003 July; 18(7): 812-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12815661

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Visual hallucinations associated with zonisamide. Author(s): Akman CI, Goodkin HP, Rogers DP, Riviello JJ Jr. Source: Pharmacotherapy. 2003 January; 23(1): 93-6. Erratum In: Pharmacotherapy. 2003 February; 23(2): Following 269. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12523465

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Visual hallucinations in PD. Author(s): Frucht SJ, Bernsohn L. Source: Neurology. 2002 December 24; 59(12): 1965. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12499491

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Visual hallucinations with sertraline. Author(s): Marcon G, Cancelli I, Zamarian L, Bergonzi P, Balestrieri M. Source: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2004 March; 65(3): 446-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15096091

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Visual, tactile, and phobic hallucinations: recognition and management in the emergency department. Author(s): Pao M, Lohman C, Gracey D, Greenberg L. Source: Pediatric Emergency Care. 2004 January; 20(1): 30-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14716163

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What geometric visual hallucinations tell us about the visual cortex. Author(s): Bressloff PC, Cowan JD, Golubitsky M, Thomas PJ, Wiener MC. Source: Neural Computation. 2002 March; 14(3): 473-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11860679

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What voices can do with words: pragmatics of verbal hallucinations. Author(s): Leudar I, Thomas P, McNally D, Glinski A. Source: Psychological Medicine. 1997 July; 27(4): 885-98. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9234466

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Zolpidem and hallucinations. Author(s): Markowitz JS, Rames LJ, Reeves N, Thomas SG. Source: Annals of Emergency Medicine. 1997 February; 29(2): 300-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9018205

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Zolpidem, vascular headache, and hallucinations in an adolescent. Author(s): Andrade C. Source: The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2002 June; 36(3): 425-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12060196

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Zolpidem-associated hallucinations and serotonin reuptake inhibition: a possible interaction. Author(s): Elko CJ, Burgess JL, Robertson WO. Source: Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology. 1998; 36(3): 195-203. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9656974

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CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND HALLUCINATIONS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to find studies dedicated specifically to nutrition and hallucinations.

Finding Nutrition Studies on Hallucinations The National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) offers a searchable bibliographic database called the IBIDS (International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements; National Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 1B29, 31 Center Drive, MSC 2086, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2086, Tel: 301-435-2920, Fax: 301-480-1845, E-mail: [email protected]). The IBIDS contains over 460,000 scientific citations and summaries about dietary supplements and nutrition as well as references to published international, scientific literature on dietary supplements such as vitamins, minerals, and botanicals.7 The IBIDS includes references and citations to both human and animal research studies. As a service of the ODS, access to the IBIDS database is available free of charge at the following Web address: http://ods.od.nih.gov/databases/ibids.html. After entering the search area, you have three choices: (1) IBIDS Consumer Database, (2) Full IBIDS Database, or (3) Peer Reviewed Citations Only. Now that you have selected a database, click on the “Advanced” tab. An advanced search allows you to retrieve up to 100 fully explained references in a comprehensive format. Type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” To narrow the search, you can also select the “Title” field.

7 Adapted from http://ods.od.nih.gov. IBIDS is produced by the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the National Institutes of Health to assist the public, healthcare providers, educators, and researchers in locating credible, scientific information on dietary supplements. IBIDS was developed and will be maintained through an interagency partnership with the Food and Nutrition Information Center of the National Agricultural Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

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The following information is typical of that found when using the “Full IBIDS Database” to search for “hallucinations” (or a synonym): •

Association study of dopamine receptor gene polymorphisms with drug-induced hallucinations in patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK. [email protected] Source: Makoff, A J Graham, J M Arranz, M J Forsyth, J Li, T Aitchison, K J Shaikh, S Grunewald, R A Pharmacogenetics. 2000 February; 10(1): 43-8 0960-314X

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Medication-induced hallucination and cerebral blood flow in Parkinson's disease. Author(s): Department of Internal Medicine III, Shimane Medical University, Izumo, Japan. [email protected] Source: Okada, K Suyama, N Oguro, H Yamaguchi, S Kobayashi, S J-Neurol. 1999 May; 246(5): 365-8 0340-5354

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Observation on the curative effect of 120 cases of auditory hallucination treated with auricular acupuncture. Source: Shi, Z X J-Tradit-Chin-Med. 1989 September; 9(3): 176-8 0254-6272

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Observation on the therapeutic effect of 120 cases of hallucination treated with auricular acupuncture. Source: Shi, Z X J-Tradit-Chin-Med. 1988 December; 8(4): 263-4 0254-6272

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Treatment of 296 cases of hallucination with scalp-acupuncture. Source: Zhang, M J J-Tradit-Chin-Med. 1988 September; 8(3): 193-4 0254-6272

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Visual hallucinations following treatment with vincristine. Author(s): Department of Haematology, Leicester Royal Infirmary, UK. Source: Ghosh, K Sivakumaran, M Murphy, P Chapman, C S Wood, J K Clin-LabHaematol. 1994 December; 16(4): 355-7 0141-9854

Federal Resources on Nutrition In addition to the IBIDS, the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provide many sources of information on general nutrition and health. Recommended resources include: •

healthfinder®, HHS’s gateway to health information, including diet and nutrition: http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/SearchContext.asp?topic=238&page=0

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The United States Department of Agriculture’s Web site dedicated to nutrition information: www.nutrition.gov

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The Food and Drug Administration’s Web site for federal food safety information: www.foodsafety.gov

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The National Action Plan on Overweight and Obesity sponsored by the United States Surgeon General: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/

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The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition has an Internet site sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/

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Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.usda.gov/cnpp/

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Food and Nutrition Information Center, National Agricultural Library sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/

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Food and Nutrition Service sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.fns.usda.gov/fns/

Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering food and nutrition. The following is a representative sample: •

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=174&layer=&from=subcats

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_nutrition.html

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Nutrition/

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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Nutrition/

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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Nutrition/

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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/nutrition

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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

The following is a specific Web list relating to hallucinations; please note that any particular subject below may indicate either a therapeutic use, or a contraindication (potential danger), and does not reflect an official recommendation: •

Minerals Gabapentin Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Zinc Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com

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CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND HALLUCINATIONS Overview In this chapter, we will begin by introducing you to official information sources on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) relating to hallucinations. At the conclusion of this chapter, we will provide additional sources.

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National Institutes of Health (http://nccam.nih.gov/) has created a link to the National Library of Medicine’s databases to facilitate research for articles that specifically relate to hallucinations and complementary medicine. To search the database, go to the following Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html. Select “CAM on PubMed.” Enter “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the search box. Click “Go.” The following references provide information on particular aspects of complementary and alternative medicine that are related to hallucinations: •

A case of Charles Bonnet syndrome with musical hallucinations. Author(s): Patel HC, Keshavan MS, Martin S. Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 1987 May; 32(4): 303-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3607711

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A case study: schizophrenia and tactile hallucinations, treated with electroconvulsive therapy. Author(s): Salama AA, England RD. Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 1990 February; 35(1): 86-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2317740

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A comparative study of pseudohallucinations, imagery and true hallucinations. Author(s): Sedman G. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1966 January; 112(482): 9-17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5908111

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A contribution to classification of hallucinations. Author(s): Walter H, Podreka I, Steiner M, Suess E, Benda N, Hajji M, Lesch OM, Musalek M, Passweg V. Source: Psychopathology. 1990; 23(2): 97-105. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2259715

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Activation of Heschl's gyrus during auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Dierks T, Linden DE, Jandl M, Formisano E, Goebel R, Lanfermann H, Singer W. Source: Neuron. 1999 March; 22(3): 615-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10197540

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An investigation of psychological factors involved in the predisposition to auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Slade PD. Source: Psychological Medicine. 1976 February; 6(1): 123-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=935292

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Auditory hallucinations and schizophrenia. Author(s): Bliss EL, Larson EM, Nakashima SR. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1983 January; 171(1): 30-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6848646

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Auditory hallucinations and subvocal speech in schizophrenic patients. Author(s): Bick PA, Kinsbourne M. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1987 February; 144(2): 222-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3812794

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Auditory hallucinations and the Verbal Transformation Effect. Author(s): Catts SV, Armstrong MS, Norcross K, McConaghy N. Source: Psychological Medicine. 1980 February; 10(1): 139-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7384315

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Auditory hallucinations inhibit exogenous activation of auditory association cortex. Author(s): David AS, Woodruff PW, Howard R, Mellers JD, Brammer M, Bullmore E, Wright I, Andrew C, Williams SC.

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Source: Neuroreport. 1996 March 22; 7(4): 932-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8724677 •

Auditory hallucinations treated by radio headphones. Author(s): Feder R. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1982 September; 139(9): 1188-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7114315

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Charles Bonnet hallucinations: a case series. Author(s): Cole MG. Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 1992 May; 37(4): 267-70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1611589

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Cognitive basis of hallucinations in schizophrenia: role of top-down information processing. Author(s): Aleman A, Bocker KB, Hijman R, de Haan EH, Kahn RS. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 2003 November 15; 64(2-3): 175-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14613682

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Complex visual hallucinations in macular degeneration. Author(s): Lalla D, Primeau F. Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 1993 November; 38(9): 584-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8306229

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Complex visual hallucinations in the visually impaired: the Charles Bonnet Syndrome. Author(s): Menon GJ, Rahman I, Menon SJ, Dutton GN. Source: Survey of Ophthalmology. 2003 January-February; 48(1): 58-72. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12559327

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Do musical hallucinations always arise from the inner ear? Author(s): Gordon AG. Source: Medical Hypotheses. 1997 August; 49(2): 111-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9278923

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Editorial: hallucinations. Author(s): Slade P. Source: Psychological Medicine. 1976 February; 6(1): 7-13. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=778881

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Experimental and phenomenological approaches to the problem of hallucinations in organic psychosyndromes. Author(s): Sedman G. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1967 October; 113(503): 1115-21. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4862113

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Functional anatomy of auditory verbal imagery in schizophrenic patients with auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Shergill SS, Bullmore E, Simmons A, Murray R, McGuire P. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2000 October; 157(10): 1691-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11007729

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Hallucinations and disturbances of affect, cognition, and physical state as a function of sensory deprivation. Author(s): Schulman CA, Richlin M, Weinstein S. Source: Percept Mot Skills. 1967 December; 25(3): 1001-24. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6083295

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Hallucinations in schizophrenia: imbalance between imagery and perception? Author(s): Aleman A, de Haan EH, Bocker KB, Hijman R, Kahn RS. Source: Schizophrenia Research. 2002 October 1; 57(2-3): 315-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12223265

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Hallucinations insensory deprivation. (Method or madness?). Author(s): Ziskind E, Augsburg T. Source: Dis Nerv Syst. 1967 November; 28(11): 721-6. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6079758

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Hallucinations. Author(s): Critchley EM, Rossall CJ. Source: Br J Hosp Med. 1978 March; 19(3): 264-70. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=343859

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Hostage hallucinations. Visual imagery induced by isolation and life-threatening stress. Author(s): Siegel RK. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1984 May; 172(5): 264-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6716091

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How hallucinations may arise from brain mechanisms of learning, attention, and volition. Author(s): Grossberg S.

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Source: Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : Jins. 2000 July; 6(5): 583-92. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10932478 •

Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations during sleep paralysis: neurological and cultural construction of the night-mare. Author(s): Cheyne JA, Rueffer SD, Newby-Clark IR. Source: Consciousness and Cognition. 1999 September; 8(3): 319-37. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10487786

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Hypnosis in the treatment of hypnopompic hallucinations: a case report. Author(s): Ortega DF. Source: Am J Clin Hypn. 1984 October; 27(2): 111-3. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6517041

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Hypnosis, reporting bias, and suggested negative hallucinations. Author(s): Spanos NP, Burgess CA, Cross PA, MacLeod G. Source: Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1992 February; 101(1): 192-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1537966

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Hypnotically induced auditory hallucinations and the mouth-opening maneuver: a failure to duplicate findings. Author(s): Levitt EE, Waldo TG. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1991 May; 148(5): 658-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2018171

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Hypnotically induced hallucinations. Their diagnostic and therapeutic utilization. Author(s): Alexander L. Source: Dis Nerv Syst. 1971 February; 32(2): 89-94. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5547040

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Hypnotically induced visual hallucinations. Author(s): Brady JP, Levitt EE. Source: Psychosomatic Medicine. 1966 July-August; 28(4): 351-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5966666

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Is auditory imagery defective in patients with auditory hallucinations? Author(s): Evans CL, McGuire PK, David AS. Source: Psychological Medicine. 2000 January; 30(1): 137-48. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10722184

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Khat-induced hypnagogic hallucinations. Author(s): Granek M, Shalev A, Weingarten AM. Source: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1988 October; 78(4): 458-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3227966

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Left temporoparietal transcranial magnetic stimulation in treatment-resistant schizophrenia with verbal hallucinations. Author(s): Franck N, Poulet E, Terra JL, Dalery J, d'Amato T. Source: Psychiatry Research. 2003 August 30; 120(1): 107-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14500120

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Long-term effects of teaching behavioral strategies for managing persistent auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Author(s): Buccheri R, Trygstad L, Dowling G, Hopkins R, White K, Griffin JJ, Henderson S, Suciu L, Hippe S, Kaas MJ, Covert C, Hebert P. Source: Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services. 2004 January; 42(1): 18-27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14768276

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Marihuana induced hallucinations. Author(s): Keeler MH. Source: Dis Nerv Syst. 1968 May; 29(5): 314-5. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5654374

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Modified activity of the human auditory cortex during auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Tiihonen J, Hari R, Naukkarinen H, Rimon R, Jousmaki V, Kajola M. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1992 February; 149(2): 255-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1734750

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Musical hallucinations in a deaf elderly patient. Author(s): Miller TC, Crosby TW. Source: Annals of Neurology. 1979 March; 5(3): 301-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=443762

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Musical hallucinations in a deaf middle-aged patient. Author(s): Raghuram R, Keshavan MD, Channabasavanna SM. Source: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 1980 October; 41(10): 357. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7430079

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Negative and positive visual hypnotic hallucinations: attending inside and out. Author(s): Spiegel D.

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Source: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2003 April; 51(2): 130-46. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12908748 •

Night-time hypnopompic visual hallucinations related to REM sleep disorder. Author(s): Takata K, Inoue Y, Hazama H, Fukuma E. Source: Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 1998 April; 52(2): 207-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9628155

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Nocturnal hallucinations in ultra-orthodox Jewish Israeli men. Author(s): Greenberg D, Brom D. Source: Psychiatry. 2001 Spring; 64(1): 81-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=11383445

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Nystagmus as a criterion of hypnotically induced visual hallucinations. Author(s): BRADY JP, LEVITT EE. Source: Science. 1964 October 2; 146: 85-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14173039

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On consciousness, negative hallucinations, and the hypnotic state. Author(s): Stewart H. Source: The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1966; 47(1): 50-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6006224

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Optokinetic nystagmus, eye movements and hypnotically induced hallucinations. Author(s): Evans FJ, Reich LH, Orne MT. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1972 June; 154(6): 419-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5030968

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Pilot study of treatment of persistent auditory hallucinations by modified auditory input. Author(s): Collins MN, Cull CA, Sireling L. Source: Bmj (Clinical Research Ed.). 1989 August 12; 299(6696): 431-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2507001

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Practical ways of alleviating auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Nelson HE, Thrasher S, Barnes TR. Source: Bmj (Clinical Research Ed.). 1991 February 9; 302(6772): 327. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2001507

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Pseudohallucinations in diabetic eye disease: a natural Rorschach test? Author(s): Kemperman CJ, Hutter JM.

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Source: The Netherlands Journal of Medicine. 1989 October; 35(3-4): 201-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=2601796 •

Quadruplet hallucinations. Phenotypic variations of a schizophrenic genotype. Author(s): Rosenthal D, Quinn OW. Source: Archives of General Psychiatry. 1977 July; 34(7): 817-27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=560180

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Radio in the treatment of auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Mallya AR, Shen WW. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1983 September; 140(9): 1264-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6614254

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Right prefrontal rTMS treatment for refractory auditory command hallucinations - a neuroSPECT assisted case study. Author(s): Schreiber S, Dannon PN, Goshen E, Amiaz R, Zwas TS, Grunhaus L. Source: Psychiatry Research. 2002 November 30; 116(1-2): 113-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12426038

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Scopolamine and the sensory conditioning of hallucinations. Author(s): Warburton DM, Wesnes K, Edwards J, Larrad D. Source: Neuropsychobiology. 1985; 14(4): 198-202. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3835496

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Seeing is believing: the reality of hypnotic hallucinations. Author(s): Bryant RA, Mallard D. Source: Consciousness and Cognition. 2003 June; 12(2): 219-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12763006

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Sensory deprivation hallucinations and other sleep behavior as a function of position, method of report, and anxiety. Author(s): MORGAN RF, BAKAN P. Source: Percept Mot Skills. 1965 February; 20: 19-25. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14286519

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Stereotaxic rTMS for the treatment of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Author(s): Schonfeldt-Lecuona C, Gron G, Walter H, Buchler N, Wunderlich A, Spitzer M, Herwig U. Source: Neuroreport. 2004 July 19; 15(10): 1669-1673. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15232304

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Strategies of disattention and auditory hallucinations in schizophrenics. Author(s): Heilbrun AB Jr, Diller R, Fleming R, Slade L. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1986 May; 174(5): 265-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3701314

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Subjective report and credibility: an inquiry involving hypnotic hallucinations. Author(s): Bowers KS, Gilmore JB. Source: Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1969 August; 74(4): 443-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5811758

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Suggested (“hypnotic”) visual hallucinations: experimental and phenomenological data. Author(s): Spanos NP, Ham MW, Barber TX. Source: Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1973 February; 81(1): 96-106. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4690221

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Surreptitious observation of responses to hypnotically suggested hallucinations: a test of the compliance hypothesis. Author(s): Perugini EM, Kirsch I, Allen ST, Coldwell E, Meredith JM, Montgomery GH, Sheehan J. Source: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1998 April; 46(2): 191-203. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9558807

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The effect of demands for honesty on reports of visual and auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Bowers KS. Source: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1967 January; 15(1): 31-6. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=6036070

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The effects of systematic desensitisation on auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Slade PD. Source: Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1972 February; 10(1): 85-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=5030253

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The effects of the wording of rating scales on hypnotic subjects' descriptions of visual hallucinations. Author(s): McPeake JD, Spanos NP. Source: Am J Clin Hypn. 1973 April; 15(4): 239-44. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4779715

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The effects of varying auditory input on schizophrenic hallucinations. Author(s): Margo A, Hemsley DR, Slade PD.

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Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1981 August; 139: 122-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7306749 •

The effects of varying auditory input on schizophrenic hallucinations: a replication. Author(s): Gallagher AG, Dinan TG, Baker LJ. Source: The British Journal of Medical Psychology. 1994 March; 67 ( Pt 1): 67-75. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8204543

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The elicitation of visual hallucinations via brief instructions in a normal sample. Author(s): Spanos NP, Stam HJ. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1979 August; 167(8): 488-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=469513

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The neural correlates of inner speech and auditory verbal imagery in schizophrenia: relationship to auditory verbal hallucinations. Author(s): McGuire PK, Silbersweig DA, Wright I, Murray RM, Frackowiak RS, Frith CD. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1996 August; 169(2): 148-59. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8871790

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The psychological investigation and treatment of auditory hallucinations: a second case report. Author(s): Slade PD. Source: The British Journal of Medical Psychology. 1973 September; 46(3): 293-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4749736

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The role of brief instructions and suggestibility in the elicitation of auditory and visual hallucinations in normal and psychiatric subjects. Author(s): Young HF, Bentall RP, Slade PD, Dewey ME. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1987 January; 175(1): 41-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3806071

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Towards a theory of auditory hallucinations: outline of an hypothetical four-factor model. Author(s): Slade PD. Source: Br J Soc Clin Psychol. 1976 November; 15(4): 415-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1000149

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Traditional Chinese religious beliefs and superstitions hallucinations of Chinese schizophrenic patients. Author(s): Yip KS.

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delusions

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Source: The International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2003 June; 49(2): 97-111. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12887044 •

Transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporoparietal cortex and medicationresistant auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Hoffman RE, Hawkins KA, Gueorguieva R, Boutros NN, Rachid F, Carroll K, Krystal JH. Source: Archives of General Psychiatry. 2003 January; 60(1): 49-56. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=12511172

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Tricyclic-induced musical hallucinations and states of relative sensory deprivation. Author(s): Terao T. Source: Biological Psychiatry. 1995 August 1; 38(3): 192-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7578664

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Visual hallucinations and cataracts. Author(s): Levine AM. Source: Ophthalmic Surg. 1980 February; 11(2): 95-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7366949

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Visual hallucinations and psychosis associated with the leaf of the castor oil tree. Author(s): Hemphill RE. Source: South African Medical Journal. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif Vir Geneeskunde. 1981 January 24; 59(4): 96. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7455839

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Visual hallucinations associated with Charles Bonnet Syndrome--an ever increasing diagnosis. Author(s): Dodd J, Heffeman A, Blake J. Source: Ir Med J. 1999 May-June; 92(4): 344-5. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=10453119

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Visual hallucinations during prolonged blindfolding in sighted subjects. Author(s): Merabet LB, Maguire D, Warde A, Alterescu K, Stickgold R, Pascual-Leone A. Source: Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology : the Official Journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society. 2004 June; 24(2): 109-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=15179062

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Visual hallucinations during sensory deprivation: a problem of criteria. Author(s): SUEDFELD P, VERNON J.

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Visual hallucinations following treatment with vincristine. Author(s): Ghosh K, Sivakumaran M, Murphy P, Chapman CS, Wood JK. Source: Clinical and Laboratory Haematology. 1994 December; 16(4): 355-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7537641

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Visual hallucinations in a blind elderly woman: Charles Bonnet syndrome, an underrecognized clinical condition. Author(s): Chen J, Gomez M, Veit S, O'Dowd MA. Source: General Hospital Psychiatry. 1996 November; 18(6): 453-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8937916

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Visual hallucinations in blindness: the Charles Bonnet syndrome. Author(s): McNamara ME, Heros RC, Boller F. Source: The International Journal of Neuroscience. 1982 July; 17(1): 13-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=7166469

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Visual hallucinations in ophthalmology. Author(s): Olbrich HM, Engelmeier MP, Pauleikhoff D, Waubke T. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 1987; 225(3): 217-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=3609761

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Visual hallucinations in patients with macular degeneration. Author(s): Holroyd S, Rabins PV, Finkelstein D, Nicholson MC, Chase GA, Wisniewski SC. Source: The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1992 December; 149(12): 1701-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1443247

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Visual hallucinations in psychologically normal people: Charles Bonnet's syndrome. Author(s): Teunisse RJ, Cruysberg JR, Hoefnagels WH, Verbeek AL, Zitman FG. Source: Lancet. 1996 March 23; 347(9004): 794-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=8622335

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Visual hallucinations in the 19th century: research in a medical archive. Author(s): di Diodoro D, Bruschi C, Esposito W, Ferrari G. Source: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1998 November; 186(11): 716-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9824175

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Visual pseudohallucinations: psychotherapy case study of a long-standing perceptual disorder. Author(s): Bacon CE. Source: Psychopathology. 1991; 24(6): 361-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=1780429

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Where the imaginal appears real: a positron emission tomography study of auditory hallucinations. Author(s): Szechtman H, Woody E, Bowers KS, Nahmias C. Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1998 February 17; 95(4): 1956-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=9465124

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Witchcraft, psychopathology and hallucinations. Author(s): Barnett B. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1968 January; 114(506): 122-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=4865744

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Witchcraft, psychopathology and hallucinations. Author(s): BARNETT B. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1965 May; 111: 439-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=A bstract&list_uids=14327542

Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering CAM and related topics. The following is a representative sample: •

Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.: http://www.herbmed.org/

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AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=169&layer=&from=subcats

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Chinese Medicine: http://www.newcenturynutrition.com/

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drkoop.com: http://www.drkoop.com/InteractiveMedicine/IndexC.html

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_altn.htm

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Alternative/

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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

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MedWebPlus: http://medwebplus.com/subject/Alternative_and_Complementary_Medicine

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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/

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HealthGate: http://www.tnp.com/

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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/drugs_and_herbs

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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Alternative_Medicine/

The following is a specific Web list relating to hallucinations; please note that any particular subject below may indicate either a therapeutic use, or a contraindication (potential danger), and does not reflect an official recommendation: •

General Overview Alcohol Withdrawal Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Alzheimer's Disease Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Dementia Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Hypothermia Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Insomnia Source: Prima Communications, Inc.www.personalhealthzone.com Parkinson's Disease Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com Schizophrenia Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Senile Dementia Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com

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Alternative Therapy Guided Imagery Source: WholeHealthMD.com, LLC.; www.wholehealthmd.com Hyperlink: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/refshelf/substances_view/0,1525,699,00.html

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Herbs and Supplements 5-HTP Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com 5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com

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Anticonvulsants Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Ephedra (Ma huang) Source: WholeHealthMD.com, LLC.; www.wholehealthmd.com Hyperlink: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/refshelf/substances_view/0,1525,777,00.html Mixed Amphetamines Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Perphenazine Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Prochlorperazine Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Quetiapine Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Thioridazine Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Valproic Acid Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Yohimbe Alternative names: Pausinystalia yohimbe Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Yohimbe Source: Prima Communications, Inc.www.personalhealthzone.com Zolpidem Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com

General References A good place to find general background information on CAM is the National Library of Medicine. It has prepared within the MEDLINEplus system an information topic page dedicated to complementary and alternative medicine. To access this page, go to the MEDLINEplus site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alternativemedicine.html. This Web site provides a general overview of various topics and can lead to a number of general sources.

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CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON HALLUCINATIONS Overview In this chapter, we will give you a bibliography on recent dissertations relating to hallucinations. We will also provide you with information on how to use the Internet to stay current on dissertations. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical dissertations that use the generic term “hallucinations” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on hallucinations, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical dissertations in this bibliography.

Dissertations on Hallucinations ProQuest Digital Dissertations, the largest archive of academic dissertations available, is located at the following Web address: http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations. From this archive, we have compiled the following list covering dissertations devoted to hallucinations. You will see that the information provided includes the dissertation’s title, its author, and the institution with which the author is associated. The following covers recent dissertations found when using this search procedure: •

Measuring hallucinations in the chronic mentally ill by Harrington, Scott Winslow, MA from UNIVERSITY OF THE PACIFIC, 2003, 75 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/1417428

•

Voices, visions and strange ideas: Hallucinations and delusions in a Mexican-origin population. by schepers, Emile Markgraaff, PhD from Northwestern University, 1974, 452 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7428736

Keeping Current Ask the medical librarian at your library if it has full and unlimited access to the ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. From the library, you should be able to do more complete searches via http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations.

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CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON HALLUCINATIONS Overview Patents can be physical innovations (e.g. chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment) or processes (e.g. treatments or diagnostic procedures). The United States Patent and Trademark Office defines a patent as a grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the Patent and Trademark Office.8 Patents, therefore, are intellectual property. For the United States, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date when the patent application was filed. If the inventor wishes to receive economic benefits, it is likely that the invention will become commercially available within 20 years of the initial filing. It is important to understand, therefore, that an inventor’s patent does not indicate that a product or service is or will be commercially available. The patent implies only that the inventor has “the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling” the invention in the United States. While this relates to U.S. patents, similar rules govern foreign patents. In this chapter, we show you how to locate information on patents and their inventors. If you find a patent that is particularly interesting to you, contact the inventor or the assignee for further information. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical patents that use the generic term “hallucinations” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on hallucinations, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical patents in this bibliography.

Patents on Hallucinations By performing a patent search focusing on hallucinations, you can obtain information such as the title of the invention, the names of the inventor(s), the assignee(s) or the company that owns or controls the patent, a short abstract that summarizes the patent, and a few excerpts from the description of the patent. The abstract of a patent tends to be more technical in nature, while the description is often written for the public. Full patent descriptions contain much more information than is presented here (e.g. claims, references, figures, diagrams, etc.). We will tell you how to obtain this information later in the chapter. The following is an 8Adapted

from the United States Patent and Trademark Office: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/whatis.htm.

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example of the type of information that you can expect to obtain from a patent search on hallucinations: •

Method and apparatus for treating auditory hallucinations Inventor(s): Karell; Manuel L. (3573 --22 St., San Francisco, CA 94114) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,430,443 Date filed: March 21, 2000 Abstract: Stimulating one or more vestibulocochlear nerves or cochlea or cochlear regions will treat, prevent and control auditory hallucinations. Excerpt(s): The present invention generally relates to method and apparatus for treating, controlling or preventing auditory hallucinations by the application of modulating electrical signals to a vestibulocochlear cranial nerve or cochlea or cochlear region and/or by the application of audio signals through an ear. Scientific advances have revealed that schizophrenia is primarily organic and not psychological in nature. Scrambled language, distorted thoughts, and auditory hallucinations are the hallmarks of schizophrenia and have been linked to abnormal physical changes in specific areas of the human brain that begin during pregnancy. Auditory hallucinations are a prominent symptom and present in nearly all schizophrenic patients. Hallucinations are defined as sensory perceptions without environmental stimuli and occur as simple experiences of hearing, tasting, smelling, touching, or seeing what is not physically present; they also occur as mixed or complex experiences of more than one simple experience. When these experiences take the form of "voices" arising internally, the subjective experience is of "hearing" the voice of another, an auditory hallucination. Theories of the etiology of hallucinations include (1) stimulation and/or (2) inhibition. Examples of stimulation are neurochemical (for example, the neurotransmitter dopamine) changes, electrical discharges, and seizure episodes. An example of inhibition causing an hallucination is when there is destruction of normally inhibitory functions, resulting in disinhibition, as in the phantom limb syndrome. Auditory hallucinations arising from the disordered monitoring of inner speech (thinking in words) may be mixed stimulation and inhibition. Other theories of the etiology of schizophrenia include infection, autoimmune or immune dysfunction, and environmental. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06430443__

Patent Applications on Hallucinations As of December 2000, U.S. patent applications are open to public viewing.9 Applications are patent requests which have yet to be granted. (The process to achieve a patent can take several years.) The following patent applications have been filed since December 2000 relating to hallucinations:

9

This has been a common practice outside the United States prior to December 2000.

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•

Sanity system for video game Inventor(s): Dyack, Denis P; (St Catherines, CA), Ridgeway, Edward A; (Redmond, WA), Sterchi, Henry C; (Redmond, WA) Correspondence: Nixon & Vanderhye, PC; 1100 N Glebe Road; 8th Floor; Arlington; VA; 22201-4714; US Patent Application Number: 20030207712 Date filed: September 3, 2002 Abstract: A video game (54) and game system (50) incorporates a game character's sanity level that is affected by occurrences in the game (54) such as encountering a game creature or a gruesome situation. A character's sanity level (10) is modified by an amount determined based on a character reaction to the occurrence such as taking a rest or slowing game progress and/or an amount of character preparation. That is, if a character is prepared for the particular occurrence, the occurrence may have little or no affect on the character's sanity level. As the character's sanity level decreases, game play is effected such as by controlling game effects, audio effects, creating hallucinations and the like. In this context, the same game can be played differently each time it is played. Excerpt(s): This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 60/184,656, filed Feb. 24, 2000, the entire content of which is herein incorporated by reference. This invention relates to video games, and, more particularly, to a new gameplay feature for video games, such as Role Playing Games (RPGs) and the like, wherein the sanity (e.g. mental state) of the player or game character is used to enhance gameplay. Video games, such as RPGs and the like, typically include a game character that proceeds through the game while one or more physical conditions of the character, such as injury, strength and/or stamina, are monitored by the game. For example, such video games have monitored the level of injury that a character has sustained during gameplay by, for instance, engaging in fights with enemy characters. Such video games have also been programmed to cause the game to end as a result of the player reaching a certain threshold for one or more of the monitored physical conditions, such as level of injury. In other words, if a player's injury level rises to a predetermined level, the player may be considered by the game to have been killed during gameplay or injured to a point that the player cannot continue the game. While these and other similar features have been successful in video games, game developers continue to seek new, interesting, exciting and/or challenging features for video games. The present invention was developed in order to meet this need for new gameplay features. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

Keeping Current In order to stay informed about patents and patent applications dealing with hallucinations, you can access the U.S. Patent Office archive via the Internet at the following Web address: http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. You will see two broad options: (1) Issued Patent, and (2) Published Applications. To see a list of issued patents, perform the following steps: Under “Issued Patents,” click “Quick Search.” Then, type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the “Term 1” box. After clicking on the search button, scroll down to see the various patents which have been granted to date on hallucinations.

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You can also use this procedure to view pending patent applications concerning hallucinations. Simply go back to http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. Select “Quick Search” under “Published Applications.” Then proceed with the steps listed above.

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CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON HALLUCINATIONS Overview This chapter provides bibliographic book references relating to hallucinations. In addition to online booksellers such as www.amazon.com and www.bn.com, excellent sources for book titles on hallucinations include the Combined Health Information Database and the National Library of Medicine. Your local medical library also may have these titles available for loan.

Book Summaries: Federal Agencies The Combined Health Information Database collects various book abstracts from a variety of healthcare institutions and federal agencies. To access these summaries, go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. You will need to use the “Detailed Search” option. To find book summaries, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer. For the format option, select “Monograph/Book.” Now type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database which is updated every three months. The following is a typical result when searching for books on hallucinations: •

Comfort of Home: An Illustrated Step-by-Step Guide for Caregivers. 2nd ed Source: Portland, OR: CareTrust Publications LLC. 2002. 364 p. Contact: Available from CareTrust Publications LLC. P.O. Box 10283 Portland, Oregon 97296-0283. (800) 565-1533, (503) 221-1315; FAX: (503) 221-7019. PRICE: $23. ISBN: 09664767-0-0. Spanish edition also available, ISBN: 0966476735. Internet access: http://www.comfortofhome.com. Summary: This book for caregivers is an illustrated, step-by-step guide to caring for an ill or debilitated person at home. The first part of the book offers information about care options, working with the health care team, getting in-home help, paying for care, financial planning, advance directives, home modifications, and equipment and supplies. Next, the authors offer a guide to the various aspects of daily care, including activities of daily living, therapies, diet and nutrition, emergencies, body mechanics, the dying process, funeral arrangements, and grieving. One chapter addresses the

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symptoms and stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD), communicating with the AD patient, and dealing with special challenges such as agitation, hallucinations or delusions, sundown syndrome, and wandering. The book concludes with definitions of common abbreviations, medical specialists, and terms. A bibliography and index also are included. •

Truth About Alzheimer's is in the Experience Source: Leesburg, FL: Alzheimer's Research and Education, Inc. 1999. 63 p. Contact: Available from Alzheimer's Research and Education, Inc. PO Box 492060, Leesburg, FL 64749-2060. (877) 265-9919, (352) 365-9919. Email: [email protected]. PRICE: $19.95 plus $4.95 shipping. Summary: This book is a guide to providing positive care to people with dementia. First, it presents a case example illustrating the need for a higher standard of care for people with dementia. Then, it provides definitions of key terms and an overview of Alzheimer's disease, including common signs and symptoms, and the physical, emotional, and medical characteristics of the disease. The remainder of the book addresses various caregiving issues such as problem behaviors, communication, sensory deficits, creating a failure-free environment, coping strategies for the family, psychosocial issues, burnout and stress management, ethical issues, visitors and social outings, agitation, bathing and oral hygiene, delusions and hallucinations, eating and nutrition, constipation, incontinence, preserving the patient's dignity, medications and drug management, sexual behavior, sleep disturbances, wandering, expectations, and end stage signs and symptoms.

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Management of Challenging Behaviors in Dementia Source: Baltimore, MD: Health Professions Press. 2000. 236 p. Contact: Available from Health Professions Press. PO Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 212850624. (888) 337-8808; FAX: (410) 337-8539. Internet: http://www.healthpropress.com. PRICE: $34.00. ISBN: 1878812467. Item number: 2467. Summary: This book is a guide to the management of challenging behaviors in dementia. It presents a systematic approach to reducing or eliminating challenging behaviors by addressing their underlying causes within four critical areas: caregiving practices, physical environment, social environment, medical treatment. It describes intervention strategies for cognitive and physical impairments, mood disorders, delusions and hallucinations, anxiety, spatial disorientation, resistance to care, food refusal, insomnia, apathy, agitation, and inability to initiate activity. The use of nonpharmacological approaches is emphasized and illustrated with case reports. The book includes a glossary and index.

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Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Nursing Home: A Different Handbook for Carers of Dementia Patients Source: Ourimbah, Australia: BookBound Publishing. 1998. 75 p. Contact: Available from BookBound Publishing. PO Box 309, Ourimbah, NSW 2258, Australia. +61 2 4362-8058; FAX +61 2 4362-8059. PRICE: $14.95 plus $ 5.00 air mail or $4.00 surface mail to the United States. Summary: This book is intended to help families cope with caring for a relative with dementia. The author describes how he cared for his wife at home after she developed

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both Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease ( PD). He uses a series of short stories to relate some of the challenges he faced, such as hallucinations, incontinence, and loss of intimacy, and how he dealt with those challenges. He emphasizes the importance of trying to see humor in what might otherwise be embarrassing or difficult situations, and in getting support from a caregivers' group. The book includes some general information about dementia, PD, AD, and resources for caregivers in Australia. •

Psychosocial Intervention in Long-Term Care: An Advanced Guide Source: New York, NY: The Haworth Press, Inc. 1997. 219 p. Contact: Haworth press, Inc. 10 Alice Street, Binghamton, NY 13904-1580. (800) 4296784; (607) 722-5857; FAX (800) 895-0582. PRICE: $49.95 (hardcover); $29.95 (softcover). ISBN: 0789001144 (hardcover); 0789001896 (softcover). Summary: This book on psychosocial intervention in long-term care (LTC) is designed to be an advanced guide for social workers, nurses, and other professionals with some basic knowledge of psychosocial assessment and intervention. The information may be useful to staff caring for people with Alzheimer's disease and other dementias who exhibit psychosocial and behavior problems. It provides a brief overview of the history and future psychosocial services in LTC, and then discusses the psychosocial needs of LTC residents, the assessment of mental disorders in LTC, and the administration and interpretation of the Geriatric Depression Scale and the Mini-Mental State Examination. The next chapters focus on intervention, including counseling and psychotherapy, behavioral assessments and interventions, interventions for specific psychosocial and behavioral problems (delusions, hallucinations, agitation, sexual problems, depression, and insomnia), and psychiatric medications. Other chapters discuss administrative issues, legal and ethical issues, and the prevention of staff burnout. Appendices contain additional materials to help LTC facilities prepare for a Health Care Financing Administration survey.

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Caregiver Guide: Tips for Caregivers of People With Alzheimer's Disease Source: Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Aging. 2001. 23 p. Contact: Available from Alzheimer's Disease Education and Referral Center. PO Box 8250, Silver Spring, MD 20907-8250. (800) 438-4380, (301) 495- 3311; FAX: (301) 495-3334. Internet: http://www.alzheimers.org. PRICE: Free. Item number: Z-169. NIH Publication number: 01-4013. Summary: This booklet offers tips for caregivers of people with Alzheimer's disease (AD). It includes suggestions about dealing with the diagnosis, communicating, bathing, dressing, eating, activities, exercise, incontinence, sleep problems, hallucinations and delusions, wandering, home safety, driving, visiting the doctor, coping with holidays, visiting a person with AD, and choosing a nursing home. The booklet also provides an annotated list of organizations that offer information about AD and caregiving.

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Mental State Examination in Dementia Source: Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. 1992. (two videocassettes with manual). Contact: Alzheimer's Disease Education and Referral (ADEAR) Center. PO Box 8250, Silver Spring, MD 20907-8250. (800) 438-4380; (301) 495-3311; FAX (301) 495-3334. Internet access: http://www.alzheimers.org. PRICE: $25.00. Order Number A-07.

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Summary: This educational module is designed to teach nurses, staff educators, and social workers the special skills needed to perform a mental status examination (MSE) on a demented adult. Beyond memory loss, the telltale psychiatric symptoms of dementia that are discussed include hallucinations, delusions, and behavior problems. The results from the MSE intend to provide a baseline of the demented person's mental status from which the healthcare provider can construct a personalized care plan, monitor progress, and communicate problems to psychiatric consultants. The module includes a self-study and training guide, two videocassettes entitled, 'The Mental State Examination of the Older Adult,' and 'The Mental State Examination of the Demented Adult.' The Mental State Examination in Dementia: A Study Guide is divided into three sessions with a self-quiz and answer form following each session. A glossary of terms, the administration and scoring of the Johns Hopkins University's full and mini mental status exam forms also are included. 5 references. •

My Grandma's in a Nursing Home Source: Niles, IL: Albert Whitman and Company. 1996. [27 p.]. Contact: Albert Whitman and Company. 6340 Oakton Street, Morton Grove, IL 60053. (847) 581-0033; (800) 255-7675; FAX (847) 581-0039. PRICE: $12.95. ISBN: 0807553336. Summary: This illustrated book for children is told from the perspective of a young boy, Jason. It describes Jason's feelings regarding his grandmother who has Alzheimer's disease and recently went to live in a nursing home. Jason is upset by the actions of other residents of the home and distressed because his grandmother calls him by his father's name and does not seem to be very happy. During visits to the nursing home, Jason begins to talk with some of the other residents who had frightened him at first, and he begins to accept his grandmother's limitations. By the third visit, Jason is no longer troubled by the resident who has mild hallucinations and he is beginning to interact with the man across the hall from his grandmother, who, once his false teeth are in place, proves to be a pleasant person with whom Jason can play checkers. Jason sees that his grandmother begins to feel more at home and enjoys the nursing home's monthly birthday party. Jason eventually begins to accept the situation.

Book Summaries: Online Booksellers Commercial Internet-based booksellers, such as Amazon.com and Barnes&Noble.com, offer summaries which have been supplied by each title’s publisher. Some summaries also include customer reviews. Your local bookseller may have access to in-house and commercial databases that index all published books (e.g. Books in Print). IMPORTANT NOTE: Online booksellers typically produce search results for medical and non-medical books. When searching for “hallucinations” at online booksellers’ Web sites, you may discover non-medical books that use the generic term “hallucinations” (or a synonym) in their titles. The following is indicative of the results you might find when searching for “hallucinations” (sorted alphabetically by title; follow the hyperlink to view more details at Amazon.com): •

3 Hallucinations (from Altered States) by Corigliano John; ISBN: 0634041258; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0634041258/icongroupinterna

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At the Damascus Gate : Short Hallucinations (Green Integer) by Elana Greenfield; ISBN: 1931243492; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1931243492/icongroupinterna

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Delusions and Hallucinations in Old Age by Cornelius Katona (Editor), Raymond Levy (Editor); ISBN: 0902241478; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0902241478/icongroupinterna

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Drugs of Hallucination the Lsd Story by Sidney Cohen; ISBN: 0586080201; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0586080201/icongroupinterna

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Hollywood Hallucination (Cinema classics) by Parker Tyler; ISBN: 0824057821; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0824057821/icongroupinterna

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Ten Miles of Bad Road: Hallucinations of a Two-Bit Adman- A Cartoon Collection by Eric Vincent by Eric Vincent; ISBN: 1594570167; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1594570167/icongroupinterna

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The Best of Francis Dipietro: My Greatest Hallucinations (Greatest Hits) by Francis Dipietro; ISBN: 0595206565; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0595206565/icongroupinterna

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The Freedom: Shadows And Hallucinations In Occupied Iraq by Christian Parenti; ISBN: 1565849485; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1565849485/icongroupinterna

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Trance, Healing and Hallucination (Contemporary Religious Movements S.) by Felicitas D. Goodman, et al; ISBN: 0471313904; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471313904/icongroupinterna

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Visions of the Bereaved: Hallucination or Reality [PHOTOCOPY] by Kay Witmer Woods; ISBN: 156315109X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/156315109X/icongroupinterna

Chapters on Hallucinations In order to find chapters that specifically relate to hallucinations, an excellent source of abstracts is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to book chapters and hallucinations using the “Detailed Search” option. Go to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find book chapters, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Book Chapter.” Type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for book chapters on hallucinations: •

Confusion and Dementia Source: in Sorrentino, S. Mosby's Textbook for Nursing Assistants. 4th ed. St.Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book Inc. 1996. p. 644-653. Contact: Available from Mosby Lifeline. 11830 Westline Industrial Drive, St. Louis, Mo 63146. (800) 667-2968; FAX (314) 432-1380. Internet access: http://www.mosby.com. PRICE: $27.95. ISBN: 0815180268. Summary: This book chapter describes signs and symptoms associated with the early, middle, and late stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and discusses common behavioral problems such as wandering, sundowning, hallucinations, delusions, catastrophic reactions, agitation, and aggression. It discusses confusion and its possible causes, and outlines measures that can help a patient with AD. It explains how to care for people with AD and suggests ways to structure the environment, communicate with the patient

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with AD, ensure safety, and manage daily care needs. The chapter offers advice on meeting the needs of patients' families, protecting patients' rights, and ensuring a high quality of life for residents with dementia. Review questions, 4 tables, 6 figure. •

Other Dementias and Mental Disorders Due to General Medical Conditions Source: in Sadavoy, J.; et al., eds. Comprehensive Review of Geriatric Psychiatry-II. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc. 1996. p. 497-528. Contact: American Psychiatric Press, Inc. 1400 K Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005. (202) 682-6262; FAX (202) 789-2648. PRICE: $95.00 plus $7.50 shipping. Internet access: http://www.appi.org. ISBN: 0880487232. Summary: This chapter discusses forms of dementia other than Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. The first half of the chapter discusses forms of dementia considered in the differential diagnosis of progressive cognitive impairment. The second part of the chapter describes the secondary mental disorders referred to as 'organic mental disorders' in the 'Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, III, Revised' (DSM). The author explains that the term 'organic' was deleted from the DSM IV; thus, experts should specify the actual physical disorder or responsible substance. The dementias discussed include: focal cortical dementias (Pick's disease and others); subcortical dementias (Huntington's disease, dementia in Parkinson's disease, and progressive supranuclear palsy); normal pressure hydrocephalus; dementias caused by an infectious disease (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and HIV encephalopathy); dementia associated with metabolic disorders; dementia after head injury; dementia associated with toxic substances; dementia associated with brain tumors; mental disorders due to general medical conditions; amnestic disorders; mood disorders due to a general medical condition; anxiety disorders due to a general medical condition; psychotic disorders due to a general medical condition, with delusions; psychotic disorders due to a general medical condition, with hallucinations; and personality changes due to a general medical condition. 4 tables, 94 references.

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Alzheimer's Disease and the Family: A Challenge of the New Millennium Source: in Zandi, T.; Ham, R.J., eds. New Directions in Understanding Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease. New York, NY: Plenum Press. 1990. p. 3-20. Contact: Available from Plenum Press. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013. (800) 221-9369 or (212) 620-8000. PRICE: $59.50. Summary: This chapter examines various aspects of Alzheimer's disease including its diagnosis, symptoms and behaviors, legal and ethical issues, medications, and the importance of caring for the caregiver. The author stresses the importance of early recognition of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias in order to provide appropriate treatment. Mental status testing can be helpful as a screening tool for progressive cognitive loss. However, a diagnosis of dementia or Alzheimer's disease must be made carefully and only after progression of symptoms is evidenced to avoid inappropriate diagnosis. Several tables list diagnostic criteria for dementia. Symptoms and behaviors discussed by the author include memory loss, indecisiveness and problems of judgment, disorientation or unadaptability, personality change or disinhibition, lost daily living skills, dysmobility, aggressiveness or catastrophic reaction, insomnia or 'sundowning' (confusion or agitation in the evening), demanding or repetitive behaviors, wandering, and delusions, illusions, hallucinations, or paranoia. A brief section on the importance of legal and ethical issues and anticipatory planning for the patient and family is included. The importance of caring for the caregiver is stressed, with a summary of

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advice from the author to the caregiver and family. An example of the Mini-Mental State Examination (Folstein, 1975) is provided at the end of the chapter. 21 references. •

Treatment of Non-Cognitive Features of Dementia Source: in Levy, R.; Howard, R.; Burns, A.; eds. Treatment and Care in Old Age Psychiatry. Petersfield, Hampshire, UK: Wrightson Biomedical Publishing Ltd. 1993. p. 47-57. Contact: Available from Taylor and Francis. 1900 Frost Road, Suite 101, Bristol, PA 19007-1598. (800) 821-8312 or (215) 785-5515 (FAX). PRICE: $85.00. Summary: This chapter, in a text concerning recent advances in the psychiatry of the aged, describes the psychiatric symptoms and behavioral disturbances that occur in patients with dementia, outlines their importance, and discusses their treatment. Noncognitive features, including delusions, hallucinations, mood changes, sleep disturbances, appetite changes, sexual changes, psychomotor changes, and personality changes, may have diagnostic value and may help to indicate subgroups of Alzheimer's disease. The chapter focuses on pharmacological treatment of these symptoms, with discussion of neuroleptic agents in general and specific discussion of non-neuroleptics. The latter include antidepressants, anticonvulsants, beta blockers, benzodiazepines, and psychostimulants. General recommendations for drug treatment are given, along with discussions of the drug and behavioral treatment of specific behaviors, including depression, delusions, anxiety, insomnia, aggression, shouting, wandering, and agitation. 27 references.

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Dementias Source: in Sorrentino, S.A. Mosby's Textbook for Nursing Assistants. 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book, Inc. 1992. p. 415-422. Contact: Available from Mosby-Year Book, Inc. 11830 Westline Industrial Drive, P.O. Box 46908, St. Louis, MO 63146-9934. (800) 426-4545 or FAX (314) 432-5471. PRICE: $24.95. Summary: This textbook chapter for nursing assistants provides an overview of dementia, including Alzheimer's disease. The chapter discusses the stages of Alzheimer's disease and briefly describes wandering, sundowning, hallucinations, and delusions. It also discusses care of the person with Alzheimer's disease and the special needs of family caregivers. The importance of a nursing assistant in providing care is noted.

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CHAPTER 7. MULTIMEDIA ON HALLUCINATIONS Overview In this chapter, we show you how to keep current on multimedia sources of information on hallucinations. We start with sources that have been summarized by federal agencies, and then show you how to find bibliographic information catalogued by the National Library of Medicine.

Video Recordings An excellent source of multimedia information on hallucinations is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to “Videorecording” and “hallucinations” using the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find video productions, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Videorecording (videotape, videocassette, etc.).” Type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for video recordings on hallucinations: •

Alzheimer's: A Practical Guide Source: Tuscaloosa, AL: Dementia Education and Training Program. 1993. (videocassette). Contact: Alabama Department of Public Health. Bureau of Geriatric Psychology. Dementia Education and Training Program. 200 University Boulevard, Tuscaloosa, AL 35401. (800) 457-5679; (205) 759-0820; FAX (205) 759-0891. PRICE: Free. Summary: In this videotape, a panel, comprised of a physician, nursing home administrator, and family member of a patient, discusses the intellectual and behavioral problems associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). It features vignettes of family and professional caregivers sharing their experiences of coping with the impact of the disease. Topics include AD symptoms and other diseases with similar symptoms; diagnosing the disease and informing the patient of the diagnosis; wandering, delusions, and hallucinations in patients; and controlling stimuli, designing a safe environment, and communicating with the patient. Also discussed are the structure and

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function of the brain and changes that occur as AD progresses. This videotape concludes with the panelists responding to questions from the audience on drug and behavioral management of difficult behaviors, memory fluctuations, activities for patients, genetics, and the use of restraints. •

Middle Years Source: Baltimore, MD: University of Maryland Video Press. 1998. Contact: University of Maryland Video Press. 100 North Greene Street, Suite 300, Baltimore, MD 21201. (800) 328-7450 or (410) 706-5497; FAX (410) 706-8471. PRICE: $150.00 Also available as part of AZAV07856, a 6-video set (price for set: $800.00). Summary: Narrated by Dr. Peter Rabins, coauthor of the 36-Hour Day, this video addresses issues that arise in the middle stage of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Throughout the video, actual AD caregivers share their personal experiences with moderate-stage AD and discuss the more challenging aspects of this disease stage. Changes in mood and behavior are common in this disease stage; AD patients may become agitated, angry, or depressed, and may exhibit behavior problems such as wandering, aggression, hallucinations, delusions, or lack of involvement. During the middle stage of AD, patients become increasingly dependent on their caregivers, and may require assistance grooming, eating, and performing other activities of daily living. Incontinent individuals require additional attention. Caregiver stress may result in depression or physical illness. Suggestions for handling changes in mood and behavior, adjusting to reduced abilities, and coping with caregiver stress conclude the video.

•

Managing and Understanding Behavior Problems in Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders Source: Seattle, WA: University of Washington Alzheimer's Disease Center. 1991. (videocassette). Contact: Northwest Geriatric Education Center, University of Washington, HL-23, Seattle, WA. 98195. (206) 685-7478. PRICE: $250.00 (includes 10 videotapes, written manual, shipping and handling. Washington State residents add 8.2 percent sales tax). Summary: This training kit includes 10 videotapes and a written manual geared toward institutional staff, such as nurses and nurses aides, as well as toward families and home health aides responsible for the daily care of a dementia patient. The program provides background information about Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, teaches skills necessary to assess and modify behavior problems, and identifies and addresses the needs of caregivers. Caregivers learn the ABC (antecedent/behavior/consequence) approach to understanding behaviors and designing a plan for change. Titles of the videotapes are: "Overview Part I: Alzheimer's Disease and Related Diseases," "Overview Part II: Delirium and Depression," " ABCs: An Introduction," "Managing Aggressive Behaviors: Anger and Irritation, Catastrophic Reactions," "Managing Psychotic Behaviors: Language Deficits," "Managing Psychotic Behaviors: Hallucinations/Delusions and Paranoia and Suspiciousness," "Managing Personal Hygiene: Bathing and Dressing," "Managing Difficult Behaviors: Wandering and Inappropriate Sexual Behaviors," "Managing Difficult Behaviors: Depression," and " Caregiver Issues.".

•

Change of Mind Source: Bradford, UK: Mind the Gap Ltd. 1999.

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Contact: Available from Mind the Gap Ltd. Queens House, Queens Road, Bradford, BD8 7BS, UNITED KINGDOM. +44(0) 1274 544683; FAX: +44(0) 1274 544501. Internet: http://mindthegap.demon.co.uk. PRICE: 99 British pounds. Summary: This training packet contains a video and training manual. The video is a theatrical play which depicts the struggles a family encounters from the very early stages of Alzheimer's disease, prior to diagnosis, to the late stages, when the patient can no longer walk or talk. Carol, the wife, first becomes the breadwinner of the family, and then must leave her work to care for her husband, Doug. She deals with his forgetfulness, personality changes, shadowing, hallucinations, incontinence, and searches for support to cope with feelings of isolation and guilt. The play ends with the family trying to make the best decision for Doug's care and quality of life. The manual explains how the video can be used for training purposes, and provides sample discussion topics and activities. The manual ends with a list of references of organizations in the United Kingdom. •

Managing Problem Behaviors of Persons With Alzheimer's Disease Source: Columbus, OH: Ohio Association of Adult Daycare. 1987. (videocassette). Contact: Available from Ohio Association of Adult Daycare. 36 West Gay Street, Columbus, OH 43215-2811. (614) 221-2882. PRICE: $55.00. Summary: This video, designed for professional caregivers, including day care workers, discusses the nine most common behaviors associated with Alzheimer's disease: anxiety and agitation, anger and hostility, pacing and wandering, rummaging, suspiciousness, delusion, hallucinations, sundowner's syndrome, and catastrophic reaction. Each behavior and its possible causes are defined; in addition, a dramatization of each behavior including staff response is presented. Staff intervention and management techniques are outlined, and viewer discussion is encouraged. The videocassette is accompanied by an instructor's guide and a training manual entitled 'Adult Day Care for Persons with Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders: A Training Manual for Staff' (see AZDC02455).

•

Dress Him While He Walks: Management in Caring for Residents with Alzheimer's Source: Chicago, IL: Terra Nova Films. 1993. (videocassette). Contact: Available from Terra Nova Films. 9848 S. Winchester Avenue, Chicago, IL 60643. (800) 779-8491; (312) 881-8491. PRICE: $145.00 plus $9.00 shipping. Summary: This videotape features interviews with staff members who work in a special care unit for people with Alzheimer's disease (AD), and suggests ways to interact and care for people with AD. The interviews are dispersed among actual footage of staff members caring for people who have AD. Some of the caregiving topics include: managing wandering, feeding, dressing, bathing, dealing with delusions and hallucinations, medicating, and communicating with people who have AD. These staff members favor using a behavior management approach rather than a behavior modification approach when interacting with people who have AD. They also emphasize the importance of adapting the caregiving for each individual.

•

Paranoia, Suspiciousness, and Accusations Source: Baltimore, MD: University of Maryland Video Press. 1993.

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Contact: Availabile from the University of Maryland Video Press. 100 North Greene Street, Suite 300, Baltimore, MD 21201. (800) 328-7450 or (410) 706-5497 or FAX (410) 7065497. PRICE: $150.00. Also available as part of AZAV07855, a 7-video set (price for set: $950.00). Summary: This videotape, narrated by Dr. Peter Rabins, coauthor of the '36-Hour Day,' is intended to educate nursing home staff about causes, effects, and management strategies for behaviors such as paranoia, suspiciousness, and accusations. These behaviors are common in people with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Hallucinations and delusions may lead to paranoid, suspicious, or accusatory behavior, which is upsetting to both residents and staff. Dr. Rabins explains how to recognize patients suffering from these symptoms, and offers strategies for intervention. Medication should only be used when other intervention strategies have proved ineffective.

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CHAPTER 8. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON HALLUCINATIONS Overview In this chapter, we suggest a number of news sources and present various periodicals that cover hallucinations.

News Services and Press Releases One of the simplest ways of tracking press releases on hallucinations is to search the news wires. In the following sample of sources, we will briefly describe how to access each service. These services only post recent news intended for public viewing. PR Newswire To access the PR Newswire archive, simply go to http://www.prnewswire.com/. Select your country. Type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the search box. You will automatically receive information on relevant news releases posted within the last 30 days. The search results are shown by order of relevance. Reuters Health The Reuters’ Medical News and Health eLine databases can be very useful in exploring news archives relating to hallucinations. While some of the listed articles are free to view, others are available for purchase for a nominal fee. To access this archive, go to http://www.reutershealth.com/en/index.html and search by “hallucinations” (or synonyms). The following was recently listed in this archive for hallucinations: •

Visual hallucinations common with giant cell arteritis-associated visual loss Source: Reuters Medical News Date: October 05, 2001

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•

Visual hallucination in Parkinson's patients not entirely related to treatment Source: Reuters Medical News Date: June 18, 2001

•

Command hallucinations linked to violence in psychiatric patients Source: Reuters Medical News Date: October 02, 2000

•

Command hallucinations linked to violent behavior Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: September 28, 2000

•

Alzheimer's patients with hallucinations have more rapid cognitive decline Source: Reuters Medical News Date: September 14, 2000

•

Musical hallucinations linked to brain disorders Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: August 07, 2000

•

Magnetic stimulation temporarily reduces auditory hallucinations in schizophrenics Source: Reuters Medical News Date: March 24, 2000 The NIH

Within MEDLINEplus, the NIH has made an agreement with the New York Times Syndicate, the AP News Service, and Reuters to deliver news that can be browsed by the public. Search news releases at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alphanews_a.html. MEDLINEplus allows you to browse across an alphabetical index. Or you can search by date at the following Web page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/newsbydate.html. Often, news items are indexed by MEDLINEplus within its search engine. Business Wire Business Wire is similar to PR Newswire. To access this archive, simply go to http://www.businesswire.com/. You can scan the news by industry category or company name. Market Wire Market Wire is more focused on technology than the other wires. To browse the latest press releases by topic, such as alternative medicine, biotechnology, fitness, healthcare, legal, nutrition, and pharmaceuticals, access Market Wire’s Medical/Health channel at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_index?channel=MedicalHealth. Or simply go to Market Wire’s home page at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/home, type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click on “Search News.” As this service is technology oriented, you may wish to use it when searching for press releases covering diagnostic procedures or tests.

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Search Engines Medical news is also available in the news sections of commercial Internet search engines. See the health news page at Yahoo (http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/News_and_Media/), or you can use this Web site’s general news search page at http://news.yahoo.com/. Type in “hallucinations” (or synonyms). If you know the name of a company that is relevant to hallucinations, you can go to any stock trading Web site (such as http://www.etrade.com/) and search for the company name there. News items across various news sources are reported on indicated hyperlinks. Google offers a similar service at http://news.google.com/. BBC Covering news from a more European perspective, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) allows the public free access to their news archive located at http://www.bbc.co.uk/. Search by “hallucinations” (or synonyms).

Newsletter Articles Use the Combined Health Information Database, and limit your search criteria to “newsletter articles.” Again, you will need to use the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. Go to the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language that you prefer. For the format option, select “Newsletter Article.” Type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database as it is updated every three months. The following is a typical result when searching for newsletter articles on hallucinations: •

Hallucinations, Paranoia: Practical Suggestions for Understanding Problem Behaviors Source: Caring and Sharing. [Newsletter] 9(4): 7-8. Winter 1990. Contact: Available from Alzheimer's Association, South Central Kansas Chapter. P.O. Box 2763, Wichita, KS 67201. (316) 261-9099. PRICE: Call for price information. Summary: This second of 2 articles on the topic 'Understanding Difficult Behaviors,' discusses the definition and possible causes of paranoia, delusions, and hallucinations, which are sometimes seen in Alzheimer's disease patients. Paranoia is defined as unrealistic, blaming beliefs. Paranoia results from damage to the part of the brain that makes judgments and separates facts from fiction. Delusions are beliefs that are contrary to fact and remain fixed or persistent despite all evidence to the contrary. Hallucinations are sensory experiences that cannot be verified by anyone other than the person experiencing them. Possible physiological or medical causes for these disorders include sensory deficits, medications, brain damage due to Alzheimer's disease progression, or trauma. Environmental causes include unfamiliar environment or caregivers, or disruption in routines. Coping strategies include having vision and hearing tested, seeking medical evaluation, medications, seeking psychiatric evaluation, and employing approaches with the patient that instill trust, understanding, and empathy. Caregivers must not take accusations personally and must recognize that the person cannot control these behaviors.

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Academic Periodicals covering Hallucinations Numerous periodicals are currently indexed within the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed database that are known to publish articles relating to hallucinations. In addition to these sources, you can search for articles covering hallucinations that have been published by any of the periodicals listed in previous chapters. To find the latest studies published, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed, type the name of the periodical into the search box, and click “Go.” If you want complete details about the historical contents of a journal, you can also visit the following Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/jrbrowser.cgi. Here, type in the name of the journal or its abbreviation, and you will receive an index of published articles. At http://locatorplus.gov/, you can retrieve more indexing information on medical periodicals (e.g. the name of the publisher). Select the button “Search LOCATORplus.” Then type in the name of the journal and select the advanced search option “Journal Title Search.”

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CHAPTER 9. RESEARCHING MEDICATIONS Overview While a number of hard copy or CD-ROM resources are available for researching medications, a more flexible method is to use Internet-based databases. Broadly speaking, there are two sources of information on approved medications: public sources and private sources. We will emphasize free-to-use public sources.

U.S. Pharmacopeia Because of historical investments by various organizations and the emergence of the Internet, it has become rather simple to learn about the medications recommended for hallucinations. One such source is the United States Pharmacopeia. In 1820, eleven physicians met in Washington, D.C. to establish the first compendium of standard drugs for the United States. They called this compendium the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP). Today, the USP is a non-profit organization consisting of 800 volunteer scientists, eleven elected officials, and 400 representatives of state associations and colleges of medicine and pharmacy. The USP is located in Rockville, Maryland, and its home page is located at http://www.usp.org/. The USP currently provides standards for over 3,700 medications. The resulting USP DI Advice for the Patient can be accessed through the National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health. The database is partially derived from lists of federally approved medications in the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Drug Approvals database, located at http://www.fda.gov/cder/da/da.htm. While the FDA database is rather large and difficult to navigate, the Phamacopeia is both user-friendly and free to use. It covers more than 9,000 prescription and over-the-counter medications. To access this database, simply type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginformation.html. To view examples of a given medication (brand names, category, description, preparation, proper use, precautions, side effects, etc.), simply follow the hyperlinks indicated within the United States Pharmacopeia (USP).

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Commercial Databases In addition to the medications listed in the USP above, a number of commercial sites are available by subscription to physicians and their institutions. Or, you may be able to access these sources from your local medical library.

Mosby’s Drug Consult Mosby’s Drug Consult database (also available on CD-ROM and book format) covers 45,000 drug products including generics and international brands. It provides prescribing information, drug interactions, and patient information. Subscription information is available at the following hyperlink: http://www.mosbysdrugconsult.com/.

PDRhealth The PDRhealth database is a free-to-use, drug information search engine that has been written for the public in layman’s terms. It contains FDA-approved drug information adapted from the Physicians’ Desk Reference (PDR) database. PDRhealth can be searched by brand name, generic name, or indication. It features multiple drug interactions reports. Search PDRhealth at http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/index.html. Other Web Sites Drugs.com (www.drugs.com) reproduces the information in the Pharmacopeia as well as commercial information. You may also want to consider the Web site of the Medical Letter, Inc. (http://www.medletter.com/) which allows users to download articles on various drugs and therapeutics for a nominal fee.

Researching Orphan Drugs Although the list of orphan drugs is revised on a daily basis, you can quickly research orphan drugs that might be applicable to hallucinations by using the database managed by the National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. (NORD), at http://www.rarediseases.org/. Scroll down the page, and on the left toolbar, click on “Orphan Drug Designation Database.” On this page (http://www.rarediseases.org/search/noddsearch.html), type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.” When you receive your results, note that not all of the drugs may be relevant, as some may have been withdrawn from orphan status. Write down or print out the name of each drug and the relevant contact information. From there, visit the Pharmacopeia Web site and type the name of each orphan drug into the search box at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginformation.html. You may need to contact the sponsor or NORD for further information. NORD conducts “early access programs for investigational new drugs (IND) under the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA’s) approval ‘Treatment INDs’ programs which allow for a limited number of individuals to receive investigational drugs before FDA marketing approval.” If the orphan product about which you are seeking information is approved for

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marketing, information on side effects can be found on the product’s label. If the product is not approved, you may need to contact the sponsor. The following is a list of orphan drugs currently listed in the NORD Orphan Drug Designation Database for hallucinations: •

Gamma hydroxybutyrate http://www.rarediseases.org/nord/search/nodd_full?code=206

If you have any questions about a medical treatment, the FDA may have an office near you. Look for their number in the blue pages of the phone book. You can also contact the FDA through its toll-free number, 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332), or on the World Wide Web at www.fda.gov.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES Overview In this chapter, we focus on databases and Internet-based guidelines and information resources created or written for a professional audience.

NIH Guidelines Commonly referred to as “clinical” or “professional” guidelines, the National Institutes of Health publish physician guidelines for the most common diseases. Publications are available at the following by relevant Institute10: •

Office of the Director (OD); guidelines consolidated across agencies available at http://www.nih.gov/health/consumer/conkey.htm

•

National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS); fact sheets available at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/facts/

•

National Library of Medicine (NLM); extensive encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.) with guidelines: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html

•

National Cancer Institute (NCI); guidelines available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/list.aspx?viewid=5f35036e-5497-4d86-8c2c714a9f7c8d25

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National Eye Institute (NEI); guidelines available at http://www.nei.nih.gov/order/index.htm

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National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); guidelines available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/index.htm

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National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI); research available at http://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10000375

•

National Institute on Aging (NIA); guidelines available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/health/

10

These publications are typically written by one or more of the various NIH Institutes.

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•

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA); guidelines available at http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/publications.htm

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National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); guidelines available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/

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National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS); fact sheets and guidelines available at http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/index.htm

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National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); guidelines available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm

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National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); fact sheets and guidelines at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/

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National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR); guidelines available at http://www.nidr.nih.gov/health/

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National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); guidelines available at http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/health.htm

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National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); guidelines available at http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugAbuse.html

•

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS); environmental health information available at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/facts.htm

•

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH); guidelines available at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/practitioners/index.cfm

•

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); neurological disorder information pages available at http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm

•

National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR); publications on selected illnesses at http://www.nih.gov/ninr/news-info/publications.html

•

National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering; general information at http://grants.nih.gov/grants/becon/becon_info.htm

•

Center for Information Technology (CIT); referrals to other agencies based on keyword searches available at http://kb.nih.gov/www_query_main.asp

•

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM); health information available at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/

•

National Center for Research Resources (NCRR); various information directories available at http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/publications.asp

•

Office of Rare Diseases; various fact sheets available at http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/html/resources/rep_pubs.html

•

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; various fact sheets on infectious diseases available at http://www.cdc.gov/publications.htm

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NIH Databases In addition to the various Institutes of Health that publish professional guidelines, the NIH has designed a number of databases for professionals.11 Physician-oriented resources provide a wide variety of information related to the biomedical and health sciences, both past and present. The format of these resources varies. Searchable databases, bibliographic citations, full-text articles (when available), archival collections, and images are all available. The following are referenced by the National Library of Medicine:12 •

Bioethics: Access to published literature on the ethical, legal, and public policy issues surrounding healthcare and biomedical research. This information is provided in conjunction with the Kennedy Institute of Ethics located at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_bioethics.html

•

HIV/AIDS Resources: Describes various links and databases dedicated to HIV/AIDS research: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/aidsinfs.html

•

NLM Online Exhibitions: Describes “Exhibitions in the History of Medicine”: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/exhibition.html. Additional resources for historical scholarship in medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/hmd.html

•

Biotechnology Information: Access to public databases. The National Center for Biotechnology Information conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

•

Population Information: The National Library of Medicine provides access to worldwide coverage of population, family planning, and related health issues, including family planning technology and programs, fertility, and population law and policy: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_population.html

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Cancer Information: Access to cancer-oriented databases: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_cancer.html

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Profiles in Science: Offering the archival collections of prominent twentieth-century biomedical scientists to the public through modern digital technology: http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/

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Chemical Information: Provides links to various chemical databases and references: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Chem/ChemMain.html

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Clinical Alerts: Reports the release of findings from the NIH-funded clinical trials where such release could significantly affect morbidity and mortality: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/alerts/clinical_alerts.html

•

Space Life Sciences: Provides links and information to space-based research (including NASA): http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_space.html

•

MEDLINE: Bibliographic database covering the fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the healthcare system, and the pre-clinical sciences: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_medline.html

11

Remember, for the general public, the National Library of Medicine recommends the databases referenced in MEDLINEplus (http://medlineplus.gov/ or http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/databases.html). 12 See http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases.html.

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•

Toxicology and Environmental Health Information (TOXNET): Databases covering toxicology and environmental health: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxMain.html

•

Visible Human Interface: Anatomically detailed, three-dimensional representations of normal male and female human bodies: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html

The NLM Gateway13 The NLM (National Library of Medicine) Gateway is a Web-based system that lets users search simultaneously in multiple retrieval systems at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). It allows users of NLM services to initiate searches from one Web interface, providing one-stop searching for many of NLM’s information resources or databases.14 To use the NLM Gateway, simply go to the search site at http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd. Type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Search.” The results will be presented in a tabular form, indicating the number of references in each database category. Results Summary Category Journal Articles Books / Periodicals / Audio Visual Consumer Health Meeting Abstracts Other Collections Total

Items Found 8645 204 305 24 488 9666

HSTAT15 HSTAT is a free, Web-based resource that provides access to full-text documents used in healthcare decision-making.16 These documents include clinical practice guidelines, quickreference guides for clinicians, consumer health brochures, evidence reports and technology assessments from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), as well as AHRQ’s Put Prevention Into Practice.17 Simply search by “hallucinations” (or synonyms) at the following Web site: http://text.nlm.nih.gov.

13

Adapted from NLM: http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?Overview.x.

14

The NLM Gateway is currently being developed by the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications (LHNCBC) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). 15 Adapted from HSTAT: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/hstat.html. 16 17

The HSTAT URL is http://hstat.nlm.nih.gov/.

Other important documents in HSTAT include: the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference Reports and Technology Assessment Reports; the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS) resource documents; the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (SAMHSA/CSAT) Treatment Improvement Protocols (TIP) and Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (SAMHSA/CSAP) Prevention Enhancement Protocols System (PEPS); the Public Health Service (PHS) Preventive Services Task Force's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services; the independent, nonfederal Task Force on Community Services’ Guide to Community Preventive Services; and the Health Technology Advisory Committee (HTAC) of the Minnesota Health Care Commission (MHCC) health technology evaluations.

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Coffee Break: Tutorials for Biologists18 Coffee Break is a general healthcare site that takes a scientific view of the news and covers recent breakthroughs in biology that may one day assist physicians in developing treatments. Here you will find a collection of short reports on recent biological discoveries. Each report incorporates interactive tutorials that demonstrate how bioinformatics tools are used as a part of the research process. Currently, all Coffee Breaks are written by NCBI staff.19 Each report is about 400 words and is usually based on a discovery reported in one or more articles from recently published, peer-reviewed literature.20 This site has new articles every few weeks, so it can be considered an online magazine of sorts. It is intended for general background information. You can access the Coffee Break Web site at the following hyperlink: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/.

Other Commercial Databases In addition to resources maintained by official agencies, other databases exist that are commercial ventures addressing medical professionals. Here are some examples that may interest you: •

CliniWeb International: Index and table of contents to selected clinical information on the Internet; see http://www.ohsu.edu/cliniweb/.

•

Medical World Search: Searches full text from thousands of selected medical sites on the Internet; see http://www.mwsearch.com/.

18 Adapted 19

from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/Archive/FAQ.html.

The figure that accompanies each article is frequently supplied by an expert external to NCBI, in which case the source of the figure is cited. The result is an interactive tutorial that tells a biological story. 20 After a brief introduction that sets the work described into a broader context, the report focuses on how a molecular understanding can provide explanations of observed biology and lead to therapies for diseases. Each vignette is accompanied by a figure and hypertext links that lead to a series of pages that interactively show how NCBI tools and resources are used in the research process.

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APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES Overview Official agencies, as well as federally funded institutions supported by national grants, frequently publish a variety of guidelines written with the patient in mind. These are typically called “Fact Sheets” or “Guidelines.” They can take the form of a brochure, information kit, pamphlet, or flyer. Often they are only a few pages in length. Since new guidelines on hallucinations can appear at any moment and be published by a number of sources, the best approach to finding guidelines is to systematically scan the Internet-based services that post them.

Patient Guideline Sources The remainder of this chapter directs you to sources which either publish or can help you find additional guidelines on topics related to hallucinations. Due to space limitations, these sources are listed in a concise manner. Do not hesitate to consult the following sources by either using the Internet hyperlink provided, or, in cases where the contact information is provided, contacting the publisher or author directly. The National Institutes of Health The NIH gateway to patients is located at http://health.nih.gov/. From this site, you can search across various sources and institutes, a number of which are summarized below. Topic Pages: MEDLINEplus The National Library of Medicine has created a vast and patient-oriented healthcare information portal called MEDLINEplus. Within this Internet-based system are “health topic pages” which list links to available materials relevant to hallucinations. To access this system, log on to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html. From there you can either search using the alphabetical index or browse by broad topic areas. Recently, MEDLINEplus listed the following when searched for “hallucinations”:

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Amphetamine Abuse http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/amphetamineabuse.html Dementia http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/dementia.html Glaucoma http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/glaucoma.html Mental Health http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/mentalhealth.html Parkinson's Disease http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/parkinsonsdisease.html Schizophrenia http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/schizophrenia.html You may also choose to use the search utility provided by MEDLINEplus at the following Web address: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/. Simply type a keyword into the search box and click “Search.” This utility is similar to the NIH search utility, with the exception that it only includes materials that are linked within the MEDLINEplus system (mostly patient-oriented information). It also has the disadvantage of generating unstructured results. We recommend, therefore, that you use this method only if you have a very targeted search. The Combined Health Information Database (CHID) CHID Online is a reference tool that maintains a database directory of thousands of journal articles and patient education guidelines on hallucinations. CHID offers summaries that describe the guidelines available, including contact information and pricing. CHID’s general Web site is http://chid.nih.gov/. To search this database, go to http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. In particular, you can use the advanced search options to look up pamphlets, reports, brochures, and information kits. The following was recently posted in this archive: •

Hallucinations Source: Chicago, IL: Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders Association, Inc. 1992. [2 p.]. Contact: Alzheimer's Association. 919 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 1000, Chicago, IL 60611-1676. (800) 272-3900; (312) 335-8700; ( 312) 335-8882 (TDD); FAX (312) 335-1110. Internet: http://www.alz.org. PRICE: Single copy free. Also available as a set (AZDC08260). Summary: This fact sheet discusses hallucinations in the Alzheimer's patient. A hallucination is defined as a false perception of objects or events and is sensory in nature. Hallucinations can be frightening to the person and the caregiver, and they cannot be controlled or prevented. Methods are suggested for responding with kindness, honesty and reassurance to the person who experiences hallucinations. Environmental modifications are also suggested. A list of resources for further reading and help is provided. Also available in Spanish (AZDC08250).

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Hallucinations and False Ideas in Dementia Source: NSW, Australia: Alzheimer's Association NSW. 1996. 3 p. Contact: Available from Alzheimer's Association NSW. PO Box 6042, North Ryde, NSW, 1670 Australia. Internet: http://www.alznsw.asn.au. PRICE: Download free from Internet. Summary: This fact sheet explains conditions such as paranoia, hallucinations and delusions which may affect people with dementia. Dementia may cause the person to lose the ability to recognize people or things correctly. Factors which can create or exacerbate these conditions include medications, sensory defects, psychiatric illnesses, and environmental factors. The fact sheet concludes with ways to manage these behaviors such as avoiding confrontations, redirection, testing vision and hearing, increasing lighting, and not taking accusations personally. The NIH Search Utility

The NIH search utility allows you to search for documents on over 100 selected Web sites that comprise the NIH-WEB-SPACE. Each of these servers is “crawled” and indexed on an ongoing basis. Your search will produce a list of various documents, all of which will relate in some way to hallucinations. The drawbacks of this approach are that the information is not organized by theme and that the references are often a mix of information for professionals and patients. Nevertheless, a large number of the listed Web sites provide useful background information. We can only recommend this route, therefore, for relatively rare or specific disorders, or when using highly targeted searches. To use the NIH search utility, visit the following Web page: http://search.nih.gov/index.html. Additional Web Sources A number of Web sites are available to the public that often link to government sites. These can also point you in the direction of essential information. The following is a representative sample: •

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=168&layer=&from=subcats

•

Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/specific.htm

•

Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

•

Med Help International: http://www.medhelp.org/HealthTopics/A.html

•

Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

•

Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Diseases_and_Conditions/

•

WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/health_topics

Finding Associations There are several Internet directories that provide lists of medical associations with information on or resources relating to hallucinations. By consulting all of associations listed

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in this chapter, you will have nearly exhausted all sources for patient associations concerned with hallucinations. The National Health Information Center (NHIC) The National Health Information Center (NHIC) offers a free referral service to help people find organizations that provide information about hallucinations. For more information, see the NHIC’s Web site at http://www.health.gov/NHIC/ or contact an information specialist by calling 1-800-336-4797. Directory of Health Organizations The Directory of Health Organizations, provided by the National Library of Medicine Specialized Information Services, is a comprehensive source of information on associations. The Directory of Health Organizations database can be accessed via the Internet at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/Dir/DirMain.html. It is composed of two parts: DIRLINE and Health Hotlines. The DIRLINE database comprises some 10,000 records of organizations, research centers, and government institutes and associations that primarily focus on health and biomedicine. To access DIRLINE directly, go to the following Web site: http://dirline.nlm.nih.gov/. Simply type in “hallucinations” (or a synonym), and you will receive information on all relevant organizations listed in the database. Health Hotlines directs you to toll-free numbers to over 300 organizations. You can access this database directly at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/hotlines/. On this page, you are given the option to search by keyword or by browsing the subject list. When you have received your search results, click on the name of the organization for its description and contact information. The Combined Health Information Database Another comprehensive source of information on healthcare associations is the Combined Health Information Database. Using the “Detailed Search” option, you will need to limit your search to “Organizations” and “hallucinations”. Type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For publication date, select “All Years.” Then, select your preferred language and the format option “Organization Resource Sheet.” Type “hallucinations” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database since it is updated every three months. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. has prepared a Web site that provides, at no charge, lists of associations organized by health topic. You can access this database at the following Web site: http://www.rarediseases.org/search/orgsearch.html. Type “hallucinations” (or a synonym) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.”

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APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES Overview In this Appendix, we show you how to quickly find a medical library in your area.

Preparation Your local public library and medical libraries have interlibrary loan programs with the National Library of Medicine (NLM), one of the largest medical collections in the world. According to the NLM, most of the literature in the general and historical collections of the National Library of Medicine is available on interlibrary loan to any library. If you would like to access NLM medical literature, then visit a library in your area that can request the publications for you.21

Finding a Local Medical Library The quickest method to locate medical libraries is to use the Internet-based directory published by the National Network of Libraries of Medicine (NN/LM). This network includes 4626 members and affiliates that provide many services to librarians, health professionals, and the public. To find a library in your area, simply visit http://nnlm.gov/members/adv.html or call 1-800-338-7657.

Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada In addition to the NN/LM, the National Library of Medicine (NLM) lists a number of libraries with reference facilities that are open to the public. The following is the NLM’s list and includes hyperlinks to each library’s Web site. These Web pages can provide information on hours of operation and other restrictions. The list below is a small sample of

21

Adapted from the NLM: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/psd/cas/interlibrary.html.

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libraries recommended by the National Library of Medicine (sorted alphabetically by name of the U.S. state or Canadian province where the library is located)22: •

Alabama: Health InfoNet of Jefferson County (Jefferson County Library Cooperative, Lister Hill Library of the Health Sciences), http://www.uab.edu/infonet/

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Alabama: Richard M. Scrushy Library (American Sports Medicine Institute)

•

Arizona: Samaritan Regional Medical Center: The Learning Center (Samaritan Health System, Phoenix, Arizona), http://www.samaritan.edu/library/bannerlibs.htm

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California: Kris Kelly Health Information Center (St. Joseph Health System, Humboldt), http://www.humboldt1.com/~kkhic/index.html

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California: Community Health Library of Los Gatos, http://www.healthlib.org/orgresources.html

•

California: Consumer Health Program and Services (CHIPS) (County of Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles County Harbor-UCLA Medical Center Library) - Carson, CA, http://www.colapublib.org/services/chips.html

•

California: Gateway Health Library (Sutter Gould Medical Foundation)

•

California: Health Library (Stanford University Medical Center), http://wwwmed.stanford.edu/healthlibrary/

•

California: Patient Education Resource Center - Health Information and Resources (University of California, San Francisco), http://sfghdean.ucsf.edu/barnett/PERC/default.asp

•

California: Redwood Health Library (Petaluma Health Care District), http://www.phcd.org/rdwdlib.html

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California: Los Gatos PlaneTree Health Library, http://planetreesanjose.org/

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California: Sutter Resource Library (Sutter Hospitals Foundation, Sacramento), http://suttermedicalcenter.org/library/

•

California: Health Sciences Libraries (University of California, Davis), http://www.lib.ucdavis.edu/healthsci/

•

California: ValleyCare Health Library & Ryan Comer Cancer Resource Center (ValleyCare Health System, Pleasanton), http://gaelnet.stmarysca.edu/other.libs/gbal/east/vchl.html

•

California: Washington Community Health Resource Library (Fremont), http://www.healthlibrary.org/

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Colorado: William V. Gervasini Memorial Library (Exempla Healthcare), http://www.saintjosephdenver.org/yourhealth/libraries/

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Connecticut: Hartford Hospital Health Science Libraries (Hartford Hospital), http://www.harthosp.org/library/

•

Connecticut: Healthnet: Connecticut Consumer Health Information Center (University of Connecticut Health Center, Lyman Maynard Stowe Library), http://library.uchc.edu/departm/hnet/

22

Abstracted from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/libraries.html.

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•

Connecticut: Waterbury Hospital Health Center Library (Waterbury Hospital, Waterbury), http://www.waterburyhospital.com/library/consumer.shtml

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Delaware: Consumer Health Library (Christiana Care Health System, Eugene du Pont Preventive Medicine & Rehabilitation Institute, Wilmington), http://www.christianacare.org/health_guide/health_guide_pmri_health_info.cfm

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Delaware: Lewis B. Flinn Library (Delaware Academy of Medicine, Wilmington), http://www.delamed.org/chls.html

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Georgia: Family Resource Library (Medical College of Georgia, Augusta), http://cmc.mcg.edu/kids_families/fam_resources/fam_res_lib/frl.htm

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Georgia: Health Resource Center (Medical Center of Central Georgia, Macon), http://www.mccg.org/hrc/hrchome.asp

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Hawaii: Hawaii Medical Library: Consumer Health Information Service (Hawaii Medical Library, Honolulu), http://hml.org/CHIS/

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Idaho: DeArmond Consumer Health Library (Kootenai Medical Center, Coeur d’Alene), http://www.nicon.org/DeArmond/index.htm

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Illinois: Health Learning Center of Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago), http://www.nmh.org/health_info/hlc.html

•

Illinois: Medical Library (OSF Saint Francis Medical Center, Peoria), http://www.osfsaintfrancis.org/general/library/

•

Kentucky: Medical Library - Services for Patients, Families, Students & the Public (Central Baptist Hospital, Lexington), http://www.centralbap.com/education/community/library.cfm

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Kentucky: University of Kentucky - Health Information Library (Chandler Medical Center, Lexington), http://www.mc.uky.edu/PatientEd/

•

Louisiana: Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation Library (Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation, New Orleans), http://www.ochsner.org/library/

•

Louisiana: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Medical LibraryShreveport, http://lib-sh.lsuhsc.edu/

•

Maine: Franklin Memorial Hospital Medical Library (Franklin Memorial Hospital, Farmington), http://www.fchn.org/fmh/lib.htm

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Maine: Gerrish-True Health Sciences Library (Central Maine Medical Center, Lewiston), http://www.cmmc.org/library/library.html

•

Maine: Hadley Parrot Health Science Library (Eastern Maine Healthcare, Bangor), http://www.emh.org/hll/hpl/guide.htm

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Maine: Maine Medical Center Library (Maine Medical Center, Portland), http://www.mmc.org/library/

•

Maine: Parkview Hospital (Brunswick), http://www.parkviewhospital.org/

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Maine: Southern Maine Medical Center Health Sciences Library (Southern Maine Medical Center, Biddeford), http://www.smmc.org/services/service.php3?choice=10

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Maine: Stephens Memorial Hospital’s Health Information Library (Western Maine Health, Norway), http://www.wmhcc.org/Library/

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•

Manitoba, Canada: Consumer & Patient Health Information Service (University of Manitoba Libraries), http://www.umanitoba.ca/libraries/units/health/reference/chis.html

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Manitoba, Canada: J.W. Crane Memorial Library (Deer Lodge Centre, Winnipeg), http://www.deerlodge.mb.ca/crane_library/about.asp

•

Maryland: Health Information Center at the Wheaton Regional Library (Montgomery County, Dept. of Public Libraries, Wheaton Regional Library), http://www.mont.lib.md.us/healthinfo/hic.asp

•

Massachusetts: Baystate Medical Center Library (Baystate Health System), http://www.baystatehealth.com/1024/

•

Massachusetts: Boston University Medical Center Alumni Medical Library (Boston University Medical Center), http://med-libwww.bu.edu/library/lib.html

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Massachusetts: Lowell General Hospital Health Sciences Library (Lowell General Hospital, Lowell), http://www.lowellgeneral.org/library/HomePageLinks/WWW.htm

•

Massachusetts: Paul E. Woodard Health Sciences Library (New England Baptist Hospital, Boston), http://www.nebh.org/health_lib.asp

•

Massachusetts: St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Library (St. Luke’s Hospital, Southcoast Health System, New Bedford), http://www.southcoast.org/library/

•

Massachusetts: Treadwell Library Consumer Health Reference Center (Massachusetts General Hospital), http://www.mgh.harvard.edu/library/chrcindex.html

•

Massachusetts: UMass HealthNet (University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worchester), http://healthnet.umassmed.edu/

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Michigan: Botsford General Hospital Library - Consumer Health (Botsford General Hospital, Library & Internet Services), http://www.botsfordlibrary.org/consumer.htm

•

Michigan: Helen DeRoy Medical Library (Providence Hospital and Medical Centers), http://www.providence-hospital.org/library/

•

Michigan: Marquette General Hospital - Consumer Health Library (Marquette General Hospital, Health Information Center), http://www.mgh.org/center.html

•

Michigan: Patient Education Resouce Center - University of Michigan Cancer Center (University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor), http://www.cancer.med.umich.edu/learn/leares.htm

•

Michigan: Sladen Library & Center for Health Information Resources - Consumer Health Information (Detroit), http://www.henryford.com/body.cfm?id=39330

•

Montana: Center for Health Information (St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center, Missoula)

•

National: Consumer Health Library Directory (Medical Library Association, Consumer and Patient Health Information Section), http://caphis.mlanet.org/directory/index.html

•

National: National Network of Libraries of Medicine (National Library of Medicine) provides library services for health professionals in the United States who do not have access to a medical library, http://nnlm.gov/

•

National: NN/LM List of Libraries Serving the Public (National Network of Libraries of Medicine), http://nnlm.gov/members/

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Nevada: Health Science Library, West Charleston Library (Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, Las Vegas), http://www.lvccld.org/special_collections/medical/index.htm

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New Hampshire: Dartmouth Biomedical Libraries (Dartmouth College Library, Hanover), http://www.dartmouth.edu/~biomed/resources.htmld/conshealth.htmld/

•

New Jersey: Consumer Health Library (Rahway Hospital, Rahway), http://www.rahwayhospital.com/library.htm

•

New Jersey: Dr. Walter Phillips Health Sciences Library (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.englewoodhospital.com/links/index.htm

•

New Jersey: Meland Foundation (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/9360/

•

New York: Choices in Health Information (New York Public Library) - NLM Consumer Pilot Project participant, http://www.nypl.org/branch/health/links.html

•

New York: Health Information Center (Upstate Medical University, State University of New York, Syracuse), http://www.upstate.edu/library/hic/

•

New York: Health Sciences Library (Long Island Jewish Medical Center, New Hyde Park), http://www.lij.edu/library/library.html

•

New York: ViaHealth Medical Library (Rochester General Hospital), http://www.nyam.org/library/

•

Ohio: Consumer Health Library (Akron General Medical Center, Medical & Consumer Health Library), http://www.akrongeneral.org/hwlibrary.htm

•

Oklahoma: The Health Information Center at Saint Francis Hospital (Saint Francis Health System, Tulsa), http://www.sfh-tulsa.com/services/healthinfo.asp

•

Oregon: Planetree Health Resource Center (Mid-Columbia Medical Center, The Dalles), http://www.mcmc.net/phrc/

•

Pennsylvania: Community Health Information Library (Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey), http://www.hmc.psu.edu/commhealth/

•

Pennsylvania: Community Health Resource Library (Geisinger Medical Center, Danville), http://www.geisinger.edu/education/commlib.shtml

•

Pennsylvania: HealthInfo Library (Moses Taylor Hospital, Scranton), http://www.mth.org/healthwellness.html

•

Pennsylvania: Hopwood Library (University of Pittsburgh, Health Sciences Library System, Pittsburgh), http://www.hsls.pitt.edu/guides/chi/hopwood/index_html

•

Pennsylvania: Koop Community Health Information Center (College of Physicians of Philadelphia), http://www.collphyphil.org/kooppg1.shtml

•

Pennsylvania: Learning Resources Center - Medical Library (Susquehanna Health System, Williamsport), http://www.shscares.org/services/lrc/index.asp

•

Pennsylvania: Medical Library (UPMC Health System, Pittsburgh), http://www.upmc.edu/passavant/library.htm

•

Quebec, Canada: Medical Library (Montreal General Hospital), http://www.mghlib.mcgill.ca/

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•

South Dakota: Rapid City Regional Hospital Medical Library (Rapid City Regional Hospital), http://www.rcrh.org/Services/Library/Default.asp

•

Texas: Houston HealthWays (Houston Academy of Medicine-Texas Medical Center Library), http://hhw.library.tmc.edu/

•

Washington: Community Health Library (Kittitas Valley Community Hospital), http://www.kvch.com/

•

Washington: Southwest Washington Medical Center Library (Southwest Washington Medical Center, Vancouver), http://www.swmedicalcenter.com/body.cfm?id=72

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ONLINE GLOSSARIES The Internet provides access to a number of free-to-use medical dictionaries. The National Library of Medicine has compiled the following list of online dictionaries: •

ADAM Medical Encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.), comprehensive medical reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html

•

MedicineNet.com Medical Dictionary (MedicineNet, Inc.): http://www.medterms.com/Script/Main/hp.asp

•

Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary (Inteli-Health, Inc.): http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/

•

Multilingual Glossary of Technical and Popular Medical Terms in Eight European Languages (European Commission) - Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish: http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~rvdstich/eugloss/welcome.html

•

On-line Medical Dictionary (CancerWEB): http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/

•

Rare Diseases Terms (Office of Rare Diseases): http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/diseases/diseases.asp

•

Technology Glossary (National Library of Medicine) - Health Care Technology: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/ta101/ta10108.htm

Beyond these, MEDLINEplus contains a very patient-friendly encyclopedia covering every aspect of medicine (licensed from A.D.A.M., Inc.). The ADAM Medical Encyclopedia can be accessed at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html. ADAM is also available on commercial Web sites such as drkoop.com (http://www.drkoop.com/) and Web MD (http://my.webmd.com/adam/asset/adam_disease_articles/a_to_z/a). The NIH suggests the following Web sites in the ADAM Medical Encyclopedia when searching for information on hallucinations: •

Basic Guidelines for Hallucinations Hallucinations Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003258.htm

•

Signs & Symptoms for Hallucinations Agitation Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003212.htm Confusion Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003205.htm Fever Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003090.htm Headache Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003024.htm

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Vomiting Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003117.htm •

Background Topics for Hallucinations LSD Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001945.htm Marijuana Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001945.htm Metabolism Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002257.htm Peyote Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001945.htm Physical examination Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002274.htm Substance abuse Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001945.htm Traumatic event Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001924.htm

Online Dictionary Directories The following are additional online directories compiled by the National Library of Medicine, including a number of specialized medical dictionaries: •

Medical Dictionaries: Medical & Biological (World Health Organization): http://www.who.int/hlt/virtuallibrary/English/diction.htm#Medical

•

MEL-Michigan Electronic Library List of Online Health and Medical Dictionaries (Michigan Electronic Library): http://mel.lib.mi.us/health/health-dictionaries.html

•

Patient Education: Glossaries (DMOZ Open Directory Project): http://dmoz.org/Health/Education/Patient_Education/Glossaries/

•

Web of Online Dictionaries (Bucknell University): http://www.yourdictionary.com/diction5.html#medicine

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HALLUCINATIONS DICTIONARY The definitions below are derived from official public sources, including the National Institutes of Health [NIH] and the European Union [EU]. Abdominal: Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs. [NIH] Abdominal Pain: Sensation of discomfort, distress, or agony in the abdominal region. [NIH] Aberrant: Wandering or deviating from the usual or normal course. [EU] Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine in vertebrates is the major transmitter at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system. It is generally not used as an administered drug because it is broken down very rapidly by cholinesterases, but it is useful in some ophthalmological applications. [NIH] Acoustic: Having to do with sound or hearing. [NIH] Actin: Essential component of the cell skeleton. [NIH] Action Potentials: The electric response of a nerve or muscle to its stimulation. [NIH] Activities of Daily Living: The performance of the basic activities of self care, such as dressing, ambulation, eating, etc., in rehabilitation. [NIH] Acuity: Clarity or clearness, especially of the vision. [EU] Adenosine: A nucleoside that is composed of adenine and d-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. Adenosine itself is a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Adolescence: The period of life beginning with the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and terminating with the cessation of somatic growth. The years usually referred to as adolescence lie between 13 and 18 years of age. [NIH] Adrenergic: Activated by, characteristic of, or secreting epinephrine or substances with similar activity; the term is applied to those nerve fibres that liberate norepinephrine at a synapse when a nerve impulse passes, i.e., the sympathetic fibres. [EU] Adverse Effect: An unwanted side effect of treatment. [NIH] Aerosol: A solution of a drug which can be atomized into a fine mist for inhalation therapy. [EU]

Afferent: Concerned with the transmission of neural impulse toward the central part of the nervous system. [NIH] Affinity: 1. Inherent likeness or relationship. 2. A special attraction for a specific element, organ, or structure. 3. Chemical affinity; the force that binds atoms in molecules; the tendency of substances to combine by chemical reaction. 4. The strength of noncovalent chemical binding between two substances as measured by the dissociation constant of the complex. 5. In immunology, a thermodynamic expression of the strength of interaction between a single antigen-binding site and a single antigenic determinant (and thus of the stereochemical compatibility between them), most accurately applied to interactions among simple, uniform antigenic determinants such as haptens. Expressed as the association constant (K litres mole -1), which, owing to the heterogeneity of affinities in a population of antibody molecules of a given specificity, actually represents an average value (mean

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intrinsic association constant). 6. The reciprocal of the dissociation constant. [EU] Age of Onset: The age or period of life at which a disease or the initial symptoms or manifestations of a disease appear in an individual. [NIH] Aggressiveness: The quality of being aggressive (= characterized by aggression; militant; enterprising; spreading with vigour; chemically active; variable and adaptable). [EU] Agnosia: Loss of the ability to comprehend the meaning or recognize the importance of various forms of stimulation that cannot be attributed to impairment of a primary sensory modality. Tactile agnosia is characterized by an inability to perceive the shape and nature of an object by touch alone, despite unimpaired sensation to light touch, position, and other primary sensory modalities. [NIH] Agonist: In anatomy, a prime mover. In pharmacology, a drug that has affinity for and stimulates physiologic activity at cell receptors normally stimulated by naturally occurring substances. [EU] Akathisia: 1. A condition of motor restlessness in which there is a feeling of muscular quivering, an urge to move about constantly, and an inability to sit still, a common extrapyramidal side effect of neuroleptic drugs. 2. An inability to sit down because of intense anxiety at the thought of doing so. [EU] Alertness: A state of readiness to detect and respond to certain specified small changes occurring at random intervals in the environment. [NIH] Algorithms: A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task. [NIH] Alkaloid: A member of a large group of chemicals that are made by plants and have nitrogen in them. Some alkaloids have been shown to work against cancer. [NIH] Alleles: Mutually exclusive forms of the same gene, occupying the same locus on homologous chromosomes, and governing the same biochemical and developmental process. [NIH] Allergen: An antigenic substance capable of producing immediate-type hypersensitivity (allergy). [EU] Alternative medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used instead of standard treatments. Alternative medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Alveoli: Tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles in the lungs. [NIH] Ambulatory Care: Health care services provided to patients on an ambulatory basis, rather than by admission to a hospital or other health care facility. The services may be a part of a hospital, augmenting its inpatient services, or may be provided at a free-standing facility. [NIH]

Amenorrhea: Absence of menstruation. [NIH] Amino acid: Any organic compound containing an amino (-NH2 and a carboxyl (- COOH) group. The 20 a-amino acids listed in the accompanying table are the amino acids from which proteins are synthesized by formation of peptide bonds during ribosomal translation of messenger RNA; all except glycine, which is not optically active, have the L configuration. Other amino acids occurring in proteins, such as hydroxyproline in collagen, are formed by posttranslational enzymatic modification of amino acids residues in polypeptide chains. There are also several important amino acids, such as the neurotransmitter y-aminobutyric acid, that have no relation to proteins. Abbreviated AA. [EU]

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Amnestic: Nominal aphasia; a difficulty in finding the right name for an object. [NIH] Amphetamine: A powerful central nervous system stimulant and sympathomimetic. Amphetamine has multiple mechanisms of action including blocking uptake of adrenergics and dopamine, stimulation of release of monamines, and inhibiting monoamine oxidase. Amphetamine is also a drug of abuse and a psychotomimetic. The l- and the d,l-forms are included here. The l-form has less central nervous system activity but stronger cardiovascular effects. The d-form is dextroamphetamine. [NIH] Amygdala: Almond-shaped group of basal nuclei anterior to the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle of the brain, within the temporal lobe. The amygdala is part of the limbic system. [NIH]

Anaesthesia: Loss of feeling or sensation. Although the term is used for loss of tactile sensibility, or of any of the other senses, it is applied especially to loss of the sensation of pain, as it is induced to permit performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [EU] Anal: Having to do with the anus, which is the posterior opening of the large bowel. [NIH] Analgesic: An agent that alleviates pain without causing loss of consciousness. [EU] Analog: In chemistry, a substance that is similar, but not identical, to another. [NIH] Anatomical: Pertaining to anatomy, or to the structure of the organism. [EU] Anesthesia: A state characterized by loss of feeling or sensation. This depression of nerve function is usually the result of pharmacologic action and is induced to allow performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [NIH] Anesthetics: Agents that are capable of inducing a total or partial loss of sensation, especially tactile sensation and pain. They may act to induce general anesthesia, in which an unconscious state is achieved, or may act locally to induce numbness or lack of sensation at a targeted site. [NIH] Animal model: An animal with a disease either the same as or like a disease in humans. Animal models are used to study the development and progression of diseases and to test new treatments before they are given to humans. Animals with transplanted human cancers or other tissues are called xenograft models. [NIH] Anomalies: Birth defects; abnormalities. [NIH] Anosognosia: Inability to recognize loss of function, disease, or defect in a part of one's own body. [NIH] Antagonism: Interference with, or inhibition of, the growth of a living organism by another living organism, due either to creation of unfavorable conditions (e. g. exhaustion of food supplies) or to production of a specific antibiotic substance (e. g. penicillin). [NIH] Antecedent: Existing or occurring before in time or order often with consequential effects. [EU]

Anterior Cerebral Artery: Artery formed by the bifurcation of the internal carotid artery. Branches of the anterior cerebral artery supply the caudate nucleus, internal capsule, putamen, septal nuclei, gyrus cinguli, and surfaces of the frontal lobe and parietal lobe. [NIH] Anti-Anxiety Agents: Agents that alleviate anxiety, tension, and neurotic symptoms, promote sedation, and have a calming effect without affecting clarity of consciousness or neurologic conditions. Some are also effective as anticonvulsants, muscle relaxants, or anesthesia adjuvants. Adrenergic beta-antagonists are commonly used in the symptomatic treatment of anxiety but are not included here. [NIH] Antibacterial: A substance that destroys bacteria or suppresses their growth or reproduction. [EU]

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Antibiotic: A drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms. [NIH]

Antibody: A type of protein made by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign substance (antigen). Each antibody can bind to only a specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen. [NIH] Anticholinergic: An agent that blocks the parasympathetic nerves. Called also parasympatholytic. [EU] Anticoagulant: A drug that helps prevent blood clots from forming. Also called a blood thinner. [NIH] Anticonvulsant: An agent that prevents or relieves convulsions. [EU] Antidepressive Agents: Mood-stimulating drugs used primarily in the treatment of affective disorders and related conditions. Several monoamine oxidase inhibitors are useful as antidepressants apparently as a long-term consequence of their modulation of catecholamine levels. The tricyclic compounds useful as antidepressive agents also appear to act through brain catecholamine systems. A third group (antidepressive agents, secondgeneration) is a diverse group of drugs including some that act specifically on serotonergic systems. [NIH] Antidopaminergic: Preventing or counteracting (the effects of) dopamine. [EU] Antiemetic: An agent that prevents or alleviates nausea and vomiting. Also antinauseant. [EU]

Antigen: Any substance which is capable, under appropriate conditions, of inducing a specific immune response and of reacting with the products of that response, that is, with specific antibody or specifically sensitized T-lymphocytes, or both. Antigens may be soluble substances, such as toxins and foreign proteins, or particulate, such as bacteria and tissue cells; however, only the portion of the protein or polysaccharide molecule known as the antigenic determinant (q.v.) combines with antibody or a specific receptor on a lymphocyte. Abbreviated Ag. [EU] Antihypertensive: An agent that reduces high blood pressure. [EU] Anti-inflammatory: Having to do with reducing inflammation. [NIH] Antipsychotic: Effective in the treatment of psychosis. Antipsychotic drugs (called also neuroleptic drugs and major tranquilizers) are a chemically diverse (including phenothiazines, thioxanthenes, butyrophenones, dibenzoxazepines, dibenzodiazepines, and diphenylbutylpiperidines) but pharmacologically similar class of drugs used to treat schizophrenic, paranoid, schizoaffective, and other psychotic disorders; acute delirium and dementia, and manic episodes (during induction of lithium therapy); to control the movement disorders associated with Huntington's chorea, Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome, and ballismus; and to treat intractable hiccups and severe nausea and vomiting. Antipsychotic agents bind to dopamine, histamine, muscarinic cholinergic, a-adrenergic, and serotonin receptors. Blockade of dopaminergic transmission in various areas is thought to be responsible for their major effects : antipsychotic action by blockade in the mesolimbic and mesocortical areas; extrapyramidal side effects (dystonia, akathisia, parkinsonism, and tardive dyskinesia) by blockade in the basal ganglia; and antiemetic effects by blockade in the chemoreceptor trigger zone of the medulla. Sedation and autonomic side effects (orthostatic hypotension, blurred vision, dry mouth, nasal congestion and constipation) are caused by blockade of histamine, cholinergic, and adrenergic receptors. [EU] Antipsychotic Agents: Agents that control agitated psychotic behavior, alleviate acute

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psychotic states, reduce psychotic symptoms, and exert a quieting effect. They are used in schizophrenia, senile dementia, transient psychosis following surgery or myocardial infarction, etc. These drugs are often referred to as neuroleptics alluding to the tendency to produce neurological side effects, but not all antipsychotics are likely to produce such effects. Many of these drugs may also be effective against nausea, emesis, and pruritus. [NIH] Anus: The opening of the rectum to the outside of the body. [NIH] Anxiety: Persistent feeling of dread, apprehension, and impending disaster. [NIH] Anxiety Disorders: Disorders in which anxiety (persistent feelings of apprehension, tension, or uneasiness) is the predominant disturbance. [NIH] Apathy: Lack of feeling or emotion; indifference. [EU] Aphasia: A cognitive disorder marked by an impaired ability to comprehend or express language in its written or spoken form. This condition is caused by diseases which affect the language areas of the dominant hemisphere. Clinical features are used to classify the various subtypes of this condition. General categories include receptive, expressive, and mixed forms of aphasia. [NIH] Arachidonic Acid: An unsaturated, essential fatty acid. It is found in animal and human fat as well as in the liver, brain, and glandular organs, and is a constituent of animal phosphatides. It is formed by the synthesis from dietary linoleic acid and is a precursor in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. [NIH] Arterial: Pertaining to an artery or to the arteries. [EU] Arteries: The vessels carrying blood away from the heart. [NIH] Arteritis: Inflammation of an artery. [NIH] Artery: Vessel-carrying blood from the heart to various parts of the body. [NIH] Aspartate: A synthetic amino acid. [NIH] Asphyxia: A pathological condition caused by lack of oxygen, manifested in impending or actual cessation of life. [NIH] Assay: Determination of the amount of a particular constituent of a mixture, or of the biological or pharmacological potency of a drug. [EU] Astigmatism: A condition in which the surface of the cornea is not spherical; causes a blurred image to be received at the retina. [NIH] Ataxia: Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharnyx, larnyx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or peripheral nerve diseases. Motor ataxia may be associated with cerebellar diseases; cerebral cortex diseases; thalamic diseases; basal ganglia diseases; injury to the red nucleus; and other conditions. [NIH] Athetosis: A derangement marked by ceaseless occurrence of slow, sinuous, writhing movements, especially severe in the hands, and performed involuntarily; it may occur after hemiplegia, and is then known as posthemiplegic chorea. Called also mobile spasm. [EU] Atrium: A chamber; used in anatomical nomenclature to designate a chamber affording entrance to another structure or organ. Usually used alone to designate an atrium of the heart. [EU] Atrophy: Decrease in the size of a cell, tissue, organ, or multiple organs, associated with a variety of pathological conditions such as abnormal cellular changes, ischemia, malnutrition, or hormonal changes. [NIH] Atypical: Irregular; not conformable to the type; in microbiology, applied specifically to

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strains of unusual type. [EU] Auditory: Pertaining to the sense of hearing. [EU] Auditory Cortex: Area of the temporal lobe concerned with hearing. [NIH] Auditory Perception: The process whereby auditory stimuli are selected, organized and interpreted by the organism; includes speech discrimination. [NIH] Aura: A subjective sensation or motor phenomenon that precedes and marks the of a paroxysmal attack, such as an epileptic attack on set. [EU] Auricular: Pertaining to an auricle or to the ear, and, formerly, to an atrium of the heart. [EU] Autonomic: Self-controlling; functionally independent. [EU] Autoreceptors: Transmitter receptors on or near presynaptic terminals (or varicosities) which are sensitive to the transmitter(s) released by the terminal itself. Receptors for the hormones released by hormone-releasing cells are also included. [NIH] Axons: Nerve fibers that are capable of rapidly conducting impulses away from the neuron cell body. [NIH] Baclofen: A GABA derivative that is a specific agonist at GABA-B receptors. It is used in the treatment of spasticity, especially that due to spinal cord damage. Its therapeutic effects result from actions at spinal and supraspinal sites, generally the reduction of excitatory transmission. [NIH] Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. [NIH] Bacteriophage: A virus whose host is a bacterial cell; A virus that exclusively infects bacteria. It generally has a protein coat surrounding the genome (DNA or RNA). One of the coliphages most extensively studied is the lambda phage, which is also one of the most important. [NIH] Barbiturates: A class of chemicals derived from barbituric acid or thiobarbituric acid. Many of these are medically important as sedatives and hypnotics (sedatives, barbiturate), as anesthetics, or as anticonvulsants. [NIH] Basal Ganglia: Large subcortical nuclear masses derived from the telencephalon and located in the basal regions of the cerebral hemispheres. [NIH] Basal Ganglia Diseases: Diseases of the basal ganglia including the putamen; globus pallidus; claustrum; amygdala; and caudate nucleus. Dyskinesias (most notably involuntary movements and alterations of the rate of movement) represent the primary clinical manifestations of these disorders. Common etiologies include cerebrovascular disease; neurodegenerative diseases; and craniocerebral trauma. [NIH] Behavior Therapy: The application of modern theories of learning and conditioning in the treatment of behavior disorders. [NIH] Benign: Not cancerous; does not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body. [NIH]

Benzene: Toxic, volatile, flammable liquid hydrocarbon biproduct of coal distillation. It is used as an industrial solvent in paints, varnishes, lacquer thinners, gasoline, etc. Benzene causes central nervous system damage acutely and bone marrow damage chronically and is carcinogenic. It was formerly used as parasiticide. [NIH] Benzodiazepines: A two-ring heterocyclic compound consisting of a benzene ring fused to a diazepine ring. Permitted is any degree of hydrogenation, any substituents and any Hisomer. [NIH]

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Bereavement: Refers to the whole process of grieving and mourning and is associated with a deep sense of loss and sadness. [NIH] Beta blocker: A drug used to slow the heart rate and reduce pressure inside blood vessels. It also can regulate heart rhythm. [NIH] Bewilderment: Impairment or loss of will power. [NIH] Bilateral: Affecting both the right and left side of body. [NIH] Bioavailability: The degree to which a drug or other substance becomes available to the target tissue after administration. [EU] Bioavailable: The ability of a drug or other substance to be absorbed and used by the body. Orally bioavailable means that a drug or other substance that is taken by mouth can be absorbed and used by the body. [NIH] Biochemical: Relating to biochemistry; characterized by, produced by, or involving chemical reactions in living organisms. [EU] Biological Factors: Compounds made by living organisms that contribute to or influence a phenomenon or process. They have biological or physiological activities. [NIH] Biological Markers: Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc. [NIH] Biosynthesis: The building up of a chemical compound in the physiologic processes of a living organism. [EU] Biotechnology: Body of knowledge related to the use of organisms, cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of developing products which are technically, scientifically and clinically useful. Alteration of biologic function at the molecular level (i.e., genetic engineering) is a central focus; laboratory methods used include transfection and cloning technologies, sequence and structure analysis algorithms, computer databases, and gene and protein structure function analysis and prediction. [NIH] Biotransformation: The chemical alteration of an exogenous substance by or in a biological system. The alteration may inactivate the compound or it may result in the production of an active metabolite of an inactive parent compound. The alteration may be either nonsynthetic (oxidation-reduction, hydrolysis) or synthetic (glucuronide formation, sulfate conjugation, acetylation, methylation). This also includes metabolic detoxication and clearance. [NIH] Bipolar Disorder: A major affective disorder marked by severe mood swings (manic or major depressive episodes) and a tendency to remission and recurrence. [NIH] Bladder: The organ that stores urine. [NIH] Blood Platelets: Non-nucleated disk-shaped cells formed in the megakaryocyte and found in the blood of all mammals. They are mainly involved in blood coagulation. [NIH] Blood pressure: The pressure of blood against the walls of a blood vessel or heart chamber. Unless there is reference to another location, such as the pulmonary artery or one of the heart chambers, it refers to the pressure in the systemic arteries, as measured, for example, in the forearm. [NIH] Blood vessel: A tube in the body through which blood circulates. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. [NIH]

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Blood-Brain Barrier: Specialized non-fenestrated tightly-joined endothelial cells (tight junctions) that form a transport barrier for certain substances between the cerebral capillaries and the brain tissue. [NIH] Bone Marrow: The soft tissue filling the cavities of bones. Bone marrow exists in two types, yellow and red. Yellow marrow is found in the large cavities of large bones and consists mostly of fat cells and a few primitive blood cells. Red marrow is a hematopoietic tissue and is the site of production of erythrocytes and granular leukocytes. Bone marrow is made up of a framework of connective tissue containing branching fibers with the frame being filled with marrow cells. [NIH] Bone Marrow Transplantation: The transference of bone marrow from one human or animal to another. [NIH] Bowel: The long tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a small and a large bowel. Also called the intestine. [NIH] Brain Neoplasms: Neoplasms of the intracranial components of the central nervous system, including the cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, thalamus, brain stem, and cerebellum. Brain neoplasms are subdivided into primary (originating from brain tissue) and secondary (i.e., metastatic) forms. Primary neoplasms are subdivided into benign and malignant forms. In general, brain tumors may also be classified by age of onset, histologic type, or presenting location in the brain. [NIH] Bromocriptine: A semisynthetic ergot alkaloid that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It suppresses prolactin secretion and is used to treat amenorrhea, galactorrhea, and female infertility, and has been proposed for Parkinson disease. [NIH] Buprenorphine: A derivative of the opioid alkaloid thebaine that is a more potent and longer lasting analgesic than morphine. It appears to act as a partial agonist at mu and kappa opioid receptors and as an antagonist at delta receptors. The lack of delta-agonist activity has been suggested to account for the observation that buprenorphine tolerance may not develop with chronic use. [NIH] Caffeine: A methylxanthine naturally occurring in some beverages and also used as a pharmacological agent. Caffeine's most notable pharmacological effect is as a central nervous system stimulant, increasing alertness and producing agitation. It also relaxes smooth muscle, stimulates cardiac muscle, stimulates diuresis, and appears to be useful in the treatment of some types of headache. Several cellular actions of caffeine have been observed, but it is not entirely clear how each contributes to its pharmacological profile. Among the most important are inhibition of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases, antagonism of adenosine receptors, and modulation of intracellular calcium handling. [NIH] Calcium: A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. [NIH] Capsules: Hard or soft soluble containers used for the oral administration of medicine. [NIH] Carcinogenic: Producing carcinoma. [EU] Cardiac: Having to do with the heart. [NIH] Cardiopulmonary: Having to do with the heart and lungs. [NIH] Cardiotonic: 1. Having a tonic effect on the heart. 2. An agent that has a tonic effect on the heart. [EU]

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Cardiovascular: Having to do with the heart and blood vessels. [NIH] Case report: A detailed report of the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports also contain some demographic information about the patient (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin). [NIH] Case series: A group or series of case reports involving patients who were given similar treatment. Reports of case series usually contain detailed information about the individual patients. This includes demographic information (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin) and information on diagnosis, treatment, response to treatment, and follow-up after treatment. [NIH] Castor Oil: Oil obtained from seeds of Ricinus communis that is used as a cathartic and as a plasticizer. [NIH] Cataract: An opacity, partial or complete, of one or both eyes, on or in the lens or capsule, especially an opacity impairing vision or causing blindness. The many kinds of cataract are classified by their morphology (size, shape, location) or etiology (cause and time of occurrence). [EU] Catecholamine: A group of chemical substances manufactured by the adrenal medulla and secreted during physiological stress. [NIH] Caudal: Denoting a position more toward the cauda, or tail, than some specified point of reference; same as inferior, in human anatomy. [EU] Cell: The individual unit that makes up all of the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells. [NIH] Cell Division: The fission of a cell. [NIH] Central Nervous System: The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. [NIH] Central Nervous System Infections: Pathogenic infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. DNA virus infections; RNA virus infections; bacterial infections; mycoplasma infections; Spirochaetales infections; fungal infections; protozoan infections; helminthiasis; and prion diseases may involve the central nervous system as a primary or secondary process. [NIH] Centrifugation: A method of separating organelles or large molecules that relies upon differential sedimentation through a preformed density gradient under the influence of a gravitational field generated in a centrifuge. [NIH] Cerebellar: Pertaining to the cerebellum. [EU] Cerebral: Of or pertaining of the cerebrum or the brain. [EU] Cerebral Cortex: The thin layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemisphere that develops from the telencephalon and folds into gyri. It reaches its highest development in man and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions. [NIH] Cerebral hemispheres: The two halves of the cerebrum, the part of the brain that controls muscle functions of the body and also controls speech, emotions, reading, writing, and learning. The right hemisphere controls muscle movement on the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls muscle movement on the right side of the body. [NIH] Cerebrospinal: Pertaining to the brain and spinal cord. [EU] Cerebrospinal fluid: CSF. The fluid flowing around the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the ventricles in the brain. [NIH] Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum controls muscle functions of the body and also

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controls speech, emotions, reading, writing, and learning. [NIH] Character: In current usage, approximately equivalent to personality. The sum of the relatively fixed personality traits and habitual modes of response of an individual. [NIH] Chemoreceptor: A receptor adapted for excitation by chemical substances, e.g., olfactory and gustatory receptors, or a sense organ, as the carotid body or the aortic (supracardial) bodies, which is sensitive to chemical changes in the blood stream, especially reduced oxygen content, and reflexly increases both respiration and blood pressure. [EU] Chin: The anatomical frontal portion of the mandible, also known as the mentum, that contains the line of fusion of the two separate halves of the mandible (symphysis menti). This line of fusion divides inferiorly to enclose a triangular area called the mental protuberance. On each side, inferior to the second premolar tooth, is the mental foramen for the passage of blood vessels and a nerve. [NIH] Cholinergic: Resembling acetylcholine in pharmacological action; stimulated by or releasing acetylcholine or a related compound. [EU] Cholinesterase Inhibitors: Drugs that inhibit cholinesterases. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is rapidly hydrolyzed, and thereby inactivated, by cholinesterases. When cholinesterases are inhibited, the action of endogenously released acetylcholine at cholinergic synapses is potentiated. Cholinesterase inhibitors are widely used clinically for their potentiation of cholinergic inputs to the gastrointestinal tract and urinary bladder, the eye, and skeletal muscles; they are also used for their effects on the heart and the central nervous system. [NIH] Chorea: Involuntary, forcible, rapid, jerky movements that may be subtle or become confluent, markedly altering normal patterns of movement. Hypotonia and pendular reflexes are often associated. Conditions which feature recurrent or persistent episodes of chorea as a primary manifestation of disease are referred to as choreatic disorders. Chorea is also a frequent manifestation of basal ganglia diseases. [NIH] Choroid: The thin, highly vascular membrane covering most of the posterior of the eye between the retina and sclera. [NIH] Chromaffin System: The cells of the body which stain with chromium salts. They occur along the sympathetic nerves, in the adrenal gland, and in various other organs. [NIH] Chromosome: Part of a cell that contains genetic information. Except for sperm and eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes. [NIH] Chronic: A disease or condition that persists or progresses over a long period of time. [NIH] Chronic Disease: Disease or ailment of long duration. [NIH] Ciliary: Inflammation or infection of the glands of the margins of the eyelids. [NIH] Ciliary Body: A ring of tissue extending from the scleral spur to the ora serrata of the retina. It consists of the uveal portion and the epithelial portion. The ciliary muscle is in the uveal portion and the ciliary processes are in the epithelial portion. [NIH] Circulatory system: The system that contains the heart and the blood vessels and moves blood throughout the body. This system helps tissues get enough oxygen and nutrients, and it helps them get rid of waste products. The lymph system, which connects with the blood system, is often considered part of the circulatory system. [NIH] Clarithromycin: A semisynthetic macrolide antibiotic derived from erythromycin that is active against a variety of microorganisms. It can inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria by reversibly binding to the 50S ribosomal subunits. This inhibits the translocation of aminoacyl transfer-RNA and prevents peptide chain elongation. [NIH]

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Clinical study: A research study in which patients receive treatment in a clinic or other medical facility. Reports of clinical studies can contain results for single patients (case reports) or many patients (case series or clinical trials). [NIH] Clinical trial: A research study that tests how well new medical treatments or other interventions work in people. Each study is designed to test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. [NIH] Cloning: The production of a number of genetically identical individuals; in genetic engineering, a process for the efficient replication of a great number of identical DNA molecules. [NIH] Clozapine: A tricylic dibenzodiazepine, classified as an atypical antipsychotic agent. It binds several types of central nervous system receptors, and displays a unique pharmacological profile. Clozapine is a serotonin antagonist, with strong binding to 5-HT 2A/2C receptor subtype. It also displays strong affinity to several dopaminergic receptors, but shows only weak antagonism at the dopamine D2 receptor, a receptor commonly thought to modulate neuroleptic activity. Agranulocytosis is a major adverse effect associated with administration of this agent. [NIH] Coca: Any of several South American shrubs of the Erythroxylon genus (and family) that yield cocaine; the leaves are chewed with alum for CNS stimulation. [NIH] Cocaine: An alkaloid ester extracted from the leaves of plants including coca. It is a local anesthetic and vasoconstrictor and is clinically used for that purpose, particularly in the eye, ear, nose, and throat. It also has powerful central nervous system effects similar to the amphetamines and is a drug of abuse. Cocaine, like amphetamines, acts by multiple mechanisms on brain catecholaminergic neurons; the mechanism of its reinforcing effects is thought to involve inhibition of dopamine uptake. [NIH] Cochlea: The part of the internal ear that is concerned with hearing. It forms the anterior part of the labyrinth, is conical, and is placed almost horizontally anterior to the vestibule. [NIH]

Cochlear: Of or pertaining to the cochlea. [EU] Cochlear Diseases: Diseases of the cochlea, the part of the inner ear that is concerned with hearing. [NIH] Cochlear Nerve: The cochlear part of the 8th cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve). The cochlear nerve fibers originate from neurons of the spiral ganglion and project peripherally to cochlear hair cells and centrally to the cochlear nuclei (cochlear nucleus) of the brain stem. They mediate the sense of hearing. [NIH] Cochlear Nucleus: The brain stem nucleus that receives the central input from the cochlear nerve. The cochlear nucleus is located lateral and dorsolateral to the inferior cerebellar peduncles and is functionally divided into dorsal and ventral parts. It is tonotopically organized, performs the first stage of central auditory processing, and projects (directly or indirectly) to higher auditory areas including the superior olivary nuclei, the medial geniculi, the inferior colliculi, and the auditory cortex. [NIH] Codeine: An opioid analgesic related to morphine but with less potent analgesic properties and mild sedative effects. It also acts centrally to suppress cough. [NIH] Cognition: Intellectual or mental process whereby an organism becomes aware of or obtains knowledge. [NIH] Cognitive restructuring: A method of identifying and replacing fear-promoting, irrational beliefs with more realistic and functional ones. [NIH] Cognitive Therapy: A direct form of psychotherapy based on the interpretation of situations

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(cognitive structure of experiences) that determine how an individual feels and behaves. It is based on the premise that cognition, the process of acquiring knowledge and forming beliefs, is a primary determinant of mood and behavior. The therapy uses behavioral and verbal techniques to identify and correct negative thinking that is at the root of the aberrant behavior. [NIH] Colitis: Inflammation of the colon. [NIH] Colon: The long, coiled, tubelike organ that removes water from digested food. The remaining material, solid waste called stool, moves through the colon to the rectum and leaves the body through the anus. [NIH] Communis: Common tendon of the rectus group of muscles that surrounds the optic foramen and a portion of the superior orbital fissure, to the anterior margin of which it is attached at the spina recti lateralis. [NIH] Complement: A term originally used to refer to the heat-labile factor in serum that causes immune cytolysis, the lysis of antibody-coated cells, and now referring to the entire functionally related system comprising at least 20 distinct serum proteins that is the effector not only of immune cytolysis but also of other biologic functions. Complement activation occurs by two different sequences, the classic and alternative pathways. The proteins of the classic pathway are termed 'components of complement' and are designated by the symbols C1 through C9. C1 is a calcium-dependent complex of three distinct proteins C1q, C1r and C1s. The proteins of the alternative pathway (collectively referred to as the properdin system) and complement regulatory proteins are known by semisystematic or trivial names. Fragments resulting from proteolytic cleavage of complement proteins are designated with lower-case letter suffixes, e.g., C3a. Inactivated fragments may be designated with the suffix 'i', e.g. C3bi. Activated components or complexes with biological activity are designated by a bar over the symbol e.g. C1 or C4b,2a. The classic pathway is activated by the binding of C1 to classic pathway activators, primarily antigen-antibody complexes containing IgM, IgG1, IgG3; C1q binds to a single IgM molecule or two adjacent IgG molecules. The alternative pathway can be activated by IgA immune complexes and also by nonimmunologic materials including bacterial endotoxins, microbial polysaccharides, and cell walls. Activation of the classic pathway triggers an enzymatic cascade involving C1, C4, C2 and C3; activation of the alternative pathway triggers a cascade involving C3 and factors B, D and P. Both result in the cleavage of C5 and the formation of the membrane attack complex. Complement activation also results in the formation of many biologically active complement fragments that act as anaphylatoxins, opsonins, or chemotactic factors. [EU] Complementary and alternative medicine: CAM. Forms of treatment that are used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices are not considered standard medical approaches. CAM includes dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, herbal preparations, special teas, massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementary medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used to enhance or complement the standard treatments. Complementary medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Compliance: Distensibility measure of a chamber such as the lungs (lung compliance) or bladder. Compliance is expressed as a change in volume per unit change in pressure. [NIH] Compulsion: In psychology, an irresistible urge, sometimes amounting to obsession to perform a particular act which usually is carried out against the performer's will or better judgment. [NIH]

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Computational Biology: A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and theories applicable to molecular biology and areas of computer-based techniques for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets. [NIH] Confusion: A mental state characterized by bewilderment, emotional disturbance, lack of clear thinking, and perceptual disorientation. [NIH] Congestion: Excessive or abnormal accumulation of blood in a part. [EU] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Consciousness: Sense of awareness of self and of the environment. [NIH] Consolidation: The healing process of a bone fracture. [NIH] Constipation: Infrequent or difficult evacuation of feces. [NIH] Contact Inhibition: Arrest of cell locomotion or cell division when two cells come into contact. [NIH] Contraindications: Any factor or sign that it is unwise to pursue a certain kind of action or treatment, e. g. giving a general anesthetic to a person with pneumonia. [NIH] Contrast medium: A substance that is introduced into or around a structure and, because of the difference in absorption of x-rays by the contrast medium and the surrounding tissues, allows radiographic visualization of the structure. [EU] Control group: In a clinical trial, the group that does not receive the new treatment being studied. This group is compared to the group that receives the new treatment, to see if the new treatment works. [NIH] Convulsions: A general term referring to sudden and often violent motor activity of cerebral or brainstem origin. Convulsions may also occur in the absence of an electrical cerebral discharge (e.g., in response to hypotension). [NIH] Coronary: Encircling in the manner of a crown; a term applied to vessels; nerves, ligaments, etc. The term usually denotes the arteries that supply the heart muscle and, by extension, a pathologic involvement of them. [EU] Coronary Thrombosis: Presence of a thrombus in a coronary artery, often causing a myocardial infarction. [NIH] Cortex: The outer layer of an organ or other body structure, as distinguished from the internal substance. [EU] Cortical: Pertaining to or of the nature of a cortex or bark. [EU] Cranial: Pertaining to the cranium, or to the anterior (in animals) or superior (in humans) end of the body. [EU] Craniocerebral Trauma: Traumatic injuries involving the cranium and intracranial structures (i.e., brain; cranial nerves; meninges; and other structures). Injuries may be classified by whether or not the skull is penetrated (i.e., penetrating vs. nonpenetrating) or whether there is an associated hemorrhage. [NIH] Criterion: A standard by which something may be judged. [EU] Curative: Tending to overcome disease and promote recovery. [EU] Cyclic: Pertaining to or occurring in a cycle or cycles; the term is applied to chemical

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compounds that contain a ring of atoms in the nucleus. [EU] Cycloserine: Antibiotic substance produced by Streptomyces garyphalus. It may be used in the treatment of resistant tuberculosis as part of a multi-drug regimen. It has also been used in urinary tract infections. [NIH] Cytokine: Small but highly potent protein that modulates the activity of many cell types, including T and B cells. [NIH] Cytoplasm: The protoplasm of a cell exclusive of that of the nucleus; it consists of a continuous aqueous solution (cytosol) and the organelles and inclusions suspended in it (phaneroplasm), and is the site of most of the chemical activities of the cell. [EU] Cytoskeleton: The network of filaments, tubules, and interconnecting filamentous bridges which give shape, structure, and organization to the cytoplasm. [NIH] Degenerative: Undergoing degeneration : tending to degenerate; having the character of or involving degeneration; causing or tending to cause degeneration. [EU] Delirium: (DSM III-R) an acute, reversible organic mental disorder characterized by reduced ability to maintain attention to external stimuli and disorganized thinking as manifested by rambling, irrelevant, or incoherent speech; there are also a reduced level of consciousness, sensory misperceptions, disturbance of the sleep-wakefulness cycle and level of psychomotor activity, disorientation to time, place, or person, and memory impairment. Delirium may be caused by a large number of conditions resulting in derangement of cerebral metabolism, including systemic infection, poisoning, drug intoxication or withdrawal, seizures or head trauma, and metabolic disturbances such as hypoxia, hypoglycaemia, fluid, electrolyte, or acid-base imbalances, or hepatic or renal failure. Called also acute confusional state and acute brain syndrome. [EU] Delusion: A false belief, not susceptible to argument or reason, and determined, pathologically, by some form of mental disorder. [NIH] Dementia: An acquired organic mental disorder with loss of intellectual abilities of sufficient severity to interfere with social or occupational functioning. The dysfunction is multifaceted and involves memory, behavior, personality, judgment, attention, spatial relations, language, abstract thought, and other executive functions. The intellectual decline is usually progressive, and initially spares the level of consciousness. [NIH] Dendrites: Extensions of the nerve cell body. They are short and branched and receive stimuli from other neurons. [NIH] Density: The logarithm to the base 10 of the opacity of an exposed and processed film. [NIH] Dentate Gyrus: Gray matter situated above the gyrus hippocampi. It is composed of three layers. The molecular layer is continuous with the hippocampus in the hippocampal fissure. The granular layer consists of closely arranged spherical or oval neurons, called granule cells, whose axons pass through the polymorphic layer ending on the dendrites of pyramidal cells in the hippocampus. [NIH] Depersonalization: Alteration in the perception of the self so that the usual sense of one's own reality is lost, manifested in a sense of unreality or self-estrangement, in changes of body image, or in a feeling that one does not control his own actions and speech; seen in depersonalization disorder, schizophrenic disorders, and schizotypal personality disorder. Some do not draw a distinction between depersonalization and derealization, using depersonalization to include both. [EU] Depressive Disorder: An affective disorder manifested by either a dysphoric mood or loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. The mood disturbance is prominent and relatively persistent. [NIH]

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Deprivation: Loss or absence of parts, organs, powers, or things that are needed. [EU] Derealization: Is characterized by the loss of the sense of reality concerning one's surroundings. [NIH] Desensitisation: Gradually increasing the dose of a medicine in order to overcome severe allergic reactions. [NIH] Desensitization: The prevention or reduction of immediate hypersensitivity reactions by administration of graded doses of allergen; called also hyposensitization and immunotherapy. [EU] Dextroamphetamine: The d-form of amphetamine. It is a central nervous system stimulant and a sympathomimetic. It has also been used in the treatment of narcolepsy and of attention deficit disorders and hyperactivity in children. Dextroamphetamine has multiple mechanisms of action including blocking uptake of adrenergics and dopamine, stimulating release of monamines, and inhibiting monoamine oxidase. It is also a drug of abuse and a psychotomimetic. [NIH] Diagnostic procedure: A method used to identify a disease. [NIH] Diastolic: Of or pertaining to the diastole. [EU] Diastolic blood pressure: The minimum pressure that remains within the artery when the heart is at rest. [NIH] Diencephalon: The paired caudal parts of the prosencephalon from which the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus are derived. [NIH] Digestion: The process of breakdown of food for metabolism and use by the body. [NIH] Digitalis: A genus of toxic herbaceous Eurasian plants of the Scrophulaceae which yield cardiotonic glycosides. The most useful are Digitalis lanata and D. purpurea. [NIH] Dilation: A process by which the pupil is temporarily enlarged with special eye drops (mydriatic); allows the eye care specialist to better view the inside of the eye. [NIH] Direct: 1. Straight; in a straight line. 2. Performed immediately and without the intervention of subsidiary means. [EU] Discrimination: The act of qualitative and/or quantitative differentiation between two or more stimuli. [NIH] Disorientation: The loss of proper bearings, or a state of mental confusion as to time, place, or identity. [EU] Dissociation: 1. The act of separating or state of being separated. 2. The separation of a molecule into two or more fragments (atoms, molecules, ions, or free radicals) produced by the absorption of light or thermal energy or by solvation. 3. In psychology, a defense mechanism in which a group of mental processes are segregated from the rest of a person's mental activity in order to avoid emotional distress, as in the dissociative disorders (q.v.), or in which an idea or object is segregated from its emotional significance; in the first sense it is roughly equivalent to splitting, in the second, to isolation. 4. A defect of mental integration in which one or more groups of mental processes become separated off from normal consciousness and, thus separated, function as a unitary whole. [EU] Dissociative Disorders: Sudden temporary alterations in the normally integrative functions of consciousness. [NIH] Distal: Remote; farther from any point of reference; opposed to proximal. In dentistry, used to designate a position on the dental arch farther from the median line of the jaw. [EU] Diuresis: Increased excretion of urine. [EU] Dizziness: An imprecise term which may refer to a sense of spatial disorientation, motion of

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the environment, or lightheadedness. [NIH] Dominance: In genetics, the full phenotypic expression of a gene in both heterozygotes and homozygotes. [EU] Donepezil: A drug used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. It belongs to the family of drugs called cholinesterase inhibitors. It is being studied as a treatment for side effects caused by radiation therapy to the brain. [NIH] Dopa: The racemic or DL form of DOPA, an amino acid found in various legumes. The dextro form has little physiologic activity but the levo form (levodopa) is a very important physiologic mediator and precursor and pharmacological agent. [NIH] Dopamine: An endogenous catecholamine and prominent neurotransmitter in several systems of the brain. In the synthesis of catecholamines from tyrosine, it is the immediate precursor to norepinephrine and epinephrine. Dopamine is a major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement. A family of dopaminergic receptor subtypes mediate its action. Dopamine is used pharmacologically for its direct (beta adrenergic agonist) and indirect (adrenergic releasing) sympathomimetic effects including its actions as an inotropic agent and as a renal vasodilator. [NIH] Dorsal: 1. Pertaining to the back or to any dorsum. 2. Denoting a position more toward the back surface than some other object of reference; same as posterior in human anatomy; superior in the anatomy of quadrupeds. [EU] Dosage Forms: Completed forms of the pharmaceutical preparation in which prescribed doses of medication are included. They are designed to resist action by gastric fluids, prevent vomiting and nausea, reduce or alleviate the undesirable taste and smells associated with oral administration, achieve a high concentration of drug at target site, or produce a delayed or long-acting drug effect. They include capsules, liniments, ointments, pharmaceutical solutions, powders, tablets, etc. [NIH] Double-blind: Pertaining to a clinical trial or other experiment in which neither the subject nor the person administering treatment knows which treatment any particular subject is receiving. [EU] Dreams: A series of thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep which are dissociated from the usual stream of consciousness of the waking state. [NIH] Drug Interactions: The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug. [NIH] Drug Tolerance: Progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, resulting from its continued administration. It should be differentiated from drug resistance wherein an organism, disease, or tissue fails to respond to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should also be differentiated from maximum tolerated dose and no-observed-adverse-effect level. [NIH] Dyskinesia: Impairment of the power of voluntary movement, resulting in fragmentary or incomplete movements. [EU] Dyslexia: Partial alexia in which letters but not words may be read, or in which words may be read but not understood. [NIH] Dyspnea: Difficult or labored breathing. [NIH] Efficacy: The extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service produces a beneficial result under ideal conditions. Ideally, the determination of efficacy is based on the results of a randomized control trial. [NIH] Electroconvulsive Therapy: Electrically induced convulsions primarily used in the treatment of severe affective disorders and schizophrenia. [NIH]

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Electroencephalography: Recording of electric currents developed in the brain by means of electrodes applied to the scalp, to the surface of the brain, or placed within the substance of the brain. [NIH] Electrolyte: A substance that dissociates into ions when fused or in solution, and thus becomes capable of conducting electricity; an ionic solute. [EU] Electrophysiological: Pertaining to electrophysiology, that is a branch of physiology that is concerned with the electric phenomena associated with living bodies and involved in their functional activity. [EU] Embolus: Bit of foreign matter which enters the blood stream at one point and is carried until it is lodged or impacted in an artery and obstructs it. It may be a blood clot, an air bubble, fat or other tissue, or clumps of bacteria. [NIH] Embryo: The prenatal stage of mammalian development characterized by rapid morphological changes and the differentiation of basic structures. [NIH] Emesis: Vomiting; an act of vomiting. Also used as a word termination, as in haematemesis. [EU]

Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain due to infection, autoimmune processes, toxins, and other conditions. Viral infections (see encephalitis, viral) are a relatively frequent cause of this condition. [NIH] Encephalomyelitis: A general term indicating inflammation of the brain and spinal cord, often used to indicate an infectious process, but also applicable to a variety of autoimmune and toxic-metabolic conditions. There is significant overlap regarding the usage of this term and encephalitis in the literature. [NIH] Encephalopathy: A disorder of the brain that can be caused by disease, injury, drugs, or chemicals. [NIH] Endocrine Glands: Ductless glands that secrete substances which are released directly into the circulation and which influence metabolism and other body functions. [NIH] Endocrine System: The system of glands that release their secretions (hormones) directly into the circulatory system. In addition to the endocrine glands, included are the chromaffin system and the neurosecretory systems. [NIH] Endogenous: Produced inside an organism or cell. The opposite is external (exogenous) production. [NIH] Endorphins: One of the three major groups of endogenous opioid peptides. They are large peptides derived from the pro-opiomelanocortin precursor. The known members of this group are alpha-, beta-, and gamma-endorphin. The term endorphin is also sometimes used to refer to all opioid peptides, but the narrower sense is used here; opioid peptides is used for the broader group. [NIH] Enkephalins: One of the three major families of endogenous opioid peptides. The enkephalins are pentapeptides that are widespread in the central and peripheral nervous systems and in the adrenal medulla. [NIH] Entorhinal Cortex: Cortex where the signals are combined with those from other sensory systems. [NIH] Environmental Exposure: The exposure to potentially harmful chemical, physical, or biological agents in the environment or to environmental factors that may include ionizing radiation, pathogenic organisms, or toxic chemicals. [NIH] Environmental Health: The science of controlling or modifying those conditions, influences, or forces surrounding man which relate to promoting, establishing, and maintaining health. [NIH]

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Enzyme: A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. [NIH] Enzyme Inhibitors: Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction. [NIH] Eosinophilic: A condition found primarily in grinding workers caused by a reaction of the pulmonary tissue, in particular the eosinophilic cells, to dust that has entered the lung. [NIH] Epidemiologic Studies: Studies designed to examine associations, commonly, hypothesized causal relations. They are usually concerned with identifying or measuring the effects of risk factors or exposures. The common types of analytic study are case-control studies, cohort studies, and cross-sectional studies. [NIH] Epinephrine: The active sympathomimetic hormone from the adrenal medulla in most species. It stimulates both the alpha- and beta- adrenergic systems, causes systemic vasoconstriction and gastrointestinal relaxation, stimulates the heart, and dilates bronchi and cerebral vessels. It is used in asthma and cardiac failure and to delay absorption of local anesthetics. [NIH] Equipment and Supplies: Expendable and nonexpendable equipment, supplies, apparatus, and instruments that are used in diagnostic, surgical, therapeutic, scientific, and experimental procedures. [NIH] Ergot: Cataract due to ergot poisoning caused by eating of rye cereals contaminated by a fungus. [NIH] Erythrocytes: Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing hemoglobin whose function is to transport oxygen. [NIH] Erythromycin: A bacteriostatic antibiotic substance produced by Streptomyces erythreus. Erythromycin A is considered its major active component. In sensitive organisms, it inhibits protein synthesis by binding to 50S ribosomal subunits. This binding process inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with translocation of amino acids during translation and assembly of proteins. [NIH] Estazolam: A benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, hypnotic, and muscle relaxant properties. It has been shown in some cases to be more potent than diazepam or nitrazepam. [NIH]

Estrogen: One of the two female sex hormones. [NIH] Euphoria: An exaggerated feeling of physical and emotional well-being not consonant with apparent stimuli or events; usually of psychologic origin, but also seen in organic brain disease and toxic states. [NIH] Evacuation: An emptying, as of the bowels. [EU] Evoke: The electric response recorded from the cerebral cortex after stimulation of a peripheral sense organ. [NIH] Evoked Potentials: The electric response evoked in the central nervous system by stimulation of sensory receptors or some point on the sensory pathway leading from the receptor to the cortex. The evoked stimulus can be auditory, somatosensory, or visual, although other modalities have been reported. Event-related potentials is sometimes used synonymously with evoked potentials but is often associated with the execution of a motor, cognitive, or psychophysiological task, as well as with the response to a stimulus. [NIH] Excitation: An act of irritation or stimulation or of responding to a stimulus; the addition of energy, as the excitation of a molecule by absorption of photons. [EU] Excitatory: When cortical neurons are excited, their output increases and each new input they receive while they are still excited raises their output markedly. [NIH]

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Exhaustion: The feeling of weariness of mind and body. [NIH] Exogenous: Developed or originating outside the organism, as exogenous disease. [EU] Extracellular: Outside a cell or cells. [EU] Extracellular Space: Interstitial space between cells, occupied by fluid as well as amorphous and fibrous substances. [NIH] Extrapyramidal: Outside of the pyramidal tracts. [EU] Eye Movements: Voluntary or reflex-controlled movements of the eye. [NIH] Family Planning: Programs or services designed to assist the family in controlling reproduction by either improving or diminishing fertility. [NIH] Fat: Total lipids including phospholipids. [NIH] Feces: The excrement discharged from the intestines, consisting of bacteria, cells exfoliated from the intestines, secretions, chiefly of the liver, and a small amount of food residue. [EU] Feeding Behavior: Behavioral responses or sequences associated with eating including modes of feeding, rhythmic patterns of eating, and time intervals. [NIH] Fissure: Any cleft or groove, normal or otherwise; especially a deep fold in the cerebral cortex which involves the entire thickness of the brain wall. [EU] Fixation: 1. The act or operation of holding, suturing, or fastening in a fixed position. 2. The condition of being held in a fixed position. 3. In psychiatry, a term with two related but distinct meanings : (1) arrest of development at a particular stage, which like regression (return to an earlier stage), if temporary is a normal reaction to setbacks and difficulties but if protracted or frequent is a cause of developmental failures and emotional problems, and (2) a close and suffocating attachment to another person, especially a childhood figure, such as one's mother or father. Both meanings are derived from psychoanalytic theory and refer to 'fixation' of libidinal energy either in a specific erogenous zone, hence fixation at the oral, anal, or phallic stage, or in a specific object, hence mother or father fixation. 4. The use of a fixative (q.v.) to preserve histological or cytological specimens. 5. In chemistry, the process whereby a substance is removed from the gaseous or solution phase and localized, as in carbon dioxide fixation or nitrogen fixation. 6. In ophthalmology, direction of the gaze so that the visual image of the object falls on the fovea centralis. 7. In film processing, the chemical removal of all undeveloped salts of the film emulsion, leaving only the developed silver to form a permanent image. [EU] Flatus: Gas passed through the rectum. [NIH] Fluoxetine: The first highly specific serotonin uptake inhibitor. It is used as an antidepressant and often has a more acceptable side-effects profile than traditional antidepressants. [NIH] Fluvoxamine: A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. It is effective in the treatment of depression, obsessive-compulsive disorders, anxiety, panic disorders, and alcohol amnestic disorders. [NIH] Forearm: The part between the elbow and the wrist. [NIH] Fossa: A cavity, depression, or pit. [NIH] Fourth Ventricle: An irregularly shaped cavity in the rhombencephalon, between the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the isthmus in front, and the cerebellum behind. It is continuous with the central canal of the cord below and with the cerebral aqueduct above, and through its lateral and median apertures it communicates with the subarachnoid space. [NIH]

Free Radicals: Highly reactive molecules with an unsatisfied electron valence pair. Free

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radicals are produced in both normal and pathological processes. They are proven or suspected agents of tissue damage in a wide variety of circumstances including radiation, damage from environment chemicals, and aging. Natural and pharmacological prevention of free radical damage is being actively investigated. [NIH] Frontal Lobe: The anterior part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Functional magnetic resonance imaging: A noninvasive tool used to observe functioning in the brain or other organs by detecting changes in chemical composition, blood flow, or both. [NIH]

Gait: Manner or style of walking. [NIH] Gallbladder: The pear-shaped organ that sits below the liver. Bile is concentrated and stored in the gallbladder. [NIH] Ganglia: Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized connective tissue located outside the central nervous system. [NIH] Ganglion: 1. A knot, or knotlike mass. 2. A general term for a group of nerve cell bodies located outside the central nervous system; occasionally applied to certain nuclear groups within the brain or spinal cord, e.g. basal ganglia. 3. A benign cystic tumour occurring on a aponeurosis or tendon, as in the wrist or dorsum of the foot; it consists of a thin fibrous capsule enclosing a clear mucinous fluid. [EU] Gas: Air that comes from normal breakdown of food. The gases are passed out of the body through the rectum (flatus) or the mouth (burp). [NIH] Gas exchange: Primary function of the lungs; transfer of oxygen from inhaled air into the blood and of carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs. [NIH] Gastric: Having to do with the stomach. [NIH] Gastrointestinal: Refers to the stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gastrointestinal tract: The stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein. [NIH]

Genetics: The biological science that deals with the phenomena and mechanisms of heredity. [NIH] Genotype: The genetic constitution of the individual; the characterization of the genes. [NIH] Geriatric: Pertaining to the treatment of the aged. [EU] Ginger: Deciduous plant rich in volatile oil (oils, volatile). It is used as a flavoring agent and has many other uses both internally and topically. [NIH] Gland: An organ that produces and releases one or more substances for use in the body. Some glands produce fluids that affect tissues or organs. Others produce hormones or participate in blood production. [NIH] Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter of the brain. [NIH] Glutamic Acid: A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid (glutamate) is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. [NIH]

Glycine: A non-essential amino acid. It is found primarily in gelatin and silk fibroin and used therapeutically as a nutrient. It is also a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter. [NIH] Glycoprotein: A protein that has sugar molecules attached to it. [NIH] Governing Board: The group in which legal authority is vested for the control of health-

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related institutions and organizations. [NIH] Guanfacine: A centrally acting antihypertensive agent. The drug lowers both systolic and diastolic blood pressure by activating the central nervous system alpha-2 adrenoreceptors, which results in reduced sympathetic outflow leading to reduced vascular tone. Its adverse reactions include dry mouth, sedation, and constipation. [NIH] Habitual: Of the nature of a habit; according to habit; established by or repeated by force of habit, customary. [EU] Haematoma: A localized collection of blood, usually clotted, in an organ, space, or tissue, due to a break in the wall of a blood vessel. [EU] Haemorrhage: The escape of blood from the vessels; bleeding. Small haemorrhages are classified according to size as petechiae (very small), purpura (up to 1 cm), and ecchymoses (larger). The massive accumulation of blood within a tissue is called a haematoma. [EU] Hallucination: A sense perception without a source in the external world; a perception of an external stimulus object in the absence of such an object. [EU] Hallucinogen: A hallucination-producing drug, a category of drugs producing this effect. The user of a hallucinogenic drug is almost invariably aware that what he is seeing are hallucinations. [NIH] Haloperidol: Butyrophenone derivative. [NIH] Handedness: Preference for using right or left hand. [NIH] Haptens: Small antigenic determinants capable of eliciting an immune response only when coupled to a carrier. Haptens bind to antibodies but by themselves cannot elicit an antibody response. [NIH] Headache: Pain in the cranial region that may occur as an isolated and benign symptom or as a manifestation of a wide variety of conditions including subarachnoid hemorrhage; craniocerebral trauma; central nervous system infections; intracranial hypertension; and other disorders. In general, recurrent headaches that are not associated with a primary disease process are referred to as headache disorders (e.g., migraine). [NIH] Headache Disorders: Common conditions characterized by persistent or recurrent headaches. Headache syndrome classification systems may be based on etiology (e.g., vascular headache, post-traumatic headaches, etc.), temporal pattern (e.g., cluster headache, paroxysmal hemicrania, etc.), and precipitating factors (e.g., cough headache). [NIH] Hemiplegia: Severe or complete loss of motor function on one side of the body. This condition is usually caused by BRAIN DISEASES that are localized to the cerebral hemisphere opposite to the side of weakness. Less frequently, BRAIN STEM lesions; cervical spinal cord diseases; peripheral nervous system diseases; and other conditions may manifest as hemiplegia. The term hemiparesis (see paresis) refers to mild to moderate weakness involving one side of the body. [NIH] Hemorrhage: Bleeding or escape of blood from a vessel. [NIH] Hemostasis: The process which spontaneously arrests the flow of blood from vessels carrying blood under pressure. It is accomplished by contraction of the vessels, adhesion and aggregation of formed blood elements, and the process of blood or plasma coagulation. [NIH]

Hepatic: Refers to the liver. [NIH] Heredity: 1. The genetic transmission of a particular quality or trait from parent to offspring. 2. The genetic constitution of an individual. [EU] Heterogeneity: The property of one or more samples or populations which implies that they

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are not identical in respect of some or all of their parameters, e. g. heterogeneity of variance. [NIH]

Heterozygotes: Having unlike alleles at one or more corresponding loci on homologous chromosomes. [NIH] Hippocampus: A curved elevation of gray matter extending the entire length of the floor of the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle (Dorland, 28th ed). The hippocampus, subiculum, and dentate gyrus constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the entorhinal cortex in the hippocampal formation. [NIH] Histamine: 1H-Imidazole-4-ethanamine. A depressor amine derived by enzymatic decarboxylation of histidine. It is a powerful stimulant of gastric secretion, a constrictor of bronchial smooth muscle, a vasodilator, and also a centrally acting neurotransmitter. [NIH] Holidays: Days commemorating events. Holidays also include vacation periods. [NIH] Homologous: Corresponding in structure, position, origin, etc., as (a) the feathers of a bird and the scales of a fish, (b) antigen and its specific antibody, (c) allelic chromosomes. [EU] Homozygotes: An individual having a homozygous gene pair. [NIH] Hormonal: Pertaining to or of the nature of a hormone. [EU] Hormone: A substance in the body that regulates certain organs. Hormones such as gastrin help in breaking down food. Some hormones come from cells in the stomach and small intestine. [NIH] Hydrocephalus: Excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid within the cranium which may be associated with dilation of cerebral ventricles, intracranial hypertension; headache; lethargy; urinary incontinence; and ataxia (and in infants macrocephaly). This condition may be caused by obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid pathways due to neurologic abnormalities, intracranial hemorrhages; central nervous system infections; brain neoplasms; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Impaired resorption of cerebrospinal fluid from the arachnoid villi results in a communicating form of hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus ex-vacuo refers to ventricular dilation that occurs as a result of brain substance loss from cerebral infarction and other conditions. [NIH] Hydrogen: The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight 1. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are protons. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope deuterium and the unstable, radioactive isotope tritium. [NIH] Hydrogenation: Specific method of reduction in which hydrogen is added to a substance by the direct use of gaseous hydrogen. [NIH] Hyperopia: Farsightedness; ability to see distant objects more clearly than close objects; may be corrected with glasses or contact lenses. [NIH] Hypersensitivity: Altered reactivity to an antigen, which can result in pathologic reactions upon subsequent exposure to that particular antigen. [NIH] Hypertension: Persistently high arterial blood pressure. Currently accepted threshold levels are 140 mm Hg systolic and 90 mm Hg diastolic pressure. [NIH] Hypnotic: A drug that acts to induce sleep. [EU] Hypoglycaemia: An abnormally diminished concentration of glucose in the blood, which may lead to tremulousness, cold sweat, piloerection, hypothermia, and headache, accompanied by irritability, confusion, hallucinations, bizarre behaviour, and ultimately, convulsions and coma. [EU]

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Hypokinesia: Slow or diminished movement of body musculature. It may be associated with basal ganglia diseases; mental disorders; prolonged inactivity due to illness; experimental protocols used to evaluate the physiologic effects of immobility; and other conditions. [NIH] Hypotension: Abnormally low blood pressure. [NIH] Hypothalamic: Of or involving the hypothalamus. [EU] Hypothalamus: Ventral part of the diencephalon extending from the region of the optic chiasm to the caudal border of the mammillary bodies and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the third ventricle. [NIH] Hypothyroidism: Deficiency of thyroid activity. In adults, it is most common in women and is characterized by decrease in basal metabolic rate, tiredness and lethargy, sensitivity to cold, and menstrual disturbances. If untreated, it progresses to full-blown myxoedema. In infants, severe hypothyroidism leads to cretinism. In juveniles, the manifestations are intermediate, with less severe mental and developmental retardation and only mild symptoms of the adult form. When due to pituitary deficiency of thyrotropin secretion it is called secondary hypothyroidism. [EU] Hypoxia: Reduction of oxygen supply to tissue below physiological levels despite adequate perfusion of the tissue by blood. [EU] Idiopathic: Describes a disease of unknown cause. [NIH] Illusions: The misinterpretation of a real external, sensory experience. [NIH] Immune response: The activity of the immune system against foreign substances (antigens). [NIH]

Immunization: Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. Active immunization involves administration of antigens or immunologic adjuvants. Passive immunization involves administration of immune sera or lymphocytes or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow). [NIH] Immunology: The study of the body's immune system. [NIH] Immunotherapy: Manipulation of the host's immune system in treatment of disease. It includes both active and passive immunization as well as immunosuppressive therapy to prevent graft rejection. [NIH] Impairment: In the context of health experience, an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. [NIH] In vitro: In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body). [NIH] In vivo: In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory). [NIH] Incontinence: Inability to control the flow of urine from the bladder (urinary incontinence) or the escape of stool from the rectum (fecal incontinence). [NIH] Induction: The act or process of inducing or causing to occur, especially the production of a specific morphogenetic effect in the developing embryo through the influence of evocators or organizers, or the production of anaesthesia or unconsciousness by use of appropriate agents. [EU] Infarction: A pathological process consisting of a sudden insufficient blood supply to an area, which results in necrosis of that area. It is usually caused by a thrombus, an embolus, or a vascular torsion. [NIH] Infection: 1. Invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues, which may be clinically unapparent or result in local cellular injury due to competitive metabolism, toxins,

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intracellular replication, or antigen-antibody response. The infection may remain localized, subclinical, and temporary if the body's defensive mechanisms are effective. A local infection may persist and spread by extension to become an acute, subacute, or chronic clinical infection or disease state. A local infection may also become systemic when the microorganisms gain access to the lymphatic or vascular system. 2. An infectious disease. [EU]

Infertility: The diminished or absent ability to conceive or produce an offspring while sterility is the complete inability to conceive or produce an offspring. [NIH] Inflammation: A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. [NIH] Inflammatory bowel disease: A general term that refers to the inflammation of the colon and rectum. Inflammatory bowel disease includes ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. [NIH]

Infusion: A method of putting fluids, including drugs, into the bloodstream. Also called intravenous infusion. [NIH] Ingestion: Taking into the body by mouth [NIH] Initiation: Mutation induced by a chemical reactive substance causing cell changes; being a step in a carcinogenic process. [NIH] Inner ear: The labyrinth, comprising the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals. [NIH] Inotropic: Affecting the force or energy of muscular contractions. [EU] Insight: The capacity to understand one's own motives, to be aware of one's own psychodynamics, to appreciate the meaning of symbolic behavior. [NIH] Insomnia: Difficulty in going to sleep or getting enough sleep. [NIH] Intensive Care: Advanced and highly specialized care provided to medical or surgical patients whose conditions are life-threatening and require comprehensive care and constant monitoring. It is usually administered in specially equipped units of a health care facility. [NIH]

Interleukin-1: A soluble factor produced by monocytes, macrophages, and other cells which activates T-lymphocytes and potentiates their response to mitogens or antigens. IL-1 consists of two distinct forms, IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta which perform the same functions but are distinct proteins. The biological effects of IL-1 include the ability to replace macrophage requirements for T-cell activation. The factor is distinct from interleukin-2. [NIH] Interleukin-10: Factor that is a coregulator of mast cell growth. It is produced by T-cells and B-cells and shows extensive homology with the Epstein-Barr virus BCRFI gene. [NIH] Interleukin-2: Chemical mediator produced by activated T lymphocytes and which regulates the proliferation of T cells, as well as playing a role in the regulation of NK cell activity. [NIH] Intermittent: Occurring at separated intervals; having periods of cessation of activity. [EU] Internal Capsule: White matter pathway, flanked by nuclear masses, consisting of both afferent and efferent fibers projecting between the cerebral cortex and the brainstem. It consists of three distinct parts: an anterior limb, posterior limb, and genu. [NIH] Interneurons: Most generally any neurons which are not motor or sensory. Interneurons may also refer to neurons whose axons remain within a particular brain region as contrasted with projection neurons which have axons projecting to other brain regions. [NIH] Intestine: A long, tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of

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digestion. There is both a large intestine and a small intestine. Also called the bowel. [NIH] Intoxication: Poisoning, the state of being poisoned. [EU] Intracellular: Inside a cell. [NIH] Intracranial Aneurysm: A saclike dilatation of the walls of a blood vessel, usually an artery. [NIH]

Intracranial Hemorrhages: Bleeding within the intracranial cavity, including hemorrhages in the brain and within the cranial epidural, subdural, and subarachnoid spaces. [NIH] Intracranial Hypertension: Increased pressure within the cranial vault. This may result from several conditions, including hydrocephalus; brain edema; intracranial masses; severe systemic hypertension; pseudotumor cerebri; and other disorders. [NIH] Intravenous: IV. Into a vein. [NIH] Intrinsic: Situated entirely within or pertaining exclusively to a part. [EU] Invasive: 1. Having the quality of invasiveness. 2. Involving puncture or incision of the skin or insertion of an instrument or foreign material into the body; said of diagnostic techniques. [EU]

Involuntary: Reaction occurring without intention or volition. [NIH] Ions: An atom or group of atoms that have a positive or negative electric charge due to a gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons. Atoms with a positive charge are known as cations; those with a negative charge are anions. [NIH] Iop: Intraocular pressure: pressure of the fluid inside the eye; normal IOP varies among individuals. [NIH] Ipsilateral: Having to do with the same side of the body. [NIH] Ischemia: Deficiency of blood in a part, due to functional constriction or actual obstruction of a blood vessel. [EU] Jealousy: An irrational reaction compounded of grief, loss of self-esteem, enmity against the rival and self criticism. [NIH] Kb: A measure of the length of DNA fragments, 1 Kb = 1000 base pairs. The largest DNA fragments are up to 50 kilobases long. [NIH] Ketamine: A cyclohexanone derivative used for induction of anesthesia. Its mechanism of action is not well understood, but ketamine can block NMDA receptors (receptors, NMethyl-D-Aspartate) and may interact with sigma receptors. [NIH] Labyrinth: The internal ear; the essential part of the organ of hearing. It consists of an osseous and a membranous portion. [NIH] Lactation: The period of the secretion of milk. [EU] Latency: The period of apparent inactivity between the time when a stimulus is presented and the moment a response occurs. [NIH] Latent: Phoria which occurs at one distance or another and which usually has no troublesome effect. [NIH] Laterality: Behavioral manifestations of cerebral dominance in which there is preferential use and superior functioning of either the left or the right side, as in the preferred use of the right hand or right foot. [NIH] Learning Disorders: Conditions characterized by a significant discrepancy between an individual's perceived level of intellect and their ability to acquire new language and other cognitive skills. These disorders may result from organic or psychological conditions. Relatively common subtypes include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia. [NIH]

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Lens: The transparent, double convex (outward curve on both sides) structure suspended between the aqueous and vitreous; helps to focus light on the retina. [NIH] Lesion: An area of abnormal tissue change. [NIH] Lethargy: Abnormal drowsiness or stupor; a condition of indifference. [EU] Leukocytes: White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils) as well as non-granular leukocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes). [NIH] Levo: It is an experimental treatment for heroin addiction that was developed by German scientists around 1948 as an analgesic. Like methadone, it binds with opioid receptors, but it is longer acting. [NIH] Levodopa: The naturally occurring form of dopa and the immediate precursor of dopamine. Unlike dopamine itself, it can be taken orally and crosses the blood-brain barrier. It is rapidly taken up by dopaminergic neurons and converted to dopamine. It is used for the treatment of parkinsonism and is usually given with agents that inhibit its conversion to dopamine outside of the central nervous system. [NIH] Lewy Bodies: Intracytoplasmic, eosinophilic, round to elongated inclusions found in vacuoles of injured or fragmented neurons. The presence of Lewy bodies is the histological marker of the degenerative changes in Lewy body disease and Parkinson disease but they may be seen in other neurological conditions. They are typically found in the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus but they are also seen in the basal forebrain, hypothalamic nuclei, and neocortex. [NIH] Limbic: Pertaining to a limbus, or margin; forming a border around. [EU] Limbic System: A set of forebrain structures common to all mammals that is defined functionally and anatomically. It is implicated in the higher integration of visceral, olfactory, and somatic information as well as homeostatic responses including fundamental survival behaviors (feeding, mating, emotion). For most authors, it includes the amygdala, epithalamus, gyrus cinguli, hippocampal formation (see hippocampus), hypothalamus, parahippocampal gyrus, septal nuclei, anterior nuclear group of thalamus, and portions of the basal ganglia. (Parent, Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy, 9th ed, p744; NeuroNames, http://rprcsgi.rprc.washington.edu/neuronames/index.html (September 2, 1998)). [NIH] Linkage: The tendency of two or more genes in the same chromosome to remain together from one generation to the next more frequently than expected according to the law of independent assortment. [NIH] Lipid: Fat. [NIH] Lipopolysaccharide: Substance consisting of polysaccaride and lipid. [NIH] Lithium: An element in the alkali metals family. It has the atomic symbol Li, atomic number 3, and atomic weight 6.94. Salts of lithium are used in treating manic-depressive disorders. [NIH]

Liver: A large, glandular organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile. [NIH] Lobe: A portion of an organ such as the liver, lung, breast, or brain. [NIH] Localization: The process of determining or marking the location or site of a lesion or disease. May also refer to the process of keeping a lesion or disease in a specific location or site. [NIH] Localized: Cancer which has not metastasized yet. [NIH] Locomotion: Movement or the ability to move from one place or another. It can refer to humans, vertebrate or invertebrate animals, and microorganisms. [NIH]

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Locomotor: Of or pertaining to locomotion; pertaining to or affecting the locomotive apparatus of the body. [EU] Locus Coeruleus: Bluish region in the superior angle of the fourth ventricle floor, corresponding to melanin-like pigmented nerve cells which lie lateral to the pontomesencephalic central gray (griseum centrale). It is also known as nucleus pigmentosus pontis. [NIH] Longitudinal study: Also referred to as a "cohort study" or "prospective study"; the analytic method of epidemiologic study in which subsets of a defined population can be identified who are, have been, or in the future may be exposed or not exposed, or exposed in different degrees, to a factor or factors hypothesized to influence the probability of occurrence of a given disease or other outcome. The main feature of this type of study is to observe large numbers of subjects over an extended time, with comparisons of incidence rates in groups that differ in exposure levels. [NIH] Long-Term Care: Care over an extended period, usually for a chronic condition or disability, requiring periodic, intermittent, or continuous care. [NIH] Lutein Cells: The cells of the corpus luteum which are derived from the granulosa cells and the theca cells of the Graafian follicle. [NIH] Lymphatic: The tissues and organs, including the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes, that produce and store cells that fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymphocyte: A white blood cell. Lymphocytes have a number of roles in the immune system, including the production of antibodies and other substances that fight infection and diseases. [NIH] Lysergic acid: A compound close in chemical structure to LSD-25 but without hallucinogenic effects; one of the direct chemical predecessors of LSD-25. Sometimes LSD-25 is erroneously called by this name. [NIH] Lysergic Acid Diethylamide: Semisynthetic derivative of ergot (Claviceps purpurea). It has complex effects on serotonergic systems including antagonism at some peripheral serotonin receptors, both agonist and antagonist actions at central nervous system serotonin receptors, and possibly effects on serotonin turnover. It is a potent hallucinogen, but the mechanisms of that effect are not well understood. [NIH] Macrophage: A type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune system cells. [NIH] Macula: A stain, spot, or thickening. Often used alone to refer to the macula retinae. [EU] Macula Lutea: An oval area in the retina, 3 to 5 mm in diameter, usually located temporal to the superior pole of the eye and slightly below the level of the optic disk. [NIH] Macular Degeneration: Degenerative changes in the macula lutea of the retina. [NIH] Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques. [NIH] Magnetoencephalography: The measurement of magnetic fields over the head generated by electric currents in the brain. As in any electrical conductor, electric fields in the brain are accompanied by orthogonal magnetic fields. The measurement of these fields provides information about the localization of brain activity which is complementary to that provided by electroencephalography. Magnetoencephalography may be used alone or together with electroencephalography, for measurement of spontaneous or evoked activity, and for research or clinical purposes. [NIH]

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Malnutrition: A condition caused by not eating enough food or not eating a balanced diet. [NIH]

Mania: Excitement of psychotic proportions manifested by mental and physical hyperactivity, disorganization of behaviour, and elevation of mood. [EU] Manic: Affected with mania. [EU] Medial: Lying near the midsaggital plane of the body; opposed to lateral. [NIH] Mediate: Indirect; accomplished by the aid of an intervening medium. [EU] Mediator: An object or substance by which something is mediated, such as (1) a structure of the nervous system that transmits impulses eliciting a specific response; (2) a chemical substance (transmitter substance) that induces activity in an excitable tissue, such as nerve or muscle; or (3) a substance released from cells as the result of the interaction of antigen with antibody or by the action of antigen with a sensitized lymphocyte. [EU] Medical Records: Recording of pertinent information concerning patient's illness or illnesses. [NIH] MEDLINE: An online database of MEDLARS, the computerized bibliographic Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System of the National Library of Medicine. [NIH] Meiosis: A special method of cell division, occurring in maturation of the germ cells, by means of which each daughter nucleus receives half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the somatic cells of the species. [NIH] Melanin: The substance that gives the skin its color. [NIH] Membrane: A very thin layer of tissue that covers a surface. [NIH] Memory: Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory. [NIH] Meninges: The three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. [NIH] Mental: Pertaining to the mind; psychic. 2. (L. mentum chin) pertaining to the chin. [EU] Mental Disorders: Psychiatric illness or diseases manifested by breakdowns in the adaptational process expressed primarily as abnormalities of thought, feeling, and behavior producing either distress or impairment of function. [NIH] Mental Processes: Conceptual functions or thinking in all its forms. [NIH] Mentors: Senior professionals who provide guidance, direction and support to those persons desirous of improvement in academic positions, administrative positions or other career development situations. [NIH] Mesencephalic: Ipsilateral oculomotor paralysis and contralateral tremor, spasm. or choreic movements of the face and limbs. [NIH] Mesolimbic: Inner brain region governing emotion and drives. [NIH] Metabolic disorder: A condition in which normal metabolic processes are disrupted, usually because of a missing enzyme. [NIH] Metrizamide: A solute for density gradient centrifugation offering higher maximum solution density without the problems of increased viscosity. It is also used as a resorbable, non-ionic contrast medium. [NIH] MI: Myocardial infarction. Gross necrosis of the myocardium as a result of interruption of the blood supply to the area; it is almost always caused by atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, upon which coronary thrombosis is usually superimposed. [NIH] Microbe: An organism which cannot be observed with the naked eye; e. g. unicellular

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animals, lower algae, lower fungi, bacteria. [NIH] Microdialysis: A technique for measuring extracellular concentrations of substances in tissues, usually in vivo, by means of a small probe equipped with a semipermeable membrane. Substances may also be introduced into the extracellular space through the membrane. [NIH] Modeling: A treatment procedure whereby the therapist presents the target behavior which the learner is to imitate and make part of his repertoire. [NIH] Modification: A change in an organism, or in a process in an organism, that is acquired from its own activity or environment. [NIH] Molecular: Of, pertaining to, or composed of molecules : a very small mass of matter. [EU] Molecule: A chemical made up of two or more atoms. The atoms in a molecule can be the same (an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms) or different (a water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom). Biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, can be made up of many thousands of atoms. [NIH] Monitor: An apparatus which automatically records such physiological signs as respiration, pulse, and blood pressure in an anesthetized patient or one undergoing surgical or other procedures. [NIH] Monoamine: Enzyme that breaks down dopamine in the astrocytes and microglia. [NIH] Monocytes: Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate bone marrow and released into the blood; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles. [NIH] Mononuclear: A cell with one nucleus. [NIH] Mood Disorders: Those disorders that have a disturbance in mood as their predominant feature. [NIH] Morphine: The principal alkaloid in opium and the prototype opiate analgesic and narcotic. Morphine has widespread effects in the central nervous system and on smooth muscle. [NIH] Morphology: The science of the form and structure of organisms (plants, animals, and other forms of life). [NIH] Motility: The ability to move spontaneously. [EU] Motor Activity: The physical activity of an organism as a behavioral phenomenon. [NIH] Mucosa: A mucous membrane, or tunica mucosa. [EU] Muscle relaxant: An agent that specifically aids in reducing muscle tension, as those acting at the polysynaptic neurons of motor nerves (e.g. meprobamate) or at the myoneural junction (curare and related compounds). [EU] Myelography: X-ray visualization of the spinal cord following injection of contrast medium into the spinal arachnoid space. [NIH] Myocardium: The muscle tissue of the heart composed of striated, involuntary muscle known as cardiac muscle. [NIH] Myopia: That error of refraction in which rays of light entering the eye parallel to the optic axis are brought to a focus in front of the retina, as a result of the eyeball being too long from front to back (axial m.) or of an increased strength in refractive power of the media of the eye (index m.). Called also nearsightedness, because the near point is less distant than it is in emmetropia with an equal amplitude of accommodation. [EU] Narcolepsy: A condition of unknown cause characterized by a periodic uncontrollable tendency to fall asleep. [NIH]

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Narcotic: 1. Pertaining to or producing narcosis. 2. An agent that produces insensibility or stupor, applied especially to the opioids, i.e. to any natural or synthetic drug that has morphine-like actions. [EU] Nausea: An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. [NIH] Necrosis: A pathological process caused by the progressive degradative action of enzymes that is generally associated with severe cellular trauma. It is characterized by mitochondrial swelling, nuclear flocculation, uncontrolled cell lysis, and ultimately cell death. [NIH] Neocortex: The largest portion of the cerebral cortex. It is composed of neurons arranged in six layers. [NIH] Nerve: A cordlike structure of nervous tissue that connects parts of the nervous system with other tissues of the body and conveys nervous impulses to, or away from, these tissues. [NIH] Nervous System: The entire nerve apparatus composed of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. [NIH] Networks: Pertaining to a nerve or to the nerves, a meshlike structure of interlocking fibers or strands. [NIH] Neural: 1. Pertaining to a nerve or to the nerves. 2. Situated in the region of the spinal axis, as the neutral arch. [EU] Neuroleptic: A term coined to refer to the effects on cognition and behaviour of antipsychotic drugs, which produce a state of apathy, lack of initiative, and limited range of emotion and in psychotic patients cause a reduction in confusion and agitation and normalization of psychomotor activity. [EU] Neurologic: Having to do with nerves or the nervous system. [NIH] Neuronal: Pertaining to a neuron or neurons (= conducting cells of the nervous system). [EU] Neurons: The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the nervous system. [NIH] Neuropsychological Tests: Tests designed to assess neurological function associated with certain behaviors. They are used in diagnosing brain dysfunction or damage and central nervous system disorders or injury. [NIH] Neuropsychology: A branch of psychology which investigates the correlation between experience or behavior and the basic neurophysiological processes. The term neuropsychology stresses the dominant role of the nervous system. It is a more narrowly defined field than physiological psychology or psychophysiology. [NIH] Neurosecretory Systems: A system of neurons that has the specialized function to produce and secrete hormones, and that constitutes, in whole or in part, an endocrine organ or system. [NIH] Neurosis: Functional derangement due to disorders of the nervous system which does not affect the psychic personality of the patient. [NIH] Neurotoxic: Poisonous or destructive to nerve tissue. [EU] Neurotoxicity: The tendency of some treatments to cause damage to the nervous system. [NIH]

Neurotransmitter: Any of a group of substances that are released on excitation from the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron of the central or peripheral nervous system and travel across the synaptic cleft to either excite or inhibit the target cell. Among the many

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substances that have the properties of a neurotransmitter are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, glycine, y-aminobutyrate, glutamic acid, substance P, enkephalins, endorphins, and serotonin. [EU] Niacin: Water-soluble vitamin of the B complex occurring in various animal and plant tissues. Required by the body for the formation of coenzymes NAD and NADP. Has pellagra-curative, vasodilating, and antilipemic properties. [NIH] Nitrazepam: A benzodiazepine derivative used as an anticonvulsant and hypnotic. [NIH] Nitrogen: An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight 14. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells. [NIH] Nitrous Oxide: Nitrogen oxide (N2O). A colorless, odorless gas that is used as an anesthetic and analgesic. High concentrations cause a narcotic effect and may replace oxygen, causing death by asphyxia. It is also used as a food aerosol in the preparation of whipping cream. [NIH]

Nonverbal Communication: Transmission of emotions, ideas, and attitudes between individuals in ways other than the spoken language. [NIH] Norepinephrine: Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic. [NIH] Nuclear: A test of the structure, blood flow, and function of the kidneys. The doctor injects a mildly radioactive solution into an arm vein and uses x-rays to monitor its progress through the kidneys. [NIH] Nuclei: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nucleus: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nystagmus: An involuntary, rapid, rhythmic movement of the eyeball, which may be horizontal, vertical, rotatory, or mixed, i.e., of two varieties. [EU] Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, persistent obsessions or compulsions. Obsessions are the intrusive ideas, thoughts, or images that are experienced as senseless or repugnant. Compulsions are repetitive and seemingly purposeful behavior which the individual generally recognizes as senseless and from which the individual does not derive pleasure although it may provide a release from tension. [NIH] Occipital Lobe: Posterior part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Ointments: Semisolid preparations used topically for protective emollient effects or as a vehicle for local administration of medications. Ointment bases are various mixtures of fats, waxes, animal and plant oils and solid and liquid hydrocarbons. [NIH] Opacity: Degree of density (area most dense taken for reading). [NIH] Ophthalmology: A surgical specialty concerned with the structure and function of the eye and the medical and surgical treatment of its defects and diseases. [NIH] Optic Chiasm: The X-shaped structure formed by the meeting of the two optic nerves. At the optic chiasm the fibers from the medial part of each retina cross to project to the other side of the brain while the lateral retinal fibers continue on the same side. As a result each half of the brain receives information about the contralateral visual field from both eyes. [NIH]

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Optic Nerve: The 2nd cranial nerve. The optic nerve conveys visual information from the retina to the brain. The nerve carries the axons of the retinal ganglion cells which sort at the optic chiasm and continue via the optic tracts to the brain. The largest projection is to the lateral geniculate nuclei; other important targets include the superior colliculi and the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Though known as the second cranial nerve, it is considered part of the central nervous system. [NIH] Oral Health: The optimal state of the mouth and normal functioning of the organs of the mouth without evidence of disease. [NIH] Oral Hygiene: The practice of personal hygiene of the mouth. It includes the maintenance of oral cleanliness, tissue tone, and general preservation of oral health. [NIH] Orthostatic: Pertaining to or caused by standing erect. [EU] Ossicles: The hammer, anvil and stirrup, the small bones of the middle ear, which transmit the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window. [NIH] Otosclerosis: The formation of spongy bone in the labyrinth capsule. The ossicles can become fixed and unable to transmit sound vibrations, thereby causing deafness. [NIH] Outpatient: A patient who is not an inmate of a hospital but receives diagnosis or treatment in a clinic or dispensary connected with the hospital. [NIH] Overdose: An accidental or deliberate dose of a medication or street drug that is in excess of what is normally used. [NIH] Ovum: A female germ cell extruded from the ovary at ovulation. [NIH] Oxycodone: Semisynthetic derivative of codeine that acts as a narcotic analgesic more potent and addicting than codeine. [NIH] Palliative: 1. Affording relief, but not cure. 2. An alleviating medicine. [EU] Palsy: Disease of the peripheral nervous system occurring usually after many years of increased lead absorption. [NIH] Pancreas: A mixed exocrine and endocrine gland situated transversely across the posterior abdominal wall in the epigastric and hypochondriac regions. The endocrine portion is comprised of the Islets of Langerhans, while the exocrine portion is a compound acinar gland that secretes digestive enzymes. [NIH] Panic: A state of extreme acute, intense anxiety and unreasoning fear accompanied by disorganization of personality function. [NIH] Panic Disorder: A type of anxiety disorder characterized by unexpected panic attacks that last minutes or, rarely, hours. Panic attacks begin with intense apprehension, fear or terror and, often, a feeling of impending doom. Symptoms experienced during a panic attack include dyspnea or sensations of being smothered; dizziness, loss of balance or faintness; choking sensations; palpitations or accelerated heart rate; shakiness; sweating; nausea or other form of abdominal distress; depersonalization or derealization; paresthesias; hot flashes or chills; chest discomfort or pain; fear of dying and fear of not being in control of oneself or going crazy. Agoraphobia may also develop. Similar to other anxiety disorders, it may be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. [NIH] Paralysis: Loss of ability to move all or part of the body. [NIH] Paranoia: A psychotic disorder marked by persistent delusions of persecution or delusional jealousy and behaviour like that of the paranoid personality, such as suspiciousness, mistrust, and combativeness. It differs from paranoid schizophrenia, in which hallucinations or formal thought disorder are present, in that the delusions are logically consistent and that there are no other psychotic features. The designation in DSM III-R is delusional (paranoid)

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disorders, with five types : persecutory, jealous, erotomanic, somatic, and grandiose. [EU] Paranoid Personality Disorder: A personality disorder characterized by the avoidance of accepting deserved blame and an unwarranted view of others as malevolent. The latter is expressed as suspiciousness, hypersensitivity, and mistrust. [NIH] Paresthesias: Abnormal touch sensations, such as burning or prickling, that occur without an outside stimulus. [NIH] Parkinsonism: A group of neurological disorders characterized by hypokinesia, tremor, and muscular rigidity. [EU] Paroxetine: A serotonin uptake inhibitor that is effective in the treatment of depression. [NIH]

Paroxysmal: Recurring in paroxysms (= spasms or seizures). [EU] Partial remission: The shrinking, but not complete disappearance, of a tumor in response to therapy. Also called partial response. [NIH] Particle: A tiny mass of material. [EU] Parturition: The act or process of given birth to a child. [EU] Pathogenesis: The cellular events and reactions that occur in the development of disease. [NIH]

Pathologic: 1. Indicative of or caused by a morbid condition. 2. Pertaining to pathology (= branch of medicine that treats the essential nature of the disease, especially the structural and functional changes in tissues and organs of the body caused by the disease). [EU] Pathologies: The study of abnormality, especially the study of diseases. [NIH] Pathophysiology: Altered functions in an individual or an organ due to disease. [NIH] Patient Education: The teaching or training of patients concerning their own health needs. [NIH]

Penicillin: An antibiotic drug used to treat infection. [NIH] Peptide: Any compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Peptides are combined to make proteins. [NIH] Peptide Chain Elongation: The process whereby an amino acid is joined through a substituted amide linkage to a chain of peptides. [NIH] Perception: The ability quickly and accurately to recognize similarities and differences among presented objects, whether these be pairs of words, pairs of number series, or multiple sets of these or other symbols such as geometric figures. [NIH] Peripheral Nervous System: The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system has autonomic and somatic divisions. The autonomic nervous system includes the enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic subdivisions. The somatic nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves and their ganglia and the peripheral sensory receptors. [NIH] Personality Disorders: A major deviation from normal patterns of behavior. [NIH] Petechiae: Pinpoint, unraised, round red spots under the skin caused by bleeding. [NIH] Phantom: Used to absorb and/or scatter radiation equivalently to a patient, and hence to estimate radiation doses and test imaging systems without actually exposing a patient. It may be an anthropomorphic or a physical test object. [NIH] Pharmaceutical Solutions: Homogeneous liquid preparations that contain one or more chemical substances dissolved, i.e., molecularly dispersed, in a suitable solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents. For reasons of their ingredients, method of preparation, or use,

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they do not fall into another group of products. [NIH] Pharmacodynamic: Is concerned with the response of living tissues to chemical stimuli, that is, the action of drugs on the living organism in the absence of disease. [NIH] Pharmacogenetics: A branch of genetics which deals with the genetic components of variability in individual responses to and metabolism (biotransformation) of drugs. [NIH] Pharmacokinetic: The mathematical analysis of the time courses of absorption, distribution, and elimination of drugs. [NIH] Pharmacologic: Pertaining to pharmacology or to the properties and reactions of drugs. [EU] Pharmacotherapy: A regimen of using appetite suppressant medications to manage obesity by decreasing appetite or increasing the feeling of satiety. These medications decrease appetite by increasing serotonin or catecholamine—two brain chemicals that affect mood and appetite. [NIH] Phencyclidine: A hallucinogen formerly used as a veterinary anesthetic, and briefly as a general anesthetic for humans. Phencyclidine is similar to ketamine in structure and in many of its effects. Like ketamine, it can produce a dissociative state. It exerts its pharmacological action through inhibition of NMDA receptors (receptors, N-methyl-Daspartate). As a drug of abuse, it is known as PCP and Angel Dust. [NIH] Phenotype: The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes and between the genotype and the environment. This includes the killer phenotype, characteristic of yeasts. [NIH] Photodynamic therapy: Treatment with drugs that become active when exposed to light. These drugs kill cancer cells. [NIH] Physiologic: Having to do with the functions of the body. When used in the phrase "physiologic age," it refers to an age assigned by general health, as opposed to calendar age. [NIH]

Physiology: The science that deals with the life processes and functions of organismus, their cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Pilot study: The initial study examining a new method or treatment. [NIH] Pitch: The subjective awareness of the frequency or spectral distribution of a sound. [NIH] Plana: The radiographic term applied to a vertebral body crushed to a thin plate. [NIH] Plants: Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of the kingdom Plantae. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (meristems); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absense of nervous and sensory systems; and an alteration of haploid and diploid generations. [NIH] Pneumonia: Inflammation of the lungs. [NIH] Poisoning: A condition or physical state produced by the ingestion, injection or inhalation of, or exposure to a deleterious agent. [NIH] Polymorphism: The occurrence together of two or more distinct forms in the same population. [NIH] Polypeptide: A peptide which on hydrolysis yields more than two amino acids; called tripeptides, tetrapeptides, etc. according to the number of amino acids contained. [EU] Posterior: Situated in back of, or in the back part of, or affecting the back or dorsal surface of the body. In lower animals, it refers to the caudal end of the body. [EU] Postnatal: Occurring after birth, with reference to the newborn. [EU]

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Postsynaptic: Nerve potential generated by an inhibitory hyperpolarizing stimulation. [NIH] Potassium: An element that is in the alkali group of metals. It has an atomic symbol K, atomic number 19, and atomic weight 39.10. It is the chief cation in the intracellular fluid of muscle and other cells. Potassium ion is a strong electrolyte and it plays a significant role in the regulation of fluid volume and maintenance of the water-electrolyte balance. [NIH] Potentiate: A degree of synergism which causes the exposure of the organism to a harmful substance to worsen a disease already contracted. [NIH] Practice Guidelines: Directions or principles presenting current or future rules of policy for the health care practitioner to assist him in patient care decisions regarding diagnosis, therapy, or related clinical circumstances. The guidelines may be developed by government agencies at any level, institutions, professional societies, governing boards, or by the convening of expert panels. The guidelines form a basis for the evaluation of all aspects of health care and delivery. [NIH] Precursor: Something that precedes. In biological processes, a substance from which another, usually more active or mature substance is formed. In clinical medicine, a sign or symptom that heralds another. [EU] Predisposition: A latent susceptibility to disease which may be activated under certain conditions, as by stress. [EU] Prefrontal Cortex: The rostral part of the frontal lobe, bounded by the inferior precentral fissure in humans, which receives projection fibers from the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus. The prefrontal cortex receives afferent fibers from numerous structures of the diencephalon, mesencephalon, and limbic system as well as cortical afferents of visual, auditory, and somatic origin. [NIH] Preoptic Area: Region of hypothalamus between the anterior commissure and optic chiasm. [NIH]

Presynaptic: Situated proximal to a synapse, or occurring before the synapse is crossed. [EU] Presynaptic Terminals: The distal terminations of axons which are specialized for the release of neurotransmitters. Also included are varicosities along the course of axons which have similar specializations and also release transmitters. Presynaptic terminals in both the central and peripheral nervous systems are included. [NIH] Prevalence: The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from incidence, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time. [NIH] Probe: An instrument used in exploring cavities, or in the detection and dilatation of strictures, or in demonstrating the potency of channels; an elongated instrument for exploring or sounding body cavities. [NIH] Progesterone: Pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione. The principal progestational hormone of the body, secreted by the corpus luteum, adrenal cortex, and placenta. Its chief function is to prepare the uterus for the reception and development of the fertilized ovum. It acts as an antiovulatory agent when administered on days 5-25 of the menstrual cycle. [NIH] Progression: Increase in the size of a tumor or spread of cancer in the body. [NIH] Progressive: Advancing; going forward; going from bad to worse; increasing in scope or severity. [EU] Projection: A defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, whereby that which is emotionally unacceptable in the self is rejected and attributed (projected) to others. [NIH] Prolactin: Pituitary lactogenic hormone. A polypeptide hormone with a molecular weight of about 23,000. It is essential in the induction of lactation in mammals at parturition and is

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synergistic with estrogen. The hormone also brings about the release of progesterone from lutein cells, which renders the uterine mucosa suited for the embedding of the ovum should fertilization occur. [NIH] Prone: Having the front portion of the body downwards. [NIH] Prone Position: The posture of an individual lying face down. [NIH] Prophase: The first phase of cell division, in which the chromosomes become visible, the nucleus starts to lose its identity, the spindle appears, and the centrioles migrate toward opposite poles. [NIH] Prospective study: An epidemiologic study in which a group of individuals (a cohort), all free of a particular disease and varying in their exposure to a possible risk factor, is followed over a specific amount of time to determine the incidence rates of the disease in the exposed and unexposed groups. [NIH] Prostaglandins: A group of compounds derived from unsaturated 20-carbon fatty acids, primarily arachidonic acid, via the cyclooxygenase pathway. They are extremely potent mediators of a diverse group of physiological processes. [NIH] Protein C: A vitamin-K dependent zymogen present in the blood, which, upon activation by thrombin and thrombomodulin exerts anticoagulant properties by inactivating factors Va and VIIIa at the rate-limiting steps of thrombin formation. [NIH] Protein S: The vitamin K-dependent cofactor of activated protein C. Together with protein C, it inhibits the action of factors VIIIa and Va. A deficiency in protein S can lead to recurrent venous and arterial thrombosis. [NIH] Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape and function of the protein. [NIH] Protocol: The detailed plan for a clinical trial that states the trial's rationale, purpose, drug or vaccine dosages, length of study, routes of administration, who may participate, and other aspects of trial design. [NIH] Pruritus: An intense itching sensation that produces the urge to rub or scratch the skin to obtain relief. [NIH] Psychiatric: Pertaining to or within the purview of psychiatry. [EU] Psychiatry: The medical science that deals with the origin, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. [NIH] Psychic: Pertaining to the psyche or to the mind; mental. [EU] Psychoacoustic: That branch of psychophysics dealing with acoustic stimuli. [NIH] Psychoactive: Those drugs which alter sensation, mood, consciousness or other psychological or behavioral functions. [NIH] Psychology: The science dealing with the study of mental processes and behavior in man and animals. [NIH] Psychomotor: Pertaining to motor effects of cerebral or psychic activity. [EU] Psychopathology: The study of significant causes and processes in the development of mental illness. [NIH] Psychophysics: The science dealing with the correlation of the physical characteristics of a stimulus, e.g., frequency or intensity, with the response to the stimulus, in order to assess the psychologic factors involved in the relationship. [NIH] Psychophysiology: The study of the physiological basis of human and animal behavior. [NIH]

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Psychosis: A mental disorder characterized by gross impairment in reality testing as evidenced by delusions, hallucinations, markedly incoherent speech, or disorganized and agitated behaviour without apparent awareness on the part of the patient of the incomprehensibility of his behaviour; the term is also used in a more general sense to refer to mental disorders in which mental functioning is sufficiently impaired as to interfere grossly with the patient's capacity to meet the ordinary demands of life. Historically, the term has been applied to many conditions, e.g. manic-depressive psychosis, that were first described in psychotic patients, although many patients with the disorder are not judged psychotic. [EU] Psychotherapy: A generic term for the treatment of mental illness or emotional disturbances primarily by verbal or nonverbal communication. [NIH] Psychotomimetic: Psychosis miming. [NIH] Psychotropic: Exerting an effect upon the mind; capable of modifying mental activity; usually applied to drugs that effect the mental state. [EU] Psychotropic Drugs: A loosely defined grouping of drugs that have effects on psychological function. Here the psychotropic agents include the antidepressive agents, hallucinogens, and tranquilizing agents (including the antipsychotics and anti-anxiety agents). [NIH] Public Policy: A course or method of action selected, usually by a government, from among alternatives to guide and determine present and future decisions. [NIH] Publishing: "The business or profession of the commercial production and issuance of literature" (Webster's 3d). It includes the publisher, publication processes, editing and editors. Production may be by conventional printing methods or by electronic publishing. [NIH]

Pulmonary: Relating to the lungs. [NIH] Pulmonary Artery: The short wide vessel arising from the conus arteriosus of the right ventricle and conveying unaerated blood to the lungs. [NIH] Pulse: The rhythmical expansion and contraction of an artery produced by waves of pressure caused by the ejection of blood from the left ventricle of the heart as it contracts. [NIH]

Pure Alexia: The inability to recognize or comprehend written or printed words. [NIH] Purpura: Purplish or brownish red discoloration, easily visible through the epidermis, caused by hemorrhage into the tissues. [NIH] Pyramidal Tracts: Fibers that arise from cells within the cerebral cortex, pass through the medullary pyramid, and descend in the spinal cord. Many authorities say the pyramidal tracts include both the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts. [NIH] Quality of Life: A generic concept reflecting concern with the modification and enhancement of life attributes, e.g., physical, political, moral and social environment. [NIH] Race: A population within a species which exhibits general similarities within itself, but is both discontinuous and distinct from other populations of that species, though not sufficiently so as to achieve the status of a taxon. [NIH] Racemic: Optically inactive but resolvable in the way of all racemic compounds. [NIH] Radiation: Emission or propagation of electromagnetic energy (waves/rays), or the waves/rays themselves; a stream of electromagnetic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, alpha particles) or a mixture of these. The most common source is the sun. [NIH] Radiation therapy: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from

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radioactive material placed in the body in the area near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, or brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Also called radiotherapy. [NIH] Randomized: Describes an experiment or clinical trial in which animal or human subjects are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments. [NIH] Reality Testing: The individual's objective evaluation of the external world and the ability to differentiate adequately between it and the internal world; considered to be a primary ego function. [NIH] Reassurance: A procedure in psychotherapy that seeks to give the client confidence in a favorable outcome. It makes use of suggestion, of the prestige of the therapist. [NIH] Receptor: A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific physiologic effect in the cell. [NIH] Receptors, Serotonin: Cell-surface proteins that bind serotonin and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells. Several types of serotonin receptors have been recognized which differ in their pharmacology, molecular biology, and mode of action. [NIH] Rectum: The last 8 to 10 inches of the large intestine. [NIH] Recurrence: The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission. [NIH] Red Nucleus: A pinkish-yellow portion of the midbrain situated in the rostral mesencephalic tegmentum. It receives a large projection from the contralateral half of the cerebellum via the superior cerebellar peduncle and a projection from the ipsilateral motor cortex. [NIH] Refer: To send or direct for treatment, aid, information, de decision. [NIH] Reflex: An involuntary movement or exercise of function in a part, excited in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the brain or spinal cord. [NIH] Refraction: A test to determine the best eyeglasses or contact lenses to correct a refractive error (myopia, hyperopia, or astigmatism). [NIH] Refractory: Not readily yielding to treatment. [EU] Regimen: A treatment plan that specifies the dosage, the schedule, and the duration of treatment. [NIH] Reliability: Used technically, in a statistical sense, of consistency of a test with itself, i. e. the extent to which we can assume that it will yield the same result if repeated a second time. [NIH]

Remission: A decrease in or disappearance of signs and symptoms of cancer. In partial remission, some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared. In complete remission, all signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared, although there still may be cancer in the body. [NIH] Renal failure: Progressive renal insufficiency and uremia, due to irreversible and progressive renal glomerular tubular or interstitial disease. [NIH] Resorption: The loss of substance through physiologic or pathologic means, such as loss of dentin and cementum of a tooth, or of the alveolar process of the mandible or maxilla. [EU] Respiration: The act of breathing with the lungs, consisting of inspiration, or the taking into the lungs of the ambient air, and of expiration, or the expelling of the modified air which contains more carbon dioxide than the air taken in (Blakiston's Gould Medical Dictionary, 4th ed.). This does not include tissue respiration (= oxygen consumption) or cell respiration (= cell respiration). [NIH]

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Respiratory Physiology: Functions and activities of the respiratory tract as a whole or of any of its parts. [NIH] Retina: The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the optic nerve and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the choroid and the inner surface with the vitreous body. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent. [NIH] Retinal: 1. Pertaining to the retina. 2. The aldehyde of retinol, derived by the oxidative enzymatic splitting of absorbed dietary carotene, and having vitamin A activity. In the retina, retinal combines with opsins to form visual pigments. One isomer, 11-cis retinal combines with opsin in the rods (scotopsin) to form rhodopsin, or visual purple. Another, all-trans retinal (trans-r.); visual yellow; xanthopsin) results from the bleaching of rhodopsin by light, in which the 11-cis form is converted to the all-trans form. Retinal also combines with opsins in the cones (photopsins) to form the three pigments responsible for colour vision. Called also retinal, and retinene1. [EU] Retrospective: Looking back at events that have already taken place. [NIH] Retrospective study: A study that looks backward in time, usually using medical records and interviews with patients who already have or had a disease. [NIH] Rheumatism: A group of disorders marked by inflammation or pain in the connective tissue structures of the body. These structures include bone, cartilage, and fat. [NIH] Rheumatoid: Resembling rheumatism. [EU] Rheumatoid arthritis: A form of arthritis, the cause of which is unknown, although infection, hypersensitivity, hormone imbalance and psychologic stress have been suggested as possible causes. [NIH] Risk factor: A habit, trait, condition, or genetic alteration that increases a person's chance of developing a disease. [NIH] Risperidone: A selective blocker of dopamine D2 and serotonin-5-HT-2 receptors that acts as an atypical antipsychotic agent. It has been shown to improve both positive and negative symptoms in the treatment of schizophrenia. [NIH] Scatter: The extent to which relative success and failure are divergently manifested in qualitatively different tests. [NIH] Schizoid: Having qualities resembling those found in greater degree in schizophrenics; a person of schizoid personality. [NIH] Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by a special type of disintegration of the personality. [NIH] Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A personality disorder in which there are oddities of thought (magical thinking, paranoid ideation, suspiciousness), perception (illusions, depersonalization), speech (digressive, vague, overelaborate), and behavior (inappropriate affect in social interactions, frequently social isolation) that are not severe enough to characterize schizophrenia. [NIH] Screening: Checking for disease when there are no symptoms. [NIH] Secretion: 1. The process of elaborating a specific product as a result of the activity of a gland; this activity may range from separating a specific substance of the blood to the elaboration of a new chemical substance. 2. Any substance produced by secretion. [EU] Sedative: 1. Allaying activity and excitement. 2. An agent that allays excitement. [EU] Sedatives, Barbiturate: Those derivatives of barbituric or thiobarbituric acid that are used as hypnotics or sedatives. The structural class of all such derivatives, regardless of use, is

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barbiturates. [NIH] Segregation: The separation in meiotic cell division of homologous chromosome pairs and their contained allelomorphic gene pairs. [NIH] Seizures: Clinical or subclinical disturbances of cortical function due to a sudden, abnormal, excessive, and disorganized discharge of brain cells. Clinical manifestations include abnormal motor, sensory and psychic phenomena. Recurrent seizures are usually referred to as epilepsy or "seizure disorder." [NIH] Self Care: Performance of activities or tasks traditionally performed by professional health care providers. The concept includes care of oneself or one's family and friends. [NIH] Semicircular canal: Three long canals of the bony labyrinth of the ear, forming loops and opening into the vestibule by five openings. [NIH] Semisynthetic: Produced by chemical manipulation of naturally occurring substances. [EU] Senile: Relating or belonging to old age; characteristic of old age; resulting from infirmity of old age. [NIH] Sensibility: The ability to receive, feel and appreciate sensations and impressions; the quality of being sensitive; the extend to which a method gives results that are free from false negatives. [NIH] Sensitization: 1. Administration of antigen to induce a primary immune response; priming; immunization. 2. Exposure to allergen that results in the development of hypersensitivity. 3. The coating of erythrocytes with antibody so that they are subject to lysis by complement in the presence of homologous antigen, the first stage of a complement fixation test. [EU] Sensory Deprivation: The absence or restriction of the usual external sensory stimuli to which the individual responds. [NIH] Serotonin: A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-tryptophan. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (receptors, serotonin) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator. [NIH] Serrata: The serrated anterior border of the retina located approximately 8.5 mm from the limbus and adjacent to the pars plana of the ciliary body. [NIH] Serrated: Having notches or teeth on the edge as a saw has. [NIH] Sertraline: A selective serotonin uptake inhibitor that is used in the treatment of depression. [NIH]

Serum: The clear liquid part of the blood that remains after blood cells and clotting proteins have been removed. [NIH] Sex Characteristics: Those characteristics that distinguish one sex from the other. The primary sex characteristics are the ovaries and testes and their related hormones. Secondary sex characteristics are those which are masculine or feminine but not directly related to reproduction. [NIH] Sharpness: The apparent blurring of the border between two adjacent areas of a radiograph having different optical densities. [NIH] Shock: The general bodily disturbance following a severe injury; an emotional or moral upset occasioned by some disturbing or unexpected experience; disruption of the circulation, which can upset all body functions: sometimes referred to as circulatory shock. [NIH]

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Side effect: A consequence other than the one(s) for which an agent or measure is used, as the adverse effects produced by a drug, especially on a tissue or organ system other than the one sought to be benefited by its administration. [EU] Signs and Symptoms: Clinical manifestations that can be either objective when observed by a physician, or subjective when perceived by the patient. [NIH] Skeleton: The framework that supports the soft tissues of vertebrate animals and protects many of their internal organs. The skeletons of vertebrates are made of bone and/or cartilage. [NIH] Skull: The skeleton of the head including the bones of the face and the bones enclosing the brain. [NIH] Sleep Deprivation: The state of being deprived of sleep under experimental conditions, due to life events, or from a wide variety of pathophysiologic causes such as medication effect, chronic illness, psychiatric illness, or sleep disorder. [NIH] Smooth muscle: Muscle that performs automatic tasks, such as constricting blood vessels. [NIH]

Social Environment: The aggregate of social and cultural institutions, forms, patterns, and processes that influence the life of an individual or community. [NIH] Social Isolation: The separation of individuals or groups resulting in the lack of or minimizing of social contact and/or communication. This separation may be accomplished by physical separation, by social barriers and by psychological mechanisms. In the latter, there may be interaction but no real communication. [NIH] Social Support: Support systems that provide assistance and encouragement to individuals with physical or emotional disabilities in order that they may better cope. Informal social support is usually provided by friends, relatives, or peers, while formal assistance is provided by churches, groups, etc. [NIH] Social Work: The use of community resources, individual case work, or group work to promote the adaptive capacities of individuals in relation to their social and economic environments. It includes social service agencies. [NIH] Soft tissue: Refers to muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or other supporting tissue of the body. [NIH] Soma: The body as distinct from the mind; all the body tissue except the germ cells; all the axial body. [NIH] Somatic: 1. Pertaining to or characteristic of the soma or body. 2. Pertaining to the body wall in contrast to the viscera. [EU] Spasm: An involuntary contraction of a muscle or group of muscles. Spasms may involve skeletal muscle or smooth muscle. [NIH] Spatial disorientation: Loss of orientation in space where person does not know which way is up. [NIH] Specialist: In medicine, one who concentrates on 1 special branch of medical science. [NIH] Specificity: Degree of selectivity shown by an antibody with respect to the number and types of antigens with which the antibody combines, as well as with respect to the rates and the extents of these reactions. [NIH] Spectrum: A charted band of wavelengths of electromagnetic vibrations obtained by refraction and diffraction. By extension, a measurable range of activity, such as the range of bacteria affected by an antibiotic (antibacterial s.) or the complete range of manifestations of a disease. [EU]

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Speech Perception: The process whereby an utterance is decoded into a representation in terms of linguistic units (sequences of phonetic segments which combine to form lexical and grammatical morphemes). [NIH] Spinal cord: The main trunk or bundle of nerves running down the spine through holes in the spinal bone (the vertebrae) from the brain to the level of the lower back. [NIH] Spiral Ganglion: The sensory ganglion of the cochlear nerve. The cells of the spiral ganglion send fibers peripherally to the cochlear hair cells and centrally to the cochlear nuclei of the brain stem. [NIH] Stabilizer: A device for maintaining constant X-ray tube voltage or current. [NIH] Status Epilepticus: Repeated and prolonged epileptic seizures without recovery of consciousness between attacks. [NIH] Stem Cells: Relatively undifferentiated cells of the same lineage (family type) that retain the ability to divide and cycle throughout postnatal life to provide cells that can become specialized and take the place of those that die or are lost. [NIH] Stimulant: 1. Producing stimulation; especially producing stimulation by causing tension on muscle fibre through the nervous tissue. 2. An agent or remedy that produces stimulation. [EU]

Stimulus: That which can elicit or evoke action (response) in a muscle, nerve, gland or other excitable issue, or cause an augmenting action upon any function or metabolic process. [NIH] Stomach: An organ of digestion situated in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen between the termination of the esophagus and the beginning of the duodenum. [NIH] Stool: The waste matter discharged in a bowel movement; feces. [NIH] Stress: Forcibly exerted influence; pressure. Any condition or situation that causes strain or tension. Stress may be either physical or psychologic, or both. [NIH] Stress management: A set of techniques used to help an individual cope more effectively with difficult situations in order to feel better emotionally, improve behavioral skills, and often to enhance feelings of control. Stress management may include relaxation exercises, assertiveness training, cognitive restructuring, time management, and social support. It can be delivered either on a one-to-one basis or in a group format. [NIH] Striate: Recurrent branch of the anterior cerebral artery which supplies the anterior limb of the internal capsule. [NIH] Subacute: Somewhat acute; between acute and chronic. [EU] Subarachnoid: Situated or occurring between the arachnoid and the pia mater. [EU] Subclinical: Without clinical manifestations; said of the early stage(s) of an infection or other disease or abnormality before symptoms and signs become apparent or detectable by clinical examination or laboratory tests, or of a very mild form of an infection or other disease or abnormality. [EU] Subiculum: A region of the hippocampus that projects to other areas of the brain. [NIH] Substance P: An eleven-amino acid neurotransmitter that appears in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is involved in transmission of pain, causes rapid contractions of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and modulates inflammatory and immune responses. [NIH]

Substrate: A substance upon which an enzyme acts. [EU] Superego: The component of the personality associated with ethics, standards, and selfcriticism - the "conscience". It is derived mainly from identification with parents and parent substitutes. [NIH]

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Superstitions: A belief or practice which lacks adequate basis for proof; an embodiment of fear of the unknown, magic, and ignorance. [NIH] Suppression: A conscious exclusion of disapproved desire contrary with repression, in which the process of exclusion is not conscious. [NIH] Supraspinal: Above the spinal column or any spine. [NIH] Sympathomimetic: 1. Mimicking the effects of impulses conveyed by adrenergic postganglionic fibres of the sympathetic nervous system. 2. An agent that produces effects similar to those of impulses conveyed by adrenergic postganglionic fibres of the sympathetic nervous system. Called also adrenergic. [EU] Symptomatic: Having to do with symptoms, which are signs of a condition or disease. [NIH] Symptomatology: 1. That branch of medicine with treats of symptoms; the systematic discussion of symptoms. 2. The combined symptoms of a disease. [EU] Synapse: The region where the processes of two neurons come into close contiguity, and the nervous impulse passes from one to the other; the fibers of the two are intermeshed, but, according to the general view, there is no direct contiguity. [NIH] Synaptic: Pertaining to or affecting a synapse (= site of functional apposition between neurons, at which an impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another by electrical or chemical means); pertaining to synapsis (= pairing off in point-for-point association of homologous chromosomes from the male and female pronuclei during the early prophase of meiosis). [EU] Synergistic: Acting together; enhancing the effect of another force or agent. [EU] Systemic: Affecting the entire body. [NIH] Systolic: Indicating the maximum arterial pressure during contraction of the left ventricle of the heart. [EU] Tardive: Marked by lateness, late; said of a disease in which the characteristic lesion is late in appearing. [EU] Telencephalon: Paired anteriolateral evaginations of the prosencephalon plus the lamina terminalis. The cerebral hemispheres are derived from it. Many authors consider cerebrum a synonymous term to telencephalon, though a minority include diencephalon as part of the cerebrum (Anthoney, 1994). [NIH] Temporal: One of the two irregular bones forming part of the lateral surfaces and base of the skull, and containing the organs of hearing. [NIH] Temporal Lobe: Lower lateral part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Thalamic: Cell that reaches the lateral nucleus of amygdala. [NIH] Thalamic Diseases: Disorders of the centrally located thalamus, which integrates a wide range of cortical and subcortical information. Manifestations include sensory loss, movement disorders; ataxia, pain syndromes, visual disorders, a variety of neuropsychological conditions, and coma. Relatively common etiologies include cerebrovascular disorders; craniocerebral trauma; brain neoplasms; brain hypoxia; intracranial hemorrhages; and infectious processes. [NIH] Thalamus: Paired bodies containing mostly gray substance and forming part of the lateral wall of the third ventricle of the brain. The thalamus represents the major portion of the diencephalon and is commonly divided into cellular aggregates known as nuclear groups. [NIH]

Therapeutics: The branch of medicine which is concerned with the treatment of diseases, palliative or curative. [NIH]

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Thermal: Pertaining to or characterized by heat. [EU] Thermoregulation: Heat regulation. [EU] Threshold: For a specified sensory modality (e. g. light, sound, vibration), the lowest level (absolute threshold) or smallest difference (difference threshold, difference limen) or intensity of the stimulus discernible in prescribed conditions of stimulation. [NIH] Thrombin: An enzyme formed from prothrombin that converts fibrinogen to fibrin. (Dorland, 27th ed) EC 3.4.21.5. [NIH] Thrombomodulin: A cell surface glycoprotein of endothelial cells that binds thrombin and serves as a cofactor in the activation of protein C and its regulation of blood coagulation. [NIH]

Thromboxanes: Physiologically active compounds found in many organs of the body. They are formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides and cause platelet aggregation, contraction of arteries, and other biological effects. Thromboxanes are important mediators of the actions of polyunsaturated fatty acids transformed by cyclooxygenase. [NIH] Thrombus: An aggregation of blood factors, primarily platelets and fibrin with entrapment of cellular elements, frequently causing vascular obstruction at the point of its formation. Some authorities thus differentiate thrombus formation from simple coagulation or clot formation. [EU] Thyroid: A gland located near the windpipe (trachea) that produces thyroid hormone, which helps regulate growth and metabolism. [NIH] Thyroid Gland: A highly vascular endocrine gland consisting of two lobes, one on either side of the trachea, joined by a narrow isthmus; it produces the thyroid hormones which are concerned in regulating the metabolic rate of the body. [NIH] Thyroiditis: Inflammation of the thyroid gland. [NIH] Thyrotropin: A peptide hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary. It promotes the growth of the thyroid gland and stimulates the synthesis of thyroid hormones and the release of thyroxine by the thyroid gland. [NIH] Tinnitus: Sounds that are perceived in the absence of any external noise source which may take the form of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. [NIH] Tissue: A group or layer of cells that are alike in type and work together to perform a specific function. [NIH] Tolerance: 1. The ability to endure unusually large doses of a drug or toxin. 2. Acquired drug tolerance; a decreasing response to repeated constant doses of a drug or the need for increasing doses to maintain a constant response. [EU] Tomography: Imaging methods that result in sharp images of objects located on a chosen plane and blurred images located above or below the plane. [NIH] Tone: 1. The normal degree of vigour and tension; in muscle, the resistance to passive elongation or stretch; tonus. 2. A particular quality of sound or of voice. 3. To make permanent, or to change, the colour of silver stain by chemical treatment, usually with a heavy metal. [EU] Torsion: A twisting or rotation of a bodily part or member on its axis. [NIH]

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Toxic: Having to do with poison or something harmful to the body. Toxic substances usually cause unwanted side effects. [NIH] Toxicity: The quality of being poisonous, especially the degree of virulence of a toxic microbe or of a poison. [EU] Toxicology: The science concerned with the detection, chemical composition, and pharmacologic action of toxic substances or poisons and the treatment and prevention of toxic manifestations. [NIH] Toxin: A poison; frequently used to refer specifically to a protein produced by some higher plants, certain animals, and pathogenic bacteria, which is highly toxic for other living organisms. Such substances are differentiated from the simple chemical poisons and the vegetable alkaloids by their high molecular weight and antigenicity. [EU] Trachea: The cartilaginous and membranous tube descending from the larynx and branching into the right and left main bronchi. [NIH] Tramadol: A narcotic analgesic proposed for severe pain. It may be habituating. [NIH] Tranquilizing Agents: A traditional grouping of drugs said to have a soothing or calming effect on mood, thought, or behavior. Included here are the anti-anxiety agents (minor tranquilizers), antimanic agents, and the antipsychotic agents (major tranquilizers). These drugs act by different mechanisms and are used for different therapeutic purposes. [NIH] Transduction: The transfer of genes from one cell to another by means of a viral (in the case of bacteria, a bacteriophage) vector or a vector which is similar to a virus particle (pseudovirion). [NIH] Transfection: The uptake of naked or purified DNA into cells, usually eukaryotic. It is analogous to bacterial transformation. [NIH] Translational: The cleavage of signal sequence that directs the passage of the protein through a cell or organelle membrane. [NIH] Translocation: The movement of material in solution inside the body of the plant. [NIH] Transmitter: A chemical substance which effects the passage of nerve impulses from one cell to the other at the synapse. [NIH] Trauma: Any injury, wound, or shock, must frequently physical or structural shock, producing a disturbance. [NIH] Tremor: Cyclical movement of a body part that can represent either a physiologic process or a manifestation of disease. Intention or action tremor, a common manifestation of cerebellar diseases, is aggravated by movement. In contrast, resting tremor is maximal when there is no attempt at voluntary movement, and occurs as a relatively frequent manifestation of Parkinson disease. [NIH] Triazolam: A short-acting benzodiazepine used in the treatment of insomnia. Some countries temporarily withdrew triazolam from the market because of concerns about adverse reactions, mostly psychological, associated with higher dose ranges. Its use at lower doses with appropriate care and labeling has been reaffirmed by the FDA and most other countries. [NIH] Trigger zone: Dolorogenic zone (= producing or causing pain). [EU] Tryptophan: An essential amino acid that is necessary for normal growth in infants and for nitrogen balance in adults. It is a precursor serotonin and niacin. [NIH] Tuberculosis: Any of the infectious diseases of man and other animals caused by species of Mycobacterium. [NIH] Tumor Necrosis Factor: Serum glycoprotein produced by activated macrophages and other

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mammalian mononuclear leukocytes which has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. It mimics the action of endotoxin but differs from it. It has a molecular weight of less than 70,000 kDa. [NIH] Tyrosine: A non-essential amino acid. In animals it is synthesized from phenylalanine. It is also the precursor of epinephrine, thyroid hormones, and melanin. [NIH] Unconscious: Experience which was once conscious, but was subsequently rejected, as the "personal unconscious". [NIH] Urinary: Having to do with urine or the organs of the body that produce and get rid of urine. [NIH] Urinary tract: The organs of the body that produce and discharge urine. These include the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. [NIH] Urinary tract infection: An illness caused by harmful bacteria growing in the urinary tract. [NIH]

Urine: Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra. [NIH] Vacuoles: Any spaces or cavities within a cell. They may function in digestion, storage, secretion, or excretion. [NIH] Vascular: Pertaining to blood vessels or indicative of a copious blood supply. [EU] Vasodilator: An agent that widens blood vessels. [NIH] Vector: Plasmid or other self-replicating DNA molecule that transfers DNA between cells in nature or in recombinant DNA technology. [NIH] Ventilation: 1. In respiratory physiology, the process of exchange of air between the lungs and the ambient air. Pulmonary ventilation (usually measured in litres per minute) refers to the total exchange, whereas alveolar ventilation refers to the effective ventilation of the alveoli, in which gas exchange with the blood takes place. 2. In psychiatry, verbalization of one's emotional problems. [EU] Ventricle: One of the two pumping chambers of the heart. The right ventricle receives oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The left ventricle receives oxygen-rich blood from the left atrium and pumps it to the body through the aorta. [NIH] Ventricular: Pertaining to a ventricle. [EU] Vestibular: Pertaining to or toward a vestibule. In dental anatomy, used to refer to the tooth surface directed toward the vestibule of the mouth. [EU] Vestibular Nerve: The vestibular part of the 8th cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve). The vestibular nerve fibers arise from neurons of Scarpa's ganglion and project peripherally to vestibular hair cells and centrally to the vestibular nuclei of the brain stem. These fibers mediate the sense of balance and head position. [NIH] Vestibule: A small, oval, bony chamber of the labyrinth. The vestibule contains the utricle and saccule, organs which are part of the balancing apparatus of the ear. [NIH] Vestibulocochlear Nerve: The 8th cranial nerve. The vestibulocochlear nerve has a cochlear part (cochlear nerve) which is concerned with hearing and a vestibular part (vestibular nerve) which mediates the sense of balance and head position. The fibers of the cochlear nerve originate from neurons of the spiral ganglion and project to the cochlear nuclei (cochlear nucleus). The fibers of the vestibular nerve arise from neurons of Scarpa's ganglion and project to the vestibular nuclei. [NIH] Vestibulocochlear Nerve Diseases: Diseases of the vestibular and/or cochlear (acoustic)

Dictionary 183

nerves, which join to form the vestibulocochlear nerve. Vestibular neuritis, cochlear neuritis, and acoustic neuromas are relatively common conditions that affect these nerves. Clinical manifestations vary with which nerve is primarily affected, and include hearing loss, vertigo, and tinnitus. [NIH] Veterinary Medicine: The medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases in animals. [NIH] Villi: The tiny, fingerlike projections on the surface of the small intestine. Villi help absorb nutrients. [NIH] Vinca Alkaloids: A class of alkaloids from the genus of apocyanaceous woody herbs including periwinkles. They are some of the most useful antineoplastic agents. [NIH] Vincristine: An anticancer drug that belongs to the family of plant drugs called vinca alkaloids. [NIH] Viral: Pertaining to, caused by, or of the nature of virus. [EU] Virulence: The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. [NIH] Virus: Submicroscopic organism that causes infectious disease. In cancer therapy, some viruses may be made into vaccines that help the body build an immune response to, and kill, tumor cells. [NIH] Viscera: Any of the large interior organs in any one of the three great cavities of the body, especially in the abdomen. [NIH] Viscosity: A physical property of fluids that determines the internal resistance to shear forces. [EU] Visual Acuity: Acuteness or clearness of vision, especially of form vision, which is dependent mainly on the sharpness of the retinal focus. [NIH] Visual Cortex: Area of the occipital lobe concerned with vision. [NIH] Vitreous: Glasslike or hyaline; often used alone to designate the vitreous body of the eye (corpus vitreum). [EU] Vitreous Body: The transparent, semigelatinous substance that fills the cavity behind the crystalline lens of the eye and in front of the retina. It is contained in a thin hyoid membrane and forms about four fifths of the optic globe. [NIH] Vitro: Descriptive of an event or enzyme reaction under experimental investigation occurring outside a living organism. Parts of an organism or microorganism are used together with artificial substrates and/or conditions. [NIH] Vivo: Outside of or removed from the body of a living organism. [NIH] Volition: Voluntary activity without external compulsion. [NIH] Wakefulness: A state in which there is an enhanced potential for sensitivity and an efficient responsiveness to external stimuli. [NIH] Windpipe: A rigid tube, 10 cm long, extending from the cricoid cartilage to the upper border of the fifth thoracic vertebra. [NIH] Withdrawal: 1. A pathological retreat from interpersonal contact and social involvement, as may occur in schizophrenia, depression, or schizoid avoidant and schizotypal personality disorders. 2. (DSM III-R) A substance-specific organic brain syndrome that follows the cessation of use or reduction in intake of a psychoactive substance that had been regularly used to induce a state of intoxication. [EU]

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Xenograft: The cells of one species transplanted to another species. [NIH] Yeasts: A general term for single-celled rounded fungi that reproduce by budding. Brewers' and bakers' yeasts are Saccharomyces cerevisiae; therapeutic dried yeast is dried yeast. [NIH] Zymogen: Inactive form of an enzyme which can then be converted to the active form, usually by excision of a polypeptide, e. g. trypsinogen is the zymogen of trypsin. [NIH]

185

INDEX A Abdominal, 28, 137, 168 Abdominal Pain, 28, 137 Aberrant, 16, 137, 148 Acetylcholine, 137, 146, 167 Acoustic, 137, 172, 182 Actin, 22, 137 Action Potentials, 9, 137 Activities of Daily Living, 95, 104, 137 Acuity, 6, 137 Adenosine, 137, 144 Adolescence, 26, 137 Adrenergic, 137, 139, 140, 152, 154, 179 Adverse Effect, 26, 137, 147, 177 Aerosol, 137, 167 Afferent, 9, 137, 160, 171 Affinity, 19, 137, 138, 147 Age of Onset, 14, 138, 144 Aggressiveness, 100, 138 Agnosia, 57, 138 Agonist, 19, 31, 138, 142, 144, 152, 163 Akathisia, 9, 138, 140 Alertness, 138, 144 Algorithms, 138, 143 Alkaloid, 138, 144, 147, 165 Alleles, 25, 138, 158 Allergen, 138, 151, 176 Alternative medicine, 108, 138 Alveoli, 138, 182 Ambulatory Care, 138 Amenorrhea, 138, 144 Amino acid, 138, 141, 152, 154, 156, 169, 170, 172, 176, 178, 181, 182 Amnestic, 100, 139, 155 Amphetamine, 9, 124, 139, 151 Amygdala, 139, 142, 162, 179 Anaesthesia, 28, 44, 48, 62, 139, 159 Anal, 47, 59, 139, 154, 155, 163 Analgesic, 139, 144, 147, 162, 165, 167, 168, 181 Analog, 17, 139 Anatomical, 42, 139, 141, 146, 159 Anesthesia, 24, 139, 161 Anesthetics, 24, 139, 142, 154 Animal model, 7, 13, 139 Anomalies, 20, 139 Anosognosia, 45, 139 Antagonism, 54, 139, 144, 147, 163

Antecedent, 104, 139 Anterior Cerebral Artery, 139, 178 Anti-Anxiety Agents, 139, 173, 181 Antibacterial, 139, 177 Antibiotic, 139, 140, 146, 150, 154, 169, 177 Antibody, 137, 140, 148, 157, 158, 160, 164, 174, 176, 177 Anticholinergic, 58, 140 Anticoagulant, 140, 172 Anticonvulsant, 140, 154, 167 Antidepressive Agents, 140, 173 Antidopaminergic, 19, 140 Antiemetic, 140 Antigen, 137, 140, 148, 158, 160, 164, 176 Antihypertensive, 140, 157 Anti-inflammatory, 21, 140 Antipsychotic, 6, 9, 10, 19, 26, 140, 147, 166, 175, 181 Antipsychotic Agents, 10, 19, 140, 181 Anus, 139, 141, 148 Anxiety, 9, 13, 35, 60, 62, 80, 96, 100, 101, 105, 138, 139, 141, 155, 167, 168 Anxiety Disorders, 60, 100, 141, 168 Apathy, 8, 96, 141, 166 Aphasia, 139, 141 Arachidonic Acid, 19, 141, 172 Arterial, 141, 158, 172, 179 Arteries, 141, 143, 149, 164, 180 Arteritis, 41, 66, 107, 141 Artery, 139, 141, 149, 151, 153, 161, 173 Aspartate, 24, 141, 161, 170 Asphyxia, 141, 167 Assay, 14, 22, 141 Astigmatism, 141, 174 Ataxia, 7, 48, 141, 158, 179 Athetosis, 40, 141 Atrium, 141, 142, 182 Atrophy, 5, 56, 141 Atypical, 141, 147, 175 Auditory, 4, 6, 11, 13, 15, 17, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 70, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 92, 108, 142, 147, 154, 171 Auditory Cortex, 13, 39, 78, 142, 147 Auditory Perception, 13, 142 Aura, 61, 142

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Auricular, 70, 142 Autonomic, 137, 140, 142, 167, 169 Autoreceptors, 19, 142 Axons, 142, 150, 160, 168, 171 B Baclofen, 13, 142 Bacteria, 139, 140, 142, 146, 153, 155, 165, 177, 181, 182 Bacteriophage, 142, 181 Barbiturates, 13, 142, 176 Basal Ganglia, 18, 140, 141, 142, 144, 146, 156, 159, 162 Basal Ganglia Diseases, 141, 142, 146, 159 Behavior Therapy, 46, 142 Benign, 142, 144, 156, 157 Benzene, 142 Benzodiazepines, 13, 31, 101, 142 Bereavement, 31, 143 Beta blocker, 101, 143 Bewilderment, 143, 149 Bilateral, 52, 143 Bioavailability, 21, 143 Bioavailable, 8, 143 Biochemical, 14, 138, 143, 176 Biological Factors, 11, 143 Biological Markers, 17, 143 Biosynthesis, 141, 143 Biotechnology, 27, 108, 119, 143 Biotransformation, 143, 170 Bipolar Disorder, 26, 143 Bladder, 143, 146, 148, 159, 182 Blood Platelets, 143, 176 Blood pressure, 13, 140, 143, 146, 158, 159, 165 Blood vessel, 143, 145, 146, 157, 161, 177, 182 Blood-Brain Barrier, 144, 162 Bone Marrow, 38, 142, 144, 159, 163, 165 Bone Marrow Transplantation, 38, 144 Bowel, 21, 139, 144, 160, 161, 178 Brain Neoplasms, 144, 158, 179 Bromocriptine, 31, 50, 144 Buprenorphine, 54, 144 C Caffeine, 56, 144 Calcium, 144, 148 Capsules, 144, 152 Carcinogenic, 142, 144, 160 Cardiac, 144, 154, 165 Cardiopulmonary, 24, 144 Cardiotonic, 144, 151 Cardiovascular, 139, 145, 176

Case report, 3, 47, 50, 52, 62, 77, 82, 96, 145, 147 Case series, 75, 145, 147 Castor Oil, 83, 145 Cataract, 6, 145, 154 Catecholamine, 140, 145, 152, 170 Caudal, 145, 151, 159, 170 Cell Division, 142, 145, 149, 164, 170, 172, 176 Central Nervous System Infections, 145, 157, 158 Centrifugation, 145, 164 Cerebellar, 141, 145, 147, 174, 181 Cerebral Cortex, 28, 54, 141, 145, 154, 155, 160, 166, 173 Cerebral hemispheres, 43, 142, 144, 145, 179 Cerebrospinal, 14, 145, 158 Cerebrospinal fluid, 14, 145, 158 Cerebrum, 145, 179 Character, 93, 146, 150 Chemoreceptor, 140, 146 Chin, 70, 146, 164 Cholinergic, 140, 146 Cholinesterase Inhibitors, 146, 152 Chorea, 140, 141, 146 Choroid, 146, 175 Chromaffin System, 146, 153 Chromosome, 146, 162, 176 Chronic, 11, 13, 14, 30, 49, 58, 62, 89, 144, 146, 160, 163, 177, 178 Chronic Disease, 14, 146 Ciliary, 146, 176 Ciliary Body, 146, 176 Circulatory system, 146, 153 Clarithromycin, 44, 146 Clinical study, 19, 147 Clinical trial, 4, 7, 10, 21, 119, 147, 149, 152, 172, 174 Cloning, 143, 147 Clozapine, 8, 54, 147 Coca, 147 Cocaine, 35, 147 Cochlea, 92, 147, 160 Cochlear, 92, 147, 178, 180, 182 Cochlear Diseases, 147, 180 Cochlear Nerve, 147, 178, 182 Cochlear Nucleus, 147, 182 Codeine, 147, 168 Cognition, 9, 18, 44, 76, 77, 80, 147, 148, 166 Cognitive restructuring, 147, 178

187

Cognitive Therapy, 37, 147 Colitis, 148, 160 Colon, 148, 160 Communis, 145, 148 Complement, 148, 176 Complementary and alternative medicine, 73, 87, 148 Complementary medicine, 73, 148 Compliance, 39, 81, 148 Compulsion, 148, 183 Computational Biology, 119, 149 Confusion, 24, 99, 100, 135, 149, 151, 158, 166 Congestion, 140, 149 Connective Tissue, 144, 149, 156, 175 Consciousness, 28, 44, 54, 77, 79, 80, 139, 149, 150, 151, 152, 172, 178 Consolidation, 11, 149 Constipation, 96, 140, 149, 157 Contact Inhibition, 22, 149 Contraindications, ii, 21, 149 Contrast medium, 149, 164, 165 Control group, 29, 149 Convulsions, 140, 149, 152, 158 Coronary, 149, 164 Coronary Thrombosis, 149, 164 Cortex, 8, 13, 19, 23, 25, 42, 74, 83, 149, 153, 154, 171, 174 Cortical, 4, 15, 18, 23, 26, 34, 100, 149, 154, 171, 176, 179 Cranial, 41, 92, 147, 149, 157, 161, 168, 169, 182 Craniocerebral Trauma, 142, 149, 157, 158, 179, 180 Criterion, 79, 149 Curative, 70, 149, 167, 179 Cyclic, 144, 149 Cycloserine, 11, 150 Cytokine, 21, 150 Cytoplasm, 150, 165 Cytoskeleton, 22, 150 D Degenerative, 14, 150, 162, 163 Delirium, 49, 104, 140, 150 Delusion, 105, 150 Dementia, 3, 4, 7, 18, 35, 40, 43, 44, 61, 64, 86, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 124, 125, 140, 141, 150 Dendrites, 150, 166 Density, 145, 150, 164, 167 Dentate Gyrus, 150, 158 Depersonalization, 150, 168, 175

Depressive Disorder, 150, 162 Deprivation, 76, 80, 151 Derealization, 150, 151, 168 Desensitisation, 81, 151 Desensitization, 19, 151 Dextroamphetamine, 139, 151 Diagnostic procedure, 91, 108, 151 Diastolic, 151, 157, 158 Diastolic blood pressure, 151, 157 Diencephalon, 151, 159, 171, 179 Digestion, 144, 151, 161, 162, 178, 182 Digitalis, 40, 151 Dilation, 151, 158 Direct, iii, 14, 25, 33, 147, 151, 152, 158, 163, 174, 179 Discrimination, 142, 151 Disorientation, 24, 100, 149, 150, 151 Dissociation, 20, 36, 137, 151 Dissociative Disorders, 151 Distal, 20, 151, 171 Diuresis, 144, 151 Dizziness, 151, 168 Dominance, 47, 152, 161 Donepezil, 36, 45, 63, 64, 152 Dopa, 51, 152, 162 Dopamine, 7, 10, 18, 19, 60, 63, 70, 92, 139, 140, 144, 147, 151, 152, 162, 165, 167, 175 Dorsal, 147, 152, 170 Dosage Forms, 21, 152 Double-blind, 26, 37, 152 Dreams, 36, 152 Drug Interactions, 21, 112, 152 Drug Tolerance, 152, 180 Dyskinesia, 9, 26, 140, 152 Dyslexia, 152, 161 Dyspnea, 152, 168 E Efficacy, 3, 10, 19, 21, 22, 26, 54, 152 Electroconvulsive Therapy, 73, 152 Electroencephalography, 15, 153, 163 Electrolyte, 150, 153, 171 Electrophysiological, 9, 17, 42, 153 Embolus, 153, 159 Embryo, 153, 159 Emesis, 141, 153 Encephalitis, 153 Encephalomyelitis, 50, 153 Encephalopathy, 49, 62, 100, 153 Endocrine Glands, 153 Endocrine System, 20, 153 Endogenous, 36, 152, 153 Endorphins, 153, 167

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Enkephalins, 153, 167 Entorhinal Cortex, 153, 158 Environmental Exposure, 143, 153 Environmental Health, 118, 120, 153 Enzyme, 36, 143, 154, 164, 165, 178, 180, 183, 184 Enzyme Inhibitors, 36, 154 Eosinophilic, 154, 162 Epidemiologic Studies, 143, 154 Epinephrine, 137, 152, 154, 167, 182 Equipment and Supplies, 95, 154 Ergot, 144, 154, 163 Erythrocytes, 144, 154, 176 Erythromycin, 146, 154 Estazolam, 37, 154 Estrogen, 39, 154, 172 Euphoria, 20, 154 Evacuation, 149, 154 Evoke, 154, 178 Evoked Potentials, 15, 18, 154 Excitation, 146, 154, 166 Excitatory, 10, 142, 154, 156 Exhaustion, 139, 155 Exogenous, 74, 143, 153, 155 Extracellular, 22, 149, 155, 165 Extracellular Space, 155, 165 Extrapyramidal, 9, 138, 140, 152, 155 Eye Movements, 79, 155 F Family Planning, 119, 155 Fat, 141, 144, 153, 155, 162, 175, 177 Feces, 149, 155, 178 Feeding Behavior, 22, 155 Fissure, 148, 150, 155, 171 Fixation, 155, 176 Flatus, 155, 156 Fluoxetine, 40, 44, 155 Fluvoxamine, 28, 155 Forearm, 143, 155 Fossa, 59, 155 Fourth Ventricle, 155, 163 Free Radicals, 151, 155 Frontal Lobe, 139, 156, 171 Functional magnetic resonance imaging, 12, 15, 18, 23, 32, 51, 156 G Gait, 6, 156 Gallbladder, 137, 156 Ganglia, 137, 142, 156, 166, 169 Ganglion, 156, 168, 178, 182 Gas, 24, 155, 156, 158, 167, 182 Gas exchange, 156, 182

Gastric, 20, 152, 156, 158 Gastrointestinal, 146, 154, 156, 176, 178 Gastrointestinal tract, 146, 156, 176 Gene, 7, 8, 14, 22, 63, 70, 138, 143, 152, 156, 158, 160, 176 Genetics, 7, 10, 104, 152, 156, 170 Genotype, 10, 16, 80, 156, 170 Geriatric, 24, 33, 34, 44, 45, 46, 48, 53, 60, 63, 97, 100, 103, 104, 156 Ginger, 21, 156 Gland, 146, 156, 168, 175, 178, 180 Glutamate, 8, 11, 24, 156 Glutamic Acid, 156, 167 Glycine, 138, 156, 167 Glycoprotein, 156, 180, 181 Governing Board, 156, 171 Guanfacine, 36, 43, 157 H Habitual, 146, 157 Haematoma, 157 Haemorrhage, 47, 157 Hallucinogen, 15, 157, 163, 170 Haloperidol, 19, 157 Handedness, 20, 157 Haptens, 137, 157 Headache, 29, 38, 57, 61, 67, 135, 144, 157, 158 Headache Disorders, 157 Hemiplegia, 141, 157 Hemorrhage, 149, 157, 173 Hemostasis, 157, 176 Hepatic, 150, 157 Heredity, 156, 157 Heterogeneity, 137, 157 Heterozygotes, 152, 158 Hippocampus, 10, 17, 29, 64, 150, 158, 162, 178 Histamine, 140, 158 Holidays, 97, 158 Homologous, 138, 158, 176, 179 Homozygotes, 152, 158 Hormonal, 141, 158 Hormone, 142, 143, 154, 158, 171, 175, 180 Hydrocephalus, 100, 158, 161 Hydrogen, 158, 165 Hydrogenation, 142, 158 Hyperopia, 158, 174 Hypersensitivity, 138, 151, 158, 169, 175, 176 Hypertension, 58, 158, 161 Hypnotic, 13, 78, 79, 80, 81, 154, 158, 167 Hypoglycaemia, 150, 158

189

Hypokinesia, 159, 169 Hypotension, 140, 149, 159 Hypothalamic, 159, 162 Hypothalamus, 14, 144, 151, 159, 162, 171 Hypothyroidism, 8, 159 Hypoxia, 150, 159, 179 I Idiopathic, 38, 45, 63, 70, 159 Illusions, 59, 100, 159, 175 Immune response, 140, 157, 159, 176, 178, 183 Immunization, 159, 176 Immunology, 137, 159 Immunotherapy, 151, 159 Impairment, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, 24, 29, 64, 100, 138, 141, 143, 150, 152, 159, 164, 173 In vitro, 19, 21, 159 In vivo, 11, 12, 14, 159, 165, 180 Incontinence, 96, 97, 105, 158, 159 Induction, 14, 140, 159, 161, 171 Infarction, 63, 141, 149, 158, 159, 164 Infection, 92, 146, 150, 153, 159, 163, 169, 175, 178 Infertility, 144, 160 Inflammation, 140, 141, 146, 148, 153, 160, 170, 175, 180 Inflammatory bowel disease, 20, 160 Infusion, 56, 160 Ingestion, 21, 160, 170 Initiation, 43, 160 Inner ear, 75, 147, 160 Inotropic, 152, 160 Insight, 5, 17, 24, 46, 160 Insomnia, 13, 86, 96, 97, 100, 101, 160, 181 Intensive Care, 46, 160 Interleukin-1, 21, 160 Interleukin-10, 21, 160 Interleukin-2, 160 Intermittent, 160, 163 Internal Capsule, 139, 160, 178 Interneurons, 10, 11, 160 Intestine, 144, 158, 160, 174, 183 Intoxication, 150, 161, 183 Intracellular, 144, 160, 161, 171, 174 Intracranial Aneurysm, 52, 161 Intracranial Hemorrhages, 158, 161, 179 Intracranial Hypertension, 157, 158, 161, 180 Intravenous, 47, 160, 161 Intrinsic, 19, 138, 161 Invasive, 161, 163

Involuntary, 142, 146, 161, 165, 167, 174, 177 Ions, 151, 153, 158, 161 Iop, 70, 161 Ipsilateral, 64, 161, 164, 174 Ischemia, 141, 161 J Jealousy, 161, 168 K Kb, 118, 161 Ketamine, 11, 24, 48, 161, 170 L Labyrinth, 147, 160, 161, 168, 176, 182 Lactation, 161, 171 Latency, 18, 25, 161 Latent, 161, 171 Laterality, 49, 63, 161 Learning Disorders, 15, 161 Lens, 145, 162, 183 Lesion, 29, 57, 162, 179 Lethargy, 158, 159, 162 Leukocytes, 144, 162, 165, 182 Levo, 152, 162 Levodopa, 47, 54, 152, 162 Lewy Bodies, 4, 7, 44, 162 Limbic, 15, 139, 162, 171 Limbic System, 139, 162, 171 Linkage, 8, 162, 169 Lipid, 162 Lipopolysaccharide, 21, 162 Lithium, 26, 50, 140, 162 Liver, 137, 141, 155, 156, 157, 162 Lobe, 5, 139, 162 Localization, 15, 162, 163 Localized, 155, 157, 160, 162, 170 Locomotion, 13, 22, 149, 162, 163, 170 Locomotor, 22, 163 Locus Coeruleus, 14, 162, 163 Longitudinal study, 34, 163 Long-Term Care, 97, 163 Lutein Cells, 163, 172 Lymphatic, 160, 163 Lymphocyte, 140, 163, 164 Lysergic acid, 14, 163 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, 14, 163 M Macrophage, 160, 163 Macula, 163 Macula Lutea, 163 Macular Degeneration, 6, 48, 66, 75, 84, 163

190

Hallucinations

Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 13, 18, 42, 163 Magnetoencephalography, 13, 17, 163 Malnutrition, 141, 164 Mania, 26, 164 Manic, 140, 143, 162, 164, 173 Medial, 12, 147, 164, 167 Mediate, 14, 15, 19, 20, 147, 152, 164, 182 Mediator, 36, 152, 160, 164, 176 Medical Records, 164, 175 MEDLINE, 119, 164 Meiosis, 164, 179 Melanin, 163, 164, 182 Membrane, 146, 148, 164, 165, 168, 175, 181, 183 Memory, 6, 8, 11, 13, 15, 16, 23, 24, 64, 98, 100, 104, 150, 164 Meninges, 145, 149, 164 Mental Disorders, 6, 97, 100, 159, 164, 172, 173 Mental Processes, 151, 164, 172 Mentors, 16, 164 Mesencephalic, 163, 164, 174 Mesolimbic, 12, 140, 164 Metabolic disorder, 100, 164 Metrizamide, 40, 164 MI, 136, 164 Microbe, 164, 181 Microdialysis, 14, 165 Modeling, 11, 15, 165 Modification, 22, 105, 138, 165, 173 Molecular, 7, 10, 41, 119, 121, 143, 149, 150, 165, 171, 174, 181, 182 Molecule, 8, 140, 148, 151, 154, 165, 174, 182 Monitor, 98, 165, 167 Monoamine, 139, 140, 151, 165 Monocytes, 160, 162, 165 Mononuclear, 165, 182 Mood Disorders, 20, 96, 100, 165 Morphine, 144, 147, 165, 166 Morphology, 22, 145, 165 Motility, 56, 165, 176 Motor Activity, 14, 149, 165 Mucosa, 165, 172 Muscle relaxant, 139, 154, 165 Myelography, 40, 165 Myocardium, 164, 165 Myopia, 165, 174 N Narcolepsy, 14, 25, 51, 151, 165 Narcotic, 165, 166, 167, 168, 181

Nausea, 140, 141, 152, 166, 168 Necrosis, 159, 164, 166 Neocortex, 10, 162, 166 Nerve, 92, 137, 139, 141, 142, 146, 147, 150, 156, 163, 164, 166, 168, 171, 178, 181, 182, 183 Nervous System, 22, 137, 139, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147, 151, 154, 156, 157, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 176, 179 Networks, 15, 36, 166 Neural, 12, 14, 15, 16, 19, 23, 24, 30, 51, 54, 67, 82, 137, 166 Neuroleptic, 101, 138, 140, 147, 166 Neurologic, 139, 158, 166 Neuronal, 7, 15, 19, 166 Neurons, 9, 14, 19, 24, 147, 150, 154, 156, 160, 162, 165, 166, 179, 182 Neuropsychological Tests, 18, 166 Neuropsychology, 18, 52, 166 Neurosecretory Systems, 153, 166 Neurosis, 33, 166 Neurotoxic, 24, 166 Neurotoxicity, 24, 43, 166 Neurotransmitter, 14, 19, 22, 92, 137, 138, 146, 152, 156, 158, 166, 167, 178 Niacin, 167, 181 Nitrazepam, 154, 167 Nitrogen, 138, 155, 167, 181 Nitrous Oxide, 24, 167 Nonverbal Communication, 167, 173 Norepinephrine, 137, 152, 167 Nuclear, 142, 156, 160, 162, 166, 167, 179 Nuclei, 139, 147, 162, 163, 167, 168, 178, 182 Nucleus, 139, 142, 147, 150, 163, 164, 165, 167, 171, 172, 179 Nystagmus, 79, 167 O Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, 155, 167 Occipital Lobe, 5, 33, 63, 167, 183 Ointments, 152, 167 Opacity, 145, 150, 167 Ophthalmology, 39, 40, 51, 56, 66, 75, 83, 84, 155, 167 Optic Chiasm, 159, 167, 168, 171 Optic Nerve, 167, 168, 175 Oral Health, 168 Oral Hygiene, 96, 168 Orthostatic, 140, 168 Ossicles, 168 Otosclerosis, 65, 168 Outpatient, 168

191

Overdose, 9, 168 Ovum, 168, 171, 172 Oxycodone, 53, 168 P Palliative, 43, 168, 179 Palsy, 100, 168 Pancreas, 137, 168 Panic, 28, 155, 168 Panic Disorder, 28, 155, 168 Paralysis, 25, 41, 61, 62, 77, 164, 168 Paranoia, 11, 100, 104, 105, 106, 109, 125, 168 Paranoid Personality Disorder, 20, 169 Paresthesias, 168, 169 Parkinsonism, 6, 9, 35, 56, 140, 162, 169 Paroxetine, 65, 169 Paroxysmal, 40, 142, 157, 169 Partial remission, 169, 174 Particle, 169, 181 Parturition, 169, 171 Pathogenesis, 7, 8, 169 Pathologic, 7, 149, 158, 169, 174 Pathologies, 5, 6, 169 Pathophysiology, 5, 7, 12, 17, 169 Patient Education, 124, 130, 132, 136, 169 Penicillin, 139, 169 Peptide, 138, 146, 169, 170, 172, 180 Peptide Chain Elongation, 146, 169 Perception, 4, 15, 22, 34, 64, 76, 124, 150, 157, 169, 175 Peripheral Nervous System, 153, 157, 166, 168, 169, 171, 178 Personality Disorders, 20, 169 Petechiae, 157, 169 Phantom, 5, 92, 169 Pharmaceutical Solutions, 152, 169 Pharmacodynamic, 21, 170 Pharmacogenetics, 10, 70, 170 Pharmacokinetic, 21, 170 Pharmacologic, 139, 170, 181 Pharmacotherapy, 9, 66, 170 Phencyclidine, 11, 170 Phenotype, 8, 16, 22, 143, 170 Photodynamic therapy, 66, 170 Physiologic, 138, 143, 152, 159, 170, 174, 181 Physiology, 13, 23, 143, 153, 170 Pilot study, 10, 25, 45, 79, 170 Pitch, 15, 170 Plana, 170, 176 Plants, 138, 147, 151, 165, 167, 170, 181 Pneumonia, 149, 170

Poisoning, 150, 154, 161, 166, 170 Polymorphism, 8, 170 Polypeptide, 138, 170, 171, 184 Posterior, 59, 139, 141, 146, 152, 160, 167, 168, 170 Postnatal, 170, 178 Postsynaptic, 13, 171 Potassium, 13, 171 Potentiate, 24, 171 Practice Guidelines, 120, 171 Precursor, 141, 152, 153, 162, 167, 171, 181, 182 Predisposition, 12, 41, 74, 171 Prefrontal Cortex, 17, 24, 171 Preoptic Area, 14, 171 Presynaptic, 142, 166, 171 Presynaptic Terminals, 142, 171 Prevalence, 4, 34, 53, 60, 171 Probe, 165, 171 Progesterone, 171, 172 Progression, 100, 109, 139, 171 Progressive, 7, 100, 150, 152, 166, 171, 174 Projection, 160, 167, 168, 171, 174 Prolactin, 47, 144, 171 Prone, 9, 44, 172 Prone Position, 44, 172 Prophase, 172, 179 Prospective study, 163, 172 Prostaglandins, 141, 172 Protein C, 22, 142, 172 Protein S, 143, 146, 154, 172 Proteins, 22, 138, 140, 148, 154, 160, 165, 167, 169, 172, 174, 176 Protocol, 10, 26, 172 Pruritus, 141, 172 Psychiatric, 4, 6, 8, 12, 14, 17, 18, 20, 28, 29, 35, 37, 43, 47, 49, 57, 59, 82, 97, 98, 100, 101, 108, 109, 125, 143, 164, 172, 177 Psychic, 20, 164, 166, 172, 176 Psychoacoustic, 13, 172 Psychoactive, 172, 183 Psychology, 16, 20, 28, 29, 34, 35, 36, 46, 62, 77, 81, 82, 103, 148, 151, 166, 172 Psychomotor, 101, 150, 166, 172 Psychopathology, 6, 30, 33, 42, 50, 52, 53, 55, 64, 65, 74, 85, 172 Psychophysics, 13, 172 Psychophysiology, 166, 172 Psychosis, 4, 7, 12, 16, 19, 33, 42, 46, 47, 59, 83, 140, 141, 173 Psychotherapy, 23, 62, 85, 97, 147, 173, 174 Psychotomimetic, 139, 151, 173

192

Hallucinations

Psychotropic, 25, 173 Psychotropic Drugs, 25, 173 Public Policy, 119, 173 Publishing, 4, 5, 27, 96, 101, 173 Pulmonary, 143, 154, 173, 182 Pulmonary Artery, 143, 173, 182 Pulse, 165, 173 Pure Alexia, 66, 173 Purpura, 157, 173 Pyramidal Tracts, 155, 173 Q Quality of Life, 20, 31, 100, 105, 173 R Race, 152, 173 Racemic, 152, 173 Radiation, 152, 153, 156, 169, 173 Radiation therapy, 152, 173 Randomized, 26, 152, 174 Reality Testing, 173, 174 Reassurance, 124, 174 Receptor, 8, 10, 11, 13, 16, 19, 22, 60, 70, 140, 146, 147, 152, 154, 174, 176 Receptors, Serotonin, 174, 176 Rectum, 141, 148, 155, 156, 159, 160, 174 Recurrence, 143, 174 Red Nucleus, 141, 174 Refer, 1, 148, 151, 153, 155, 160, 162, 163, 166, 173, 174, 181, 182 Reflex, 155, 174 Refraction, 6, 165, 174, 177 Refractory, 10, 33, 64, 80, 174 Regimen, 10, 150, 152, 170, 174 Reliability, 18, 174 Remission, 32, 143, 174 Renal failure, 150, 174 Resorption, 158, 174 Respiration, 146, 165, 174 Respiratory Physiology, 175, 182 Retina, 18, 141, 146, 162, 163, 165, 167, 168, 175, 176, 183 Retinal, 61, 167, 168, 175, 183 Retrospective, 18, 37, 175 Retrospective study, 37, 175 Rheumatism, 175 Rheumatoid, 21, 175 Rheumatoid arthritis, 21, 175 Risk factor, 4, 6, 25, 46, 154, 172, 175 Risperidone, 10, 32, 175 S Scatter, 169, 175 Schizoid, 20, 175, 183

Schizotypal Personality Disorder, 20, 150, 175, 183 Screening, 20, 100, 147, 175 Secretion, 144, 158, 159, 161, 175, 182 Sedative, 13, 147, 175 Sedatives, Barbiturate, 142, 175 Segregation, 8, 176 Seizures, 42, 52, 54, 61, 150, 169, 176, 178 Self Care, 137, 176 Semicircular canal, 160, 176 Semisynthetic, 144, 146, 163, 168, 176 Senile, 86, 141, 176 Sensibility, 139, 176 Sensitization, 9, 176 Sensory Deprivation, 76, 83, 176 Serotonin, 10, 14, 16, 22, 67, 140, 147, 155, 163, 167, 169, 170, 174, 175, 176, 181 Serrata, 21, 146, 176 Serrated, 176 Sertraline, 10, 66, 176 Serum, 21, 47, 148, 176, 181 Sex Characteristics, 137, 176 Sharpness, 176, 183 Shock, 176, 181 Side effect, 19, 25, 111, 113, 137, 138, 140, 141, 152, 177, 181 Signs and Symptoms, 96, 99, 174, 177 Skeleton, 137, 177 Skull, 149, 177, 179 Sleep Deprivation, 14, 177 Smooth muscle, 144, 158, 165, 177, 178 Social Environment, 96, 173, 177 Social Isolation, 175, 177 Social Support, 177, 178 Social Work, 97, 98, 177 Soft tissue, 144, 177 Soma, 177 Somatic, 9, 25, 41, 51, 137, 162, 164, 169, 171, 177 Spasm, 141, 164, 177 Spatial disorientation, 96, 151, 177 Specialist, 126, 151, 177 Specificity, 22, 137, 177 Spectrum, 12, 20, 25, 51, 177 Speech Perception, 4, 25, 178 Spinal cord, 142, 145, 153, 156, 157, 164, 165, 166, 169, 173, 174, 178 Spiral Ganglion, 147, 178, 182 Stabilizer, 26, 178 Status Epilepticus, 45, 178 Stem Cells, 22, 178 Stimulant, 139, 144, 151, 158, 178

193

Stimulus, 9, 15, 154, 157, 161, 169, 172, 174, 178, 180 Stomach, 137, 156, 158, 166, 178 Stool, 148, 159, 178 Stress, 28, 76, 96, 104, 145, 166, 171, 175, 178 Stress management, 96, 178 Striate, 42, 178 Subacute, 160, 178 Subarachnoid, 155, 157, 161, 178 Subclinical, 160, 176, 178 Subiculum, 10, 158, 178 Substance P, 150, 154, 175, 178 Substrate, 14, 154, 178 Superego, 47, 178 Superstitions, 82, 179 Suppression, 17, 179 Supraspinal, 142, 179 Sympathomimetic, 139, 151, 152, 154, 167, 179 Symptomatic, 14, 139, 179 Symptomatology, 13, 179 Synapse, 137, 171, 179, 181 Synaptic, 9, 166, 179 Synergistic, 172, 179 Systemic, 143, 150, 154, 160, 161, 174, 179 Systolic, 157, 158, 179 T Tardive, 9, 26, 140, 179 Telencephalon, 142, 145, 179 Temporal, 12, 55, 57, 63, 66, 139, 142, 157, 158, 163, 179 Temporal Lobe, 55, 57, 139, 142, 179 Thalamic, 15, 141, 179 Thalamic Diseases, 141, 179 Thalamus, 57, 144, 151, 162, 171, 179 Therapeutics, 12, 112, 179 Thermal, 151, 180 Thermoregulation, 22, 180 Threshold, 9, 93, 158, 180 Thrombin, 172, 180 Thrombomodulin, 172, 180 Thromboxanes, 141, 180 Thrombus, 149, 159, 180 Thyroid, 8, 159, 180, 182 Thyroid Gland, 180 Thyroiditis, 62, 180 Thyrotropin, 159, 180 Tinnitus, 31, 180, 183 Tolerance, 13, 19, 48, 144, 180 Tomography, 26, 85, 180 Tone, 157, 168, 180

Torsion, 159, 180 Toxic, iv, 20, 100, 142, 151, 153, 154, 181 Toxicity, 11, 20, 24, 40, 58, 152, 181 Toxicology, 67, 120, 181 Toxin, 180, 181 Trachea, 180, 181 Tramadol, 45, 55, 181 Tranquilizing Agents, 173, 181 Transduction, 22, 181 Transfection, 143, 181 Translational, 8, 181 Translocation, 146, 154, 181 Transmitter, 137, 142, 152, 164, 167, 181 Trauma, 20, 32, 109, 150, 166, 181 Tremor, 164, 169, 181 Triazolam, 52, 181 Trigger zone, 140, 181 Tryptophan, 51, 176, 181 Tuberculosis, 150, 181 Tumor Necrosis Factor, 21, 181 Tyrosine, 152, 182 U Unconscious, 139, 182 Urinary, 146, 150, 158, 159, 182 Urinary tract, 150, 182 Urinary tract infection, 150, 182 Urine, 143, 151, 159, 182 V Vacuoles, 162, 182 Vascular, 67, 100, 146, 157, 159, 160, 180, 182 Vasodilator, 152, 158, 182 Vector, 181, 182 Ventilation, 44, 182 Ventricle, 139, 158, 159, 173, 179, 182 Ventricular, 158, 182 Vestibular, 182 Vestibular Nerve, 182 Vestibule, 147, 160, 176, 182 Vestibulocochlear Nerve, 92, 147, 180, 182 Vestibulocochlear Nerve Diseases, 180, 182 Veterinary Medicine, 119, 183 Villi, 158, 183 Vinca Alkaloids, 183 Vincristine, 70, 84, 183 Viral, 153, 181, 183 Virulence, 181, 183 Virus, 142, 145, 160, 181, 183 Viscera, 177, 183 Viscosity, 164, 183 Visual Acuity, 5, 6, 183

194

Hallucinations

Visual Cortex, 18, 67, 183 Vitreous, 162, 175, 183 Vitreous Body, 175, 183 Vitro, 183 Vivo, 12, 183 Volition, 76, 161, 183 W Wakefulness, 150, 183

Windpipe, 180, 183 Withdrawal, 8, 13, 63, 86, 150, 183 X Xenograft, 139, 184 Y Yeasts, 170, 184 Z Zymogen, 172, 184

195

196

Hallucinations